Edinburgh Napier University

Master of Science

In

Investment Promotion and Economic Development





By

Rebecca Debora Atieno Oloo

December 2011
Fish farming as a means of
boosting the economy of Kisumu
County, Kenya
ii






By

Rebecca Debora Atieno Oloo

December 2011

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree
Master of Science
In
Investment Promotion and Economic Development
Fish farming as a means of
boosting the economy of Kisumu
County, Kenya
iii

DECLARATION

I declare that the work undertaken for this MSc Dissertation has been
undertaken by myself and the final Dissertation produced by me. The work
has not been submitted in part or in whole in regard to any other academic
qualification.

Title of Dissertation:
Fish farming as a means of boosting the economy of Kisumu County, Kenya


Name: Rebecca Debora Atieno Oloo

Signature: ____________________

Date: December 2011

Matriculation Number: 09020451
iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to sincerely acknowledge and thank Prof. Robert Raeside for his
invaluable guidance during this study. This has enabled me to really refine
my research skills.
A debt of gratitude is also owed to Prof. George Malcotsis and Ms. Sofia
Zehnder for their support throughout my studies.
To my family, Vincent and the children, my brothers James and Abba, thank
you for your support.

To God be the glory!
v

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of fish farming on the
economy of Kisumu County in Kenya, gauge the attitudes of the respondents
towards fish farming, the sustainability of fish farming and gender issues in
fish farming. The study was conducted in Kisumu County, which is located
on the shores of Lake Victoria, the largest fresh water lake in Africa. This
study is important because it gives an insight into the potential benefit of fish
farming to the community around Kisumu County. Recently the lake has
been facing environmental degradation, which has led to a significant
reduction in fish stocks. Overfishing, the introduction of exotic species,
harmful land use practices and pollution from rivers, municipal and industrial
waste. This has led to oxygen depletion and death of indigenous fish species
in Lake Victoria. In 2009, the Government of Kenya initiated the Economic
Stimulus Programme, whose overall aim was to encourage aquaculture in
the region and reduce poverty. Through a quantitative survey that was
carried out with fish farmers in the region, it was established that most of the
fish farmers were financed and supported through this Economic Stimulus
Programme. However, most of the respondents are still employed formally
and have employed other people to care for their fish farms. The respondents
were positive about the sustainability and positive impact of fish farming on
their lives. It was evident from this study that, despite the initial support from
the government through the Economic Stimulus Plan, fish farmers still faced
challenges in terms of access to credit, access to technical information,
predatory animals and lack of support from government extension services.
Since no tangible development can take place in isolation, the study
concludes that the Government needs to provide technical capacity building,
more land and capital for the fish farmers in their ventures. This will enable
them move from a purely subsistence venture to a more commercial one.
Women also need more involvement in running the fish farms. Finally, more
evidence needs to be collected on the impact of the Economic Stimulus
Programme on the region and the overall impact that fish farming on rural
communities.
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. v
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM DEFINITION .................................. 1
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. Political governance of Kisumu County ...................................................... 2
1.3. Socio-economic indicators of Kisumu County ............................................ 2
1.4. Statement of the problem ........................................................................... 4
1.5. Aims and objectives of the study ................................................................ 6
1.6. Dissertation layout ..................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................... 8
BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Current status of fishing in Kisumu, Kenya .................................................... 9
2.1.1. Socio-economic benefits of fish farming ............................................................. 10
2.2. Gender issues in the fish industry ................................................................ 18
2.3. Environmental impact of fish farming ........................................................... 20
2.4. Assessing the profitability of fish farming ..................................................... 22
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................... 25
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 25
3.1. Specific Aims of the study ........................................................................ 26
3.1. Background and Significance of the study................................................ 26
3.2. Conceptual Framework ............................................................................ 27
3.3. Research methods ................................................................................... 28
3.4. Role of the hypothesis.............................................................................. 29
3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research .......................... 30
3.6. Types of Survey to be used in study ........................................................ 31
3.7. Data Collection ........................................................................................ 32
3.8. Sampling techniques ................................................................................ 33
3.9. Methodology ............................................................................................ 34
3.10. Structuring and designing the questionnaire ............................................ 35
3.11. Data analysis ........................................................................................... 36
3.12. Limitations of the study ............................................................................ 37
3.13. Ethics in research .................................................................................... 37
3.14. Conclusion ............................................................................................... 40
vii

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................... 41
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 41
4.1. Piloting the questionnaire ......................................................................... 41
4.2. Findings on the economic aspects of fish farming .................................... 43
4.2.1. Land .......................................................................................................................... 43
4.2.2. Labour ...................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.3. Capital ...................................................................................................................... 45
4.3. Administrative Boundaries ....................................................................... 52
4.4. Threats to fish farming ............................................................................. 53
4.5. Emerging issues ...................................................................................... 56
4.6. Conclusion ............................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ....... 58
5.1. Review of the findings .............................................................................. 58
5.2. Validity and reliability ............................................................................... 59
5.3. Lack of technical information ....................................................................... 60
5.3.1. Site selection ......................................................................................................... 60
5.3.2. Selection of species ............................................................................................. 61
5.4. Lack of credit facilities .............................................................................. 62
5.5. CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................... 64
5.6. ISSUES EMERGING FROM THE STUDY ................................................... 66
5.6.1. Gender issues in fish farming ........................................................................... 66
5.6.2. Sustainability of the fish farming ventures .................................................... 67
5.6.3. Environmental issues .......................................................................................... 68
5.7. Suggested topics for future research in fish farming ................................. 68
References ............................................................................................................ 70
APPENDIX 1 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................... 73

LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 1.1: Map of Kisumu showing Lake Victoria: (Source: www.en.mapatlas.org). 1
Figure 1 2: Local Authority and Constituency Development Fund Expenditures,
County Estimates in Kenya Shillings (Opendata 2010) ..................................... 3
Figure 1.3: Male and female populations by age (OpenData, 2010) ......................... 4

Figure 2.1: Map of Kisumu, Kenya (Source: www.google.com) ................................ 9
Figure 2.2: A framework for analysing aquaculture's linkages to food and nutritional
security (Source: Ahmed and Lorica, 2002) .................................................... 13
viii


Figure 3.1: Conceptualised framework among variables (adapted from Banandan,
2008) .............................................................................................................. 27

Figure 4.1: Level of assistance with fish farming .................................................... 44
Figure 4.2: Impact of fish farming on the lives of fish farmers ................................. 48
Figure 4.3: Consumers views on fish from ponds ................................................... 49
Figure 4.4: Sources of information for fish farmers ................................................. 51
Figure 4.5: Challenges faced by fish farmers in Kisumu County ............................. 55


LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Potential contribution of aquaculture to the lives of the rural poor (Source:
Edwards (2000) ............................................................................................... 15
Table 2.2: Factors within households and communities affecting women's
participation in institutional arrangements Source: Sustainable Fisheries
Livelihoods Programme fieldwork (SFLP 2006: 4 in (Okali, 2006). .................. 19

Table 4.1: Demographics of respondents ............................................................... 42
Table 4.2: Respondents' level of involvement in fish farming .................................. 44
Table 4.3: Inputs into fish farming .......................................................................... 45
Table 4.4: Inputs into fish farming in relation to profits realised .............................. 46
Table 4.5: Fish farming as a source of income ....................................................... 46
Table 4.6: Demand for fish ..................................................................................... 48
Table 4.7: How the price of fish is set by the fish farmers ....................................... 48
Table 4.8: Impact on livelihoods of fish farmers since they started on their ventures
....................................................................................................................... 50
Table 4.9: Reasons for lack of informatin on fish farming ....................................... 51
Table 4.10: Ways in which the authorities can assist fish farmers .......................... 52




1

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM DEFINITION
1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this Chapter is to discuss the background to this study,
discuss the motivation for the study and define the problem statement. The
Chapter will conclude with the Chapter layout for the study.
Kisumu County (formerly Port Florence), is the principal lake port of Kenya,
its third largest city. Kisumu County is found on the shores of Lake Victoria.
The economic activities in the County include sugarcane growing, frozen fish,
textiles, beer, and processed sisal. Despite advances in economic activity in
different parts of Kenya, this lake area is largely neglected and
disadvantaged economically.
Kenya shares the waters of Lake Victoria with the two neighbouring states of
Tanzania and Uganda with the Tanzania having the lions share of 52 per
cent while Uganda has 42 per cent leaving Kenya with only paltry 6 per cent
mainly along the narrow channel which is commonly known as Kavirondo
Gulf.
Figure 1.1: Map of Kisumu showing Lake Victoria: (Source:
www.en.mapatlas.org)

2

1.2. Political governance of Kisumu County
The Government of the Republic of Kenya adopted a new Constitution in
August 2010, which changed the political governance of the country.
Previous provinces, municipalities, divisions and locations were done away
with and replaced with Counties. The newly created County of Kisumu is
expected to be the nerve center of Western Kenya and at the same time the
gateway to East and Central African countries of the East African Community
member states.
The County, which is created under the new constitutional dispensation, with
a City equipped with an ultra-modern newly expanded Airport, is expected to
be not only nerve center for the entire Western Kenya, but a major
commercial link center between Kenya and other landlocked African states in
the Great Lakes region (Odera, 2010).
The new County covers six parliamentary electoral constituencies of
Nyakach, Nyando, Muhoroni, Kisumu Town East, Kisumu Town West and
Kisumu Rural. Two of these constituencies namely Kisumu Town East and
Kisumu Town West are cosmopolitan housing in nature and have multiracial
and multi-ethnic societies (Odera, 2010).
With the advent of the new governance systems in Kenya, the implication is
that Counties are now required to be self-sufficient in terms of their economic
development and in sustaining income-generating activities.
1.3. Socio-economic indicators of Kisumu County

Kisumu was a prosperous regional centre but has experienced industrial and
social decline over the last 30 years; however, economic activity has
increased recently.
During the pre-independence years (1963 and before), Kisumu developed as
a trading hub in East Africa. Transport infrastructure established to connect
Kisumu to rest of Kenya and other East African countries, with the railway
3

being established in 1901 and the first airport in East Africa established in the
late 1930s (KPMG, 2008).
The period between 1960s to 1970s saw a period of strong economic growth,
mirroring the growth phase of the Kenyan economy. The sugar, fishing,
cotton and brewing industries grew rapidly. The population in the region also
put a lot of emphasis on education (KPMG, 2008).

From the 1980s onwards, exposure to international competition combined
with under-investment in infrastructure has led to a decline industrial activity.
Trade liberalisation led to influx of cheap imports has also exposed the
inefficiency of pastoral enterprises. The major economic activities of cotton
growing and brewing collapsed. Education suffered as a result of increasing
poverty with urbanisation becoming a significant problem (KPMG, 2008).

The future economic growth in the Kisumu region is essential for Kenya to
achieve the Vision 2030 plan, which was mooted by the Government in line
with the Millenium Development Goals. This Plan calls for annual economic
growth of 10 per cent and will focus on value addition in agricultural
industries. With the expected trade liberalisation through the East African
Community, Kisumu is well placed to regain its status as a regional trading
hub (KPMG, 2008).
Figure 1 2: Local Authority and Constituency Development Fund
Expenditures, County Estimates in Kenya Shillings (Opendata 2010)


4

The population of Kisumu County as per 2011 is approximately 340,000. The
male and female age groups in the Kisumu County are depicted in Figure 1.3
below.
Figure 1.3: Male and female populations by age (OpenData, 2010)

Kisumu County is rich in fishing and fish trade with Kisumu City having close
to three fish processing plants. There were more five such plants when the
fish trade was booming a couple of years ago, but due to the scarcity of fish,
some were forced to close down their business prematurely.
The City is served by four highways, namely Kisumu-Ahero-Kericho road,
Kisumu-Kakamega road, Kisumu Bondo road and Kisumu Busia road.
In the Port, the Kisumu Pier, though poorly maintained at the moment by the
ailing Rift Valley Railways is still serving the landlocked nation in East and
central African regions such as Uganda, northwestern Tanzania, Rwanda,
Burundi, Eastern DR Congo, and Southern Sudan and beyond.
All these facilities could be improved tremendously if the right investment is
put in place for the economic benefit of the county (Odera, 2010).
1.4. Statement of the problem

Warm water fish farming in ponds began in Kenya in the 1920s, initially using
tilapia species and later including the common carp and the African catfish. In
the 1960s rural fish farming was popularized by the Kenya Government
through the Eat More Fish campaign; as a result of this effort, tilapia
5

farming expanded rapidly, with the construction of many small ponds,
especially in Kenyas Central and Western Provinces (Ngugi, Bowman, &
Omolo, 2007).

Ngugi et al (2007) go on to state that the number of productive ponds
declined in the 1970s, mainly because of inadequate extension services, a
lack of quality fingerlings, and insufficient training for extension workers. Until
the mid-1990s, fish farming in Kenya followed a pattern similar to that
observed in many African countries, characterized by small ponds,
subsistence-level management, and very low levels of production.

In the recent past, the Lake Victoria region has been particularly
characterised by entrenched poverty, recurrent droughts, crop failures and
environmental degradation (Abila, 2003). These conditions are partly caused
by declining land productivity, soil degradation, desertification, loss of
biodiversity and crop diseases, declining fisheries, poor development and
trade policies among other problems. As a result, it has become difficult to
produce sufficient food, trapping people in a vicious cycle of poverty and food
insecurity, a paradox, given that the people of the Lake as Kisumu residents
are commonly referred to, live next to a lake with such vast resources, yet
remain among the poorest and food insecure (Abila, 2003).
In an article published in the People & Planet Magazine, the author (Chege,
1995) states that Lake Victoria was 'discovered' in 1858 by the British
explorer John Speke, after months of braving dense forests and tropical
diseases in his search for the source of the Nile. But now the Lake is in poor
health, and the livelihood of the communities round it is threatened. If he
could see Lake Victoria today, John Speke would probably stare in shock
and disbelief. The once clear, life-filled lake is murky, smelly, and choking
with algae.
The ecological health of Lake Victoria has been affected profoundly as a
result of a rapidly growing population, clearance of natural vegetation along
6

the shores, a booming fish-export industry, the disappearance of several fish
species native to the lake, prolific growth of algae, and dumping of untreated
effluent by several industries. Much of the damage is vast and irreversible.
Traditional lifestyles of lakeshore communities have been disrupted and are
crumbling. There is a consensus among scientists that if an accelerated push
to save the lake is not made soon, this much-needed body of water will
cease to sustain life.
Given the above reasons, it is imperative that economic interventions be
found that can sustain the community around the lake, thereby ensuring their
food security, providing employment and, possibly, alleviating the debilitating
and undignified effects of poverty.

1.5. Aims and objectives of the study

The aim and objectives of this study will be to:

1. Establish the link between fish farming and the impact on the economy
of Kisumu.
2. Gauge attitudes from the community towards fish farming to establish
whether they will buy in to the idea of fish farming.
3. Gauge the impact of the economic stimulus plan that was put in place
by the Government of Kenya in 2009 on the fish farmers.
4. Consider the sustainability of fish farming
5. Consider the role of women in fish farming
1.6. Dissertation layout

This study is divided into six (6) chapters. Chapter 1 gives a background to
the study, giving a brief background on Kisumu County in Kenya, the
economic, social and political environment of the region. It also defines the
aims and objectives of the study. The Chapter provides a background on the
fish farming industry in Kenya.
7

Chapter 2 makes a critical assessment of relevant literature related to fish
farming by different authors who have dealt with the subject. The works cited
have covered different aspects of fish farming i.e. environmental impact of
fish farming, gender issues in fish farming, socio-economic benefits of fish
farming in different parts of the world. A framework for analysing
aquaculture's linkages to food and national security is also discussed in this
chapter.

Chapter 3 looks at the research methods that will be used in the study. A
quantitative study is suggested for this study. The Chapter will look at the
advantages and disadvantages of a quantitative study. Further, the Chapter
will discuss the specific aims, background and significance of the study, as
well as provide a conceptual framework for the study. The Chapter will look
at data collection techniques, sampling methods, structure and design of the
questionnaire, limitations of the study and provide suggestions on how the
data collected will be analysed. The Chapter will conclude with a brief
discussion on how to handle ethics in research.

Chapter 4 will discuss the research findings. The Chapter will also discuss
the piloting of the questionnaire and any amendments that may have been
made to the questionnaire after the pilot phase. This Chapter will make a link
between the hypotheses and actual findings as a result of the survey. It will
also highlight the positive aspects and constraints that were identified from
the respondents with regard to their fish farming ventures. This Chapter will
build into Chapter 5, which will discuss recommendations to the constraints
that were identified during the study. The Chapter will also make
recommendations on how best to strengthen the fish farming industry in
Kisumu County. The Chapter will also provide a summary of the study. It will
highlight the pertinent issues from the study and also provide a summary on
areas for further research.
8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

BACKGROUND

The Literature Review Chapter will critically assess various secondary
sources that have covered different aspects of fish farming i.e. environmental
impact of fish farming, gender issues in fish farming and the socio-economic
benefits of fish farming in different parts of the world. A framework for
analysing aquaculture's linkages to food and national security is also
discussed in this chapter.

Aquaculture entails the growing of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants in a controlled environment. Farming implies
some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such
as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also
implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.

Fish is a popular diet all over Africa. A report conducted by the Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO) on The State of World Fisheries and
Aquaculture (2008), states that the fish sector is a source of income and
livelihood for millions of people around the world (FAO, 2008). Employment
in fisheries and aquaculture has grown substantially in the last three
decades, with an average rate of increase of 3.6 per cent per year since
1980. It is estimated that, in 2008, 44.9 million people were directly engaged,
full time or, more frequently, part time, in capture fisheries or in aquaculture
and at least 12 per cent of these were women (Foeken, Dick W.J and Owuor,
2008). On average, each jobholder provides for three dependants or family
members. Thus, the primary and secondary sectors support the livelihoods of
a total of about 540 million people, or 8.0 percent of the world population.

Africa is in an area of the world where chronic poverty and malnutrition
continues to be widespread (Aguilar- Manjarrez and Shree S Nath, FAO,
1998, CIFA Technical Paper 32) (Manjarrez, 1998). Olale, Spencer and
Cranefield (2010) state that in Africa, there is strong evidence of high and
9

increasing poverty levels among fish workers e.g. Kenyan Government
statistics show that Nyanza province (where Kisumu is based and majority of
fish workers reside), has an incidence poverty of about 65%. Further, Africa
is the only part of the world where fish supply per person is declining, while at
the same time fish supplies are at the lowest level worldwide (World Fish
Centre, 2005).

2.1. Current status of fishing in Kisumu, Kenya

Kisumu County (formerly Port Florence), is the principal lake port of Kenya,
its third largest city. Kisumu County is found on the shores of Lake Victoria.
Manufactures include refined sugar, frozen fish, textiles, beer, and processed
sisal. Despite advances in economic activity in different parts of Kenya, this
lake area is largely neglected and disadvantaged economically.

Figure 2.1: Map of Kisumu, Kenya (Source: www.google.com)


Warm water fish farming in ponds began in Kenya in the 1920s, initially using
tilapia species and later including the common carp and the African catfish. In
the 1960s rural fish farming was popularized by the Kenya Government
through the Eat More Fish campaign; as a result of this effort, tilapia
farming expanded rapidly, with the construction of many small ponds,
especially in Kenyas Central and Western Provinces.
10


The fisheries sector in Kenya consists of three major sub-sectors, namely
inland fisheries, marine fisheries and aquaculture. Aquaculture has remained
at subsistence level since independence in 1963, but has recently been
boosted when the government listed fish farming as one of the key activities
in the Economic Stimulus Programme (Aloo-Obudho, 2010). The government
hopes that this programme will provide employment, provide income to
farmers as well as provide a source of protein to many Kenyans.

The Lake Victoria region is particularly characterised by entrenched (Abila,
2003) poverty, recurrent droughts, crop failures and environmental
degradation (Abila, 2003). Abila (2003) further states that these conditions
are partly caused by declining land productivity, soil degradation,
desertification, loss of biodiversity and crop diseases, declining fisheries,
poor development and trade policies among other problems. As a result, it
has become difficult to produce sufficient food, trapping people in a vicious
cycle of poverty and food insecurity, a paradox, given that the people of the
Lake as Kisumu residents are commonly referred to, live next to a lake with
such vast resources, yet remain among the poorest and food insecure (Abila,
2003).

Given the above reasons, it is imperative that economic interventions be
found that can sustain the community around the lake, thereby ensuring their
food security, providing employment and, possibly, alleviating the debilitating
and undignified effects of poverty.
2.1.1. Socio-economic benefits of fish farming

Millenium Development Goal Number 1 calls for a reduction of 50% between
1990 and 2015 in the number of people who suffer from hunger and whose
income is less than US$1 per day (Foeken, D W J and Owour, S.O, 2008).
Further, the authors state that the number of people living in poverty is
estimated to have risen from 11 million or 48% of the population in Kenya to
11

17 million or 56% in 2001. Consequently, urban poverty is rising fast. As a
result, new strategies for coping with poverty have to be devised to cope with
the dire situation e.g. multiple sourcing of cash incomes and urban farming
(Foeken & Owuour, 2008).

The view of urban farming is supported by Zezza and Tascoti (2010), who
state that it may have a role to play in addressing issues of food insecurity,
which are bound to become increasingly important with the secular trend
towards the urbanisation of poverty and of population in developing regions
(Zezza and Tascoti, 2010). However, the authors indicate that the
understanding of urban agriculture is hindered by a lack of good quality,
reliable data. Further, most of the available data is anecdotal and this is a
major research gap. This is due to the fact that agriculture provides a
substantial share of income for the urban poor, and for those groups of
households to which it constitutes an important source of livelihood (Zezza,
Alberto and Tasciotti, Luca, 2010). In their study, the authors were able to
establish a link between engagement in agriculture and dietary adequacy
indicators.

In other studies conducted by Ahmed and Lorica (2002), the authors sought
to provide a framework for examining aquacultures linkages to food and
nutritional security by highlighting key role of aquaculture in household food
and income systems in developing countries (Ahmed and Lorica, 2002).
Examples were taken from Asian countries and it was established that there
was a steady growth over the last decade with regard to employment, income
and consumption. From the study that was conducted there was clear
evidence of positive income and consumption on households. There is
increased recognition for improved and balanced nutrition, including critical
vitamins and minerals in the diet and the need for improved sanitation,
hygiene and living environment which are related to income and purchasing
power improvement.

12

Ahmed and Lorica (2002), indicate the scope for more empirical studies to be
carried out on the varied opportunities that aquaculture would provide to
improve the income, employment and food consumption within households.
Since food insecurity mainly affects poorer communities, Ahmed and Lorica
(2002) targeted small subsistence-oriented farmers in their study. They
looked at the key socio-economic and policy factors affecting aquaculture
adoption and its impact on poor and assetless people. Even though there is
potential for fish farming in Africa, very few governments have a long term
plan for aquaculture and this makes it difficult for them to quantify their
production targets as far as fish farming is concerned.

The development and wider adoption of aquaculture can be seen as a
significant basis for improving household food security and other needed
welfare (Ahmed and Lorica, 2002). Aquaculture has the potential to
contribute to the food and nutritional status of people in at least three ways
(adoption-income linkages; adoption-employment linkages; and adoption-
consumption linkages). Figure 1 below summarises these linkages as raised
by Ahmed and Lorica (2002), below:




13


Figure 2.2: A framework for analysing aquaculture's linkages to food and
nutritional security (Source: Ahmed and Lorica, 2002)



Adoption- Adoption- Adoption-
Employment link Consumption link
Income link











The linkages identified by Ahmed and Lorica (2002) are very crucial to this
study because it clearly shows that income and purchasing power have a
tremendous influence on household demand for food. The authors state that
empirical evidence suggests that increase in staple food (e.g. cereal)
consumption as income arises is very minimal or nearly zero once a required
minimum is reached. But in the case of non-staple foods (e.g. fish and
vegetables), it rises rapidly with income on a percentage basis (Bouis, 2000
in Ahmed and Lorica, 2002). The study established that nutritional status
may not necessarily improve, with additional income, people will tend to vary
their diets but further research needs to be done in this area to establish the
link between socio-cultural and economic factors in society as well as the
nutritional quality of fish or other food consumed (Bouis and Novenario-
Reese in Ahmed and Lorica (2002).

Ability to earn
wage or income
Ability to
consume
nutrient-rich fish
Positive/high
Income elasticity
of demand for
fishand other non-
staple food
High income effect
from aquaculture
production and sale
profit
Ability to
increase labor
productivity
High home
consumption
Price effect
and increase
demand
14

The adoption employment linkage is based on the hypothesis that the
consumption and nutrition status of household members is related to the
households ability to earn income, which in turn depends on the nutritional
health of the household labour force. To this end, aquaculture is expected to
increase the marginal productivity of agricultural labour and hence engender
higher incomes for both own-family and hired labour (Ahmed, 2002). To
support this assertion, Tidwell and Allan (2001), indicate that fish has
substantial social and economic importance. The Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) estimates the value of fish traded internationally to be
US$ 51 billion per annum (Tidwell, 2001). Further, over 36 million people are
employed directly though fishing and aquaculture (www.fao.org, 2008), and
as many as 200 million people derive direct and indirect income from fish
(Garcia and Newton, 1997 in (Tidwell, 2001).

Ahmed and Lorica (2002) indicate the adoption-consumption linkage may be
based on the hypothesis that (1) adopting households consume a
disproportionately higher amount of fish, which is rich in micronutrients, and
hence improvements in nutritional status can be achieved through adoption-
home consumption linkages; and (2) adoption of aquaculture increases
market supply that holds fish prices down, and hence increases the intake of
micronutrient rich food i.e. fish. (Bouis, 2000 in Ahmed, 2002). FAO
estimates that consumption of fish is increasing steadily and will rise from 40
million tonnes in 1970 to 110 million in 2010 (www.fao.org, 2008). This
supports the hypothesis that a consistent source of fish is essential for the
nutritional and financial health of a large segment of the worlds population.

In a paper published for the Overseas Development Institute, Edwards
(2000) supports the view that aquaculture contributes to the livelihoods of the
poor through improved food supply, employment and income, as summarised
below: (Edwards, 2000).
15

Table 2.1: Potential contribution of aquaculture to the lives of the rural poor
(Source: Edwards (2000)
Potential contribution of aquaculture to the livelihoods of the rural poor
Direct benefits
Food of high nutritional value, especially for vulnerable groups such as pregnant
and lactating women, infants and pre-school children.
Own enterprise employment, including for women and children.
Income through sale of relatively high value produce.
Indirect benefits
Increased availability of fish in local rural and urban markets, which may bring
prices down.
Employment on larger farms, in seed supply networks, market chains and
manufacture/repair functions.
Benefit from common pool resources, particularly the landless, through cage
culture, culture of molluscs and seaweeds, and enhanced fisheries in communal
water bodies.
Increased farm sustainability through:
o Construction of ponds, which also serve as small-scale on-farm
reservoirs
o Rice/fish as a component of integrated pest management.

Edwards (2000) is critical of research-derived, on-station technologies which
have seldom fitted the diverse and resource-limited contexts of most poor
farming households. He goes further to state that most aquaculture
professionals and service providers currently have a technocratic and
fisheries biology worldview which focuses on maximising biological yield
rather than low-cost fish food fish, and commodities rather than communities.
He advocates for more participatory, systems type approaches to identify
households, to assess their needs and resources, to assess whether
aquaculture is appropriate and if so, to adapt technologies in conjunction with
farmers (Edwards, 2000).

16

In his study, Edwards (2000) identifies the following knowledge gaps that
need to be addressed in order to come up with appropriate approaches to
aquaculture in rural settings:
1. Social and environment/resource aspects of rural aquaculture;
2. The actual and potential contribution of aquaculture to sustainable
livelihoods of the poor; and
3. The trade-offs between capture of wild fish and culture of farmed fish,
and between the agriculture and aquaculture, including the use of fish
in integrated pest management (ipm).

Even though his research was conducted in Asia, Edwards (2000) indicates
that the above knowledge gaps exist even in most rural settings in Africa.
Nguyen M. Duc (2008) gives a different perspective to the relevance of fish
farming by measuring satisfaction levels through a field study conducted with
120 farmers in Vietnam (Duc, 2008). Through this study, regression results
were able to establish that farmers were satisfied with relative and not
absolute income. This in turn enhances job satisfaction of the farmers with
their fish production. Further, it was established, through the study, that
farmers satisfaction with aquaculture increases with age, their involvement in
extension services, larger relative pond surfaces and a higher expectation of
earnings from aquaculture (Duc, 2008).
According to Duc (2008), aquaculture has contributed to the economic
growth of Vietnam (30-40% to total national fisheries production (FAO and
NACA, 1997 in Duc (2008). Aquaculture revenue constitutes 4% of
Vietnamese GDP (2003 figures) and made up an export value of $2.35 billion
in 2004 (FAO Report in Duc (2008). This equates to 10% of the countrys
total export revenue for the year.
Given the above figures, the importance of aquaculture to the Vietnamese
economy cannot be underestimated and this is why it is important to sustain
the level of satisfaction of the farmers involved in aquaculture.
17

The gaps that still need to be addressed in this study, according to the author
include the application of an appropriate econometric method for a rigorous
research of the role of aquaculture in fish farmers satisfaction. This
particular study extends the satisfaction approach to a logistic analysis to
examine the determinants of farmer satisfaction with aquaculture. The study
contributes to the literature on the role of aquaculture in the farmers
livelihoods and sustainable development. The author asserts that the dataset
collected in the survey is unique thus far because the micro data related to
the job satisfaction are less likely available in a developing country like
Vietnam (Duc, 2008). It is recommended from this study that further research
be conducted in larger survey scales to examine the role of education,
extension involvement, and economic rewards from aquaculture in creating
farmer satisfaction.
The cumulative logistic model used by Duc (2008) can be adopted for the
study that will be undertaken on fish farming. Apart from the Likert scale (1 to
5), which represented the responses from strongly agree to strongly
disagree, the following data which was taken into account included:
1. Yield of fish culture
2. Household size
3. Number of men in the household
4. Total occupied land area
5. Pond area relative to land
6. Total household income
7. Farming income
8. Income from fish culture
9. Fish income relative to total household income
10. Fish income relative to farming income
11. Per capita income
12. Expectation fish earnings
13. Ages of respondents
14. Education levels of respondents who have completed primary school
15. Farmer involvement in extension
18


The aim of my study will, therefore, be to establish the link between fish
farming, food security and economic development in the Lake Victoria region,
where Kisumu is based. The Lake, being an important source of income to
the fishing community and earns the nation a foreign income. However, the
comment below tells a different story:

Some families have resorted to eating fish "frames," the deep-fried fish heads
and skeletons that are resold to local middlemen after fillets are frozen and
shipped abroad, (Godwin Khisa, an economic analyst at Uganda's National
Agricultural Research Organization as reported by Morrison Dan and Sean
Bryan, March 13, 2007) (Dan, 2007).

This view is supported by Abila (2003) who states that in the earlier years of
Nile perch processing, the remains of Nile perch after removing fillet,
commonly known as frame (or Mgongo Wazi in Kiswahili) was considered a
waste, and factories incurred expenses to dispose of it.

In a case study conducted by Schuurhuizen, Tilburg and Kambewa (2006), it
was established that the competition for fish between the domestic and
export market is rather unequal and the drive to sell fish overseas has
resulted in reduced local availability (Schuurhuizen, 2006). The case study
focused mainly on the nile perch chain around Lake Victoria and encourages
government participation and support to local farmers in order to promote
sustainability of fish stocks.

2.2. Gender issues in the fish industry

Gender plays an important role in the artisanal fisheries, therefore it is critical
for both men and women to participate in fisheries management (Lwenya,
2006). The Government of Kenya introduced new fisheries regulations which
hindered gender participation in fisheries. The authors used primary and
19

secondary data and concluded from their study that there was clear division
of duty between what men and women did. Different issues affected men and
women differently e.g. response to management styles due to differentiated
roles and space they operate in, whereas poverty emerged as a constraint to
both men and women (Lwenya, 2006).

According to (Okali, 2006), the information from fishing communities in Benin,
Burkina Faso, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, and The Gambia
presented in Table 1 below, demonstrates the problem of attendance for
women in community-level groups, as well as the issue of them having a
voice in important matters.

Table 2.2: Factors within households and communities affecting women's
participation in institutional arrangements Source: Sustainable Fisheries
Livelihoods Programme fieldwork (SFLP 2006: 4 in (Okali, 2006).
Within households Within communities

Family responsibilities and tasks
reduce womens availability for
meetings.
Womens physical movement is
subject to social control, so the
timing and venue of meetings
often limit the participation of
certain categories of women.
The time required to participate is
costlier for women than men,
especially for poorer women,
because their participation is
made at the expense of carrying
out other activities.

Because women are often less
literate than men, their
contribution is less valued.
Women have little experience in
group management and public
speaking, and social and cultural
norms often support mens
decision making in public
gatherings.
Women have less access to
media (radio and newspapers)
and information in general and
are therefore less aware of what
is going on around them.

The other emerging issue in gender in fisheries is the issue of women and
fish-for-sex. According to (Bene & Merten, 2008), fish-for-sex (ffs) is not an
anecdotal phenomenon but a practice increasingly reported in many different
developing countries, with the largest number of cases observed in Sub-
Saharan Africa inland fisheries. The authors, who conducted their study in
Kafue, Zambia, describe this new phenomenon as particular arrangements
20

between female fish traders and fishermen, in which the fish traders engage
in sexual relationships with the male fishermen to secure their supply of fish,
which they then process and sell to support their families. Since the fish-for-
sex phenomenon has not been included in a lot of literature, the authors aim
in this study was to correct this omission, to better understand who the
women involved are, and to identify some of the social, cultural or economic
factors that lead women to engage in this activity. Ultimately, the impact of
this phenomenon is increased numbers of HIV/AIDS in the communities
concerned because as (Bene & Merten, 2008) state, most of these fish-for-
sex activities involve unprotected sex, putting both parties the fisher and
fish trader- at risk.
The authors recommend that countries draw up policies regarding this
phenomenon and perhaps, through legislation, women can be protected and
empowered to make a living for themselves without necessarily engaging in
these activities to make a living.
2.3. Environmental impact of fish farming

Negative environmental impacts associated with aquaculture are of
increasing concern due to the rapid growth and often unregulated
aquaculture industry (Evans, Ichien, Morrison, & Egna, 2007). The authors
indicate that aquaculture has been associated with a range of issues
including habitat degradation, contaminated water systems, increases in fish
diseases, and the introduction of alien species. These adverse effects have
to be addressed in order to develop sustainable, end-user level aquaculture
systems.
This view is supported by (Piedrantha, 2003), who states that aquaculture
effluents may contain a variety of constituents that could cause negative
impacts when released into the environment. (Piedrantha, 2003) goes
further to give suggestions on how this environmental degradation can be
addressed by reducing potential environmental impacts by facilitating effluent
treatments e.g. solids removal operations produce a stream with high
21

concentration of solids (the sludge removed from the flow) that is also rich in
nutrients and organic matter, while reducing the concentrations of these
parameters in the culture water. The stream with a high concentration of
solids could be treated prior to disposal using techniques appropriate for high
strength waste and sludge.
In a research conducted in China by (Ellis & Turner, 2007), it was found that
Chinas waterways are highly polluted thus rendering food security a major
concern for Chinese aquaculture. Besides municipal and industrial waste
water contamination, mercury emissions from Chinas coal-fired power plants
are another potential source of aquaculture contamination. International
concern has cost China dearly since China supplies 70% of the tilapia
imported into the United States and is also its fourth largest supplier of
shrimp (Ellis & Turner, 2007). Further, countries have continued to ban
species they discovered to be contaminated. The authors cite two major
cases of the 2005 eel ban in Japan and the 2003 shrimp ban in the European
Union. Chinese consumers are also increasingly concerned about water
pollution, dangerous farming practices and poor processing in the
aquaculture industry that pose serious threats to human health.
(Ellis & Turner, 2007) have identified the following environmental impacts
causing concern worldwide in aquaculture:
1. Eutrophication and algae blooms runoff of uneaten food and effluent
from fish farms.
2. Antibiotics, pesticides and fungicides which are often fed to fish and
often misused to clear the water of other creatures, reduce parasites,
control disease and boost weight gain on severely overcrowded
animals. Antibiotics are not biodegradable and persist in the
surrounding environment threatening wild fish stocks.
3. Habitat destruction More natural bodies of fresh water are converted
into fish farms with the rising demand for fish and therefore, diseases
and pollution from overcrowded fish farms, are often pumped out into
natural waterways, endangering native species.
22

4. Depleting wild fish stocks for feed wild ocean fish are normally
caught and pellets made to feed fish that are being farmed, especially
shrimps. This can be very damaging to ocean habitats. It is estimated
that it takes 2.8 pounds of wild fish to produce one pound of
industrially-produced shrimp.
5. Monoculture and invasive species a major challenge for aquaculture
is the need for fast-growing species that can withstand the conditions
of farms. Monoculture of these fast-growing fish can lead to a
reduction in genetic diversity and make farms susceptible to diseases.

The authors in this study however, limited their research to the shrimp
species. They should have also covered other species like tilapia and catfish
etc. They however contend that more research is needed in order to identify
high-efficiency fish species with higher survival rates and faster growth rates
that may reduce the need for chemicals to sustain profitable production (Ellis
& Turner, 2007).
2.4. Assessing the profitability of fish farming

Information on the economic viability of aquaculture is crucial for investors
when assessing the feasibility of an aquaculture investment (Mwangi, 2007).
The following indicators will be able to give an evaluation of whether an
opportunity such as a new aquaculture investment is worthwhile in the long-
term. In this case, capital budgeting is used (Mwangi, 2007). Popular
methods include net present value (NPV) which is used in the analysis of
the profitability of an investment or project to give an indication of the present
value of future earnings. It is the difference between the future cash flows
and outflows discounted to present value. (Mwangi, 2007) goes on to add
that if the NPV of a prospective project is positive, the project is profitable but
if it is negative, the project should be abandoned. The higher the NPV value,
the more profitable an investment is. The internal rate of return (IRR)
indicates the estimated rate of return that a project is expected to generate to
an investment.
23

Payback period (PBP) is the time required to recover the cost of an
investment though the net cash revenues it generates. It is given as the
investment cost of a project divided by the projects projected annual cash
flows. However, the PBP analysis does not take into consideration cash flow
after the payback period.
The breakeven point (BEP) is also used as an indicator of feasibility of
investments and it describes how much a project must produce to cover for
total costs (Mwangi, 2007).
(Mwangi, 2007) outlines some of the data that would need to be considered
for each investment:
1. Capital investment
Cost of land
Cost of construction of buildings and fish production facilities
Cost of acquisition of equipment and machinery
2. Operational investment
Quantities of inputs used in production
Cost of input of production
Payment of salaries and wages
Cost of taxes, depreciation, permits and licences
Cost of acquisition of financing
3. Operational income that includes
Products and production quantities
Market price of products per unit value of product

The author in this study conducted in Kenya decries the lack of information
for aquaculture investors and indicates that the relevant authorities need to
provide more information on the following for potential investors:
- Aquaculture production by species
- Aquaculture productivity by culture systems
24

- Available fish markets, estimated demand, supply and corresponding
prices offered
- Sources and costs of aquaculture inputs.

This is a view supported by (Okechi, 2004), who states that there are no
reports on the economic evaluation of aquaculture production systems in
Kenya, other than a few case studies on tilapia production. (Okechi, 2004)
emphasises that farmers and investors need a tool to use in determining the
feasibility of aquaculture enterprises and to monitor their performances.
The Literature Review Chapter has looked at various secondary sources that
have covered different aspects of fish farming at different. Areas for further
research are also identified e.g. identification of tools to determine the
feasibility of aquaculture enterprises as identified by Okechi (2004) and the
monitoring of fish farming enterprises.
25

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION

Research is the systematic and rigorous process of enquiry which aims to
describe phenomena and to develop and test explanatory concepts and
theories (Bowling, 2002). This study is going to investigate how the local
community around Kisumu can benefit from fish farming as an economic
activity so as to be economically active and at the same time ensure their
food security. The study will look at the social, economic, cultural and
institutional context within which fish farming is carried out in the Kisumu
County in Kenya. The study will follow the three general research process i.e.
exploration of the situation, collection of data and analysis & interpretation of
results.

The research will therefore look at the following pertinent areas:

1. Are the size and major characteristics of the population studied
described?
2. If a sample is selected, is the method of selecting the sample clearly
described?
3. Is the method of sample selection described one that is likely to result
in a representative, unbiased sample?
4. Are the size and major characteristics of the sample described?
5. Is the sample size sufficient?
6. Are the instruments appropriate for measuring the intended variables?
7. Is the research design appropriate for the study?
8. Are the steps of data collection logical and feasible?
9. Is the method of data analysis appropriate?
10. If some statistical tests are to be used, are they correctly selected?
(Matveev, 2002)

26

3.1. Specific Aims of the study

The specific aims of this study will be to:

i. Establish the link between fish farming and the impact on the
economy of Kisumu.
ii. Gauge attitudes from the community towards fish farming to
establish whether they are satisfied with their fish farming
enterprises.
iii. Consider the position of women in fish farming
iv. Consider long term sustainability

There is no one definition that can best describe research design or imparts
the full range of important aspects. According to (Cooper & Schindler, 2003),
the research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data. (Cooper & Schindler, 2003) define the essentials of
research design as follows:

1. The design is an activity and time-based plan.
2. The design is always based on the research question.
3. The design guides the selection of sources and types of information.
4. The design is a framework for specifying the relationships among the
studys variables.
5. The design outlines procedures for every research activity.

Thus, the design provides answers for questions such as these: what
techniques will be used to gather data? What kind of sampling will be used?
How will time and cost constraints be dealt with?
3.1. Background and Significance of the study

This dissertation is going to investigate how the local community around
Kisumu can benefit from fish farming as an economic activity so as to be
economically active and at the same time ensure their food security. It is
27

envisaged that with fish farming activities, there will added economic
activities related to fish farming e.g. demand for fertiliser, packaging,
transport etc.

3.2. Conceptual Framework

This study will focus on the relationship between fish farming and the
economy of Kisumu County. Prior knowledge and attitudes towards fish
farming will be independent variables and the state of the economy will be
the dependent variable.

The relationship between respondents socio-demographic characteristics
and their prior knowledge and attitudes towards fish farming will be
assessed. Socio-demographic characteristics will include the respondents
age, occupation (whether employed or unemployed), sex, marital status and
level of education. Socio-demographic characteristics will be the independent
variable and the prior knowledge and attitudes towards fish farming will be
the dependent variable.

Figure 3.1: Conceptualised framework among variables (adapted from
Banandan, 2008)
Independent variable Dependent variable












Prior knowledge and attitudes
towards fish farming
What prior knowledge does
the community have on fish
farming?
What is their attitude towards
fish farming?

Socio-demographic
characteristics:
Age
Occupation
Sex
Level of education
Marital status
State of the economy of Kisumu
county
28

3.3. Research methods

A quantitative research approach is proposed for this study. Quantitative
research relies mainly on the collection of quantitative data. The basic
building blocks of quantitative research are variables (something that takes
on different values categories).

Quantitative research is also described as entailing the collection of
numerical data and as exhibiting a view of the relationship between theory
and research as a deductive, a predilection for a natural science approach
(and of positivism in particular) and as having an objectivist conception of
social reality (Bryman, 2004).

The study will examine the effects of economic rewards from fish farming,
their education levels, gender participation, effect of pond area relative to
farm size, role of extension services in the area, and their general satisfaction
levels with their enterprises.

In justifying the research method, the style of reasoning to be applied will
mainly be deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning has largely replaced
inductive reasoning and uses as its basis the establishment of universal laws
(Adams et al. 2007). The authors further state that these universal laws
remain so until one or more of their predictions are found to be false and
therefore the theoretical framework, which derived them needs to be
revisited. However, caution will be taken to guard against some fallacies in
deductive reasoning. This method thus operates from the general to the
specific. Hypotheses are formulated and testing which requires the
application of relevant data may or may not confirm the hypothesis.

(Adams et al 2007) state that there are two important fallacies common with
deductive reasoning (a) affirming the consequent e.g. the fact that one has
built a fish pond, it follows that the venture will be successful or (b) after this
because of this e.g. if members of the community have taken to fish farming
29

automatically there will be a growth in the economy what if the fish farms
do not necessarily contribute to the growth in the economy of the region,
would they be considered a failure?

3.4. Role of the hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and
can be tested by further investigation. For example, the study will want to
establish if there is a relationship between fish farming and the economy of
Kisumu County.

The quantitative research will be designed in order to allow us to test these
hypotheses. The relevant data will be collected and statistical techniques will
be used to decide whether or not to reject or provisionally accept the
hypothesis. Accepting a hypothesis is always provisional since new data may
cause it to be rejected later on.

(Cooper & Schindler, 2003) state that, in research, a hypothesis serves
several important functions, namely:

It guides the direction of the study in this instance, we look at the
state of fish farming and the impact on the economy of Kisumu. We
will look at the social, economic, political, cultural and legal
frameworks in which fish farmers operate in the region.
It identifies facts that are relevant and those are not e.g. does level of
education impact on the success of the fish farms.
It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most
appropriate.
It provides a framework for organising the conclusions that result.

Further, Cooper & Schindler (2003) indicate that a good hypothesis should
be (i) be adequate for its purpose; (ii) testable and (iii) better than its rivals.
30

3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research
Quantitative research involves counting and measuring of events and
performing the statistical analysis of a body of numerical data (Smith, 1988).
The assumption behind the positivist paradigm is that there is an objective
truth existing in the world that can be measured and explained scientifically.
The main concerns of the quantitative paradigm are that measurement is
reliable, valid, and generalizable in its clear prediction of cause and effect
(Cassell & Symon, 1994).
Quantitative research is based upon formulating he research hypotheses and
verifying them empirically on a specific set of data, therefore the researcher's
own values, biases, and subjective preferences have no place in the
quantitative approach.
According to Matveev (2002), the strengths of the quantitative method
include:
It states the research problem in very specific and set terms ;
Clearly and precisely specifies both the independent and the
dependent variables under investigation;
Follows firmly the original set of research goals, arriving at more
objective conclusions, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of
causality;
Achieves high levels of reliability of gathered data due to controlled
observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other form of
research manipulations ;
Eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment; and;
Allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of
research subjects.
The weaknesses of the quantitative method include:
Failure to provide the researcher with information on the context of the
situation where the studied phenomenon occurs;
31

Its inability to control the environment where the respondents provide
the answers to the questions in the survey;
Limited outcomes to only those outlined in the original research
proposal due to closed type questions and the structured format;
It does not encourage the evolving and continuous investigation of a
research phenomenon (Matveev, 2002).

3.6. Types of Survey to be used in study

The study will use an in-person interview which will consists of the
researcher/ interviewer asking the respondent questions in a face-to-face
situation. The interview will take place at the respondent's home or at a place
to be determined and agreed to by both parties.

(Cooper & Schindler, 2003) give the following advantages of using personal
interviews:

There is good cooperation from the respondents.
The interviewer/researcher can answer about the survey and probe
further for answers, use follow up questions and gather information by
observation.
Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached.
Pre-testing can be done in order to ensure that there is a fit with the
population profile.
The researcher can use a computer to enter responses in order to
reduce error and cost.

Personal interviews can there provide flexibility because they can be used to
administer any type of questionnaire - structured questionnaires with
specified but variable questions.

32

Some of the disadvantages of using personal interviews include:

They take a long time to code and analyse data.
They are expensive i.e. cost of printing questionnaires, travelling to meet
respondents etc.
There is need for highly trained interviewers.
Respondents may be spread in a wide geographical area.
Follow up is labour intensive.
Not all respondents are available or accessible.
Some respondents are not willing to talk to strangers in their homes.
Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit.
Questions may be altered or respondents coached by interviewers
(Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
Hence, since the face-to-face interviews will be used, it will be important to
establish rapport with the respondents quickly, after which the data collection
will commence.
1. It enables more complex aspects of a persons experience to be
studied.
2. Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data to be
collected. For example, if I measure depression by asking ten 1-7
scale questions, I can only collect data on these ten things Im
asking about.
3. Not everything can be quantified or quantified easily, and an
advantage of qualitative research is that it can investigate these
things (for example, individual experiences).
4. Individuals can be studied in more depth.
3.7. Data Collection
The information gathering techniques that will be used include questionnaires
which would be completed by face-to-face interviews.
33

The type of information to be asked will include socio-demographic e.g. age,
sex, level of education, occupation (whether employed or unemployed), prior
knowledge of fish farming, interest in fish farming.
Some of the information will be gathered through semi-structured interviews
with the respondents by visiting them in their homes and possibly in
community halls.
3.8. Sampling techniques

Sampling is the next crucial step that will determine the survey to be
conducted and depends on a number of factors:
The first is accuracy; the study will try interview as broad a base of people as
possible and will endeavour to represent a well-balanced cross-section of
society. In the sampling process in this survey, both men and women who
are involved in fish farming will be interviewed.
The sampling will be probability sampling, where each population element is
given a known non-zero change of selection. According to Cooper &
Schindler (2003) the following questions should be borne in mind when using
simple random sampling:
What is the relevant population in this case it will be anyone who is
involved with fish farming
What are the parameters of interest - in this study this will be the
length of time they have been running their fish farms, technical
knowledge of fish farming, support from government (if applicable),
access to markets, access to credit, profile of their customers,
sustainability of their enterprises, the income they derive from fish
farming.
What is the sampling frame i.e. a list would possibly be drawn from
the local authorities of individuals who have fish farms.
34

Sample size this will depend on the number of respondents in the
given area.
Cost travelling, printing of questionnaires etc.
3.9. Methodology

In order to ensure that the questionnaire reaches as many people as
possible, the respondents will be interviewed on a face-to-face basis.
In this way, questions can be explained to the respondents if there are issues
that they do not understand. Judgement can also be made on who is
responding adequately and giving appropriate answers.
In conducting the interviews the following will be borne in mind:

a. The researcher should control his/her reactions. The purpose of the
interview is to find out what views people hold; their views should be
unbiased by evaluative responses on the researchers part.
b. The researcher should choose an interview environment and
conditions in which the participants feel comfortable, secure, and at
ease enough to speak openly about their point of view. In this case,
the interviews will be conducted in the field, where the fish farms are
located.
c. "yes" or "no" questions should be avoided since they tend to stifle
detail.
d. The researcher should be flexible in his or her approach to the
informants.
e. Group interviews can be useful, particularly in initial interviews.
f. The researcher should consider to what degree the interview
questioning can be used to determine further questioning (Key,
2002).
In order to provide identification, the questionnaire has an introductory
section that explains the purpose of the study. If further identification is
35

required, the Student Identification Card from the University of Edinburgh
Napier will be produced if need be.
3.10. Structuring and designing the questionnaire

The questionnaire has been designed to accommodate the face-to-face
interview and the target audience as well.
If there are any questions that the respondents are not familiar with, then
they will be assisted to better understand the questions. The questions are
not very lengthy and there is a combination of rating and multiple choice
questions. If it is too long, then respondents may get bored before completing
the questionnaire. The questionnaire is balanced with probing questions that
gauge the respondents views on different aspects of fish farming such as
income, catch per year, demand for fish, opinions on taste between farmed
fish and fish from the lake, assistance from government and availability of
information.
The study will be done in two stages i.e. there will be a pilot phase where the
questionnaire will be pre-tested on twenty (20) fish farmers. According to
(van Teijlingen & Hundlely, 2001), the aim of the pilot phase is to:
i. Developing and testing adequacy of research instruments.
ii. Assessing the feasibility of a (full-scale) study/survey.
iii. Designing a research protocol.
iv. Assessing whether the research protocol is realistic and workable.
v. Establishing whether the sampling frame and technique are effective.
vi. Assessing the likely success of proposed recruitment approaches.
vii. Identifying logistical problems which might occur using proposed
methods.
viii. Estimating variability in outcomes to help determine sample sizes.
ix. Collect preliminary data.
x. Determine what resources (finance, staff are needed for the planned
study).
36

xi. Assess the proposed data analysis techniques to uncover potential
problems.
xii. Develop a research question and research plan.
xiii. Train field workers in as many elements of the research process as
possible.
(van Teijlingen & Hundlely, 2001) suggest the following pilot study
procedures to improve the internal validity of a questionnaire:

i. administer the questionnaire to pilot subjects in exactly the same
way as it will be administered in the main study.
ii. ask the respondents for feedback to identify ambiguities and
difficult questions.
iii. record the time taken to complete the questionnaire and decide
whether it is reasonable.
iv. discard all unnecessary, difficult or ambiguous questions.
v. assess whether each question gives an adequate range of
responses.
vi. establish that replies can be interpreted in terms of the information
that is required.
vii. check that all questions are answered.
viii. re-word or re-scale any questions that are not answered as
expected.
ix. shorten, revise and, if possible, pilot again.


3.11. Data analysis

The data will be coded, unitized and categorized, according to whether
respondents have prior knowledge of fish farming, their attitude towards fish
farming, socio-demographic categories (age, sex, occupation, employment
status, level of education).

37

3.12. Limitations of the study
This study will be limited to the Kisumu County, with 50 respondents (with
random selection of male and female respondents).
Good research should be valid, important and applicable and it is therefore
important that if the research is to be applicable to a wide variety of settings
then one will want to produce research that is generalisable. Hence validity
and generalisability are two key concepts in research methodology.
Validity will attempt to answer the question whether a piece of research is
valid or not i.e. "is this true?" Answering this question will inevitably involve a
degree of subjective judgement, but by managing the various threats to the
validity to the research, the chances of producing valid work can be
improved. The main threats to validity are chance, bias and confounding.
(Golafshani, 2003) defines reliability as: The extent to which results are
consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population
under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study can be
reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is
considered to be reliable. There will be need for qualifying check or measure
for this research. This will be achieved through pre-testing of the
questionnaire. Once the pre-test is complete, we will then get a clearer
picture of how the questionnaire will be completed for the larger survey.

3.13. Ethics in research

Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research
participants must be our top priority. The research question is always of
secondary importance. This means that if a choice must be made between
doing harm to a participant and doing harm to the research, it is the research
that is sacrificed. Fortunately, choices of that magnitude rarely need to be
made in qualitative research! But the principle must not be dismissed as
irrelevant, or we can find ourselves making decisions that eventually bring us
38

to the point where our work threatens to disrupt the lives of the people we are
researching.

The Code of Practice as prepared by Edinburgh Napier University is intended
to promote high standards of ethical awareness and behaviour on the part of
those undertaking research associated with the University, whether staff or
students, involving human subjects. It seeks to provide assurances to the
subjects of such research, and to representatives of the organisations with
which they are associated, that their rights and welfare are of paramount
concern, thereby protecting its standards of research governance
(www.napier.ac.uk, 2007)

The following five (5) Cs of ethics will be taken into account:
1. Confidentiality of the respondents their identity, organisation, age,
should be kept secret from other respondents. Because qualitative
research is conversational, it is important for data collectors to maintain
clear boundaries between what they are told by participants and what
they tell to participants. Conversation is a social act that requires give and
take. In qualitative research, a lot of information is taken from participants
and therefore, there can be a strong need to give similar information in
return (Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide,
2005). People also enjoy talking about what they hear and learn and
researchers are no different. It may be tempting to pass along seemingly
inconsequential information from one participant to another for example,
a funny statement or some news that appears to be common knowledge.
This should be avoided. People can become upset and untrusting about
even seemingly trivial comments being shared, especially if they have
divulged very personal information and grow concerned that you will
divulge more.
There may be some situations will require unique strategies. The ways in
which confidentiality might be breached should be carefully considered
39

before data collection begins and explicit strategies be put in place for
protection.
2. Coercion caution must be taken against coercing respondents into
participating in the study.
3. Consent must be sought from the respondents before embarking on the
interviews etc. Respondents must be told what is expected of them,
including what they must do.
4. Care the risks and benefits of the study must be shared with
respondents. Care must be taken if there are elderly or sick people
involved. The dignity of the respondents must take preference and they
should not exploited in any way or simply used for the purposes of
conducting the survey.
5. Communication to ensure that all communication is clear and that there
is no ambiguity. Respondents must receive copies of informed consent
form and must be informed of the outcome of the study.

In this study, since face-to-face interviews will be used, the respondents will
be informed about:
a. the purpose of the research.
b. what is expected of a research participant, including the amount of time
likely to be required for participation.
c. expected risks and benefits, including psychological and social.
d. the fact that participation is voluntary and that one can withdraw at any
time with no negative repercussions.
e. how confidentiality will be protected.
f. the name and contact information of the local lead investigator to be
contacted for questions or problems related to the research.
g. the name and contact information of an appropriate person to contact
with questions about ones rights as a research participant.

This information will be provided in a language and at an educational level
that the respondents can understand. Potential respondents will be allowed
40

to decide if they want to participate in the survey and will not be coerced or
unduly influenced to take part in the survey. Oral consent in this case will be
sought from the respondents.

3.14. Conclusion

According to (Cooper & Schindler, 2003), good research generates
dependable data, derived by practices that are conducted professionally and
can be used reliably for making decisions. Therefore, the purpose of the
research must be clearly defined, the research design thoroughly planned,
high ethical standards applied, limitations frankly revealed, adequate analysis
done for the decision makers needs, findings must be presented
unambiguously and conclusions justified.
41

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS

Introduction

This chapter discusses the findings for the research that was conducted in
the Kano area in the Kolwa and Kisumu East constituencies, which are both
located in Kisumu County in Western Kenya. The research involved face-to-
face interviews with the respondents in their homesteads.

Most of the respondents were identified by the local Fisheries Officer based
in Kisumu because they are part of the Economic Stimulus Plan that was set
in motion by the Kenyan government in 2009. They have received the same
training or information from the government as beneficiaries of a government
sponsored program under the Economic Stimulus Plan.

Some of the homesteads were referred to the researcher by the boda boda
cyclists who are based in the area. Boda boda bicyles are the most
common form of transport in the rural areas in Kenya. The boda boda
cyclists proved to be a mine of information as they transport a lot of people in
the village and are aware of homesteads that have fish ponds.

The research findings are presented using frequency tables, charts and
percentages. Confidence intervals have also been calculated for some of the
parameters that were surveyed during the study.
4.1. Piloting the questionnaire

The questionnaire, which has a total of 45 questions, was piloted among 10
fish farmers in the area of Kisumu East. Whilst talking to these respondents,
it was discovered that most of the fish farmers have only just began on their
fish farming ventures, therefore they could only offer opinions on some of the
questions e.g. Question 20 which asks how much income they generate from
sales.
42

Some questions also had to be modified and made more relevant to the
information that was being sought e.g. Question Number 34 (ranking
questions) was modified and respondents were asked to rate their opinions
on the different questions asked. Question Number 44 (5) was also modified
as follows: I have not yet benefitted from fish farming. This is because most
fish farmers are only just starting their ventures.
A third option of Not yet was added onto Question 26, which sought to find
out the opinion of fish farmers on the issue of availability of credit.
Table 4.1: Demographics of respondents
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENT
AGE
20-29 yrs 3 6.8
30-39 yrs 10 22.7
40-49 yrs 11 25.0
50+ yrs 20 45.5
GENDER
Male 37 84.1
Female 6 13.6
LEVEL OF EDUCATION
Primary 6 13.6
Secondary 14 31.8
Polytechnic 6 13.6
University 15 34.1
Other 3 6.8
MARITAL STATUS
Single 6 13.6
Married 32 72.7
Divorced/Separated 6 13.6
NUMBER OF CHILDREN
<=5 24 54.5
6-10 19 43.2

As is evident from the findings of the study, the majority of respondents are
men (84%) but this does not mean that there are no women involved in fish
farming. As most respondents are married and due to cultural factors, it is the
men who take it upon themselves to respond to queries about any ventures
that are undertaken by their households. Further, Kenya is still a very
43

patriarchal society and men are still regarded as the heads of households.
Thus most married respondents run the fish farms with their wives but the
men are still considered the spokespersons of the households.
Majority of respondents are also above 50 years old (45.5%), with tertiary
levels of education, and are nearing retirement age. The mandatory
retirement age in Kenya is 55 years, therefore, it is assumed that most
respondents would consider fish farming as an activity to undertake post
retirement.
4.2. Findings on the economic aspects of fish farming
4.2.1. Land
Most of the land on which the fish farms are located is in the rural area. It is
important to note that most of the land in rural Kenya is ancestral land.
Ancestral land was never sold before for commercial purposes. It was
inherited from one generation to the next. It is only recently that people have
come to appreciate the value of land that they have started selling ancestral
land.

During the research it was observed that all the fish ponds measured about
the same size i.e. 300
2
feet and a depth of 3.5 slope to 4.5 feet. All farmers
who benefited from the Economic Stimulus Programme of the Government of
Kenya, received 1000 fingerlings as a start-up. In some areas, there are
Extension Officers who hold regular seminars and workshops to train and
advise the fish farmers on how to care for their ponds and fingerlings. In
other areas, this is totally non-existent. These extension services are
provided free of charge and the farmers were supposed to reinvest their
earnings from proceeds they get from the fish farming. Inputs in terms of
feeds are readily available and accessible. However, the farmers have to pay
for them.
44

4.2.2. Labour
Most of the fish farmers (approximately 66%) run their own fish farms.
However, the fish ponds were dug by youth around the village, following the
introduction of the Economic Stimulus Plan by the Kenyan Government in
2009.

About 53% of the respondents are involved in fish farming as suppliers of
fingerlings. The rest are involved in supplying fish feed as indicated in the
table below.

Table 4.2: Respondents' level of involvement in fish farming
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENT
Supplier of feed 9 47.4
Supplier of fingerlings 10 52.6


As indicated below, most respondents run the fish farms on their own, while
others get their spouses to assist in running the fish farms. About 28% of the
respondents employ other people to assist them because they still hold day
jobs, most of them as teachers in the area.
Figure 4.1: Level of assistance with fish farming
0
20
40
60
80
Category
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
Run on own
Spouse helps
Employ others

In terms of laws governing fish farming, approximately 34% of fish farmers
indicated that they were aware of laws governing fish farming in the area.
Approximately 55% indicated that they were not aware of these laws and the
45

remaining 11% indicated that they would like to be made aware of these
laws.
Respondents also gave the following feedback on how they took care of their
fish farms:
Table 4.3: Inputs into fish farming
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENT
DISPOSAL OF WATER
Irrigation 40 95.2%
Release of water into
river
2 4.8%
FOOD THAT IS FED TO THE FINGERLINGS
Chicken feed 41 95.3%
Algae 1 2.3%
IS THE SUPPLY OF FOOD SUSTAINABLE
Yes 38 86.4%
No 5 11.4%
SOURCE OF FERTILISER/FEED
Local sources 35 79.5%
From town 7 15.9%
Suppliers come to the
fish farms
2 4.5%

The majority of respondents (70.5%) disposed of the waste from their ponds
through recycling the solids and used them as fertiliser on their farms; 22.7%
drained the waste into nearby rivers and 6.8% disposed of the waste water
through the municipal waste system.
4.2.3. Capital

Majority of the respondents (66%) obtained start-up capital from the
Economic Stimulus Programme, while 27% used their own funds to start their
fish farming business. The rest (4%) raised money from the banks and 2%
obtained loans from the cooperatives/micro-lending schemes. Majority of
respondents (98%) grow tilapia, with a minority (2%) growing mudfish.

46

The respondents also rated the inputs into their fish farms in relation to the
profit realised as follows:

Table 4.4: Inputs into fish farming in relation to profits realised
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENT
Very high 15 34.1%
High 13 29.5%
Neutral 16 36.4%

Some of the respondents cited lack of credit facilities because most of them
are on the second cycle of their fish ponds. They indicated that this was a
real problem since they have to buy feed for their fingerlings. The
Governments Economic Stimulus Plan only gave them the start-up funds
and has not yet addressed issues of sustainability. This could explain the
closed fish ponds and the perceived lack of interest on the part of some fish
farmers.
Majority of the respondents are still on the start-up stage and are yet to
realize their first harvest. They were then only able to give their opinions on
certain questions as opposed to those who were on their second or third
harvest. Hence, they were unable to answer some questions accurately as
some questions would apply to experienced farmers.
Among the respondents, about 21% indicated that fish farming was their
main source of income. The rest of the respondents (77%) still hold other
jobs and do fish farming as a supplementary source of income.
Their responses are depicted in the table below.

Table 4.5: Fish farming as a source of income
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
Yes 9 20.5
No 34 77.3
47



About 75% of the respondents indicated that they did not have to give up
another business to start on fish farming. This could be attributed to the
Economic Stimulus Plan from the Government of Kenya because they were
receiving financial and material support as opposed to raising their own funds
to start a business.
In terms of demand, the respondents indicate that there was a ready market
for the fish in the region given that the level of captured fish stocks from Lake
Victoria has dwindled considerably. The price of fish is determined by market
forces and there seems to be general consensus on the price of fish.
However, there were comments from some consumers who indicated that
they did not like the taste of fish that was grown in the ponds, but there is no
evidence to confirm that farmed fish is less nutritious or tastier than captured
fish.
About 52% of respondents were not aware of their customers spending
habits, while 46% were aware of their customer spending habits. Further,
66% of their customers paid cash while about 34% took the fish on credit.
About 91% of the respondents indicated that fish farming was a profitable
business to engage in and would recommend it to others. 9% of the
respondents felt that fish farming was not profitable and hence the fish ponds
that were closed down. The fish farmers who closed down their fish ponds
felt that they did not enjoy government support in their ventures. The impact
of fish farming on the lives of fish farmers is depicted below:
48


Figure 4.2: Impact of fish farming on the lives of fish farmers

The respondents also indicated that the demand for fish is at acceptable
levels as depicted in the table below. This indicates that there is good
potential for fish farming in the area, which has impacted positively on the
lives of those who have been engaged in fish farming for a while.
Table 4.6: Demand for fish
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
Very high 19 45.2
High 8 42.9
Moderate 5 11.9
From the study, the respondents indicated that the price of fish is determined
by the prevailing market price.

Table 4.7: How the price of fish is set by the fish farmers
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
Prevailing Market
price
38 86.4
Arbitrary 5 11.4


This question sought to gauge the views of consumers with regard to farmed
fish as compared to fish that is captured from the lake. The answers were
49

ranked from 1 to 5, with 1 being the category of Strongly agree and 5 being
the category of Strongly disagree.

The graph below represents the confidence level that was calculated for this
question. The confidence interval, which is a range of values used to
estimate the true value of a population parameter, was calculated for this
parameter. The confidence interval provides a range of values which is likely
to contain the parameter of interest (SEMATECH, 2006).

It is evident that the consumers feel that the supply of fish is not as
dependable as it should be. This could be attributed to the fact that most of
the fish farmers have only just started their ventures and only a few have
made their first harvest.
On the other aspects of the supply of fish, price of fish, taste of farmed fish,
there is no significant deviation from the 2.5 mark, which is considered the
neutral position when calculating confidence intervals. The chart below
summarises the views of the consumers on fish from the ponds.
Figure 4.3: Consumers views on fish from ponds

Approximately 91% of the respondents concur that fish farming is profitable
and would be willingly recommend it to other potential fish farmers. Further,
50

the fingerlings are readily available to those who wish to engage in fish
farming. The other 9% indicate that they have not yet profited from their
ventures and actually closed their ponds. They cite lack of support from
government, sabotage, predators, among other reasons for closing down
their fish ponds.

The respondents also indicated that overall their lives have improved since
they started their fish farming ventures.
Table 4.8: Impact on livelihoods of fish farmers since they started on their
ventures
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
I have not yet benefitted from
fish farming
16 36.4%
I have been able to take care
of my familys finances
14 31.8%
We are no longer worried
about food insecurity
10 22.7%
I can employ people on my
fish farm
3 6.8%
Our health has improved 1 2.3%


As is evident from the above results, majority of the fish farmers are still in
the start-up phase of their ventures. Further, 31.8% of the respondents have
indicated that they have been able to take care of their familys finances,
which is an indication that fish farming has the potential to impact positively
on the lives of fish farmers.

With regard to technical information on fish farming, the majority of
respondents (56.8%) indicated that they felt well informed on the technical
aspects of fish farming. 38.6% felt that they did not have adequate
information on fish farming. Among the reasons cited for lack of information
are tabulated below:
51

Table 4.9: Reasons for lack of information on fish farming
CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
Lack of support from
government
18 46.2%
No resources to read from 11 28.2%
Resources not readily
available in the area
10 25.6%

For the respondents who had access to information, the following sources
(with the confidence interval) were calculated. The question sought to gauge
the fish farmers attitudes to the various sources of information indicated
below. A rating scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being Not at all important and 5 being
Extremely important.

Figure 4.4: Sources of information for fish farmers

Figure 4.4 above depicts the various sources of information for the fish
farmers in the Kisumu County. Since 2.5 is the neutral position when
calculating the confidence level, it is evident that there is a real need for
farmers to obtain information on fish farming from training courses, family,
wider social networks, local authorities, radio and television.
The respondents feel that the government can provide the following
interventions as indicated below:
52

Table 4.10: Ways in which the authorities can assist fish farmers

CATEGORY FREQUENCY VALID PERCENTAGE
Provide irrigation 34 87.2%
Provide technical advice on fish
farming
31 70.5%
Provide credit 10 22.7%
Eradication of threat on
fingerlings e.g. birds, theft,
sabotage
3 7.7%
Provide education on fish farming 2 5.1%
Facilitating the marketing of fish 2 4.5%
On the issue of credit, the majority of respondents (61%) indicated that credit
is readily available. Those who belong to cooperatives are able to obtain
loans from the cooperatives and because some respondents are still
employed, they are able to repay these loans. Those who do not belong to
cooperatives may not able to get loans due to lack of collateral required to
obtain the loans.
4.3. Administrative Boundaries

In the interaction with the respondents, there were a few interesting pointers
that explained why some fish farmers in neighbouring constituencies were
not being supported in their fish farming ventures.
In the area where the research was being conducted, there is a small
constituency called Kolwa East that does not enjoy government support
whilst the constituency that that is on the opposite side of the road (Nyando)
enjoys full government support from the Extension Officers. This came up
during conversation with the fish farmers.
The reasons given by the fish farmers were related to areas of jurisdiction of
the Extension officers who indicate that if an area is not under their
responsibility, then they will not go to that area. Further, the infrastructure in
Kolwa East is not very conducive, i.e. the roads are bad and the roads
53

become impassable when it rains. It is also a flood prone area. When talking
to the farmers, one could clearly pick up the political undertones as regards
development in the area. The feeling of the fish farmers was that their
constituency was not a priority for government.
4.4. Threats to fish farming
The threats to fish farming as identified by the farmers are indicated below:
Death of fingerlings due to overstocking of fish pond, overfeeding,
water pollution, disease, natural mortality, pesticides, organic pollution,
etc.
Birds
Tortoises
Theft
Malice and sabotage from competing farmers. This is a really crucial
issue in the area. From experience, the researcher had to produce
proper identification as the fish farmers indicated that there have been
cases of people posing as bogus researchers only to come and
sabotage other peoples fish ponds. In one instance, a fish farmer lost
all his fingerlings as someone placed cow dung into his pond. Further,
since the interviews were held within respondents homesteads, it is
understandable that they would need to take the necessary
precaution.
Lack of Water due to drought. Most of the fish farms were located near
water sources but due to prevailing drought, water has become a
problem in the area. All respondents said that their number one
concern was water. A few lucky ones have rivers passing near their
homes and farms. With the exception of a few farmers who breed
mudfish and catfish, all farmers interviewed breed tilapia and tilapia
require occasional change of water. Water change means that ponds
are drained and replenished with fresh water. The respondents
conceded that water is a source of conflict among neighbours as
common water points have been dug up for domestic use and fish
54

farmers use the same water for their farms. This adds to an increase
in demand for water, which is considered a scarce commodity.
Lack of fish farming expertise as most fish farmers are still employed
(e.g. some are teachers, factory workers, small scale farmers), they
have not taken ample time to read on fish farming. They seem to have
the basics in place but when talking to them, it is evident that they
need to be more knowledgeable on the subject of fish farming.
In Kisumu East, there were a total of 63 ponds but 6 to 7 ponds had dried up.
Upon investigation, it was discovered that there was general lack of interest
in fish farming. Though the farmers could not come out and say this openly,
one could read from their comments that they would rather concentrate on
poultry farming and other small scale farming. This is because they felt that
information on poultry and other small scale farming is more readily available.
About half the respondents said that they have attended seminars/workshops
or have received invitations from government officials from the Ministry of
Fisheries to attend seminars/workshops as regards fish farming. Other than
this and visits from Extension Officers, the fish farmers have to rely on their
own ways of getting information about fish farming. Majority of fish farmers
indicate that the information they have is very scanty. Information might be
on the internet but many farmers do not have easy access to computers or
internet and may also require computer skills.

The challenges faced by the fish farmers can be summarised below where
the confidence interval has been calculated. Some of the challenges faced
by farmers are indicated below.

55

Figure 4.5: Challenges faced by fish farmers in Kisumu County


Most farmers are also small scale dairy and poultry farmers and cultivate
their lands for crop production. They say it is easier to get information about
poultry and dairy farming than obtaining information about fish farming. From
the confidence interval that was calculated, it is evident that lack of land,
pollution and technological support from government are areas of concern for
the fish farmers. As all the ponds are dug within the homesteads, land for
expansion of these ventures poses a challenge. The homesteads in the
Kisumu County are typical traditional homesteads, where families build their
huts and still share the same land for subsistence farming, burial and of late,
the building of fish ponds.

From the study, the fish farmers have cited the lack of technological
information from the Extension Officers with regards to running their
ventures. They also cited lack information on how to dispose of waste from
their fish farms.

56

4.5. Emerging issues

Some of the emerging issues that the farmers brought out during our
interaction include:
1. Lack of credit facilities from government most of the fish farmers
who are on the second cycle of their fish ponds intimated that this
was a real problem since they have to buy feed for their fingerlings.
The governments Economic Stimulus Plan only gave them the
start-up funds and has not yet addressed issues of sustainability.
This could explain the closed fish ponds and the perceived lack of
interest on the part of some fish farmers.
2. Security of fish ponds most of the fish farmers operate in the
same area therefore, issues of competition among fish farmers is a
real issue that has to be addressed. Some farmers in Nyando
District also indicated that some people felt that farmed fish did not
have the same taste as fish from the lake! In these instances, one
would find sabotage among the fish farmers which would impact
negatively on their enterprises. Other prey such as birds, tortoises
etc, also pose a danger to the fingerlings. With enhanced security,
the fish farmers would be able to run their fish farms smoothly.
3. Limited government support at the initial stages, Extension
Officers were available to fish farmers to provide support but as
time goes by, there seems to be less support from government.
Most fish farmers are also thinking of forming cooperatives,
through which to sell their fish.
4.6. Conclusion

This chapter has highlighted the pertinent issues that were observed and
recorded during the study. Overall, this was a really positive experience.
Many of the farmers are really positive about the industry and feel that if
some of the issues e.g. access to credit, access to markets, information on
57

fish farming, are addressed, then they could have successful and sustainable
ventures.
58

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSIONS

This study has noted that fish farming has great potential for the economy of
a region. Fish farming is also a source of ensuring food security in the
region. Therefore, in order for fish farmers to gain fully from their fish farming
ventures, it is important that the constraints that were identified in the study
are addressed appropriately. The purpose of this Chapter is therefore to
make recommendations on how to address the constraints that were
identified during the survey. Areas for further research with regard to the
impact of fish farming on the economy of a region are also outlined in this
chapter.

5.1. Review of the findings

From the outset, this study had the following objectives:
1. Establish the link between fish farming and the impact on the economy
of Kisumu.
2. Gauge attitudes from the community towards fish farming to establish
whether they will buy in to the idea of fish farming.
3. Gauge the impact of the economic stimulus plan that was put in place
by the Government of Kenya in 2009 on the fish farmers.
The study has revealed that there is potential in fish farming as indicated by
the responses from the fish farmers. Though challenges exist, these can be
overcome with sustainable and proper support from Government through the
provision of education and technological support. It is encouraging to note
that those farmers who have had their first harvest are able to report some
financial benefit from fish farming. This has improved their standard of living
and taken care of their financial needs. This also has a potential positive
impact on ensuring food security in the area.
59

Chapter 2 The study also identified the threats that pose a challenge
to the fish farmers e.g. predators, sabotage from fellow fish farmers,
lack of land, lack of finance, lack of information, lack of credit
facilities. These challenges can be mitigated if the Government takes
a more active role in the Economic Stimulus Programme, through
monitoring and evaluating the fish farmers who have been sponsored
through this programme.

5.2. Validity and reliability
Validity is used to determine whether research measures what it intended to
measure and to approximate the truthfulness of the results. In quantitative
research testing for validity and reliability is a given (University of the West of
England, 2006). However, there is need for some qualifying checks or
measures in the work that is undertaken. One cannot disregard validity in
order to ensure that the work produced is trustworthy and that people can put
confidence in its results. Validity and reliability make the difference between
good and bad research reports. Quality research depends on a
commitment to testing and increasing the validity as well as the reliability of
research results (University of the West of Engand 2006).
Any worthwhile research is concerned with whether what is being measured
is what is intended to be measured and considers the ways in which
observations are influenced by the circumstances in which they are made.
The basis of how conclusions are arrived at, is important in assisting to
address the pertinent issues of any study.
In this study, a pilot study was conducted which allowed for the revision of
the questionnaire. This enabled the respondents to respond to the actual
questions that were relevant to their situation.

This also ensured that the questionnaire was able to provide the same result
as questions that needed clarification and were dealt with appropriately.
Hence, the questionnaire was deemed to be reliable and was able to provide
60

the results that were sought in terms of face, content and construct validity, in
line with the hypotheses that were set out for this study.

5.3. Lack of technical information

Lack of technical information was cited by most respondents as a major issue
during the study. Since most of the respondents are beneficiaries of the
Economic Stimulus Programme from the Government, it follows that the
Extension Officers from the Ministry of Fisheries are responsible for
disseminating technical information to the fish farmers. However, this
information is not forthcoming as it should as some Extension Officers do not
want to go to areas that are not under their jurisdiction. Further, some
Extension Officers do not go to the fish farmers as often as they should and
this may impact negatively on their fish farming operations.

According to Mwangi, (2008), setting up an aquaculture business should be
taken seriously and requires detailed feasibility study before it is undertaken.
The author cites the two most important decisions to make as site selection
and species selection. The suitability of the site is very important and the
following factors are should be taken into account:

5.3.1. Site selection

The proposed site should be suitable for aquaculture. Consideration
should be given to former land use, agricultural activities in
surrounding areas, accessibility and migratory birds (Wurts, 2011).
Wurts (2011) further indicates that new ground may contain roots and
stumps which make operation of earth moving equipment difficult.
The presence of roots or stumps in pond levees are likely to create
leaks. If the site was previously used for crops that required heavy
pesticide or herbicide applications, there may be too much toxic
residue in the soil for fish production. Likewise, wind drift from
extensive aerial applications of pesticides or herbicides on neighboring
61

farms could result in the loss of a fish crop. While this aspect was not
observed directly from the study, it is an important point to bear in
mind when selecting the site for a fish farm. Finally, birds are likely to
be a problem (e.g. migratory bird refuges and wintering grounds)
(Wurts, 2011). Birds of prey and other predatory animals were cited as
some of the challenges that the fish farmers are facing currently.
The site should be well drained and well above flood-prone areas.
There should be sufficient and good quality water supply.
The site should have good all-weather market access
The site should not occupy a natural water course.
The site should be in an area with easy access to fertilizer, fingerlings
and fish feed.
The site should be in an area that has suitable climate for the species
intended for production (Mwangi, 2008).

Once construction is complete, fish farmers still need further mentorship in
terms of their methods, infrastructure and systems in order to optimize their
production.
5.3.2. Selection of species

The species to be selected should be suited to the local climate extremes
and preferably native to the area. It is important that established and reliable
rearing techniques are known and readily accessible for the intended species
(Mwangi, 2008).
Other factors to consider would be the natural life cycle of the species in
order to tend to them appropriately. This would also that the fish are not
overcrowded, overfed and that the water quality provided is suitable. If these
factors are not taken into account, it may lead to the death of the fingerlings,
reduced growth (Mwangi, 2008). Further, the fish may fall prey to disease
and knowing the species chosen may provide knowledge on how the
resistant the fingerlings are to disease. The preventive measures against
likely diseases should be known and the methods of their treatment.
62

Fish farmers should also be assisted to keep proper records of the growth of
the fingerlings, how to manage problem situations, what variables to collect,
how the record them and how to interpret the charts correctly. This provides
them with an opportunity to develop and refine the necessary fish farming
skills to manage their fish farms optimally. These steps will assist in reducing
the risks associated with fish farming and secure the financial success of the
business.
Another consideration is the market for the product - there has to be a market
for the product and preferably the fish should be a known consumer good
(Aquafarmer, 2004). It is costly to launch a new product into an unknown
market. The fish farmer has to get adequate returns for covering his costs
and more, since the farming of fish can be considered relatively risky
business and therefore there has to be a return on investment. The market
must be able to absorb some production volume without great changes in the
market price due to variable supply. Competition from other producers must
be considered, as well as a seasonal availability of wild fish of the farmed
species (Aquafarmer, 2004).
5.4. Lack of credit facilities

From the study, approximately 61% of respondents indicated that they had
easy access to credit facilities, while about 32% indicated that they did not
have easy access to credit, while the remaining 7% had not yet tried to
access credit facilities. This could be attributed to the fact that they run micro-
enterprises but more so, because they do not belong to cooperatives or
micro-credit organisations. It is important to note that the cooperative
movement in Kenya has a long history, dating back to Kenyas independence
in the mid-1960s. The movement is supposed to play an important role in
wealth creation, food security and employment generation and hence
participate in poverty alleviation (Gunga, 2008). A cooperative can therefore
be described as an association of persons who have come together with a
common purpose of pooling their resources together for mutual economic
63

and social benefit. According to the Ministry of Cooperative Development and
Marketing of the Government of Kenya, the seven cooperative principles are:

Open and voluntary membership
Autonomy and independence
Democratic member control
Economic participation of members
Education, information and training
Co-operation among cooperatives
Concern for community (Ministry of Cooperative Development and
Marketing: Welcome Note, 2011)

The Cooperative movement in Kenya is, therefore, an important player in the
social economic development of this country. Cooperatives cut across all
sectors of the economy and provide an important framework for mobilization
of both human and capital resources. With a membership of over 8 million in
13,000 registered cooperative societies, the Sacco sub sector, in particular,
has mobilized over Kenya Shillings (Kshs) 230 Billion (Ministry of
Cooperative Development and Marketing: Welcome Note, 2011).
From the study, one problem that was identified among the fish farmers was
sabotage among the fish farmers. If farmers are encouraged to join
cooperatives in their areas, some of these issues can be addressed since the
fish farmers will have a common goal of producing fish and marketing for
their common good, as opposed to perceiving fellow fish farmers as
competition.
This chapter has dealt with the major recommendations pertaining to this
study. Evidently, if these measures are put in place and the fish farmers
supported appropriately in their ventures, food security and the economy of
the region will be greatly enhanced.
64

5.5. CONCLUSIONS

After careful analysis, this study was able to:

Discuss fish farming in rural Kenya and review how other authors have
dealt with the issue of fish farming and its economic impact on regions
Analyse the different factors affecting fish farming
Carry out an in-depth survey regarding fish farming and its impact on
the livelihoods of farmers in the Kisumu area
Provide some recommendations on how to mitigate the problem areas
that confront the fish farmers in their fish farming ventures

The exploitation of the worlds fishing stocks is ever increasing with the
population increase and the growing need for food (Kareem, et al 2008).
They further stated that already many of the fish stocks are being depleted or
even in danger of extinction. At the time that the worlds total fish catch has
stagnated or only slightly increased the farming of fish and other marine
species has been steadily growing. Already the farming of fish is an important
trade the world over, with the production of freshwater species dominating
and farming of marine species increasing in recent years. It can be expected
that this development will continue and aquaculture will be of growing
importance in the procurement and production of fish.
Aquaculture has a long history in many parts of the world but despite 40
years of research and development, and hundreds of millions of dollars
spent, aquaculture is struggling to realize its high biophysical potential in
Africa (Brummer & Williams, 2000). They further stated that, hampered by
ineffective institutional arrangements and donor-driven projects, the
substantial gains in desperately needed food security and economic growth
predicted by development agencies have generally not been achieved.
Nevertheless, African aquaculture has demonstrated its competitiveness,
producing fishes that feed low on the food chain in a range of well-adapted,
environmentally friendly and profitable farming systems that meet the needs
of a broad spectrum of user-groups.
65

The authors, as in the study conducted, have identified the key constraints to
broader growth as - lack of good quality seed, feed and technical advice;
poor market infrastructure and access; and weak policies that, rather than
accelerate, impede expansion, largely by emphasizing central planning over
private sector initiative. Brummer & Williams (2000) call upon governments
to facilitate the alleviation of key constraints and rely more heavily on
commercial investments to lead future growth.
Fish farmers should be encouraged to adopt a pragmatic business approach
focusing on small and medium-scale private enterprises, which would
produce more benefits for more people than centrally planned and
government led development projects.
Further, credit facilities, public enlightenment programmes and provision of
social amenities like feeder roads, pipe-born water etc., should be provided
to fish farmers in order to improve the level of efficiency and investment
which shall eventually lead to growth in output of fish farming and a lead to
the establishment of agro-allied industries in the state (Brummer & Williams,
2000).
Pillay & Kutty, (2005) stated that the rationale of aquaculture is not limited
merely to socio-economic and marketing advantages but is also related to
scientific principles that weigh very much in favour of aquatic farming of fish.
It is a relatively efficient means of producing animal protein which can
compare favourably with poultry, pork, and beef in economies of production,
when appropriate techniques and appropriate species are adopted.
Because of its possible role in improving foreign trade, many countries are
now offering incentives including financial support for aquaculture, in several
instances especially in developing countries, the newly established
supporting industries have already brought in economic gains to the
communities concerned.
66

It is important for countries to have a national plan, defining objectives,
policies and strategies that are most suited for achieving the selected goals
and targets.
From this study, it can be concluded that aquaculture has an important role in
the following aspects:
increasing food production especially of animal proteins and achieving
self- sufficiency in aquatic product supplies;
producing food near consuming centres in rural areas thus
contributing to improvement in human nutrition;
supplementing or replacing capture fishery production of over-
exploited fish stocks;
generating new sources of employment in rural areas, including part
time employment of farmers and small scale fishermen and arresting
the migration of people from rural to urban areas;
providing overall development of rural areas through integrated
projects;
if done on a large scale, fish farming has the potential to earn foreign
exchange through export or saving foreign exchange through import
substitution;
using waste lands productively and using organic waste for food
production and environmental management;
promoting agro-industrial development which could include processing
and marketing of fishery products, feeds and equipment for
aquaculture.
5.6. ISSUES EMERGING FROM THE STUDY
5.6.1. Gender issues in fish farming

It is evident from the study that there is no equitable representation of women
among the respondents. As indicated in Chapter 4, Kenya is still a male-
dominated society and the same applies to the fishing industry. This view is
supported by Bene and Merten (2008), who indicated that historically, fishing
67

has always been perceived as a male-dominated sector where women have
largely remained invisible, generally positioned in secondary roles related to
kinship, social organisation, household production, and the gender division of
labour.
In this study, even though, most men claim that their spouses assist them in
their fish farming ventures, women are still very passive in their involvement
in fish farming. To mitigate this problem, the Chiefs and Headmen can
sensitise the local communities to improve the involvement of women in fish
farming. Women could be involved in fish processing, packaging and other
related activities. Women should be supported with the requisite technical
information and skills so that they can engage fully in fish farming.
5.6.2. Sustainability of the fish farming ventures

The majority of respondents in the study are supported by the Government of
Kenya, through the Economic Stimulus Plan. Most of the fish farmers are still
in their first cycle of fish farming and are yet to realise their first harvest. In
the Economic Stimulus Plan, the Government provided each fish farmer with
1000 fingerlings, Kenya Shillings 30,000.00 and constructed a pond for each
fish farmer.
In order for fish farming to be a sustainable venture in the region, it is crucial
that the government provide information to the fish farmers, beyond the initial
support that they received. The need for relevant technical information by the
fish farmers cannot be emphasised enough. The fish farmers need to be
educated on which species are best suited to their sites, how to care for the
fingerlings and weigh them, how to care for the ponds and dispose of waste
from their fish farmers. Fish farmers need to be provided with support which
could be in the form of marketing channels, improvement of infrastructure,
information provision, loans and provision of larger parcels of land for fish
farming.
Apart from the Government, commercial banks could also be encouraged to
assist fish farmers with grants and loans for inputs such as feed, fertiliser,
68

purchase of land and knowledge acquisition etc. They could also assist the
fish farmers develop business plans so that their ventures are run along
business lines and hence, ensure their viability.
5.6.3. Environmental issues

While fish farming is capable of significant development and may contribute
to poverty alleviation, its dependence on natural resources, and its potential
for placing greater demands on these, may place it in direct competition and
possible conflict with other demands, whether the utilisation or orientation
around conservation.
In this study, most fish farms are located within homesteads and as a result,
people are exposed to pesticides, fertilisers, etc., that are used in the ponds.
Among the environmental problems as identified Madgy, et al (2006) include:
Waste and nutrient loadings;
Degradation of terrestrial environments due to salinisation of soils,
excessive clearing of protective cover to make room for fish ponds;
Social/amenity disturbance e.g. visual, noise and activity disruptions.
The above issues need to be explored further in order to contribute to the
growth and development of fish farming in the Kisumu County.
5.7. Suggested topics for future research in fish farming

Based on the findings of this survey, the following issues need to be
investigated further. These include:

1. The impact of the Economic Stimulus Programme on the fish farmers
in Kisumu County.
2. The environmental impact of digging fish ponds in homesteads.
3. The impact on the health of fish farmers in the area as a result of fish
farming activities.
69

4. The social impact on the community as a result of fish farming in the
area.
5. The long term impact of fish farming on communities.
70

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73

APPENDIX 1 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

FISH FARMING AS A MEANS OF BOOSTING THE ECONOMY OF
KISUMU, KENYA
I am currently undertaking a study to determine how fish farming can
contribute to the growth of the economy of Kisumu. Apart from regular fishing
and other economic activities, fish farming can contribute to the job creation,
provide income for the families and ensure food security for the community
around Kisumu County. The study will also aim to gauge the level of
satisfaction with existing fish farmers with relation to their involvement in fish
farming as an income generating activity.
Please take a few minutes to answer the following questions as honestly as
possible.
1. What age group are you in
20 -30
31-40
41-50
Over 50

2. Are you Male or Female

3. What is your highest level of education?
Primary
Secondary
Polytechnic
University
Other (please specify)..
4. What is your marital status?
Single
Married
Divorced/Separated/Widowed

5. How many children do you have?...........................
6. How many others do you directly support?.....................

74

7. Is fish farming your main source of income?
Yes
No

If not, please state if you have other sources of income apart from fish
farming


8. What is your involvement in the fish farming?
Run the operations by myself
My spouse assists me
I have employed people to look after the fish farm

9. Did you have to give up another business to start your fish farm?
Yes
No

10. How did you raise money to start your fish farm?
Own money
Bank loan
Cooperative microcredit scheme)
Government support
Other (please specify)

11. What is your objective for doing fish farming?
Own consumption
to sell to customers locally and for export
Own consumption and to sell

12. Which species do you deal with on your fish farm?
a.
b..
c

75


13. At what level of the fish farming are you involved in?
Supplier of seed
Supplier of fingerlings
Farming fingerlings to maturity

14. Which method of fish farming do you use?
Cage
Ponds
Tanks

15. If you use the pond method is the land, on which you do your fish farming
Own land?
Leased?

16. How long have you been involved in farming fish?
0-5 years
6-10 years
10+ years

17. What is your average catch in a month?


18. How do you set the price for the fish that you sell?
Prevailing market prices i.e. there is general agreement from
farmers on fish prices
Arbitrary
Other (please specify)

19. In your opinion the demand for fish in your area compared to your catch is
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Very low

20. On average, how much income do you generate from sales every
month?


76

21. Are you aware of the spending patterns of your customers?

Yes
No


22. Do some customers buy on credit or always pay cash?

Credit
Cash

23. Do you consider fish farming to be a profitable business i.e. is the income
generated enough to meet you and your familys monthly monetary
requirements?
Yes
No

24. What is the size of your pond?.................................

25. Is fish farming a seasonal or all year round activity?........................

26. Is credit readily accessible from creditors?

Yes
No

27. Are the fingerlings/seed readily available?

Yes
No

28. Do you have enough technical information to successfully take care of
your fish farm?

Yes
No

29. Would you recommend fish farming to other members of the community
who are not yet involved in fish farming?
Yes
No
If no, why not?
77


30. What are the extent of some of the challenges you face as a fish farmer?

Issue not a
problem
minor
problem
some
problem
major
problem
Lack of finance
Acquiring land on
which to farm


Farming inputs
(fertiliser, water,
fingerlings, equipment
and machinery)


Technical support
from government/local
authorities


Pollution
Environmental/Climate
change



31. How can the authorities assist you in overcoming these challenges?

32. Does the government/ local authorities provide any support to fish farmers
in the area? If so, what kind of support do they provide?

Monetary (credit)
Technical advice (extension services)
Market to sell fish

33. Compared to lake fish how does your consumers view your product
please indicate the overall level of agreement with the following?

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Agree
The fish supplied are
good

The supply of fish
are dependable

The price for the fish
is reasonable

The fish supplied are
better than wild lake
fish

78



34. How do you acquire knowledge and learn new things about fish farming?

Not at all
important
A little
important
Some
importance
Important Extremely important
Attend
training
courses

Read
relevant
literature

Information
from
NGOs

Information
from family

Information
from wider
social
network

Information
from local
authorities

Radio/TV

35. Are you aware of the laws governing fish farming in your area?
Yes
No
If not, would you like to be made aware of these laws?

36. If you are aware of the environmental aspects of fish farming, how do you
take care of your farm in terms of the environment i.e. disposing of waste
water etc?

37. What do you feed to your fish?

36. Is the supply of food sustainable?
Yes
No

38. How would you rate the inputs to fish farming in relation to your profit
(land, water, fertiliser, wages)
Very high
High
Moderate
79

Low
Very low

39. Where do you get the fertilisers / feed from?
Locally
Have to travel to another town to get the fertiliser
Suppliers come to the fish farm
Extension services

40. How do you dispose of waste from your ponds?
Through the municipal waste system
Drain it into a nearby river/lake
Recycling solids and used as fertiliser on land

41. Do you feel well informed about the future of fish farming
Yes
No

42. If not, state your reason
No resources to read from
Not literate
Not computer literate
Resources not readily available in area
Lack of support from government

43. Would you say, your life has improved since you started your fish farm?
Please state reasons:
I have been able to take care of my familys finances
I can employ people on my fish farm
Our health has improved
We are no longer worried about food insecurity
Nothing has changed I have not benefitted from fish farming


44. How do you consider the future of fish farming?
Will decline
Is sustainable
Will grow