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!ecture010Anatom" and Human Skeleton

Hand
T$e $and is t$e portion o& t$e ar' or anterior li'b o& a $u'an or ot$er pri'ate! ($ere t$e
appenda)e ter'inates. T$is part o& t$e li'b is especiall* used in )raspin) and $oldin). +ac$
$and is a 'irror i'a)e o& t$e ot$er.


Fig: Hands X-ray
What constitutes a hand?
"lt$ou)$ 'an* 'a''als and ot$er ani'als $a,e )raspin) appenda)es si'ilar in &or' to a
$and! t$ese are scienti&icall* not considered to be so! and $a,e ot$er ,ar*in) na'es! includin)
pa(s. -sin) t$e ter' $and is 'erel* a scienti&ic usa)e o& ant$ropo'orp$i.ation! to distin)uis$
t$e ter'inations o& t$e &ront pa(s &ro' t$e $ind ones. T$e onl* true $ands appear in t$e
'a''alian order o& pri'ates. /ands 'ust also &eature opposable t$u'bs! as described later in
t$e te0t.
Human anatom" of t+e +and
T$e $u'an $and consists o& a broad pal' 1'etacarpus2 (it$ &i,e di)its! attac$ed to t$e &orear'
b* a 3oint called t$e (rist 1carpus2.
Diits
T+e Five Finers
4i,e &in)ers on t$e $and are located at t$e outer'ost ed)e o& t$e pal'. T$ese &our di)its can be
&olded o,er t$e pal'! t$is allo(s &or t$e $oldin) o& ob3ects! and &urt$er'ore t$e )raspin) o&
s'all ob3ects. +ac$ &in)er! startin) (it$ t$e one closest to t$e t$u'b! $as a collo5uial na'e to
distin)uis$ it &ro' t$e ot$ers%
T+umb
2nde/ finer3 pointer finer3 or forefiner
Middle finer
#in finer
!ittle finer or 4pink"4
T$e t$u'b 1connected to t$e trape.iu'2 is located on one o& t$e sides! parallel to t$e ar'. T$e
t$u'b can be easil* rotated 9067! on a perpendicular le,el co'pared to t$e pal'! unli8e t$e
&in)ers ($ic$ can onl* be rotated appro0i'atel* 4567. " reliable (a* o& identi&*in) true $ands is
&ro' t$e presence o& opposable t$u'bs. 9pposable t$u'bs are identi&ied b* t$e abilit* to be
brou)$t opposite to t$e &in)ers.
5ones
T$e $u'an $and $as at least 2: bones% t$e carpus or (rist account &or ;< t$e 'etacarpus or
pal' contains 5< t$e re'ainin) 14 are di)ital bones.
5ones of t+e wrist
T$e (rist $as ei)$t bones! arran)ed in t(o ro(s o& &our. T$ese bones &it into a s$allo( soc8et
&or'ed b* t$e bones o& t$e &orear'.
5ones of t+e palm
T$e pal' $as 5 bones! one to eac$ o& t$e 5 di)its.
Diital bones
"lso called p$alan0 bones. /u'an $ands contain 14 o& t$e'< 2 in t$e t$u'b! and 3 in eac$ o&
t$e &our &in)ers! called<
=istal p$alan0! carr*in) t$e nail!
Middle p$alan0 and
#ro0i'al p$alan0.
1T$e t$u'b $as no 'iddle p$alan02.
Sesamoid bones
Sesa'oid bones are s'all ossi&ied nodes e'bedded in t$e tendons to pro,ide e0tra le,era)e and
reduce pressure on t$e underl*in) tissue. Man* e0ist around t$e pal' at t$e bases o& t$e di)its!
but t$e e0act nu'ber ,aries bet(een di&&erent people. T$e patella is t$e lar)est e0a'ple o& a
sesa'oid bone in t$e $u'an bod*.
Muscles and tendons
T$e 'o,e'ents o& t$e $u'an $and are acco'plis$ed b* t(o sets o& eac$ o& t$ese tissues. T$e*
can be subdi,ided into t(o )roups% t$e e0trinsic and intrinsic 'uscle )roups. T$e e0trinsic
'uscle )roups are t$e lon) &le0ors and e0tensors. T$e* are called e0trinsic because t$e 'uscle
bell* is located on t$e &orear'.

2ntrinsic Hand Muscles
T$e >ntrinsic 'uscle )roups are t$e t$enar and $*pot$enar 'uscles 1t$enar re&errin) to t$e
t$u'b! $*pot$enar to t$e s'all &in)er2! t$e interosseus 'uscles 1bet(een t$e 'etacarpal bones!
&our dorsall* and t$ree ,olarl*2 and t$e lu'brical 'uscles. T$ese 'uscles arise &ro' t$e deep
&le0or 1and are special because t$e* $a,e no bon* ori)in2 and insert on t$e dorsal e0tensor $ood
'ec$anis'.

*/trinsic muscles of t+e +and
T+e fle/ors6 T$e &in)ers $a,e t(o lon) &le0ors! located on t$e underside o& t$e &orear'. T$e*
insert b* tendons to t$e p$alan)es o& t$e &in)ers. T$e deep &le0or attac$es to t$e distal p$alan0!
and t$e super&icial &le0or attac$es to t$e 'iddle p$alan0. T$e &le0ors allo( &or t$e actual bendin)
o& t$e &in)ers. T$e t$u'b $as one lon) &le0or and a s$ort &le0or in t$e t$enar 'uscle )roup. T$e
$u'an t$u'b also $as ot$er 'uscles in t$e t$enar )roup 1opponens? and abductor 'uscle2!
'o,in) t$e t$u'b in opposition! 'a8in) )raspin) possible.
T+e e/tensors6 Located on t$e bac8 o& t$e &orear' and a connected in a 'ore co'ple0 (a*
t$en t$e &le0ors to t$e dorsu' o& t$e &in)ers. T$e tendons unite (it$ t$e interosseous and
lu'brical 'uscles to &or' t$e e0tensor?$ood 'ec$anis'. T$e pri'ar* &unction o& t$e e0tensors
is to strai)$ten out t$e di)its. T$e t$u'b $as t(o e0tensors in t$e &orear'< t$e tendons o& t$ese
&or' t$e anato'ical snu&&bo0. "lso! t$e inde0 &in)er and t$e little &in)er $a,e an e0tra e0tensor!
used &or instance &or pointin).
Variation
So'e people $a,e 'ore t$an t$e usual nu'ber o& &in)ers or toes! t$is is nor'all* caused b* a
)enetic condition called #ol*dact*l*.
T$e na'e #$alan)es is co''onl* )i,en to t$e bones t$at &or' &in)ers and toes. >n pri'ates
suc$ as $u'ans and 'on8e*s! t$e t$u'b and bi) toe $a,e t(o p$alan)es! ($ile t$e ot$er
&in)ers and toes consist o& t$ree.
T$e p$alan)es do not reall* $a,e indi,idual na'es but are na'ed a&ter t$e di)it! and t$eir
distance &ro' t$e bod*. =istal p$alan)es are at t$e tips o& t$e &in)ers and toes! t$e pro0i'al
p$alan)es are closest to t$e $and 1or &oot2 and articulate (it$ t$e 'etacarpals or 'etatarsals.
Middle p$alan)es are bet(een t$e distal and pro0i'al. T$e t$u'b and bi) toe do not $a,e
'iddle p$alan)es.
T$e p$alan)es o& t$e &oot correspond (it$ t$ose o& t$e $and. T$e* di&&er &ro' t$e' in t$eir si.e
1t$e bodies bein) 'uc$ reduced in len)t$2 and bein) laterall* co'pressed.
First #ow6 T$e bod* o& eac$ is co'pressed &ro' side to side! con,e0 abo,e! conca,e belo(. T$e
base is conca,e< and t$e $ead presents a troc$lear sur&ace &or articulation (it$ t$e second
p$alan0.
Second #ow6 T$e p$alan)es o& t$e second ro( are re'ar8abl* s'all and s$ort! but rat$er
broader t$an t$ose o& t$e &irst ro(.
T$e un)ual p$alan)es! in &or'! rese'ble t$ose o& t$e &in)ers< but t$e* are s'aller and are
&lattened &ro' abo,e do(n(ard< eac$ presents a broad base &or articulation (it$ t$e
correspondin) bone o& t$e second ro(! and an e0panded distal e0tre'it* &or t$e support o& t$e
nail and end o& t$e toe.
T$e p$alan)es are eac$ ossi&ied &ro' t(o centers% one &or t$e bod*! and one &or t$e base. T$e
center &or t$e bod* appears about t$e tent$ (ee8! t$at &or t$e base bet(een t$e &ourt$ and
tent$ *ears< it 3oins t$e bod* about t$e ei)$teent$ *ear.

(elvis
T$e pel,is is t$e bon* structure located at t$e base o& t$e spine 1properl* 8no(n as t$e caudal
end2. T$e pel,is incorporates t$e soc8et portion o& t$e $ip 3oint &or eac$ le) 1in bipeds2 or $ind
le) 1in 5uadrupeds2. >t &or's t$e lo(er li'b 1or $ind?li'b2 )irdle o& t$e s8eleton.


Fig: Human male pelvis, viewed from front



Fi6 Human female pelvis3 viewed from front
T$e pel,is is s*''etrical and eac$ side is actuall* 'ade up o& t$ree separate bones ? t$e upper
$al& 1t$e broad @(in)s@2 is t$e ilium< t$e 'iddle 1t$e top $al& o& t$e lo(er @loops@2 is t$e pubis!
and t$e botto' 1t$e lo(er $al& o& t$e @loops@2 is t$e isc+ium. T$ese t$ree bones &use to)et$er
(it$ a)e and are collecti,el* 8no(n as t$e $ip bone! ossa co0ae or t$e inno'inate bone. T$e
pel,is is 3oined to t$e sacru' bone b* li)a'ents 1t$e sacroiliac 3oint2! and t$e $ip bones nest in
speciall* s$aped soc8ets 1t$e acetabulu'2 on eac$ side. T$e upper ed)e o& t$e iliu' is 8no(n as
t$e iliac crest. T$e place at t$e &ront o& t$e pel,is ($ere t$e t(o sides 3oin to)et$er is called t$e
s*'p$*sis pubis. T$is is nor'all* a ,er* in&le0ible 3oint! but it so&tens and beco'es 'ore &le0ible
durin) late pre)nanc*! allo(in) it to e0pand durin) labour &or t$e bab*As $ead to pass t$rou)$. "
&e'ale pel,is is also (ider and s$allo(er t$an a 'ale pel,is.
" (ell?8no(n (a* o& deter'inin) t$e se0 o& a pel,is is to co'pare t$e an)le o& t$e (idt$ o& t$e
&rontal openin) to oneAs $and. >& t$e an)le is about t$e sa'e as bet(een t$e outstretc$ed t$u'b
and inde0 &in)er! it is a &e'ale pel,is 1arcus pubis2. >& it is closer to t$e an)le bet(een t$e spread
inde0 and 'iddle &in)ers! it is a 'ale pel,is 1arcus subpubis2.
T$e pel,is protects t$e di)esti,e and reproducti,e or)ans in t$e lo(er part o& t$e bod*! and
'an* lar)e ner,es and blood ,essels pass t$rou)$ it to suppl* t$e le)s. >t is also an i'portant
load?bearin) part o& t$e s8eletal s*ste'.

Human le
In common language a leg is the entire lower limb, including (at least) the thigh, the knee, and the calf. In the
strict sense of human anatomy, the leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the foot. This
article follows the popular usage that includes the lower limb from hip to ankle, including the buttock and
excluding the foot.


Fi6 Muscles of Human !e
!on bones of t+e lower limb
4e'ur 1t$i)$ bone2
#atella 18neecap2
Tibia 1s$in bone2
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4ibula 1cal& bone2
Muscles o& t$e $u'an lo(er li'b
Muscles o& t$e t$i)$
"nterior co'part'ent o& t$e t$i)$
Buadriceps &e'oris! ($ic$ is co'posed o&%
Vastus lateralis
Vastus 'edialis
Vastus inter'edius
Rectus &e'oris
Sartorius
"dductor lon)us
"dductor bre,is
"dductor 'a)nus
Cracilis
#ectineus
Cluteus 'a0i'us
Tensor &ascia lata
#osterior co'part'ent o& t$e t$i)$
Diceps &e'oris
Se'i'e'branosus
Se'itendinosus
Muscles of t+e calf
#opliteus
T$e anterior co'part'ent
Tibialis anterior
+0tensor di)itoru' lon)us
+0tensor $allucis lon)us
#eroneus tertius
T$e posterior co'part'ent
Castrocne'ius 1attac$ed to t$e calcaneus b* "c$illesA tendon2
#lantaris
Soleus
T$e lateral co'part'ent
#eroneus lon)us
#eroneus bre,is
T$e deep posterior co'part'ent
Tibialis posterior
4le0or di)itoru' lon)us
4le0or $allucis lon)us
Vasculature of t+e le
T$e arteries
Co''on &e'oral arter*
=eep &e'oral arter*
Super&icial &e'oral arter*
#opliteal arter*
"nterior tibial arter*
#osterior tibial arter*
#eroneal arter*
"rcuate arter*
T$e ,eins
Creater sap$enous ,ein
Lesser sap$enous ,ein
4e'oral ,ein
#opliteal ,ein
"nterior tibial ,ein
#osterior tibial ,ein
#eroneal ,ein

Foot
T$e &oot is a biolo)ical structure &ound in 'an* ani'als t$at is used &or loco'otion. T$e plural o&
&oot is &eet! and t$is pair is one o& se,en 'utated +n)lis$ plurals.

Fi6 5ones in t+e Foot
Structure
T$e structural 5ualit* o& a &oot ,aries &ro' ani'al to ani'al. Man* ,ertebrates t$at $a,e le)s
also $a,e a &oot located at t$e end o& eac$ le). 4or t$ese ani'als! t$e &oot is a co'ple0 structure
o& bone! 'uscle! and ot$er connecti,e tissue. "'on) ani'als t$at $a,e so&t or padded &eet! t$e
&oot is co''onl* called a pa(. >n 'ollus8s! on t$e ot$er $and! t$e &oot is a purel* 'uscular
structure.
Human beings use their legs and feet for bipedal locomotion, also known as walking. The structures of the
human foot and hand are variations on the same basic five-digit anatomy, in common with many other
vertebrates. They are also the most complex, comprising half the bones in the body. The medical specialty
related to treatment of the feet is podiatry.
(arts of t+e foot
"n8le
/eel
>nstep
Sole
Dall
4i,e toes
Common disorders of t+e feet
"t$leteAs &oot
Dunion
Callus
#lantar (art

Ankle
>n anato'*! t$e an8le is t$e part o& t$e lo(er li'b t$at is located bet(een t$e &oot and t$e le)!
and is actuall* co'prised o& t(o separate 3oints% t$e talocrural 3oint 1or @true@ an8le 3oint2 and
t$e subtalar 3oint.
T$e talocrural 3oint! is a s*no,ial 3oint t$at connects t$e distal ends o& t$e tibia and &ibula (it$
t$e pro0i'al end o& t$e talus and is responsible &or dorsi&le0ion and plantar &le0ion.
T$e subtalar 3oint connects t$e talus (it$ t$e calcaneus and $elps (it$ in,ersion and e,ersion o&
t$e &oot.
T$e an8le does not allo( rotation.


Fi6 !iaments of t+e Foot
Heel
T$e $eel is t$e pro'inence at t$e posterior end o& t$e &oot. >t is based on t$e pro3ection o& one
bone! t$e calcaneus! be$ind t$e articulation o& t$e bones o& t$e lo(er le). >n t$e lon)?&ooted
'a''als! bot$ t$e $oo&ed species 1un)uli)rade2 and t$e cla(ed &or's ($ic$ (al8 on t$e toes
1di)iti)rade2! t$e $eel is (ell abo,e t$e )round at t$e ape0 o& t$e an)ular 3oint 8no(n as t$e
$oc8. >n planti)rade species it rests on t$e )round.
Sole
T$e Sole is t$e botto' o& t$e &oot. Muc$ li8e t$e pal' o& t$e $and! it $as t$ic8er s8in t$an 'ost
ot$er parts o& t$e bod*! and is relati,el* less pi)'ented. " set o& creases &or'ed in t$e (o'b
criss?cross t$e sole. >n anato'*! t$e sole o& t$e &oot is re&erred to as t$e plantar aspect.
Toes
Toes are t$e di)its o& t$e &oot o& a $u'an or ani'al.
>n $u'ans! t$e toe includes t$e p$alan)es o& t$e &ootAs s8eleton< t$e bones o& eac$ toe continue
all t$e (a* to t$e $eel! alt$ou)$ in &ro' t$e base o& t$e toes t$e* are united in t$e bod* o& t$e
&oot. T$e inner'ost toe 1t$e le&t'ost one on t$e ri)$t &oot! see picture2 is b* &ar t$e t$ic8est 1bi)
toe! )reat toe! or $allu02< t$e one on t$e ot$er end is s$ort and t$in.
T$e toes! especiall* t$e bi) toe! pla* an essential role in (al8in)! alt$ou)$ a loss o& t$e s'allest
toe (ill not a&&ect )ait.
5all
T$e ball o& t$e &oot is ($ere t$e toes 3oin to t$e rest o& t$e &oot. >t is 5uite 'uscular! as (ell as
)ettin) blistered t$e easiest.
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