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UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
333 Constitution Ave N.W.
Washington, Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia &'''(
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Case No. 0:00 cr 00000
LIVING SOUL UNDISCLOSED
NO KNOWN ADDRESS
Wong)oes
Fi!titious*Foeign +#ainti""
,s Constitutiona# Ati!#e III Cout
-u)ge .............
Designate) -u)ge
RODNE/ DALE CLASS 01oven$ent Registee) Ta)e Na$e2
+OST OFFICE BO3 435
CIT/ OF 6I16 S6OALS
STATE OF NORT6 CAROLINA
7I+ CODE &8'99
Tust o estate an) Wa) o" the goven$ent
o)ne:*)a#e; !#ass
+ivate Attone: 1enea#
333 N<<<< L<<<<<< St.
6igh Shoa#s, Noth Cao#ina
A$ei!an Nationa#
Thi) =at: o" inteest; Intevene; In>ue) =at:
A #iving "#esh an) %#oo) $an ?ith a sou#

TAKE JUDICIAL NOTICE: VIOLATION OF RULES OF ENGAGEMENT
Page 1 of 75
1. CLEAN HANDS DOCTRINE
The =in!i=#e that so$eone ?ho vio#ates e@uita%#e no$s !annot then seeA e@uita%#e e#ie" o
!#ai$ a )e"ense %ase) in the #a? o" e@uit:. A =at: ?ho has vio#ate) an e@uita%#e =in!i=#e, su!h
as goo) "aith, is )es!i%e) as having Bun!#ean han)s.B
. CLEAN HANDS DOCTRINE LAW ! LEGAL D EFINITION
The !#ean han)s )o!tine is a u#e o" #a? that so$eone %inging a #a?suit o $otion an) asAing
the !out "o e@uita%#e e#ie" $ust %e inno!ent o" ?ong)oing o un"ai !on)u!t e#ating to the
su%>e!t $atte o" hisChe !#ai$. It is an a""i$ative )e"ense that the )e"en)ant $a: !#ai$ the
=#ainti"" has Bun!#ean han)sB. 6o?eve, this )e"ense $a: not %e use) to =ut in issue !on)u!t o"
the =#ainti"" une#ate) to =#ainti""Ds !#ai$. Thee"oe, =#ainti""Ds une#ate) !ou=t a!tions an)
genea# i$$oa# !haa!te ?ou#) %e ie#evant. The )e"en)ant $ust sho? that =#ainti"" $is#e) the
)e"en)ant o has )one so$ething ?ong ega)ing the $atte un)e !onsi)eation. The ?ong"u#
!on)u!t $a: %e o" a #ega# o $oa# natue, as #ong as it e#ates to the $atte in issue.
". FRUIT OF THE #OISONOUS TREE
An e<tension o" the e<!#usiona: u#e esta%#ishe) in Si#vethone Lu$%e Co. v. Unite) States,
&5( U.S. 385 0(E&'2. This )o!tine ho#)s that evi)en!e gathee) ?ith the assistan!e o" i##ega##:
o%taine) in"o$ation $ust %e e<!#u)e) "o$ tia#. Thus, i" an i##ega# inteogation #ea)s to the
)is!ove: o" =h:si!a# evi)en!e, %oth the inteogation an) the =h:si!a# evi)en!e $a: %e
e<!#u)e), the inteogation %e!ause o" the e<!#usiona: u#e, an) the =h:si!a# evi)en!e %e!ause it
is the F"uitG o" the i##ega# inteogation. This )o!tine is su%>e!t to thee o" i$=otant
e<!e=tions. The evi)en!e ?i## not %e e<!#u)e) 0(2 i" it ?as )is!ovee) "o$ a sou!e in)e=en)ent
o" the i##ega# a!tivit:; 0&2 its )is!ove: ?as inevita%#e; o 032 i" thee is attenuation %et?een the
i##ega# a!tivit: an) the )is!ove: o" the evi)en!e.
$. FRUIT OF THE #OISONOUS TREE (continued)
The principle that prohibits the use of secondary evidence in trial that was culled directly from
primary evidence derived from an illegal Sea!h an) SeiHue.
Page 2 of 75
The B"uit o" the =oisonous teeB )o!tine is an o""s=ing o" the E<!#usiona: Ru#e. The
e<!#usiona: u#e $an)ates that evi)en!e o%taine) "o$ an i##ega# aest, uneasona%#e sea!h, o
!oe!ive inteogation $ust %e e<!#u)e) "o$ tia#. Un)e the "uit o" the =oisonous tee )o!tine,
evi)en!e is a#so e<!#u)e) "o$ tia# i" it ?as gaine) though evi)en!e un!ovee) in an i##ega#
aest, uneasona%#e sea!h, o !oe!ive inteogation. LiAe the e<!#usiona: u#e, the "uit o" the
=oisonous tee )o!tine ?as esta%#ishe) =i$ai#: to )ete #a? en"o!e$ent "o$ vio#ating ights
against uneasona%#e sea!hes an) seiHues.
The na$e fruit of the poisonous tree is thus a $eta=hoI the =oisonous tee is evi)en!e seiHe) in
an i##ega# aest, sea!h, o inteogation %: #a? en"o!e$ent. The "uit o" this =oisonous tee is
evi)en!e #ate )is!ovee) %e!ause o" Ano?#e)ge gaine) "o$ the "ist i##ega# sea!h, aest, o
inteogation. The =oisonous tee an) the "uit ae %oth e<!#u)e) "o$ a !i$ina# tia#.
Assu$e that a =o#i!e o""i!e sea!hes the auto$o%i#e o" a =eson sto==e) "o a $ino ta""i!
vio#ation. This vio#ation is the on#: eason the o""i!e !on)u!ts the sea!h; nothing in)i!ates that
the )ive is i$=aie) %: )ugs o a#!oho#, an) no othe !i!u$stan!es ?ou#) #ea) a easona%#e
o""i!e to %e#ieve that the !a !ontains evi)en!e o" a !i$e. This is an uneasona%#e sea!h un)e
the Fouth A$en)$ent to the U.S. Constitution.
Assu$e "uthe that the o""i!e "in)s a s$a## a$ount o" $ai>uana in the vehi!#e. The )ive is
su%se@uent#: !hage) ?ith =ossession o" a !onto##e) su%stan!e an) !hooses to go to tia#. The
$ai>uana evi)en!e !u##e) "o$ this sea!h is e<!#u)e) "o$ tia# un)e the e<!#usiona: u#e,
an) the !i$ina# !hages ae )o==e) "o #a!A o" evi)en!e.
A#so su==ose that %e"oe the oigina# !hages ae )is$isse), the =o#i!e o""i!es asA a $agistate
o >u)ge "o a ?aant to sea!h the ho$e o" the )ive. The on#: evi)en!e use) as a %asis,
o +o%a%#e Cause, "o the ?aant is the s$a## a$ount o" $ai>uana "oun) in the vehi!#e sea!h.
The $agistate, una?ae that the $ai>uana ?as un!ovee) in an i##ega# sea!h, a==oves the
?aant "o the ho$e sea!h.
The o""i!es sea!h the )iveDs ho$e an) "in) a #a?n $o?e sto#en "o$ a #o!a# =aA "a!i#it:.
Un)e the "uit o" the =oisonous tee )o!tine, the #a?n $o?e $ust %e e<!#u)e) "o$ an: tia#
on the"t !hages %e!ause the sea!h o" the house ?as %ase) on evi)en!e gathee) in a =evious
i##ega# sea!h.
The Su=e$e Cout "ist hinte) at the "uit o" the =oisonous tee )o!tine in Silverthorne Lumber
Co. v. United States, &5( U.S. 385, 4' S. Ct. (8&, J4 L. E). 3(E 0(E&'2. In Silverthorne,
)e"en)ant Fe)ei!A W. Si#vethone ?as aeste) on sus=i!ion o" "e)ea# vio#ations in
!onne!tion ?ith his #u$%e %usiness. 1oven$ent agents then !on)u!te) a ?aant#ess, i##ega#
sea!h o" the Si#ve*thone o""i!es. Base) on the evi)en!e )is!ovee) in the sea!h, the
=ose!ution e@ueste) $oe )o!u$ents, an) the !out o)ee) Si#vethone to =o)u!e the
)o!u$ents. Si#vethone e"use) an) ?as >ai#e) "oConte$=t o" !out.
On a==ea#, the Su=e$e Cout evese) the !onte$=t >u)g$ent. In its agu$ent to the 6igh
Cout, the goven$ent !on!e)e) that the sea!h ?as i##ega# an) that the =ose!ution ?as not
entit#e) to Aee= the )o!u$ents o%taine) in it. 6o?eve, the goven$ent he#) that it ?as entit#e)
to !o=: the )o!u$ents an) use Ano?#e)ge gaine) "o$ the )o!u$ents "o "utue =ose!ution.
The Cout e>e!te) this agu$ent. A!!o)ing to the Cout, BKTLhe essen!e o" "o%i))ing the
a!@uisition o" evi)en!e in a !etain ?a: is that M it sha## not %e use) at
a##.B Silverthorne !on!ene) on#: evi)en!e gaine) in the "ist i##ega# sea!h o seiHue, %ut the
?o)ing o" the o=inion =ave) the ?a: "o the e<!#usion o" evi)en!e gaine) in su%*se@uent
sea!hes an) seiHues.
Page 3 of 75
The te$ fruit of the poisonous tree ?as "ist use) in Nardone v. United States, 3'8 U.S. 338, J'
S. Ct. &JJ, 84 L. E). 3'9 0(E3E2. In Nardone, FanA C. Na)one a==ea#e) his !onvi!tions
"o S$ugg#ing an) !on!ea#ing a#!oho# an) "o !ons=ia!: to )o the sa$e. In an ea#ie )e!ision,
the 6igh Cout ha) u#e) that an inte!e=tion o" Na)oneDs te#e=hone !onvesations %:
goven$ent agents vio#ate) the Co$$uni!ations A!t o" (E34 049 U.S.C.A. N J'52. The issue
%e"oe the Cout ?as ?hethe the tia# !out ee) in e"using to a##o? Na)oneDs #a?:e to
@uestion the =ose!ution on ?hethe, an) in ?hat ?a:, it ha) use) in"o$ation o%taine) in the
i##ega# WIRE TA++IN1.
In evesing Na)oneDs !onvi!tions, the Cout state) that on!e a )e"en)ant has esta%#ishe) that
evi)en!e ?as i##ega##: seiHe), the tia# !out B$ust give o==otunit:, ho?eve !#ose#: !on"ine), to
the a!!use) to =ove that a su%stantia# =otion o" the !ase against hi$ ?as a "uit o" the
=oisonous tee.B TheNardone o=inion esta%#ishe) that evi)en!e o%taine) in vio#ation o" a statute
?as su%>e!t to e<!#usion i" it ?as o%taine) in vio#ation o" a statuto: ight.
The "uit o" the =oisonous tee )o!tine ?as "ist he#) a==#i!a%#e to Fouth A$en)$ent vio#ations
in the #an)$aA !ase Wong Sun v. United States, 39( U.S. 49(, 83 S. Ct. 4'9, E L. E). &) 44(
0(EJ32. The Cout in Wong Sun a#so set "oth the test "o )ete$ining ho? !#ose#: )eivative
evi)en!e $ust %e e#ate) to i##ega##: o%taine) evi)en!e to ?aant e<!#usion.
In Wong Sun, a nu$%e o" "e)ea# na!oti!s agents ha) aeste) 6o$ Wa: in San Fan!is!o at
&I'' A.M. on -une 4, (E5E, on sus=i!ion o" na!oti!s a!tivit:. A#though the agents ha) %een
?at!hing Wa: "o si< ?eeAs, the: )i) not have a ?aant "o his aest. Wa: ?as sea!he), an)
the agents "oun) heoin in his =ossession. A"te his aest, Wa: state) that he ha) %ought an
oun!e o" heoin the night %e"oe "o$ B#a!Aie To:, the =o=ieto o" a #aun): on Leaven?oth
Steet.
Though Wa: ha) neve %een an in"o$ant "o the =o#i!e, the agents !uise) Leaven?oth Steet.
At JI'' A.M., the: sto==e) at O:eDs Laun):. The est o" the agents e$aine) out o" sight ?hi#e
Agent A#ton Wong ang the %e##. When -a$es Wah To: ans?ee) the )oo, Wong sai) he ?as
thee "o #aun): an) ): !#eaning. To: ans?ee) that he )i) not o=en unti# 8I'' A.M. an) state)
to !#ose the )oo. Wong then i)enti"ie) hi$se#" as a "e)ea# na!oti!s agent. To: s#a$$e) the
)oo an) %egan to un )o?n the ha##?a:, though the #aun):, an) to his %e)oo$, ?hee his ?i"e
an) !hi#) ?ee s#ee=ing. Again ?ithout a ?aant, Wong an) the othe agents %oAe o=en the
)oo, "o##o?e) To:, an) aeste) hi$. A sea!h o" the =e$ises un!ovee) no i##ega# )ugs.
Whi#e To: ?as in han)!u""s, one o" the agents to#) hi$ that Wa: ha) sai) To: so#) Wa:
na!oti!s. To: )enie) se##ing na!oti!s, %ut then sai) he Ane? so$eone ?ho ha). When asAe)
?ho, To: ans?ee) that he Ane? the $an on#: as B-ohnn:.B To: to#) the o""i!es that B-ohnn:B
#ive) on E#eventh Avenue, an) then he )es!i%e) the house. To: a#so vo#unteee) that B-ohnn:B
Ae=t a%out an oun!e o" heoin in his %e)oo$, an) that he an) B-ohnn:B ha) s$oAe) so$e heoin
the night %e"oe.
The agents #e"t an) #o!ate) the house on E#eventh Avenue. Without a sea!h o an aest ?aant,
the: entee) the ho$e, ?ent to the %e)oo$, an) "oun) -ohnn: /ee. A"te a B)is!ussionB ?ith the
agents, /ee suen)ee) a #itt#e #ess than one oun!e o" heoin.
The sa$e $oning, /ee an) To: ?ee taAen to the o""i!e o" the Bueau o" Na!oti!s. Whi#e in
!usto): thee, /ee state) that he ha) gotten the heoin a%out "ou )a:s ea#ie "o$ To: an)
anothe =eson he Ane? as BSea Dog.B The agents then asAe) To: a%out BSea Dog,B an) To:
i)enti"ie) BSea DogB as Wong Sun. So$e o" the agents tooA To: to SunDs neigh%ohoo), ?hee
To: =ointe) out SunDs house. The agents ?a#Ae) =ast SunDs ?i"e an) aeste) Sun, ?ho ha) %een
s#ee=ing in his %e)oo$. A sea!h o" the =e$ises tune) u= no i##ega# )ugs.
Page 4 of 75
To: an) /ee ?ee aaigne) in "e)ea# !out on -une 4, (E5E, an) Sun ?as aaigne) the ne<t
)a:. A## ?ee e#ease) ?ithout %ai#. A "e? )a:s #ate, To:, /ee, an) Sun ?ee inteogate)
se=aate#: at the Na!oti!s Bueau %: Agent Wi##ia$ Wong. Sun an) To: $a)e ?itten
state$ents %ut e"use) to sign the$.
Sun an) To: ?ee tie) >oint#: on !hages o" tans=oting an) !on!ea#ing na!oti!s in vio#ation o"
&( U.S.C.A. N (94. Wa: )i) not testi": at the tia#. The goven$ent o""ee) /ee as its =in!i=a#
?itness, %ut /ee e!ante) his state$ent to Agent Wi##ia$ Wong an) invoAe) his Fi"th
A$en)$ent ight againstSe#"*In!i$ination. With on#: "ou ite$s in evi)en!e, Sun an) To: ?ee
!onvi!te) %: the !out in a %en!h tia#. The Cout o" A==ea#s "o the Ninth Ci!uit a""i$e) the
!onvi!tions 0Wong Sun, &88 F.&) 3JJ 0Eth Ci. (EJ(22. Sun an) To: a==ea#e) to the U.S.
Su=e$e Cout.
The Su=e$e Cout a!!e=te) the !ase an) evese) the !onvi!tions. The Cout %egan its ana#:sis
%: noting that the !out o" a==ea#s ha) he#) that the aests o" %oth Sun an) To: ?ee i##ega#. The
@uestion ?as ?hethe the "ou ite$s in evi)en!e against Sun an) To: ?ee a)$issi%#e )es=ite the
i##ega#it: o" the aests. The "ou =ie!es o" evi)en!e ?ee the oa# state$ents $a)e %: To: in his
%e)oo$ at the ti$e o" his aest, the heoin suen)ee) to the agents %: /ee, To:Ds unsigne)
state$ent to Agent Wi##ia$ Wong, an) SunDs unsigne) state$ent to Agent Wi##ia$ Wong.
The goven$ent su%$itte) sevea# theoies to su==ot the =o=osition that the state$ents $a)e
%: To: in his %e)oo$ ?ee =o=e#: a)$itte) at tia#. The Cout e>e!te) a## the agu$ents.
A!!o)ing to the Cout, the aest ?as i##ega# %e!ause the agents ha) no evi)en!e su==oting it
othe than the ?o) o" Wa:, an aestee ?ho ha) neve %een an in"o$e "o #a? en"o!e$ent.
The o""i!es )i) not even Ano? ?hethe To: ?as the =eson the: ?ee #ooAing "o. Futhe$oe,
To:Ds "#ight )i) not give the o""i!es =o%a%#e !ause to aest To:I Agent A#ton Wong ha) "ist
=ose) as a !usto$e, an) this $a)e To:Ds "#ight a$%iguous an) not ne!essai#: the =o)u!t o" a
gui#t: $in). Thus, un)e the e<!#usiona: u#e, the oa# state$ents $a)e %: To: in his %e)oo$
shou#) not have %een a##o?e) at tia#.
The Cout then tune) to the a!tua# )ug evi)en!e seiHe) "o$ /ee. The Cout, in )e"een!e
to Nardone, state), BWe nee) not ho#) that a## evi)en!e is D"uit o" the =oisonous tee.DB Instea),
the @uestion in su!h a situation ?as BD?hethe, ganting esta%#ish$ent o" the =i$a: i##ega#it:,
the evi)en!e M has %een !o$e at %: e<=#oitation o" that i##ega#it: o instea) %: $eans
su""i!ient#: )istinguisha%#e to %e =uge) o" the =i$a: taint.DB
A!!o)ing to the Cout, the na!oti!s in Wong Sun ?ee in)ee) B!o$e atB %: use o" To:Ds
state$ents. To:Ds state$ents ?ee, in "a!t, the on#: evi)en!e use) to >usti": entan!e to /eeDs
%e)oo$. Sin!e the state$ents %: To: ?ee ina)$issi%#e, the na!oti!s in /eeDs =ossession ?ee
a#so ina)$issi%#e, as "uit o" the =oisonous tee. The Cout ?ent on to ho#) that SunDs ?itten
state$ents a%out To: shou#) a#so have %een e<!#u)e) as 6easa:, an) the Cout u#ti$ate#:
ovetune) To:Ds !onvi!tion.
The Cout )i) not evese SunDs !onvi!tion. The heoin in /eeDs =ossession ?as a)$issi%#e at
tia#, as ?as SunDs o?n state$ent. A!!o)ing to the Cout, BThe e<!#usion o" na!oti!s as to To:
?as e@uie) so#e#: %: thei tainte) e#ationshi= to in"o$ation un#a?"u##: o%taine) "o$ To:,
an) not %: an: o""i!ia# i$=o=iet: !onne!te) ?ith thei suen)e %: /ee.B The Cout )i),
ho?eve, gant Sun a ne? tia#, %e!ause it ?as una%#e to !on!#u)e that To:Ds state$ents,
eoneous#: a)$itte) at tia# as evi)en!e against Sun, ha) not a""e!te) the ve)i!t. The Cout
a)vise) that on e$an) an) in si$i#a !ases, B=ati!u#a !ae ought to %e taAen M ?hen the
!u!ia# e#e$ent o" the a!!use)Ds =ossession is =ove) so#e#: %: his o?n a)$issions.B
Page 5 of 75
In )ete$ining ?hethe evi)en!e is "uit o" a =oisonous tee, the tia# !out >u)ge $ust e<a$ine
a## the "a!ts suoun)ing the initia# seiHue o" evi)en!e an) the su%se@uent gatheing o" evi)en!e.
This )ete$ination is usua##: $a)e %: the >u)ge in a su==ession heaing he#) %e"oe tia#. In this
heaing, the >u)ge $ust "ist )ete$ine that an i##ega# sea!h o seiHue o!!ue) an) then )e!i)e
?hethe the evi)en!e ?as o%taine) as a esu#t o" the i##ega# sea!h o seiHue.
The Su=e$e Cout "oun) su!h a !ausa# !onne!tion #a!Aing in United States v. Ceccolini, 435
U.S. &J8, E8 S. Ct. ('54, 55 L. E). &) &J8 0(E982. InCeccolini, Ra#=h Ce!!o#ini ?as "oun)
gui#t: o" =e>u: %: a )isti!t !out in Ne? /oA. 6o?eve, the !out set asi)e the ve)i!t a"te it
the? out testi$on: %: Lois 6ennesse: against Ce!!o#ini. A!!o)ing to the )isti!t !out,
6ennesse:Ds testi$on: ?as tie) to an i##ega# sea!h !on)u!te) a :ea ea#ie. The goven$ent
a==ea#e) to the U.S. Cout o" A==ea#s "o the Se!on) Ci!uit. The a==ea#s !out a""i$e), an) the
goven$ent a==ea#e) to the U.S. Su=e$e Cout.
A!!o)ing to the 6igh Cout, the e<!#usion o" 6ennesse:Ds testi$on: ?as an eo %e!ause
su""i!ient ti$e ha) e#a=se) to se=aate the i##ega# sea!h "o$ the testi$on:. Futhe$oe,
6ennesse:Ds testi$on: ?as not !oe!e) %: #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!ia#s as a esu#t o" the i##ega#
sea!h. An o""i!e ha) @uestione) 6ennesse: "ou $onths a"te the sea!h ?ithout s=e!i"i!a##:
e"eing to the i##ega# sea!h, an) 6ennesse: vo#unteee) the in!i$inating evi)en!e against
Ce!!o#ini. The Cout evese), easoning that the e<!#usion o" testi$on: su!h as 6ennesse:Ds
?ou#) not have a )eteent e""e!t on $is!on)u!t %: #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!es.
%. SILVERTHORNE LUM&ER COM#AN'( INC.( ET AL.
).
UNITED STATES.
No. 358.
S*+re,e Co*r- o. U/0-e1 S-a-es.
Ague) De!e$%e (&, (E(E.
De!i)e) -anua: &J, (E&'.
ERROR TO T6E DISTRICT COURT OF T6E UNITED STATES FOR T6E WESTERN
DISTRICT OF NEW /ORO.
Mr. William . !uthrie" ?ith ?ho$ Mr. #enry W. $illeen" Mr. %ames &. Moore" Mr. 'rederic .
Mc$enney an) Mr. Myer Cohen ?ee on the %ie"s, "o =#ainti""s in eo.
Mr. (ssistant (ttorney !eneral Stewart" ?ith ?ho$ Mr. W.C. #erron ?as on the %ie", "o
the U/0-e1 S-a-es.
3E'P3E' MR. -USTICE 6OLMES )e#ivee) the o=inion o" the !out.
This is a ?it o" eo %ought to evese a >u)g$ent o" the Disti!t Cout "ining the
S02)er-3or/e L*,4er Co$=an: t?o hun)e) an) "i"t: )o##as "o !onte$=t o" !out an)
o)eing Fe)ei!A W. S02)er-3or/e to %e i$=isone) unti# he shou#) =uge hi$se#" o" a si$i#a
!onte$=t. The !onte$=t in @uestion ?as a e"usa# to o%e: su%=oenas an) an o)e o" Cout to
=o)u!e %ooAs an) )o!u$ents o" the !o$=an: %e"oe the gan) >u: to %e use) in ega) to
a##ege) vio#ation o" the statutes o" theU/0-e1 S-a-es %: the sai) S02)er-3or/e an) his "athe. One
Page 6 of 75
goun) o" the e"usa# ?as that the o)e o" the Cout in"inge) the ights o" the =aties un)e the
Fouth A$en)$ent o" the Constitution o" the U/0-e1 S-a-es.
The "a!ts ae s$=#e. An in)i!t$ent u=on a sing#e s=e!i"i! !hage having %een %ought against the
t?o Si#vethones $entione), the: %oth ?ee aeste) at thei ho$es ea#: in the $oning o"
Fe%ua: &5, (E(E, an) ?ee )etaine) in !usto): a nu$%e o" hous. Whi#e the: ?ee thus
)etaine) e=esentatives o" the De=at$ent o" -usti!e an) the U/0-e1 S-a-es $asha# ?ithout a
sha)o? o" authoit: ?ent to the o""i!e o" thei !o$=an: an) $a)e a !#ean s?ee= o" a## the %ooAs,
=a=es an) )o!u$ents "oun) thee. A## the e$=#o:ees ?ee taAen o )ie!te) to go to the o""i!e
o" the Disti!t Attone: o" the U/0-e1 S-a-es to ?hi!h a#so the %ooAs, Q!., ?ee taAen at on!e.
An a==#i!ation ?as $a)e as soon as $ight %e to the Disti!t 3E(P3E( Cout "o a etun o" ?hat
thus ha) %een taAen un#a?"u##:. It ?as o==ose) %: the Disti!t Attone: so "a as he ha) "oun)
evi)en!e against the =#ainti""s in eo, an) it ?as state) that the evi)en!e so o%taine) ?as %e"oe
the gan) >u:. Co#o ha) %een given %: the Disti!t Attone: to the a==oa!h o" those !on!ene)
in the a!t %: an inva#i) su%=oena "o !etain )o!u$ents e#ating to the !hage in the in)i!t$ent
then on "i#e. Thus the !ase is not that o" Ano?#e)ge a!@uie) though the ?ong"u# a!t o" a
stange, %ut it $ust %e assu$e) that the 1oven$ent =#anne) o at a## events ati"ie) the ?ho#e
=e"o$an!e. +hotoga=hs an) !o=ies o" $ateia# =a=es ?ee $a)e an) a ne? in)i!t$ent ?as
"a$e) %ase) u=on the Ano?#e)ge thus o%taine). The Disti!t Cout o)ee) a etun o" the
oigina#s %ut i$=oun)e) the =hotoga=hs an) !o=ies. Su%=oenas to =o)u!e the oigina#s then
?ee seve) an) on the e"usa# o" the =#ainti""s in eo to =o)u!e the$ the Cout $a)e an o)e
that the su%=oenas shou#) %e !o$=#ie) ?ith, a#though it ha) "oun) that a## the =a=es ha) %een
seiHe) in vio#ation o" the =atiesD !onstitutiona# ights. The e"usa# to o%e: this o)e is the
!onte$=t a##ege). The 1oven$ent no?, ?hi#e in "o$ e=u)iating an) !on)e$ning the i##ega#
seiHue, seeAs to $aintain its ight to avai# itse#" o" the Ano?#e)ge o%taine) %: that $eans ?hi!h
othe?ise it ?ou#) not have ha).
The =o=osition !ou#) not %e =esente) $oe naAe)#:. It is that a#though o" !ouse its seiHue ?as
an outage ?hi!h the 1oven$ent no? egets, it $a: stu): the =a=es %e"oe it etuns the$,
!o=: the$, an) then $a: use the Ano?#e)ge that it has gaine) to !a## u=on the o?nes in a $oe
egu#a "o$ to =o)u!e the$; that the =ote!tion o" the Constitution !oves the =h:si!a#
=ossession %ut not an: a)vantages that the 1oven$ent !an gain ove the o%>e!t o" its =usuit %:
)oing the "o%i))en a!t. Wee)s v. United States " &3& U.S. 383, to %e sue, ha) esta%#ishe) that
#a:ing the =a=es )ie!t#: %e"oe the gan) >u: ?as 3E&P3E& un?aante), %ut it is taAen to $ean
on#: that t?o ste=s ae e@uie) instea) o" one. In ou o=inion su!h is not the #a?. It e)u!es the
Fouth A$en)$ent to a "o$ o" ?o)s. &3& U.S. 3E3. The essen!e o" a =ovision "o%i))ing the
a!@uisition o" evi)en!e in a !etain ?a: is that not $ee#: evi)en!e so a!@uie) sha## not %e use)
%e"oe the Cout %ut that it sha## not %e use) at a##. O" !ouse this )oes not $ean that the "a!ts
thus o%taine) %e!o$e sa!e) an) ina!!essi%#e. I" Ano?#e)ge o" the$ is gaine) "o$ an
in)e=en)ent sou!e the: $a: %e =ove) #iAe an: othes, %ut the Ano?#e)ge gaine) %: the
1oven$entDs o?n ?ong !annot %e use) %: it in the ?a: =o=ose). The nu$eous )e!isions,
#iAe (dams v. New *or)" (E& U.S. 585, ho#)ing that a !o##atea# in@ui: into the $o)e in ?hi!h
evi)en!e has %een got ?i## not %e a##o?e) ?hen the @uestion is aise) "o the "ist ti$e at the
tia#, ae no authoit: in the =esent =o!ee)ing, as is e<=#aine) in Wee)s v. United States " &3&
U.S. 383, 3E4, 3E5. Whethe so$e o" those )e!isions have gone too "a o have given ?ong
easons it is unne!essa: to in@uie; the =in!i=#e a==#i!a%#e to the =esent !ase see$s to us =#ain.
It is state) satis"a!toi#: in 'lagg v. United States " &33 Fe). Re=. 48(, 483.
In Linn v. United States " &5( Fe). Re=. 49J, 48', it ?as thought that a )i""eent u#e a==#ie) to a
Page 7 of 75
!o=oation, on the goun) that it ?as not =ivi#ege) "o$ =o)u!ing its %ooAs an) =a=es. But
the ights o" a !o=oation against un#a?"u# sea!h an) seiHue ae to %e =ote!te) even i" the
sa$e esu#t $ight have %een a!hieve) in a #a?"u# ?a:.
%udgment reversed.
T6E C6IEF -USTICE an) MR. -USTICE +ITNE/ )issent.
5. MIRANDA WARNING
E<=#anation o" ights that $ust %e given %e"oe an: !usto)ia# inteogation, ste$$ing #age#:
"o$ the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination. The =eson )etaine) an)
inteogate) $ust %e $a)e a?ae o" the ight to e$ain si#ent, the ight to !onsu#t ?ith an
attone: an) have the attone: =esent )uing @uestioning, an) the ight to have an attone:
a==ointe) i" in)igent.
Without a Mian)a ?aning o a va#i) ?aive, state$ents $ight %e ina)$issi%#e at tia#
un)e the e<!#usiona: u#e 0e.g., the: !annot %e use) as su%stantive evi)en!e o" gui#t in !i$ina#
=o!ee)ings2. See Mian)a v. AiHona, 384 US 43J 0(EJJ2.
6. 7M0ra/1a7 R083-s a/1 -3e F0.-3 A,e/1,e/-
W3a- are -3e 7M0ra/1a7 R083-s9
In (EJJ, the U.S. Su=e$e Cout )e!i)e) the histoi! !ase o" Mian)a v. AiHona, )e!#aing that
?heneve a =eson is taAen into =o#i!e !usto):, %e"oe %eing @uestione) he o she $ust %e to#) o"
the Fi"th A$en)$ent ight not to $aAe an: se#"*in!i$inating state$ents. As a esu#t o" Mian)a,
an:one in =o#i!e !usto): $ust %e to#) "ou things %e"oe %eing @uestione)I
(. /ou have the ight to e$ain si#ent.
&. An:thing :ou sa: !an an) ?i## %e use) against :ou in a !out o" #a?.
3. /ou have the ight to an attone:.
4. I" :ou !annot a""o) an attone:, one ?i## %e a==ointe) "o :ou.
Rea) the histoi! U.S. Su=e$e Cout )e!isionI Miranda v. (ri+ona.
W3a- 0. -3e #o20ce Fa02 -o A1)0se Me o. M: M0ra/1a R083-s9
When =o#i!e o""i!es @uestion a sus=e!t in !usto): ?ithout "ist giving the Mian)a ?aning, an:
state$ent o !on"ession $a)e is =esu$e) to %e invo#unta:, an) !annot %e use) against the
sus=e!t in an: !i$ina# !ase. An: evi)en!e )is!ovee) as a esu#t o" that state$ent o !on"ession
?i## #iAe#: a#so %e tho?n out o" the !ase.
Fo e<a$=#e, su==ose Dan is aeste) an), ?ithout %eing ea) his Mian)a ights, is @uestione)
%: =o#i!e o""i!es a%out a %anA o%%e:. Una?ae that he has the ight to e$ain si#ent, Dan
!on"esses to !o$$itting the o%%e: an) te##s the =o#i!e that the $one: is %uie) in his %a!A:a).
A!ting on this in"o$ation, the =o#i!e )ig u= the $one:. When DanDs attone: !ha##enges the
!on"ession in !out, the >u)ge ?i## #iAe#: "in) it un#a?"u#. This $eans that, not on#: ?i## the
!on"ession %e tho?n out o" the !ase against Dan, %ut so ?i## the $one: itse#", %e!ause it ?as
)is!ovee) so#e#: as a esu#t o" the un#a?"u# !on"ession.
Page 8 of 75
;. MIRANDA V. ARI<ONA
";$ U.S. $"5
M0ra/1a ). Ar0=o/a >No. 6%?@
Ar8*e1: Fe4r*ar: ;AMarc3 1( 1?55
Dec01e1: J*/e 1"( 1?55 BCD
?; Ar0=. 1;( $01 #.1 61E 1% N.'.1 ?60( 06 N.E.1 %6E 15 N.'.1 51$( 0? N.E.1 110E
"$ F.1 5;$( re)erse1E 5 Ca2.1 %61( $00 #.1 ?6( a..0r,e1.
In ea!h o" these !ases, the )e"en)ant, ?hi#e in =o#i!e !usto):, ?as @uestione) %: =o#i!e o""i!es,
)ete!tives, o a =ose!uting attone: in a oo$ in ?hi!h he ?as !ut o"" "o$ the outsi)e ?o#).
None o" the )e"en)ants ?as given a "u## an) e""e!tive ?aning o" his ights at the outset o" the
inteogation =o!ess. In a## "ou !ases, the @uestioning e#i!ite) oa# a)$issions, an), in thee o"
the$, signe) state$ents as ?e##, ?hi!h ?ee a)$itte) at thei tia#s. A## )e"en)ants ?ee
!onvi!te), an) a## !onvi!tions, e<!e=t in No. 584, ?ee a""i$e) on a==ea#.
#eld,
(. The =ose!ution $a: not use state$ents, ?hethe e<!u#=ato: o in!u#=ato:, ste$$ing "o$
@uestioning initiate) %: #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!es a"te a =eson has %een taAen into !usto): o
othe?ise )e=ive) o" his "ee)o$ o" a!tion in an: signi"i!ant ?a:, un#ess it )e$onstates the use
o" =o!e)ua# sa"egua)s e""e!tive to se!ue the Fi"th A$en)$entDs =ivi#ege against se#"*
in!i$ination. +=. 444*4E(.
0a2 The at$os=hee an) envion$ent o" in!o$$uni!a)o inteogation as it e<ists to)a: is
inheent#: inti$i)ating, an) ?oAs to un)e$ine the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination. Un#ess
a)e@uate =eventive $easues ae taAen to )is=e# the !o$=u#sion inheent in !usto)ia#
suoun)ings, no state$ent o%taine) "o$ the )e"en)ant !an tu#: %e the =o)u!t o" his "ee
!hoi!e. +=. 445*458.
0%2 The =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination, ?hi!h has ha) a #ong an) e<=ansive histoi!a#
)eve#o=$ent, is the essentia# $ainsta: o" ou a)vesa: s:ste$, an) guaantees to the in)ivi)ua#
the Bight to e$ain si#ent un#ess he !hooses to s=eaA in the un"ettee) e<e!ise o" his o?n ?i##,B
)uing a =eio) o" !usto)ia# inteogation B+$"6D as ?e## as in the !outs o )uing the !ouse o"
othe o""i!ia# investigations. +=. 458*4J5.
0!2 The )e!ision in -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, stesse) the nee) "o =ote!tive )evi!es to
$aAe the =o!ess o" =o#i!e inteogation !on"o$ to the )i!tates o" the =ivi#ege. +=. 4J5*4JJ.
0)2 In the a%sen!e o" othe e""e!tive $easues, the "o##o?ing =o!e)ues to sa"egua) the Fi"th
A$en)$ent =ivi#ege $ust %e o%seve)I the =eson in !usto): $ust, =io to inteogation, %e
!#ea#: in"o$e) that he has the ight to e$ain si#ent, an) that an:thing he sa:s ?i## %e use)
against hi$ in !out; he $ust %e !#ea#: in"o$e) that he has the ight to !onsu#t ?ith a #a?:e
Page 9 of 75
an) to have the #a?:e ?ith hi$ )uing inteogation, an) that, i" he is in)igent, a #a?:e ?i## %e
a==ointe) to e=esent hi$. +=. 4J9*493.
0e2 I" the in)ivi)ua# in)i!ates, =io to o )uing @uestioning, that he ?ishes to e$ain si#ent, the
inteogation $ust !ease; i" he states that he ?ants an attone:, the @uestioning $ust !ease unti#
an attone: is =esent. +=. 493*494.
0"2 Whee an inteogation is !on)u!te) ?ithout the =esen!e o" an attone: an) a state$ent is
taAen, a heav: %u)en ests on the 1oven$ent to )e$onstate that the )e"en)ant Ano?ing#: an)
inte##igent#: ?aive) his ight to !ounse#. +. 495.
0g2 Whee the in)ivi)ua# ans?es so$e @uestions )uing in*!usto): inteogation, he has not
?aive) his =ivi#ege, an) $a: invoAe his ight to e$ain si#ent theea"te. +=. 495*49J.
0h2 The ?anings e@uie) an) the ?aive nee)e) ae, in the a%sen!e o" a "u##: e""e!tive
e@uiva#ent, =ee@uisites to the a)$issi%i#it: o" an: state$ent, in!u#=ato: o e<!u#=ato:, $a)e
%: a )e"en)ant. +=. 49J*499.
&. The #i$itations on the inteogation =o!ess e@uie) "o the =ote!tion o" the in)ivi)ua#Ds
!onstitutiona# ights shou#) not !ause an un)ue inte"een!e ?ith a =o=e s:ste$ o" #a?
en"o!e$ent, as )e$onstate) %: the =o!e)ues o" the FBI an) the sa"egua)s a""o)e) in othe
>uis)i!tions. +=. 49E*4E(.
3. In ea!h o" these !ases, the state$ents ?ee o%taine) un)e !i!u$stan!es that )i) not $eet
!onstitutiona# stan)a)s "o =ote!tion o" the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination. +=. 4E(*4EE.
B+$"?D
TO#
O+0/0o/
WARREN, C.-., O=inion o" the Cout
MR. C6IEF -USTICE WARREN )e#ivee) the o=inion o" the Cout.
The !ases %e"oe us aise @uestions ?hi!h go to the oots o" ou !on!e=ts o" A$ei!an !i$ina#
>uis=u)en!eI the estaints so!iet: $ust o%seve !onsistent ?ith the Fe)ea# Constitution in
=ose!uting in)ivi)ua#s "o !i$e. Moe s=e!i"i!a##:, ?e )ea# ?ith the a)$issi%i#it: o" state$ents
o%taine) "o$ an in)ivi)ua# ?ho is su%>e!te) to !usto)ia# =o#i!e inteogation an) the ne!essit:
"o =o!e)ues ?hi!h assue that the in)ivi)ua# is a!!o)e) his =ivi#ege un)e the Fi"th
A$en)$ent to the Constitution not to %e !o$=e##e) to in!i$inate hi$se#". B+$$0D
We )ea#t ?ith !etain =hases o" this =o%#e$ e!ent#: in -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S.
4980(EJ42. Thee, as in the "ou !ases %e"oe us, #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!ia#s tooA the )e"en)ant
into !usto): an) inteogate) hi$ in a =o#i!e station "o the =u=ose o" o%taining a !on"ession.
The =o#i!e )i) not e""e!tive#: a)vise hi$ o" his ight to e$ain si#ent o o" his ight to !onsu#t
?ith his attone:. Rathe, the: !on"onte) hi$ ?ith an a##ege) a!!o$=#i!e ?ho a!!use) hi$ o"
having =e=etate) a $u)e. When the )e"en)ant )enie) the a!!usation an) sai) BI )i)nDt shoot
Manue#, :ou )i) it,B the: han)!u""e) hi$ an) tooA hi$ to an inteogation oo$. Thee, ?hi#e
han)!u""e) an) stan)ing, he ?as @uestione) "o "ou hous unti# he !on"esse). Duing this
Page 10 of 75
inteogation, the =o#i!e )enie) his e@uest to s=eaA to his attone:, an) the: =evente) his
etaine) attone:, ?ho ha) !o$e to the =o#i!e station, "o$ !onsu#ting ?ith hi$. At his tia#, the
State, ove his o%>e!tion, into)u!e) the !on"ession against hi$. We he#) that the state$ents thus
$a)e ?ee !onstitutiona##: ina)$issi%#e.
This !ase has %een the su%>e!t o" >u)i!ia# inte=etation an) s=iite) #ega# )e%ate sin!e it ?as
)e!i)e) t?o :eas ago. Both state an) "e)ea# !outs, in assessing its i$=#i!ations, have aive) at
va:ing !on!#usions.
B/1D
A ?ea#th o" s!ho#a#: $ateia# has %een ?itten ta!ing its a$i"i!ations
an) un)e=innings.
B/D
+o#i!e an) =ose!uto B+$$1D have s=e!u#ate) on its ange an)
)esia%i#it:.
B/"D
We gante) !etioai in these !ases, 38& U.S. E&4, E&5, E39, in o)e "uthe to
e<=#oe so$e "a!ets o" the =o%#e$s thus e<=ose) o" a==#:ing the =ivi#ege against se#"*
in!i$ination to in*!usto): inteogation, an) to giveB+$$D !on!ete !onstitutiona# gui)e#ines
"o #a? en"o!e$ent agen!ies an) !outs to "o##o?.
We stat hee, as ?e )i) in -scobedo" ?ith the =e$ise that ou ho#)ing is not an innovation in
ou >uis=u)en!e, %ut is an a==#i!ation o" =in!i=#es #ong e!ogniHe) an) a==#ie) in othe
settings. We have un)etaAen a thoough ee<a$ination o" the -scobedo)e!ision an) the
=in!i=#es it announ!e), an) ?e ea""i$ it. That !ase ?as %ut an e<=#i!ation o" %asi! ights that
ae enshine) in ou Constitution ** that BNo =eson . . . sha## %e !o$=e##e) in an: !i$ina# !ase
to %e a ?itness against hi$se#",B an) that Bthe a!!use) sha## . . . have the Assistan!e o" Counse#B
** ights ?hi!h ?ee =ut in >eo=a): in that !ase though o""i!ia# ove%eaing. These =e!ious
ights ?ee "i<e) in ou Constitution on#: a"te !entuies o" =ese!ution an) stugg#e. An), in the
?o)s o" Chie" -usti!e Masha##, the: ?ee se!ue) B"o ages to !o$e, an) . . . )esigne) to
a==oa!h i$$ota#it: as nea#: as hu$an institutions !an a==oa!h it,B Cohens v. /irginia" J
Wheat. &J4, 389 0(8&(2.
Ove 9' :eas ago, ou =e)e!essos on this Cout e#o@uent#: state)I
The $a<i$ nemo tenetur seipsum accusare ha) its oigin in a =otest against the in@uisitoia# an)
$ani"est#: un>ust $etho)s o" inteogating a!!use) =esons, ?hi!h KhaveL #ong o%taine) in the
!ontinenta# s:ste$, an), unti# the e<=u#sion o" the Stuats "o$ the Bitish thone in (J88 an) the
ee!tion o" a))itiona# %aies "o the =ote!tion o" the =eo=#e against the e<e!ise o" a%ita:
=o?e, K?eeL not un!o$$on even in Eng#an). Whi#e the a)$issions o !on"essions o" the
=isone, ?hen vo#untai#: an) "ee#: $a)e, have a#?a:s anAe) high in the s!a#e o"
in!i$inating evi)en!e, i" an a!!use) =eson %e asAe) to e<=#ain his a==aent !onne!tion ?ith a
!i$e un)e investigation, the ease ?ith ?hi!h the B+$$"D @uestions =ut to hi$ $a: assu$e an
in@uisitoia# !haa!te, the te$=tation to =ess the ?itness un)u#:, to %o?%eat hi$ i" he %e ti$i)
o e#u!tant, to =ush hi$ into a !one, an) to enta= hi$ into "ata# !onta)i!tions, ?hi!h is so
=ain"u##: evi)ent in $an: o" the ea#ie state tia#s, nota%#: in those o" Si Ni!ho#as
Tho!A$oton an) U)a#, the +uitan $iniste, $a)e the s:ste$ so o)ious as to give ise to a
)e$an) "o its tota# a%o#ition. The !hange in the Eng#ish !i$ina# =o!e)ue in that =ati!u#a
see$s to %e "oun)e) u=on no statute an) no >u)i!ia# o=inion, %ut u=on a genea# an) si#ent
a!@uies!en!e o" the !outs in a =o=u#a )e$an). But, ho?eve a)o=te), it has %e!o$e "i$#:
e$%e))e) in Eng#ish as ?e## as in A$ei!an >uis=u)en!e. So )ee=#: )i) the ini@uities o" the
an!ient s:ste$ i$=ess the$se#ves u=on the $in)s o" the A$ei!an !o#onists that the States,
?ith one a!!o), $a)e a )enia# o" the ight to @uestion an a!!use) =eson a =at o" thei
"un)a$enta# #a?, so that a $a<i$, ?hi!h in Eng#an) ?as a $ee u#e o" evi)en!e, %e!a$e
!#othe) in this !ount: ?ith the i$=egna%i#it: o" a !onstitutiona# ena!t$ent.
Page 11 of 75
0rown v. Wal)er" (J( U.S. 5E(, 5EJ*5E9 0(8EJ2. In stating the o%#igation o" the >u)i!ia: to a==#:
these !onstitutiona# ights, this Cout )e!#ae) in Weems v. United States" &(9 U.S. 34E, 393
0(E('2I
. . . ou !onte$=#ation !annot %e on#: o" ?hat has %een, %ut o" ?hat $a: %e. Un)e an: othe
u#e, a !onstitution ?ou#) in)ee) %e as eas: o" a==#i!ation as it ?ou#) %e )e"i!ient in e""i!a!: an)
=o?e. Its genea# =in!i=#es ?ou#) have #itt#e va#ue, an) %e !onvete) %: =e!e)ent into
i$=otent an) #i"e#ess "o$u#as. Rights )e!#ae) in ?o)s $ight %e #ost in ea#it:. An) this has
%een e!ogniHe). The B+$$$D $eaning an) vita#it: o" the Constitution have )eve#o=e) against
nao? an) esti!tive !onstu!tion.
This ?as the s=iit in ?hi!h ?e )e#ineate), in $eaning"u# #anguage, the $anne in ?hi!h the
!onstitutiona# ights o" the in)ivi)ua# !ou#) %e en"o!e) against oveHea#ous =o#i!e =a!ti!es. It
?as ne!essa: in Es!o%e)o, as hee, to insue that ?hat ?as =o!#ai$e) in the Constitution ha)
not %e!o$e %ut a B"o$ o" ?o)s,B Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States" &5( U.S. 385, 3E&
0(E&'2, in the han)s o" goven$ent o""i!ia#s. An) it is in this s=iit, !onsistent ?ith ou o#e as
>u)ges, that ?e a)hee to the =in!i=#es o" Es!o%e)o to)a:.
Ou ho#)ing ?i## %e s=e##e) out ?ith so$e s=e!i"i!it: in the =ages ?hi!h "o##o?, %ut, %ie"#:
state), it is thisI the =ose!ution $a: not use state$ents, ?hethe e<!u#=ato: o in!u#=ato:,
ste$$ing "o$ !usto)ia# inteogation o" the )e"en)ant un#ess it )e$onstates the use o"
=o!e)ua# sa"egua)s e""e!tive to se!ue the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination. B: !usto)ia#
inteogation, ?e $ean @uestioning initiate) %: #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!es a"te a =eson has %een
taAen into !usto): o othe?ise )e=ive) o" his "ee)o$ o" a!tion in an: signi"i!ant ?a:.
B/$D
As
"o the =o!e)ua# sa"egua)s to %e e$=#o:e), un#ess othe "u##: e""e!tive $eans ae )evise) to
in"o$ a!!use) =esons o" thei ight o" si#en!e an) to assue a !ontinuous o==otunit: to
e<e!ise it, the "o##o?ing $easues ae e@uie). +io to an: @uestioning, the =eson $ust %e
?ane) that he has a ight to e$ain si#ent, that an: state$ent he )oes $aAe $a: %e use) as
evi)en!e against hi$, an) that he has a ight to the =esen!e o" an attone:, eithe etaine) o
a==ointe). The )e"en)ant $a: ?aive e""e!tuation o" these ights, =ovi)e) the ?aive is $a)e
vo#untai#:, Ano?ing#: an) inte##igent#:. I", ho?eve, he in)i!ates in an: $anne an) at an: stage
o" the B+$$%D =o!ess that he ?ishes to !onsu#t ?ith an attone: %e"oe s=eaAing, thee !an %e no
@uestioning. LiAe?ise, i" the in)ivi)ua# is a#one an) in)i!ates in an: $anne that he )oes not
?ish to %e inteogate), the =o#i!e $a: not @uestion hi$. The $ee "a!t that he $a: have
ans?ee) so$e @uestions o vo#unteee) so$e state$ents on his o?n )oes not )e=ive hi$ o" the
ight to e"ain "o$ ans?eing an: "uthe in@uiies unti# he has !onsu#te) ?ith an attone: an)
theea"te !onsents to %e @uestione).
I
The !onstitutiona# issue ?e )e!i)e in ea!h o" these !ases is the a)$issi%i#it: o" state$ents
o%taine) "o$ a )e"en)ant @uestione) ?hi#e in !usto): o othe?ise )e=ive) o" his "ee)o$ o"
a!tion in an: signi"i!ant ?a:. In ea!h, the )e"en)ant ?as @uestione) %: =o#i!e o""i!es,
)ete!tives, o a =ose!uting attone: in a oo$ in ?hi!h he ?as !ut o"" "o$ the outsi)e ?o#). In
none o" these !ases ?as the )e"en)ant given a "u## an) e""e!tive ?aning o" his ights at the
outset o" the inteogation =o!ess. In a## the !ases, the @uestioning e#i!ite) oa# a)$issions, an)
in thee o" the$, signe) state$ents as ?e## ?hi!h ?ee a)$itte) at thei tia#s. The: a## thus shae
Page 12 of 75
sa#ient "eatues ** in!o$$uni!a)o inteogation o" in)ivi)ua#s in a =o#i!e*)o$inate) at$os=hee,
esu#ting in se#"*in!i$inating state$ents ?ithout "u## ?anings o" !onstitutiona# ights.
An un)estan)ing o" the natue an) setting o" this in*!usto): inteogation is essentia# to ou
)e!isions to)a:. The )i""i!u#t: in )e=i!ting ?hat tans=ies at su!h inteogations ste$s "o$ the
"a!t that, in this !ount:, the: have #age#: taAen =#a!e in!o$$uni!a)o. Fo$ e<tensive "a!tua#
stu)ies un)etaAen in the ea#: (E3'Ds, in!#u)ing the "a$ous Wi!Aesha$ Re=ot to Congess %:
a +esi)entia# Co$$ission, it is !#ea that =o#i!e vio#en!e an) the Bthi) )egeeB "#ouishe) at
that ti$e.
B/%D
B+$$5D In a seies o" !ases )e!i)e) %: this Cout #ong a"te these stu)ies, the =o#i!e
esote) to =h:si!a# %uta#it: ** %eating, hanging, ?hi==ing ** an) to sustaine) an) =ota!te)
@uestioning in!o$$uni!a)o in o)e to e<tot !on"essions.
B/5D
The Co$$ission on Civi# Rights
in (EJ( "oun) $u!h evi)en!e to in)i!ate that Bso$e =o#i!e$en sti## esot to =h:si!a# "o!e to
o%tain !on"essions,B (EJ( Co$$Dn on Civi# Rights Re=. -usti!e, =t. 5, (9. The use o" =h:si!a#
%uta#it: an) vio#en!e is not, un"otunate#:, e#egate) to the =ast o to an: =at o" the !ount:.
On#: e!ent#: in Oings Count:, Ne? /oA, the =o#i!e %uta##: %eat, Ai!Ae) an) =#a!e) #ighte)
!igaette %utts on the %a!A o" a =otentia# ?itness un)e inteogation "o the =u=ose o" se!uing a
state$ent in!i$inating a thi) =at:. 1eople v. 1ortelli" (5 N./.&) &35, &'5 N.E.&) 859, &59
N./.S.&) E3( 0(EJ52.
B/6D
B+$$6D
The e<a$=#es given a%ove ae un)ou%te)#: the e<!e=tion no?, %ut the: ae su""i!ient#:
?i)es=ea) to %e the o%>e!t o" !on!en. Un#ess a =o=e #i$itation u=on !usto)ia# inteogation is
a!hieve) ** su!h as these )e!isions ?i## a)van!e ** thee !an %e no assuan!e that =a!ti!es o" this
natue ?i## %e ea)i!ate) in the "oeseea%#e "utue. The !on!#usion o" the Wi!Aesha$
Co$$ission Re=ot, $a)e ove 3' :eas ago, is sti## =etinentI
To the !ontention that the thi) )egee is ne!essa: to get the "a!ts, the e=otes a=t#: e=#: in the
#anguage o" the =esent Lo) Chan!e##o o" Eng#an) 0Lo) SanAe:2I
It is not a)$issi%#e to )o a geat ight %: )oing a #itt#e ?ong. . . . It is not su""i!ient to )o >usti!e
%: o%taining a =o=e esu#t %: iegu#a o i$=o=e $eans.
Not on#: )oes the use o" the thi) )egee invo#ve a "#agant vio#ation o" #a? %: the o""i!es o" the
#a?, %ut it invo#ves a#so the )anges o" "a#se !on"essions, an) it ten)s to $aAe =o#i!e an)
=ose!utos #ess Hea#ous in the sea!h "o o%>e!tive evi)en!e. As the Ne? /oA =ose!uto @uote)
in the e=ot sai), BIt is a shot*!ut, an) $aAes the =o#i!e #aH: an) unente=ising.B O, as anothe
o""i!ia# @uote) e$aAe)I BI" :ou use :ou "ists, :ouB+$$;D ae not so #iAe#: to use :ou ?its.B
We agee ?ith the !on!#usion e<=esse) in the e=ot, that
The thi) )egee %uta#iHes the =o#i!e, ha)ens the =isone against so!iet:, an) #o?es the estee$
in ?hi!h the a)$inistation o" -usti!e is he#) %: the =u%#i!.
I, Nationa# Co$$ission on La? O%sevan!e an) En"o!e$ent, Re=ot on La?#essness in La?
En"o!e$ent 5 0(E3(2.
Again ?e stess that the $o)en =a!ti!e o" in*!usto): inteogation is =s:!ho#ogi!a##:, athe
than =h:si!a##:, oiente). As ?e have state) %e"oe,
Sin!e Chambers v. 'lorida" 3'E U.S. &&9, this Cout has e!ogniHe) that !oe!ion !an %e $enta#
as ?e## as =h:si!a#, an) that the %#oo) o" the a!!use) is not the on#: ha##$aA o" an
un!onstitutiona# in@uisition.
Page 13 of 75
0lac)burn v. (labama" 3J( U.S. (EE, &'J 0(EJ'2. Inteogation sti## taAes =#a!e in =iva!:.
+iva!: esu#ts in se!e!:, an) this, in tun, esu#ts in a ga= in ou Ano?#e)ge as to ?hat, in "a!t,
goes on in the inteogation oo$s. A va#ua%#e sou!e o" in"o$ation a%out =esent =o#i!e
=a!ti!es, ho?eve, $a: %e "oun) in vaious =o#i!e $anua#s an) te<ts ?hi!h )o!u$ent
=o!e)ues e$=#o:e) ?ith su!!ess in the =ast, an) ?hi!h e!o$$en) vaious othe e""e!tive
ta!ti!s.
B/;D
These B+$$?D te<ts ae use) %: #a? en"o!e$ent agen!ies the$se#ves as gui)es.
B/?D
It
shou#) %e note) that these te<ts =o"esse)#: =esent the $ost en#ightene) an) e""e!tive $eans
=esent#: use) to o%tain state$ents though !usto)ia# inteogation. B: !onsi)eing these te<ts
an) othe )ata, it is =ossi%#e to )es!i%e =o!e)ues o%seve) an) note) aoun) the !ount:.
The o""i!es ae to#) %: the $anua#s that the
=in!i=a# =s:!ho#ogi!a# "a!to !onti%uting to a su!!ess"u# inteogation is privacy ** %eing a#one
?ith the =eson un)e inteogation.
B/10D
The e""i!a!: o" this ta!ti! has %een e<=#aine) as "o##o?sI
I" at a## =a!ti!a%#e, the inteogation shou#) taAe =#a!e in the investigatoDs o""i!e o at #east in a
oo$ o" his o?n !hoi!e. The su%>e!t shou#) %e )e=ive) o" eve: =s:!ho#ogi!a# a)vantage. In his
o?n ho$e, he $a: %e !on"i)ent, in)ignant, o e!a#!itant. 6e is $oe Aeen#: a?ae o" his ights
an) B+$%0D $oe e#u!tant to te## o" his in)is!etions o !i$ina# %ehavio ?ithin the ?a##s o" his
ho$e. Moeove his "a$i#: an) othe "ien)s ae nea%:, thei =esen!e #en)ing $oa# su==ot. In
his o?n o""i!e, the investigato =ossesses a## the a)vantages. The at$os=hee suggests the
invin!i%i#it: o" the "o!es o" the #a?.
B/11D
To high#ight the iso#ation an) un"a$i#ia suoun)ings, the $anua#s instu!t the =o#i!e to )is=#a:
an ai o" !on"i)en!e in the sus=e!tDs gui#t an), "o$ out?a) a==eaan!e, to $aintain on#: an
inteest in !on"i$ing !etain )etai#s. The gui#t o" the su%>e!t is to %e =osite) as a "a!t. The
inteogato shou#) )ie!t his !o$$ents to?a) the easons ?h: the su%>e!t !o$$itte) the a!t,
athe than !out "ai#ue %: asAing the su%>e!t ?hethe he )i) it. LiAe othe $en, =eha=s the
su%>e!t has ha) a %a) "a$i#: #i"e, ha) an unha==: !hi#)hoo), ha) too $u!h to )inA, ha) an
une@uite) )esie "o ?o$en. The o""i!es ae instu!te) to $ini$iHe the $oa# seiousness o" the
o""ense,
B/1D
to !ast %#a$e on the vi!ti$ o on so!iet:.
B/1"D
These ta!ti!s ae )esigne) to =ut the
su%>e!t in a =s:!ho#ogi!a# state ?hee his sto: is %ut an e#a%oation o" ?hat the =o#i!e =u=ot to
Ano? a#ea): ** that he is gui#t:. E<=#anations to the !onta: ae )is$isse) an) )is!ouage).
The te<ts thus stess that the $a>o @ua#ities an inteogato shou#) =ossess ae =atien!e an)
=esevean!e. B+$%1D One ?ite )es!i%es the e""i!a!: o" these !haa!teisti!s in this $anneI
In the =e!e)ing =aaga=hs, e$=hasis has %een =#a!e) on Ain)ness an) statage$s. The
investigato ?i##, ho?eve, en!ounte $an: situations ?hee the shee ?eight o" his =esona#it:
?i## %e the )e!i)ing "a!to. Whee e$otiona# a==ea#s an) ti!As ae e$=#o:e) to no avai#, he
$ust e#: on an o==essive at$os=hee o" )ogge) =esisten!e. 6e $ust inteogate stea)i#: an)
?ithout e#ent, #eaving the su%>e!t no =os=e!t o" su!ease. 6e $ust )o$inate his su%>e!t an)
ove?he#$ hi$ ?ith his ine<oa%#e ?i## to o%tain the tuth. 6e shou#) inteogate "o a s=e## o"
sevea# hous, =ausing on#: "o the su%>e!tDs ne!essities in a!Ano?#e)g$ent o" the nee) to avoi)
a !hage o" )uess that !an %e te!hni!a##: su%stantiate). In a seious !ase, the inteogation $a:
!ontinue "o )a:s, ?ith the e@uie) inteva#s "o "oo) an) s#ee=, %ut ?ith no es=ite "o$ the
at$os=hee o" )o$ination. It is =ossi%#e in this ?a: to in)u!e the su%>e!t to ta#A ?ithout
Page 14 of 75
esoting to )uess o !oe!ion. The $etho) shou#) %e use) on#: ?hen the gui#t o" the su%>e!t
a==eas high#: =o%a%#e.
B/1$D
The $anua#s suggest that the sus=e!t %e o""ee) #ega# e<!uses "o his a!tions in o)e to o%tain an
initia# a)$ission o" gui#t. Whee thee is a sus=e!te) evenge Ai##ing, "o e<a$=#e, the
inteogato $a: sa:I
-oe, :ou =o%a%#: )i)nDt go out #ooAing "o this "e##o? ?ith the =u=ose o" shooting hi$. M:
guess is, ho?eve, that :ou e<=e!te) so$ething "o$ hi$, an) thatDs ?h: :ou !aie) a gun ** "o
:ou o?n =ote!tion. /ou Ane? hi$ "o ?hat he ?as, no goo). Then ?hen :ou $et hi$, he
=o%a%#: state) using "ou#, a%usive #anguage an) he gave so$e in)i!ationB+$%D that he ?as
a%out to =u## a gun on :ou, an) thatDs ?hen :ou ha) to a!t to save :ou o?n #i"e. ThatDs a%out it,
isnDt it, -oeR
B/1%D
6aving then o%taine) the a)$ission o" shooting, the inteogato is a)vise) to e"e to
!i!u$stantia# evi)en!e ?hi!h negates the se#"*)e"ense e<=#anation. This shou#) ena%#e hi$ to
se!ue the entie sto:. One te<t notes that,
Even i" he "ai#s to )o so, the in!onsisten!: %et?een the su%>e!tDs oigina# )enia# o" the shooting
an) his =esent a)$ission o" at #east )oing the shooting ?i## seve to )e=ive hi$ o" a se#"*
)e"ense BoutB at the ti$e o" tia#.
B/15D
When the te!hni@ues )es!i%e) a%ove =ove unavai#ing, the te<ts e!o$$en) the: %e a#tenate)
?ith a sho? o" so$e hosti#it:. One =#o: o"ten use) has %een te$e) the B"ien)#:*un"ien)#:,B o
the BMutt an) -e""B a!tI
. . . In this te!hni@ue, t?o agents ae e$=#o:e). Mutt, the e#ent#ess investigato, ?ho Ano?s the
su%>e!t is gui#t: an) is not going to ?aste an: ti$e. 6eDs sent a )oHen $en a?a: "o this !i$e,
an) heDs going to sen) the su%>e!t a?a: "o the "u## te$. -e"", on the othe han), is o%vious#: a
Ain)heate) $an. 6e has a "a$i#: hi$se#". 6e has a %othe ?ho ?as invo#ve) in a #itt#e s!a=e
#iAe this. 6e )isa==oves o" Mutt an) his ta!ti!s, an) ?i## aange to get hi$ o"" the !ase i" the
su%>e!t ?i## !oo=eate. 6e !anDt ho#) Mutt o"" "o ve: #ong. The su%>e!t ?ou#) %e ?ise to $aAe a
@ui!A )e!ision. The te!hni@ue is a==#ie) %: having %oth investigatos =esent ?hi#e Mutt a!ts out
his o#e. -e"" $a: stan) %: @uiet#: an) )e$u at so$e o" MuttDs ta!ti!s. When -e"" $aAes his =#ea
"o !oo=eation, Mutt is not =esent in the oo$.
B/16D
B+$%"D
The inteogatos so$eti$es ae instu!te) to in)u!e a !on"ession out o" ti!Ae:. The te!hni@ue
hee is @uite e""e!tive in !i$es ?hi!h e@uie i)enti"i!ation o ?hi!h un in seies. In the
i)enti"i!ation situation, the inteogato $a: taAe a %eaA in his @uestioning to =#a!e the su%>e!t
a$ong a gou= o" $en in a #ine*u=.
The ?itness o !o$=#ainant 0=evious#: !oa!he), i" ne!essa:2 stu)ies the #ine*u= an)
!on"i)ent#: =oints out the su%>e!t as the gui#t: =at:.
B/1;D
Then the @uestioning esu$es Bas though thee ?ee no? no )ou%t a%out the gui#t o" the
su%>e!t.B A vaiation on this te!hni@ue is !a##e) the Bevese #ine*u=BI
The a!!use) is =#a!e) in a #ine*u=, %ut this ti$e he is i)enti"ie) %: sevea# "i!titious ?itnesses o
vi!ti$s ?ho asso!iate) hi$ ?ith )i""eent o""enses. It is e<=e!te) that the su%>e!t ?i## %e!o$e
Page 15 of 75
)es=eate an) !on"ess to the o""ense un)e investigation in o)e to es!a=e "o$ the "a#se
a!!usations.
B/1?D
The $anua#s a#so !ontain instu!tions "o =o#i!e on ho? to han)#e the in)ivi)ua# ?ho e"uses to
)is!uss the $atte entie#:, o ?ho asAs "o an attone: o e#atives. The e<a$ine is to !on!e)e
hi$ the ight to e$ain si#ent.
This usua##: has a ve: un)e$ining e""e!t. Fist o" a##, he is )isa==ointe) in his e<=e!tation o"
an un"avoa%#e ea!tion on the =at o" the inteogato. Se!on)#:, a !on!ession o" this ight to
e$ain si#ent i$=esses B+$%$D the su%>e!t ?ith the a==aent "ainess o" his inteogato.
B/0D
A"te this =s:!ho#ogi!a# !on)itioning, ho?eve, the o""i!e is to#) to =oint out the in!i$inating
signi"i!an!e o" the sus=e!tDs e"usa# to ta#AI
-oe, :ou have a ight to e$ain si#ent. ThatDs :ou =ivi#ege, an) ID$ the #ast =eson in the ?o#)
?hoD## t: to taAe it a?a: "o$ :ou. I" thatDs the ?a: :ou ?ant to #eave this, O. O. But #et $e asA
:ou this. Su==ose :ou ?ee in $: shoes, an) I ?ee in :ous, an) :ou !a##e) $e in to asA $e
a%out this, an) I to#) :ou, BI )onDt ?ant to ans?e an: o" :ou @uestions.B /ouD) thinA I ha)
so$ething to hi)e, an) :ouD) =o%a%#: %e ight in thinAing that. ThatDs e<a!t#: ?hat ID## have to
thinA a%out :ou, an) so ?i## eve:%o): e#se. So #etDs sit hee an) ta#A this ?ho#e thing ove.
B/1D
Fe? ?i## =esist in thei initia# e"usa# to ta#A, it is sai), i" this $ono#ogue is e$=#o:e) !oe!t#:.
In the event that the su%>e!t ?ishes to s=eaA to a e#ative o an attone:, the "o##o?ing a)vi!e is
ten)ee)I
KTLhe inteogato shou#) es=on) %: suggesting that the su%>e!t "ist te## the tuth to the
inteogato hi$se#", athe than get an:one e#se invo#ve) in the $atte. I" the e@uest is "o an
attone:, the inteogato $a: suggest that the su%>e!t save hi$se#" o his "a$i#: the e<=ense o"
an: su!h =o"essiona# sevi!e, =ati!u#a#: i" he is inno!ent o" the o""ense un)e investigation.
The inteogato $a: a#so a)), B-oe, ID$ on#: #ooAing "o the tuth, an) i" :ouDe te##ing the tuth,
thatDs it. /ou !an han)#e this %: :ouse#".B
B/D
B+$%%D
Fo$ these e=esentative sa$=#es o" inteogation te!hni@ues, the setting =es!i%e) %: the
$anua#s an) o%seve) in =a!ti!e %e!o$es !#ea. In essen!e, it is thisI to %e a#one ?ith the
su%>e!t is essentia# to =event )ista!tion an) to )e=ive hi$ o" an: outsi)e su==ot. The aua o"
!on"i)en!e in his gui#t un)e$ines his ?i## to esist. 6e $ee#: !on"i$s the =e!on!eive) sto:
the =o#i!e seeA to have hi$ )es!i%e. +atien!e an) =esisten!e, at ti$es e#ent#ess @uestioning,
ae e$=#o:e). To o%tain a !on"ession, the inteogato $ust B=atient#: $aneuve hi$se#" o his
@ua: into a =osition "o$ ?hi!h the )esie) o%>e!tive $a: %e attaine).B
B/"D
When no$a#
=o!e)ues "ai# to =o)u!e the nee)e) esu#t, the =o#i!e $a: esot to )e!e=tive statage$s su!h
as giving "a#se #ega# a)vi!e. It is i$=otant to Aee= the su%>e!t o"" %a#an!e, "o e<a$=#e, %:
ta)ing on his inse!uit: a%out hi$se#" o his suoun)ings. The =o#i!e then =esua)e, ti!A, o
!a>o#e hi$ out o" e<e!ising his !onstitutiona# ights.
Even ?ithout e$=#o:ing %uta#it:, the Bthi) )egeeB o the s=e!i"i! statage$s )es!i%e) a%ove,
the ve: "a!t o" !usto)ia# inteogation e<a!ts a heav: to## on in)ivi)ua# #i%et:, an) ta)es on the
?eaAness o" in)ivi)ua#s.
B/$D
B+$%5D This "a!t $a: %e i##ustate) si$=#: %: e"eing to thee
!on"ession !ases )e!i)e) %: this Cout in the Te$ i$$e)iate#: =e!e)ing
ou -scobedo )e!ision. In Townsend v. Sain" 39& U.S. &E3 0(EJ32, the )e"en)ant ?as a (E*:ea*
Page 16 of 75
o#) heoin a))i!t, )es!i%e) as a Bnea $enta# )e"e!tive,B id. at 3'9*3('. The )e"en)ant
in Lynumn v. .llinois" 39& U.S. 5&8 0(EJ32, ?as a ?o$an ?ho !on"esse) to the aesting o""i!e
a"te %eing i$=otune) to B!oo=eateB in o)e to =event he !hi#)en "o$ %eing taAen %: e#ie"
authoities. This Cout, as in those !ases, evese) the !onvi!tion o" a )e"en)ant in #aynes v.
Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3 0(EJ32, ?hose =esistent e@uest )uing his inteogation ?as to =hone
his ?i"e o attone:.
B/%D
In othe settings, these in)ivi)ua#s $ight have e<e!ise) thei
!onstitutiona# ights. In the in!o$$uni!a)o =o#i!e*)o$inate) at$os=hee, the: su!!u$%e).
In the !ases %e"oe us to)a:, given this %a!Agoun), ?e !on!en ouse#ves =i$ai#: ?ith this
inteogation at$os=hee an) the evi#s it !an %ing. In No. 95E, Miranda v. (ri+ona"the =o#i!e
aeste) the )e"en)ant an) tooA hi$ to a s=e!ia# inteogation oo$, ?hee the: se!ue) a
!on"ession. In No. 9J', /ignera v. New *or)" the )e"en)ant $a)e oa# a)$issions to the =o#i!e
a"te inteogation in the a"tenoon, an) then signe) an in!u#=ato: state$ent u=on %eing
@uestione) %: an assistant )isti!t attone: #ate the sa$e evening. In No. 9J(, Westover v.
United States" the )e"en)ant ?as han)e) ove to the Fe)ea# Bueau o" Investigation
%: B+$%6D #o!a# authoities a"te the: ha) )etaine) an) inteogate) hi$ "o a #ength: =eio),
%oth at night an) the "o##o?ing $oning. A"te so$e t?o hous o" @uestioning, the "e)ea#
o""i!es ha) o%taine) signe) state$ents "o$ the )e"en)ant. Last#:, in No. 584, California v.
Stewart" the #o!a# =o#i!e he#) the )e"en)ant "ive )a:s in the station an) inteogate) hi$ on nine
se=aate o!!asions %e"oe the: se!ue) his in!u#=ato: state$ent.
In these !ases, ?e $ight not "in) the )e"en)antsD state$ents to have %een invo#unta: in
ta)itiona# te$s. Ou !on!en "o a)e@uate sa"egua)s to =ote!t =e!ious Fi"th A$en)$ent
ights is, o" !ouse, not #essene) in the s#ightest. In ea!h o" the !ases, the )e"en)ant ?as thust
into an un"a$i#ia at$os=hee an) un though $ena!ing =o#i!e inteogation =o!e)ues. The
=otentia#it: "o !o$=u#sion is "o!e"u##: a==aent, "o e<a$=#e, in Miranda" ?hee the in)igent
Me<i!an )e"en)ant ?as a seious#: )istu%e) in)ivi)ua# ?ith =onoun!e) se<ua# "antasies, an)
in Stewart" in ?hi!h the )e"en)ant ?as an in)igent Los Ange#es Nego ?ho ha) )o==e) out o"
s!hoo# in the si<th ga)e. To %e sue, the e!o)s )o not evin!e ovet =h:si!a# !oe!ion o =atent
=s:!ho#ogi!a# =#o:s. The "a!t e$ains that in none o" these !ases )i) the o""i!es un)etaAe to
a""o) a==o=iate sa"egua)s at the outset o" the inteogation to insue that the state$ents ?ee
tu#: the =o)u!t o" "ee !hoi!e.
It is o%vious that su!h an inteogation envion$ent is !eate) "o no =u=ose othe than to
su%>ugate the in)ivi)ua# to the ?i## o" his e<a$ine. This at$os=hee !aies its o?n %a)ge o"
inti$i)ation. To %e sue, this is not =h:si!a# inti$i)ation, %ut it is e@ua##: )estu!tive o" hu$an
)ignit:.
B/5D
The !uent =a!ti!e o" in!o$$uni!a)o inteogation is at o))s ?ith one o"
ou B+$%;D NationDs $ost !heishe) =in!i=#es ** that the in)ivi)ua# $a: not %e !o$=e##e) to
in!i$inate hi$se#". Un#ess a)e@uate =ote!tive )evi!es ae e$=#o:e) to )is=e# the !o$=u#sion
inheent in !usto)ia# suoun)ings, no state$ent o%taine) "o$ the )e"en)ant !an tu#: %e the
=o)u!t o" his "ee !hoi!e.
Fo$ the "oegoing, ?e !an ea)i#: =e!eive an inti$ate !onne!tion %et?een the =ivi#ege
against se#"*in!i$ination an) =o#i!e !usto)ia# @uestioning. It is "itting to tun to histo: an)
=e!e)ent un)e#:ing the Se#"*In!i$ination C#ause to )ete$ine its a==#i!a%i#it: in this situation.
II
Page 17 of 75
We so$eti$es "oget ho? #ong it has taAen to esta%#ish the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination,
the sou!es "o$ ?hi!h it !a$e, an) the "evo ?ith ?hi!h it ?as )e"en)e). Its oots go %a!A into
an!ient ti$es.
B/6D
+eha=s B+$%?D the !iti!a# histoi!a# event she))ing #ight on its oigins an)
evo#ution ?as the tia# o" one -ohn Li#%un, a vo!a# anti*Stuat Leve##e, ?ho ?as $a)e to taAe
the Sta Cha$%e Oath in (J39. The oath ?ou#) have %oun) hi$ to ans?e to a## @uestions =ose)
to hi$ on an: su%>e!t. The Trial of %ohn Lilburn and %ohn Wharton" 3 6o?.St.T. (3(5 0(J392.
6e esiste) the oath an) )e!#ai$e) the =o!ee)ings, statingI
Anothe "un)a$enta# ight I then !onten)e) "o ?as that no $anDs !ons!ien!e ought to %e a!Ae)
%: oaths i$=ose) to ans?e to @uestions !on!ening hi$se#" in $attes !i$ina#, o =eten)e) to
%e so.
6a##e Q Davies, The Leve##e Ta!ts (J49*(J53, =. 454 0(E442
On a!!ount o" the Li#%un Tia#, +a#ia$ent a%o#ishe) the in@uisitoia# Cout o" Sta Cha$%e
an) ?ent "uthe in giving hi$ geneous e=aation. The #o"t: =in!i=#es to ?hi!h Li#%un ha)
a==ea#e) )uing his tia# gaine) =o=u#a a!!e=tan!e in Eng#an).
B/;D
These senti$ents ?oAe)
thei ?a: ove to the Co#onies, an) ?ee i$=#ante) a"te geat stugg#e into the Bi## o"
Rights.
B/?D
Those ?ho "a$e) ou Constitution an) the Bi## o" Rights ?ee eve a?ae o" su%t#e
en!oa!h$ents on in)ivi)ua# #i%et:. The: Ane? that
i##egiti$ate an) un!onstitutiona# =a!ti!es get thei "ist "ooting . . . %: si#ent a==oa!hes an)
s#ight )eviations "o$ #ega# $o)es o" =o!e)ue.
0oyd v. United States" ((J U.S. J(J, J35 0(88J2. The =ivi#ege ?as e#evate) to !onstitutiona#
status, an) has a#?a:s %een Bas %oa) as the $is!hie" B+$50D against ?hi!h it seeAs to
gua).B Counselman v. #itchcoc)" (4& U.S. 549, 5J& 0(8E&2. We !annot )e=at "o$ this no%#e
heitage.
Thus, ?e $a: vie? the histoi!a# )eve#o=$ent o" the =ivi#ege as one ?hi!h go=e) "o the
=o=e s!o=e o" goven$enta# =o?e ove the !itiHen. As a Bno%#e =in!i=#e o"ten tans!en)s its
oigins,B the =ivi#ege has !o$e ight"u##: to %e e!ogniHe) in =at as an in)ivi)ua#Ds su%stantive
ight, a Bight to a =ivate en!#ave ?hee he $a: #ea) a =ivate #i"e. That ight is the ha##$aA o"
ou )e$o!a!:.B United States v. !runewald" &33 F.&) 55J, 59E, 58(*58& 0FanA, -.,
)issenting2, rev2d" 353 U.S. 3E( 0(E592. We have e!ent#: note) that the =ivi#ege against se#"*
in!i$ination ** the essentia# $ainsta: o" ou a)vesa: s:ste$ ** is "oun)e) on a !o$=#e< o"
va#ues, Murphy v. Waterfront Comm2n" 398 U.S. 5&, 55*59, n. 5 0(EJ42; Tehan v. Shott" 38& U.S.
4'J, 4(4*4(5, n. (& 0(EJJ2. A## these =o#i!ies =oint to one ovei)ing thoughtI the !onstitutiona#
"oun)ation un)e#:ing the =ivi#ege is the es=e!t a goven$ent ** state o "e)ea# ** $ust a!!o)
to the )ignit: an) integit: o" its !itiHens. To $aintain a B"ai state*in)ivi)ua# %a#an!e,B to e@uie
the goven$ent Bto shou#)e the entie #oa),B 8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e 3(9 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2,
to es=e!t the invio#a%i#it: o" the hu$an =esona#it:, ou a!!usato: s:ste$ o" !i$ina# >usti!e
)e$an)s that the goven$ent seeAing to =unish an in)ivi)ua# =o)u!e the evi)en!e against hi$
%: its o?n in)e=en)ent #a%os, athe than %: the !ue#, si$=#e e<=e)ient o" !o$=e##ing it "o$
his o?n $outh. Chambers v. 'lorida" 3'E U.S. &&9, &35*&38 0(E4'2. In su$, the =ivi#ege is
"u#"i##e) on#: ?hen the =eson is guaantee) the ight Bto e$ain si#ent un#ess he !hooses to
s=eaA in the un"ettee) e<e!ise o" his o?n ?i##.B Malloy v. #ogan" 398 U.S. (, 8 0(EJ42.
Page 18 of 75
The @uestion in these !ases is ?hethe the =ivi#ege is "u##: a==#i!a%#e )uing a =eio) o"
!usto)ia# inteogation. B+$51D In this Cout, the =ivi#ege has !onsistent#: %een a!!o)e) a
#i%ea# !onstu!tion. (lbertson v. S(C0" 38& U.S. 9', 8( 0(EJ52; #offman v. United States"34(
U.S. 49E, 48J 0(E5(2; (rndstein v. McCarthy" &54 U.S. 9(, 9&*93 0(E&'2; Counselman v.
#itchoc)" (4& U.S. 549, 5J& 0(8E&2. We ae satis"ie) that a## the =in!i=#es e$%o)ie) in the
=ivi#ege a==#: to in"o$a# !o$=u#sion e<ete) %: #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!es )uing in*!usto):
@uestioning. An in)ivi)ua# s?e=t "o$ "a$i#ia suoun)ings into =o#i!e !usto):, suoun)e) %:
antagonisti! "o!es, an) su%>e!te) to the te!hni@ues o" =esuasion )es!i%e) a%ove !annot %e
othe?ise than un)e !o$=u#sion to s=eaA. As a =a!ti!a# $atte, the !o$=u#sion to s=eaA in the
iso#ate) setting o" the =o#i!e station $a: ?e## %e geate than in !outs o othe o""i!ia#
investigations, ?hee thee ae o"ten i$=atia# o%seves to gua) against inti$i)ation o
ti!Ae:.
B/"0D
This @uestion, in "a!t, !ou#) have %een taAen as sett#e) in "e)ea# !outs a#$ost 9' :eas ago,
?hen, in 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53&, 54& 0(8E92, this Cout he#)I
In !i$ina# tia#s, in the !outs o" the Unite) States, ?heeve a @uestion aises ?hethe a
!on"ession is in!o$=etent %e!ause not vo#unta:, the issue is !onto##e) %: that =otion o" the
Fi"th A$en)$ent . . . !o$$an)ing that no =eson Bsha## %e !o$=e##e) in an: !i$ina# !ase to %e
a ?itness against hi$se#".B
In 0ram" the Cout evie?e) the Bitish an) A$ei!an histo: an) !ase #a? an) set )o?n the
Fi"th A$en)$ent stan)a) "o !o$=u#sion ?hi!h ?e i$=#e$ent to)a:I
Mu!h o" the !on"usion ?hi!h has esu#te) "o$ the e""ot to )e)u!e "o$ the a)>u)ge) !ases
?hat B+$5D ?ou#) %e a su""i!ient @uantu$ o" =oo" to sho? that a !on"ession ?as o ?as not
vo#unta:, has aisen "o$ a $is!on!e=tion o" the su%>e!t to ?hi!h the =oo" $ust a))ess itse#".
The u#e is not that, in o)e to en)e a state$ent a)$issi%#e, the =oo" $ust %e a)e@uate to
esta%#ish that the =ati!u#a !o$$uni!ations !ontaine) in a state$ent ?ee vo#untai#: $a)e, %ut
it $ust %e su""i!ient to esta%#ish that the $aAing o" the state$ent ?as vo#unta:; that is to sa:,
that "o$ the !auses, ?hi!h the #a? teats as #ega##: su""i!ient to engen)e in the $in) o" the
a!!use) ho=e o "ea in es=e!t to the !i$e !hage), the a!!use) ?as not invo#untai#: i$=e##e)
to $aAe a state$ent, ?hen, %ut "o the i$=o=e in"#uen!es, he ?ou#) have e$aine) si#ent. . . .
(J8 U.S. at 54E. (nd see id. at 54&.
The Cout has a)hee) to this easoning. In (E&4, M. -usti!e Ban)eis ?ote "o a unani$ous
Cout in evesing a !onvi!tion esting on a !o$=e##e) !on"ession, Wan v. United States" &JJ
U.S. (. 6e state)I
In the "e)ea# !outs, the e@uisite o" vo#untainess is not satis"ie) %: esta%#ishing $ee#: that the
!on"ession ?as not in)u!e) %: a =o$ise o a theat. A !on"ession is vo#unta: in #a? i", an) on#:
i", it ?as, in "a!t, vo#untai#: $a)e. A !on"ession $a: have %een given vo#untai#:, a#though it
?as $a)e to =o#i!e o""i!es, ?hi#e in !usto):, an) in ans?e to an e<a$ination !on)u!te) %:
the$. But a !on"ession o%taine) %: !o$=u#sion $ust %e e<!#u)e) ?hateve $a: have %een the
!haa!te o" the !o$=u#sion, an) ?hethe the !o$=u#sion ?as a==#ie) in a >u)i!ia# =o!ee)ing o
othe?ise. 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53&.
&JJ U.S. at (4*(5. In a))ition to the e<=ansive histoi!a# )eve#o=$ent o" the =ivi#ege an) the
soun) =o#i!ies ?hi!h have nutue) B+$5"D its evo#ution, >u)i!ia# =e!e)ent thus !#ea#:
Page 19 of 75
esta%#ishes its a==#i!ation to in!o$$uni!a)o inteogation. In "a!t, the 1oven$ent !on!e)es
this =oint as ?e## esta%#ishe) in No. 9J(, Westover v. United States" statingI
We have no )ou%t . . . that it is =ossi%#e "o a sus=e!tDs Fi"th A$en)$ent ight to %e vio#ate)
)uing in*!usto): @uestioning %: a #a? en"o!e$ent o""i!e.
B/"1D
Be!ause o" the a)o=tion %: Congess o" Ru#e 50a2 o" the Fe)ea# Ru#es o" Ci$ina# +o!e)ue,
an) this CoutDs e""e!tuation o" that Ru#e in McNabb v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 33& 0(E432,
an) Mallory v. United States" 354 U.S. 44E 0(E592, ?e have ha) #itt#e o!!asion in the =ast @uate
!entu: to ea!h the !onstitutiona# issues in )ea#ing ?ith "e)ea# inteogations. These
su=eviso: u#es, e@uiing =o)u!tion o" an aeste) =eson %e"oe a !o$$issione B?ithout
unne!essa: )e#a:B an) e<!#u)ing evi)en!e o%taine) in )e"au#t o" that statuto: o%#igation, ?ee
nonethe#ess es=onsive to the sa$e !onsi)eations o" Fi"th A$en)$ent =o#i!: that unavoi)a%#:
"a!e us no? as to the States. InMcNabb" 3(8 U.S. at 343*344, an) in Mallory" 354 U.S. at 455*
45J, ?e e!ogniHe) %oth the )anges o" inteogation an) the a==o=iateness o" =o=h:#a<is
ste$$ing "o$ the ve: "a!t o" inteogation itse#".
B/"D
Ou )e!ision in Malloy v. #ogan" 398 U.S. ( 0(EJ42, ne!essitates an e<a$ination o" the s!o=e o"
the =ivi#ege in state !ases as ?e##. In Malloy" ?e s@uae#: he#) the B+$5$D=ivi#ege a==#i!a%#e to
the States, an) he#) that the su%stantive stan)a)s un)e#:ing the =ivi#ege a==#ie) ?ith "u## "o!e
to state !out =o!ee)ings. Thee, as in Murphy v. Waterfront Comm2n" 398 U.S. 5& 0(EJ42,
an) !riffin v. California" 38' U.S. J'E 0(EJ52, ?e a==#ie) the e<isting Fi"th A$en)$ent
stan)a)s to the !ase %e"oe us. Asi)e "o$ the ho#)ing itse#", the easoning in Malloy $a)e !#ea
?hat ha) a#ea): %e!o$e a==aent ** that the su%stantive an) =o!e)ua# sa"egua)s suoun)ing
a)$issi%i#it: o" !on"essions in state !ases ha) %e!o$e e<!ee)ing#: e<a!ting, e"#e!ting a## the
=o#i!ies e$%e))e) in the =ivi#ege, 398 U.S. at 9*8.
B/""D
The vo#untainess )o!tine in the state
!ases, as Malloyin)i!ates, en!o$=asses a## inteogation =a!ti!es ?hi!h ae #iAe#: to e<et su!h
=essue u=on an in)ivi)ua# as to )isa%#e hi$ "o$ B+$5%D $aAing a "ee an) ationa#
!hoi!e.
B/"$D
The i$=#i!ations o" this =o=osition ?ee e#a%oate) in ou )e!ision in -scobedo v.
.llinois"398 U.S. 498, )e!i)e) one ?eeA a"te Malloy a==#ie) the =ivi#ege to the States.
Ou ho#)ing thee stesse) the "a!t that the =o#i!e ha) not a)vise) the )e"en)ant o" his
!onstitutiona# =ivi#ege to e$ain si#ent at the outset o" the inteogation, an) ?e )e? attention
to that "a!t at sevea# =oints in the )e!ision, 398 U.S. at 483, 485, 4E(. This ?as no iso#ate)
"a!to, %ut an essentia# inge)ient in ou )e!ision. The entie thust o" =o#i!e inteogation thee,
as in a## the !ases to)a:, ?as to =ut the )e"en)ant in su!h an e$otiona# state as to i$=ai his
!a=a!it: "o ationa# >u)g$ent. The a%)i!ation o" the !onstitutiona# =ivi#ege ** the !hoi!e on his
=at to s=eaA to the =o#i!e ** ?as not $a)e Ano?ing#: o !o$=etent#: %e!ause o" the "ai#ue to
a==ise hi$ o" his ights; the !o$=e##ing at$os=hee o" the in*!usto): inteogation, an) not an
in)e=en)ent )e!ision on his =at, !ause) the )e"en)ant to s=eaA.
A )i""eent =hase o" the -scobedo )e!ision ?as signi"i!ant in its attention to the a%sen!e o"
!ounse# )uing the @uestioning. Thee, as in the !ases to)a:, ?e sought a =ote!tive )evi!e to
)is=e# the !o$=e##ing at$os=hee o" the inteogation. In -scobedo" ho?eve, the =o#i!e )i) not
e#ieve the )e"en)ant o" the an<ieties ?hi!h the: ha) !eate) in the inteogation oo$s. Rathe,
the: )enie) his e@uest "o the assistan!e o" !ounse#, 398 U.S. at 48(, 488, 4E(.
B/"%D
This
heightene) his )i#e$$a, an) B+$55D $a)e his #ate state$ents the =o)u!t o" this
!o$=u#sion. Cf. #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3, 5(4 0(EJ32. The )enia# o" the )e"en)antDs
Page 20 of 75
e@uest "o his attone: thus un)e$ine) his a%i#it: to e<e!ise the =ivi#ege ** to e$ain si#ent i"
he !hose o to s=eaA ?ithout an: inti$i)ation, %#atant o su%t#e. The =esen!e o" !ounse#, in a##
the !ases %e"oe us to)a:, ?ou#) he the a)e@uate =ote!tive )evi!e ne!essa: to $aAe the =o!ess
o" =o#i!e inteogation !on"o$ to the )i!tates o" the =ivi#ege. 6is =esen!e ?ou#) insue that
state$ents $a)e in the goven$ent*esta%#ishe) at$os=hee ae not the =o)u!t o" !o$=u#sion.
It ?as in this $anne that -scobedo e<=#i!ate) anothe "a!et o" the =etia# =ivi#ege, note) in
$an: o" the CoutDs =io )e!isionsI the =ote!tion o" ights at tia#.
B/"5D
That !ounse# is =esent
?hen state$ents ae taAen "o$ an in)ivi)ua# )uing inteogation o%vious#: enhan!es the
integit: o" the "a!t"in)ing =o!esses in !out. The =esen!e o" an attone:, an) the ?anings
)e#ivee) to the in)ivi)ua#, ena%#e the )e"en)ant un)e othe?ise !o$=e##ing !i!u$stan!es to
te## his sto: ?ithout "ea, e""e!tive#:, an) in a ?a: that e#i$inates the evi#s in the inteogation
=o!ess. Without the =ote!tions "#o?ing "o$ a)e@uate ?anings an) the ights o" !ounse#,
a## the !ae"u# sa"egua)s ee!te) aoun) the giving o" testi$on:, ?hethe %: an a!!use) o an:
othe ?itness, ?ou#) %e!o$e e$=t: "o$a#ities in a =o!e)ue ?hee the $ost !o$=e##ing
=ossi%#e evi)en!e o" gui#t, a !on"ession, ?ou#) have a#ea): %een o%taine) at the unsu=evise)
=#easue o" the =o#i!e.
Mapp v. &hio" 3J9 U.S. J43, J85 0(EJ(2 06ARLAN, -., )issenting2. Cf. 1ointer v. Te3as" 38'
U.S. 4'' 0(EJ52. B+$56D
III
To)a:, then, thee !an %e no )ou%t that the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege is avai#a%#e outsi)e o"
!i$ina# !out =o!ee)ings, an) seves to =ote!t =esons in a## settings in ?hi!h thei "ee)o$ o"
a!tion is !utai#e) in an: signi"i!ant ?a: "o$ %eing !o$=e##e) to in!i$inate the$se#ves. We
have !on!#u)e) that, ?ithout =o=e sa"egua)s, the =o!ess o" in*!usto): inteogation o"
=esons sus=e!te) o a!!use) o" !i$e !ontains inheent#: !o$=e##ing =essues ?hi!h ?oA to
un)e$ine the in)ivi)ua#Ds ?i## to esist an) to !o$=e# hi$ to s=eaA ?hee he ?ou#) not
othe?ise )o so "ee#:. In o)e to !o$%at these =essues an) to =e$it a "u## o==otunit: to
e<e!ise the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination, the a!!use) $ust %e a)e@uate#: an) e""e!tive#:
a==ise) o" his ights, an) the e<e!ise o" those ights $ust %e "u##: honoe).
It is i$=ossi%#e "o us to "oesee the =otentia# a#tenatives "o =ote!ting the =ivi#ege ?hi!h
$ight %e )evise) %: Congess o the States in the e<e!ise o" thei !eative u#e$aAing
!a=a!ities. Thee"oe, ?e !annot sa: that the Constitution ne!essai#: e@uies a)heen!e to an:
=ati!u#a so#ution "o the inheent !o$=u#sions o" the inteogation =o!ess as it is =esent#:
!on)u!te). Ou )e!ision in no ?a: !eates a !onstitutiona# stait>a!Aet ?hi!h ?i## han)i!a= soun)
e""ots at e"o$, no is it inten)e) to have this e""e!t. We en!ouage Congess an) the States to
!ontinue thei #au)a%#e sea!h "o in!easing#: e""e!tive ?a:s o" =ote!ting the ights o" the
in)ivi)ua# ?hi#e =o$oting e""i!ient en"o!e$ent o" ou !i$ina# #a?s. 6o?eve, un#ess ?e ae
sho?n othe =o!e)ues ?hi!h ae at #east as e""e!tive in a==ising a!!use) =esons o" thei ight
o" si#en!e an) in assuing a !ontinuous o==otunit: to e<e!ise it, the "o##o?ing sa"egua)s $ust
%e o%seve).
At the outset, i" a =eson in !usto): is to %e su%>e!te) to inteogation, he $ust "ist %e in"o$e)
in !#ea an) B+$5;D une@uivo!a# te$s that he has the ight to e$ain si#ent. Fo those una?ae o"
the =ivi#ege, the ?aning is nee)e) si$=#: to $aAe the$ a?ae o" it ** the thesho#) e@uie$ent
Page 21 of 75
"o an inte##igent )e!ision as to its e<e!ise. Moe i$=otant, su!h a ?aning is an a%so#ute
=ee@uisite in ove!o$ing the inheent =essues o" the inteogation at$os=hee. It is not >ust
the su%no$a# o ?oe"u##: ignoant ?ho su!!u$% to an inteogatoDs i$=e!ations, ?hethe
i$=#ie) o e<=ess#: state), that the inteogation ?i## !ontinue unti# a !on"ession is o%taine) o
that si#en!e in the "a!e o" a!!usation is itse#" )a$ning, an) ?i## %o)e i## ?hen =esente) to a
>u:.
B/"6D
Futhe, the ?aning ?i## sho? the in)ivi)ua# that his inteogatos ae =e=ae) to
e!ogniHe his =ivi#ege shou#) he !hoose to e<e!ise it.
The Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege is so "un)a$enta# to ou s:ste$ o" !onstitutiona# u#e, an) the
e<=e)ient o" giving an a)e@uate ?aning as to the avai#a%i#it: o" the =ivi#ege so si$=#e, ?e ?i##
not =ause to in@uie in in)ivi)ua# !ases ?hethe the )e"en)ant ?as a?ae o" his ights ?ithout a
?aning %eing given. Assess$ents o" the Ano?#e)ge the )e"en)ant =ossesse), %ase) on
in"o$ation B+$5?D as to his age, e)u!ation, inte##igen!e, o =io !onta!t ?ith authoities, !an
neve %e $oe than s=e!u#ation;
B/";D
a ?aning is a !#ea*!ut "a!t. Moe i$=otant, ?hateve the
%a!Agoun) o" the =eson inteogate), a ?aning at the ti$e o" the inteogation is in)is=ensa%#e
to ove!o$e its =essues an) to insue that the in)ivi)ua# Ano?s he is "ee to e<e!ise the
=ivi#ege at that =oint in ti$e.
The ?aning o" the ight to e$ain si#ent $ust %e a!!o$=anie) %: the e<=#anation that an:thing
sai) !an an) ?i## %e use) against the in)ivi)ua# in !out. This ?aning is nee)e) in o)e to $aAe
hi$ a?ae not on#: o" the =ivi#ege, %ut a#so o" the !onse@uen!es o" "ogoing it. It is on#:
though an a?aeness o" these !onse@uen!es that thee !an %e an: assuan!e o" ea#
un)estan)ing an) inte##igent e<e!ise o" the =ivi#ege. Moeove, this ?aning $a: seve to
$aAe the in)ivi)ua# $oe a!ute#: a?ae that he is "a!e) ?ith a =hase o" the a)vesa: s:ste$ **
that he is not in the =esen!e o" =esons a!ting so#e#: in his inteest.
The !i!u$stan!es suoun)ing in*!usto): inteogation !an o=eate ve: @ui!A#: to ove%ea the
?i## o" one $ee#: $a)e a?ae o" his =ivi#ege %: his inteogatos. Thee"oe, the ight to have
!ounse# =esent at the inteogation is in)is=ensa%#e to the =ote!tion o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent
=ivi#ege un)e the s:ste$ ?e )e#ineate to)a:. Ou ai$ is to assue that the in)ivi)ua#Ds ight to
!hoose %et?een si#en!e an) s=ee!h e$ains un"ettee) thoughout the inteogation =o!ess. A
on!e*state) ?aning, )e#ivee) %: those ?ho ?i## !on)u!t the inteogation, !annot itse#" su""i!e
to that en) a$ong those ?ho $ost e@uie Ano?#e)ge o" thei ights. A $ee B+$60D ?aning
given %: the inteogatos is not a#one su""i!ient to a!!o$=#ish that en). +ose!utos the$se#ves
!#ai$ that the a)$onish$ent o" the ight to e$ain si#ent, ?ithout $oe, B?i## %ene"it on#: the
e!i)ivist an) the =o"essiona#.B Bie" "o the Nationa# Disti!t Attone:s Asso!iation asamicus
curiae" =. (4. Even =e#i$ina: a)vi!e given to the a!!use) %: his o?n attone: !an %e s?i"t#:
ove!o$e %: the se!et inteogation =o!ess. Cf. -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, 485, n. 5.
Thus, the nee) "o !ounse# to =ote!t the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege !o$=ehen)s not $ee#: a
ight to !onsu#t ?ith !ounse# =io to @uestioning, %ut a#so to have !ounse# =esent )uing an:
@uestioning i" the )e"en)ant so )esies.
The =esen!e o" !ounse# at the inteogation $a: seve sevea# signi"i!ant su%si)ia: "un!tions,
as ?e##. I" the a!!use) )e!i)es to ta#A to his inteogatos, the assistan!e o" !ounse# !an $itigate
the )anges o" untust?othiness. With a #a?:e =esent, the #iAe#ihoo) that the =o#i!e ?i##
=a!ti!e !oe!ion is e)u!e), an), i" !oe!ion is nevethe#ess e<e!ise), the #a?:e !an testi": to it
in !out. The =esen!e o" a #a?:e !an a#so he#= to guaantee that the a!!use) gives a "u##:
Page 22 of 75
a!!uate state$ent to the =o#i!e, an) that the state$ent is ight#: e=ote) %: the =ose!ution at
tia#. See Croo)er v. California" 359 U.S. 433, 443*448 0(E582 0DOU1LAS, -., )issenting2.
An in)ivi)ua# nee) not $aAe a =e*inteogation e@uest "o a #a?:e. Whi#e su!h e@uest
a""i$ative#: se!ues his ight to have one, his "ai#ue to asA "o a #a?:e )oes not !onstitute a
?aive. No e""e!tive ?aive o" the ight to !ounse# )uing inteogation !an %e e!ogniHe) un#ess
s=e!i"i!a##: $a)e a"te the ?anings ?e hee )e#ineate have %een given. The a!!use) ?ho )oes
not Ano? his ights an) thee"oe )oes not $aAe a e@uest B+$61D$a: %e the =eson ?ho $ost
nee)s !ounse#. As the Ca#i"onia Su=e$e Cout has a=t#: =ut itI
Fina##:, ?e $ust e!ogniHe that the i$=osition o" the e@uie$ent "o the e@uest ?ou#)
)is!i$inate against the )e"en)ant ?ho )oes not Ano? his ights. The )e"en)ant ?ho )oes not
asA "o !ounse# is the ve: )e"en)ant ?ho $ost nee)s !ounse#. We !annot =ena#iHe a )e"en)ant
?ho, not un)estan)ing his !onstitutiona# ights, )oes not $aAe the "o$a# e@uest, an), %: su!h
"ai#ue, )e$onstates his he#=#essness. To e@uie the e@uest ?ou#) %e to "avo the )e"en)ant
?hose so=histi!ation o status ha) "otuitous#: =o$=te) hi$ to $aAe it.
1eople v. orado" J& Ca#.&) 338, 35(, 3E8 +.&) 3J(, 3JE*39', 4& Ca#.R=t. (JE, (99*(98 0(EJ52
0To%ine, -.2. In Carnley v. Cochran" 3JE U.S. 5'J, 5(3 0(EJ&2, ?e state)I
KILt is sett#e) that, ?hee the assistan!e o" !ounse# is a !onstitutiona# e@uisite, the ight to %e
"unishe) !ounse# )oes not )e=en) on a e@uest.
This =o=osition a==#ies ?ith e@ua# "o!e in the !onte<t o" =ovi)ing !ounse# to =ote!t an
a!!use)Ds Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege in the "a!e o" inteogation.
B/"?D
A#though the o#e o"
!ounse# at tia# )i""es "o$ the o#e )uing inteogation, the )i""een!es ae not e#evant to the
@uestion ?hethe a e@uest is a =ee@uisite.
A!!o)ing#:, ?e ho#) that an in)ivi)ua# he#) "o inteogation $ust %e !#ea#: in"o$e) that he
has the ight to !onsu#t ?ith a #a?:e an) to have the #a?:e ?ith hi$ )uing inteogation un)e
the s:ste$ "o =ote!ting the =ivi#ege ?e )e#ineate to)a:. As ?ith the ?anings o" the ight to
e$ain si#ent an) that an:thing state) !an %e use) in evi)en!e against hi$, this ?aning is an
a%so#ute =ee@uisite to inteogation. No a$ount o"B+$6D !i!u$stantia# evi)en!e that the
=eson $a: have %een a?ae o" this ight ?i## su""i!e to stan) in its stea). On#: though su!h a
?aning is thee as!etaina%#e assuan!e that the a!!use) ?as a?ae o" this ight.
I" an in)ivi)ua# in)i!ates that he ?ishes the assistan!e o" !ounse# %e"oe an: inteogation
o!!us, the authoities !annot ationa##: ignoe o )en: his e@uest on the %asis that the in)ivi)ua#
)oes not have o !annot a""o) a etaine) attone:. The "inan!ia# a%i#it: o" the in)ivi)ua# has no
e#ationshi= to the s!o=e o" the ights invo#ve) hee. The =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination
se!ue) %: the Constitution a==#ies to a## in)ivi)ua#s. The nee) "o !ounse# in o)e to =ote!t the
=ivi#ege e<ists "o the in)igent as ?e## as the a""#uent. In "a!t, ?ee ?e to #i$it these
!onstitutiona# ights to those ?ho !an etain an attone:, ou )e!isions to)a: ?ou#) %e o" #itt#e
signi"i!an!e. The !ases %e"oe us, as ?e## as the vast $a>oit: o" !on"ession !ases ?ith ?hi!h ?e
have )ea#t in the =ast, invo#ve those una%#e to etain !ounse#.
B/$0D
Whi#e authoities ae not
e@uie) to e#ieve the a!!use) o" his =ovet:, the: have the o%#igation not to taAe a)vantage o"
in)igen!e in the a)$inistation o" >usti!e.
B/$1D
Denia# B+$6"D o" !ounse# to the in)igent at the ti$e
o" inteogation ?hi#e a##o?ing an attone: to those ?ho !an a""o) one ?ou#) %e no $oe
Page 23 of 75
su==ota%#e %: eason o #ogi! than the si$i#a situation at tia# an) on a==ea# stu!A )o?n
in !ideon v. Wainwright" 39& U.S. 335 0(EJ32, an) ouglas v. California" 39& U.S. 353 0(EJ32.
In o)e "u##: to a==ise a =eson inteogate) o" the e<tent o" his ights un)e this s:ste$, then, it
is ne!essa: to ?an hi$ not on#: that he has the ight to !onsu#t ?ith an attone:, %ut a#so that, i"
he is in)igent, a #a?:e ?i## %e a==ointe) to e=esent hi$. Without this a))itiona# ?aning, the
a)$onition o" the ight to !onsu#t ?ith !ounse# ?ou#) o"ten %e un)estoo) as $eaning on#: that
he !an !onsu#t ?ith a #a?:e i" he has one o has the "un)s to o%tain one. The ?aning o" a ight
to !ounse# ?ou#) %e ho##o? i" not !ou!he) in te$s that ?ou#) !onve: to the in)igent ** the
=eson $ost o"ten su%>e!te) to inteogation ** the Ano?#e)ge that he too has a ight to have
!ounse# =esent.
B/$D
As ?ith the ?anings o" the ight to e$ain si#ent an) o" the genea# ight to
!ounse#, on#: %: e""e!tive an) e<=ess e<=#anation to the in)igent o" this ight !an thee %e
assuan!e that he ?as tu#: in a =osition to e<e!ise it.
B/$"D
On!e ?anings have %een given, the su%se@uent =o!e)ue is !#ea. I" the in)ivi)ua# in)i!ates in
an: $anne, B+$6$D at an: ti$e =io to o )uing @uestioning, that he ?ishes to e$ain si#ent,
the inteogation $ust !ease.
B/$$D
At this =oint, he has sho?n that he inten)s to e<e!ise his Fi"th
A$en)$ent =ivi#ege; an: state$ent taAen a"te the =eson invoAes his =ivi#ege !annot %e othe
than the =o)u!t o" !o$=u#sion, su%t#e o othe?ise. Without the ight to !ut o"" @uestioning, the
setting o" in*!usto): inteogation o=eates on the in)ivi)ua# to ove!o$e "ee !hoi!e in
=o)u!ing a state$ent a"te the =ivi#ege has %een on!e invoAe). I" the in)ivi)ua# states that he
?ants an attone:, the inteogation $ust !ease unti# an attone: is =esent. At that ti$e, the
in)ivi)ua# $ust have an o==otunit: to !on"e ?ith the attone: an) to have hi$ =esent )uing
an: su%se@uent @uestioning. I" the in)ivi)ua# !annot o%tain an attone: an) he in)i!ates that he
?ants one %e"oe s=eaAing to =o#i!e, the: $ust es=e!t his )e!ision to e$ain si#ent.
This )oes not $ean, as so$e have suggeste), that ea!h =o#i!e station $ust have a Bstation house
#a?:eB =esent at a## ti$es to a)vise =isones. It )oes $ean, ho?eve, that, i" =o#i!e =o=ose to
inteogate a =eson, the: $ust $aAe Ano?n to hi$ that he is entit#e) to a #a?:e an) that, i" he
!annot a""o) one, a #a?:e ?i## %e =ovi)e) "o hi$ =io to an: inteogation. I" authoities
!on!#u)e that the: ?i## not =ovi)e !ounse# )uing a easona%#e =eio) o" ti$e in ?hi!h
investigation in the "ie#) is !aie) out, the: $a: e"ain "o$ )oing so ?ithout vio#ating the
=esonDs Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege so #ong as the: )o not @uestion hi$ )uing that ti$e. B+$6%D
I" the inteogation !ontinues ?ithout the =esen!e o" an attone: an) a state$ent is taAen, a
heav: %u)en ests on the goven$ent to )e$onstate that the )e"en)ant Ano?ing#: an)
inte##igent#: ?aive) his =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination an) his ight to etaine) o a==ointe)
!ounse#. -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, 4E', n. (4. This Cout has a#?a:s set high stan)a)s
o" =oo" "o the ?aive o" !onstitutiona# ights, %ohnson v. 4erbst" 3'4 U.S. 458 0(E382, an) ?e
easset these stan)a)s as a==#ie) to in*!usto): inteogation. Sin!e the State is es=onsi%#e "o
esta%#ishing the iso#ate) !i!u$stan!es un)e ?hi!h the inteogation taAes =#a!e, an) has the
on#: $eans o" $aAing avai#a%#e !oo%oate) evi)en!e o" ?anings given )uing in!o$$uni!a)o
inteogation, the %u)en is ight#: on its shou#)es.
An e<=ess state$ent that the in)ivi)ua# is ?i##ing to $aAe a state$ent an) )oes not ?ant an
attone:, "o##o?e) !#ose#: %: a state$ent, !ou#) !onstitute a ?aive. But a va#i) ?aive ?i## not
%e =esu$e) si$=#: "o$ the si#en!e o" the a!!use) a"te ?anings ae given, o si$=#: "o$ the
Page 24 of 75
"a!t that a !on"ession ?as, in "a!t, eventua##: o%taine). A state$ent ?e $a)e in Carnley v.
Cochran" 3JE U.S. 5'J, 5(J 0(EJ&2, is a==#i!a%#e heeI
+esu$ing ?aive "o$ a si#ent e!o) is i$=e$issi%#e. The e!o) $ust sho?, o thee $ust %e
an a##egation an) evi)en!e ?hi!h sho?, that an a!!use) ?as o""ee) !ounse# %ut inte##igent#: an)
un)estan)ing#: e>e!te) the o""e. An:thing #ess is not ?aive.
See also !lasser v. United States" 3(5 U.S. J' 0(E4&2. Moeove, ?hee in*!usto): inteogation
is invo#ve), thee is no oo$ "o the !ontention that the =ivi#ege is ?aive) i" the in)ivi)ua#
ans?es so$e @uestions o gives B+$65D so$e in"o$ation on his o?n =io to invoAing his ight
to e$ain si#ent ?hen inteogate).
B/$%D
Whateve the testi$on: o" the authoities as to ?aive o" ights %: an a!!use), the "a!t o" #ength:
inteogation o in!o$$uni!a)o in!a!eation %e"oe a state$ent is $a)e is stong evi)en!e that
the a!!use) )i) not va#i)#: ?aive his ights. In these !i!u$stan!es, the "a!t that the in)ivi)ua#
eventua##: $a)e a state$ent is !onsistent ?ith the !on!#usion that the !o$=e##ing in"#uen!e o"
the inteogation "ina##: "o!e) hi$ to )o so. It is in!onsistent ?ith an: notion o" a vo#unta:
e#in@uish$ent o" the =ivi#ege. Moeove, an: evi)en!e that the a!!use) ?as theatene), ti!Ae),
o !a>o#e) into a ?aive ?i##, o" !ouse, sho? that the )e"en)ant )i) not vo#untai#: ?aive his
=ivi#ege. The e@uie$ent o" ?anings an) ?aive o" ights is a "un)a$enta# ?ith es=e!t to the
Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege, an) not si$=#: a =e#i$ina: itua# to e<isting $etho)s o"
inteogation.
The ?anings e@uie) an) the ?aive ne!essa: in a!!o)an!e ?ith ou o=inion to)a: ae, in the
a%sen!e o" a "u##: e""e!tive e@uiva#ent, =ee@uisites to the a)$issi%i#it: o" an: state$ent $a)e
%: a )e"en)ant. No )istin!tion !an %e )a?n %et?een state$ents ?hi!h ae )ie!t !on"essions
an) state$ents ?hi!h a$ount to Ba)$issionsB o" =at o a## o" an o""ense. The =ivi#ege against
se#"*in!i$ination =ote!ts the in)ivi)ua# "o$ %eing !o$=e##e) to in!i$inate hi$se#" in an:
$anne; it )oes not )istinguish )egees o" in!i$ination. Si$i#a#:, B+$66D "o =e!ise#: the sa$e
eason, no )istin!tion $a: %e )a?n %et?een in!u#=ato: state$ents an) state$ents a##ege) to %e
$ee#: Be<!u#=ato:.B I" a state$ent $a)e ?ee, in "a!t, tu#: e<!u#=ato:, it ?ou#), o" !ouse,
neve %e use) %: the =ose!ution. In "a!t, state$ents $ee#: inten)e) to %e e<!u#=ato: %: the
)e"en)ant ae o"ten use) to i$=ea!h his testi$on: at tia# o to )e$onstate untuths in the
state$ent given un)e inteogation, an) thus to =ove gui#t %: i$=#i!ation. These state$ents ae
in!i$inating in an: $eaning"u# sense o" the ?o), an) $a: not %e use) ?ithout the "u##
?anings an) e""e!tive ?aive e@uie) "o an: othe state$ent. In-scobedo itse#", the )e"en)ant
"u##: inten)e) his a!!usation o" anothe as the s#a:e to %e e<!u#=ato: as to hi$se#".
The =in!i=#es announ!e) to)a: )ea# ?ith the =ote!tion ?hi!h $ust %e given to the =ivi#ege
against se#"*in!i$ination ?hen the in)ivi)ua# is "ist su%>e!te) to =o#i!e inteogation ?hi#e in
!usto): at the station o othe?ise )e=ive) o" his "ee)o$ o" a!tion in an: signi"i!ant ?a:. It is
at this =oint that ou a)vesa: s:ste$ o" !i$ina# =o!ee)ings !o$$en!es, )istinguishing itse#"
at the outset "o$ the in@uisitoia# s:ste$ e!ogniHe) in so$e !ounties. Un)e the s:ste$ o"
?anings ?e )e#ineate to)a:, o un)e an: othe s:ste$ ?hi!h $a: %e )evise) an) "oun)
e""e!tive, the sa"egua)s to %e ee!te) a%out the =ivi#ege $ust !o$e into =#a: at this =oint.
Ou )e!ision is not inten)e) to ha$=e the ta)itiona# "un!tion o" =o#i!e o""i!es in investigating
!i$e. See -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, 4E&. When an in)ivi)ua# is in !usto): on =o%a%#e
!ause, the =o#i!e $a:, o" !ouse, seeA out evi)en!e in the "ie#) to %e use) at tia# against hi$.
Page 25 of 75
Su!h investigation $a: in!#u)e in@ui: o" =esons not un)e estaint. 1enea# on*the*s!ene
@uestioning as to "a!ts suoun)ing a !i$e o othe genea# @uestioning o" !itiHens in the
"a!t"in)ing =o!ess is not a""e!te) %: ou ho#)ing. It is an a!t o" B+$6;D es=onsi%#e !itiHenshi=
"o in)ivi)ua#s to give ?hateve in"o$ation the: $a: have to ai) in #a? en"o!e$ent. In su!h
situations, the !o$=e##ing at$os=hee inheent in the =o!ess o" in*!usto): inteogation is not
ne!essai#: =esent.
B/$5D
In )ea#ing ?ith state$ents o%taine) though inteogation, ?e )o not =u=ot to "in) a##
!on"essions ina)$issi%#e. Con"essions e$ain a =o=e e#e$ent in #a? en"o!e$ent. An:
state$ent given "ee#: an) vo#untai#: ?ithout an: !o$=e##ing in"#uen!es is, o" !ouse,
a)$issi%#e in evi)en!e. The "un)a$enta# i$=ot o" the =ivi#ege ?hi#e an in)ivi)ua# is in !usto):
is not ?hethe he is a##o?e) to ta#A to the =o#i!e ?ithout the %ene"it o" ?anings an) !ounse#, %ut
?hethe he !an %e inteogate). Thee is no e@uie$ent that =o#i!e sto= a =eson ?ho entes a
=o#i!e station an) states that he ?ishes to !on"ess to a !i$e,
B/$6D
o a =eson ?ho !a##s the =o#i!e
to o""e a !on"ession o an: othe state$ent he )esies to $aAe. ,o#unteee) state$ents o" an:
Ain) ae not %ae) %: the Fi"th A$en)$ent, an) thei a)$issi%i#it: is not a""e!te) %: ou
ho#)ing to)a:.
To su$$aiHe, ?e ho#) that, ?hen an in)ivi)ua# is taAen into !usto): o othe?ise )e=ive) o"
his "ee)o$ %: the authoities in an: signi"i!ant ?a: an) is su%>e!te) to @uestioning, the
=ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination is >eo=a)iHe). +o!e)ua# sa"egua)s $ust %e e$=#o:e)
to B+$6?D =ote!t the =ivi#ege, an) un#ess othe "u##: e""e!tive $eans ae a)o=te) to noti": the
=eson o" his ight o" si#en!e an) to assue that the e<e!ise o" the ight ?i## %e s!u=u#ous#:
honoe), the "o##o?ing $easues ae e@uie). 6e $ust %e ?ane) =io to an: @uestioning that
he has the ight to e$ain si#ent, that an:thing he sa:s !an %e use) against hi$ in a !out o" #a?,
that he has the ight to the =esen!e o" an attone:, an) that, i" he !annot a""o) an attone: one
?i## %e a==ointe) "o hi$ =io to an: @uestioning i" he so )esies. O==otunit: to e<e!ise these
ights $ust %e a""o)e) to hi$ thoughout the inteogation. A"te su!h ?anings have %een
given, an) su!h o==otunit: a""o)e) hi$, the in)ivi)ua# $a: Ano?ing#: an) inte##igent#: ?aive
these ights an) agee to ans?e @uestions o $aAe a state$ent. But un#ess an) unti# su!h
?anings an) ?aive ae )e$onstate) %: the =ose!ution at tia#, no evi)en!e o%taine) as a
esu#t o" inteogation !an %e use) against hi$.
B/$;D
I,
A e!uent agu$ent $a)e in these !ases is that so!iet:Ds nee) "o inteogation out?eighs the
=ivi#ege. This agu$ent is not un"a$i#ia to this Cout. See" e.g." Chambers v. 'lorida" 3'E U.S.
&&9, &4'*&4( 0(E4'2. The ?ho#e thust o" ou "oegoing )is!ussion )e$onstates that the
Constitution has =es!i%e) the ights o" the in)ivi)ua# ?hen !on"onte) ?ith the =o?e o"
goven$ent ?hen it =ovi)e) in the Fi"th A$en)$ent that an in)ivi)ua# !annot %e !o$=e##e) to
%e a ?itness against hi$se#". That ight !annot %e a%i)ge). As M. -usti!e Ban)eis on!e
o%seve)I
De!en!:, se!uit: an) #i%et: a#iAe )e$an) that goven$ent o""i!ia#s sha## %e su%>e!te) to the
sa$e B+$;0D u#es o" !on)u!t that ae !o$$an)s to the !itiHen. In a goven$ent o" #a?s,
e<isten!e o" the goven$ent ?i## %e i$=ei##e) i" it "ai# to o%seve the #a? s!u=u#ous#:. Ou
1oven$ent is the =otent, the o$ni=esent tea!he. Fo goo) o "o i##, it tea!hes the ?ho#e
=eo=#e %: its e<a$=#e. Ci$e is !ontagious. I" the 1oven$ent %e!o$es a #a?%eaAe, it %ee)s
Page 26 of 75
!onte$=t "o #a?; it invites eve: $an to %e!o$e a #a? unto hi$se#"; it invites ana!h:. To
)e!#ae that, in the a)$inistation o" the !i$ina# #a?, the en) >usti"ies the $eans . . . ?ou#) %ing
tei%#e eti%ution. Against that =eni!ious )o!tine this Cout shou#) eso#ute#: set its "a!e.
&lmstead v. United States" &99 U.S. 438, 485 0(E&82 0)issenting o=inion2.
B/$?D
In this !onne!tion,
one o" ou !ount:Ds )istinguishe) >uists has =ointe) outI BThe @ua#it: o" a nationDs !ivi#iHation
!an %e #age#: $easue) %: the $etho)s it uses in the en"o!e$ent o" its !i$ina# #a?.B
B/%0D
I" the in)ivi)ua# )esies to e<e!ise his =ivi#ege, he has the ight to )o so. This is not "o the
authoities to )e!i)e. An attone: $a: a)vise his !#ient not to ta#A to =o#i!e unti# he has ha) an
o==otunit: to investigate the !ase, o he $a: ?ish to %e =esent ?ith his !#ient )uing an: =o#i!e
@uestioning. In )oing so an attone: is $ee#: e<e!ising the goo) =o"essiona# >u)g$ent he has
%een taught. This is not !ause "o !onsi)eing the attone: a $ena!e to #a? en"o!e$ent. 6e is
$ee#: !a:ing out ?hat he is s?on to )o un)e his oath ** to =ote!t to the e<tent o" his a%i#it:
the ights o" his !#ient. B+$;1D In "u#"i##ing this es=onsi%i#it:, the attone: =#a:s a vita# o#e in the
a)$inistation o" !i$ina# >usti!e un)e ou Constitution.
In announ!ing these =in!i=#es, ?e ae not un$in)"u# o" the %u)ens ?hi!h #a? en"o!e$ent
o""i!ia#s $ust %ea, o"ten un)e t:ing !i!u$stan!es. We a#so "u##: e!ogniHe the o%#igation o"
a## !itiHens to ai) in en"o!ing the !i$ina# #a?s. This Cout, ?hi#e =ote!ting in)ivi)ua# ights,
has a#?a:s given a$=#e #atitu)e to #a? en"o!e$ent agen!ies in the #egiti$ate e<e!ise o" thei
)uties. The #i$its ?e have =#a!e) on the inteogation =o!ess shou#) not !onstitute an un)ue
inte"een!e ?ith a =o=e s:ste$ o" #a? en"o!e$ent. As ?e have note), ou )e!ision )oes not
in an: ?a: =e!#u)e =o#i!e "o$ !a:ing out thei ta)itiona# investigato: "un!tions. A#though
!on"essions $a: =#a: an i$=otant o#e in so$e !onvi!tions, the !ases %e"oe us =esent ga=hi!
e<a$=#es o" the ovestate$ent o" the Bnee)B "o !on"essions. In ea!h !ase, authoities !on)u!te)
inteogations anging u= to "ive )a:s in )uation )es=ite the =esen!e, though stan)a)
investigating =a!ti!es, o" !onsi)ea%#e evi)en!e against ea!h )e"en)ant.
B/%1D
Futhe e<a$=#es
ae !honi!#e) in ou =io !ases. See" e.g." #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3, 5(8*5(E
0(EJ32; 5ogers v. 5ichmond" 3J5 U.S. 534, 54( 0(EJ(2; Malins)i v. New *or)" 3&4 U.S. 4'(,4'&
0(E452.
B/%D
B+$;D
It is a#so uge) that an un"ettee) ight to )etention "o inteogation shou#) %e a##o?e) %e!ause it
?i## o"ten e)oun) to the %ene"it o" the =eson @uestione). When =o#i!e in@ui: )ete$ines that
thee is no eason to %e#ieve that the =eson has !o$$itte) an: !i$e, it is sai), he ?i## %e
e#ease) ?ithout nee) "o "uthe "o$a# =o!e)ues. The =eson ?ho has !o$$itte) no o""ense,
ho?eve, ?i## %e %ette a%#e to !#ea hi$se#" a"te ?anings ?ith !ounse# =esent than ?ithout. It
!an %e assu$e) that, in su!h !i!u$stan!es, a #a?:e ?ou#) a)vise his !#ient to ta#A "ee#: to
=o#i!e in o)e to !#ea hi$se#".
Custo)ia# inteogation, %: !ontast, )oes not ne!essai#: a""o) the inno!ent an o==otunit: to
!#ea the$se#ves. A seious !onse@uen!e o" the =esent =a!ti!e o" the inteogation a##ege) to %e
%ene"i!ia# "o the inno!ent is that $an: aests B"o investigationB su%>e!t #age nu$%es o"
inno!ent =esons to )etention an) inteogation. In one o" the !ases %e"oe us, No.
584, California v. Stewart" =o#i!e he#) "ou =esons, ?ho ?ee in the )e"en)antDs house at the
ti$e o" the aest, in >ai# "o "ive )a:s unti# )e"en)ant !on"esse). At that ti$e, the: ?ee "ina##:
e#ease). +o#i!e state) that thee ?as Bno evi)en!e to !onne!t the$ ?ith an: !i$e.B Avai#a%#e
statisti!s on the e<tent o" this =a!ti!e ?hee it is !on)one) in)i!ate that these "ou ae "a "o$
Page 27 of 75
a#one in %eing su%>e!te) to aest, =o#onge) )etention, an) inteogation ?ithout the e@uisite
=o%a%#e !ause.
B/%"D
B+$;"D
Ove the :eas, the Fe)ea# Bueau o" Investigation has !o$=i#e) an e<e$=#a: e!o) o"
e""e!tive #a? en"o!e$ent ?hi#e a)vising an: sus=e!t o aeste) =eson, at the outset o" an
intevie?, that he is not e@uie) to $aAe a state$ent, that an: state$ent $a: %e use) against
hi$ in !out, that the in)ivi)ua# $a: o%tain the sevi!es o" an attone: o" his o?n !hoi!e, an),
$oe e!ent#:, that he has a ight to "ee !ounse# i" he is una%#e to =a:.
B/%$D
A #ette e!eive) "o$
the So#i!ito 1enea# in es=onse to a @uestion "o$ the Ben!h $aAes it !#ea that the =esent
=atten o" ?anings an) es=e!t "o the B+$;$D ights o" the in)ivi)ua# "o##o?e) as a =a!ti!e %:
the FBI is !onsistent ?ith the =o!e)ue ?hi!h ?e )e#ineate to)a:. It statesI
At the oa# agu$ent o" the a%ove !ause, M. -usti!e Fotas asAe) ?hethe I !ou#) =ovi)e !etain
in"o$ation as to the =a!ti!es "o##o?e) %: the Fe)ea# Bueau o" Investigation. I have )ie!te)
these @uestions to the attention o" the Die!to o" the Fe)ea# Bueau o" Investigation, an) a$
su%$itting hee?ith a state$ent o" the @uestions an) o" the ans?es ?hi!h ?e have e!eive).
0(2 When an in)ivi)ua# is intevie?e) %: agents o" the Bueau, ?hat ?aning is given to hi$R
The stan)a) ?aning #ong given %: S=e!ia# Agents o" the FBI to %oth sus=e!ts an) =esons
un)e aest is that the =eson has a ight to sa: nothing an) a ight to !ounse#, an) that an:
state$ent he )oes $aAe $a: %e use) against hi$ in !out. E<a$=#es o" this ?aning ae to %e
"oun) in the Westover !ase at 34& F.&) J84 0(EJ52, an) %ac)son v. U.S."339 F.&) (3J
0(EJ42, cert. den." 38' U.S. E35.
A"te =assage o" the Ci$ina# -usti!e A!t o" (EJ4, ?hi!h =ovi)es "ee !ounse# "o Fe)ea#
)e"en)ants una%#e to =a:, ?e a))e) to ou instu!tions to S=e!ia# Agents the e@uie$ent that an:
=eson ?ho is un)e aest "o an o""ense un)e FBI >uis)i!tion, o ?hose aest is !onte$=#ate)
"o##o?ing the intevie?, $ust a#so %e a)vise) o" his ight to "ee !ounse# i" he is una%#e to =a:,
an) the "a!t that su!h !ounse# ?i## %e assigne) %: the -u)ge. At the sa$e ti$e, ?e %oa)ene) the
ight to !ounse# ?aning B+$;%D to ea) !ounse# o" his o?n !hoi!e, o an:one e#se ?ith ?ho$ he
$ight ?ish to s=eaA.
0&2 When is the ?aning givenR
The FBI ?aning is given to a sus=e!t at the ve: outset o" the intevie?, as sho?n in
theWestover !ase, !ite) a%ove. The ?aning $a: %e given to a =eson aeste) as soon as
=a!ti!a%#e a"te the aest, as sho?n in the %ac)son !ase, a#so !ite) a%ove, an) in U.S. v.
$onigsberg" 33J F.&) 844 0(EJ42, cert. den." 39E U.S. E33, %ut, in an: event, it $ust =e!e)e the
intevie? ?ith the =eson "o a !on"ession o a)$ission o" his o?n gui#t.
032 What is the BueauDs =a!ti!e in the event that 0a2 the in)ivi)ua# e@uests !ounse# an) 0%2
!ounse# a==easR
When the =eson ?ho has %een ?ane) o" his ight to !ounse# )e!i)es that he ?ishes to !onsu#t
?ith !ounse# %e"oe $aAing a state$ent, the intevie? is te$inate) at that =oint,Shult+ v.
U.S." 35( F.&) &89 0(EJ52. It $a: %e !ontinue), ho?eve, as to a## $attes othe than the =esonDs
o?n gui#t o inno!en!e. I" he is in)e!isive in his e@uest "o !ounse#, thee $a: %e so$e @uestion
on ?hethe he )i) o )i) not ?aive !ounse#. Situations o" this Ain) $ust ne!essai#: %e #e"t to the
>u)g$ent o" the intevie?ing Agent. Fo e<a$=#e, in#iram v. U.S." 354 F.&) 4 0(EJ52, the
Page 28 of 75
AgentDs !on!#usion that the =eson aeste) ha) ?aive) his ight to !ounse# ?as u=he#) %: the
!outs.
A =eson %eing intevie?e) an) )esiing to !onsu#t !ounse# %: te#e=hone $ust %e =e$itte) to )o
so, as sho?n in Caldwell v. U.S." 35( F.&) 45E 0(EJ52. When !ounse# a==eas in =eson, he is
=e$itte) to !on"e ?ith his !#ient in =ivate. B+$;5D
042 What is the BueauDs =a!ti!e i" the in)ivi)ua# e@uests !ounse#, %ut !annot a""o) to etain an
attone:R
I" an: =eson %eing intevie?e) a"te ?aning o" !ounse# )e!i)es that he ?ishes to !onsu#t ?ith
!ounse# %e"oe =o!ee)ing, "uthe the intevie? is te$inate), as sho?n a%ove. FBI Agents )o
not =ass >u)g$ent on the a%i#it: o" the =eson to =a: "o !ounse#. The: )o, ho?eve, a)vise those
?ho have %een aeste) "o an o""ense un)e FBI >uis)i!tion, o ?hose aest is !onte$=#ate)
"o##o?ing the intevie?, o" a ight to "ee !ounse# i" the: ae una%#e to =a:, an) the avai#a%i#it: o"
su!h !ounse# "o$ the -u)ge.
B/%%D
The =a!ti!e o" the FBI !an ea)i#: %e e$u#ate) %: state an) #o!a# en"o!e$ent agen!ies. The
agu$ent that the FBI )ea#s ?ith )i""eent !i$es than ae )ea#t ?ith %: state authoities )oes not
$itigate the signi"i!an!e o" the FBI e<=eien!e.
B/%5D
The e<=eien!e in so$e othe !ounties a#so suggests that the )ange to #a? en"o!e$ent in !u%s
on inteogation is ove=#a:e). The Eng#ish =o!e)ue, sin!e (E(& un)e the -u)gesD Ru#es, is
signi"i!ant. As e!ent#: B+$;6D stengthene), the Ru#es e@uie that a !autiona: ?aning %e
given an a!!use) %: a =o#i!e o""i!e as soon as he has evi)en!e that a""o)s easona%#e goun)s
"o sus=i!ion; the: a#so e@uie that an: state$ent $a)e %e given %: the a!!use) ?ithout
@uestioning %: =o#i!e.
B/%6D
B+$;;D The ight o" the in)ivi)ua# to !onsu#t ?ith an attone: )uing
this =eio) is e<=ess#: e!ogniHe).
B/%;D
The sa"egua)s =esent un)e S!ottish #a? $a: %e even geate than in Eng#an). S!ottish >u)i!ia#
)e!isions %a use in evi)en!e o" $ost !on"essions o%taine) though =o#i!e inteogation.
B/%?D
In
In)ia, !on"essions $a)e to =o#i!e not in the =esen!e o" a $agistate have %een
e<!#u)e) B+$;?D %: u#e o" evi)en!e sin!e (89&, at a ti$e ?hen it o=eate) un)e Bitish
#a?.
B/50D
I)enti!a# =ovisions a==ea in the Evi)en!e O)inan!e o" Ce:#on, ena!te) in
(8E5.
B/51D
Si$i#a#:, in ou !ount:, the Uni"o$ Co)e o" Mi#ita: -usti!e has #ong =ovi)e) that
no sus=e!t $a: %e inteogate) ?ithout "ist %eing ?ane) o" his ight not to $aAe a state$ent,
an) that an: state$ent he $aAes $a: %e use) against hi$.
B/5D
Denia# o" the ight to !onsu#t
!ounse# )uing inteogation has a#so %een =os!i%e) %: $i#ita: ti%una#s.
B/5"D
Thee a==eas to
have %een no $aAe) )eti$enta# e""e!t on !i$ina# #a? en"o!e$ent in these >uis)i!tions as a
esu#t o" these u#es. Con)itions o" #a? en"o!e$ent in ou !ount: ae su""i!ient#: si$i#a to
=e$it e"een!e to this e<=eien!e as assuan!e that #a?#essness ?i## not esu#t "o$ ?aning an
in)ivi)ua# o" his ights o a##o?ing hi$ to e<e!ise the$. Moeove, it is !onsistent ?ith ou #ega#
s:ste$ that ?e give at #east as $u!h =ote!tion to these ights as is given in the >uis)i!tions
)es!i%e). We )ea# in ou !ount: ?ith ights goun)e) in a s=e!i"i! e@uie$ent o" the Fi"th
A$en)$ent o" the Constitution, B+$?0D ?heeas othe >uis)i!tions aive) at thei !on!#usions
on the %asis o" =in!i=#es o" >usti!e not so s=e!i"i!a##: )e"ine).
B/5$D
It is a#so uge) u=on us that ?e ?ithho#) )e!ision on this issue unti# state #egis#ative %o)ies an)
a)viso: gou=s have ha) an o==otunit: to )ea# ?ith these =o%#e$s %: u#e$aAing.
B/5%D
We
Page 29 of 75
have a#ea): =ointe) out that the Constitution )oes not e@uie an: s=e!i"i! !o)e o" =o!e)ues
"o =ote!ting the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination )uing !usto)ia# inteogation. Congess
an) the States ae "ee to )eve#o= thei o?n sa"egua)s "o the =ivi#ege, so #ong as the: ae "u##:
as e""e!tive as those )es!i%e) a%ove in in"o$ing a!!use) =esons o" thei ight o" si#en!e an) in
a""o)ing a !ontinuous o==otunit: to e<e!ise it. In an: event, ho?eve, the issues =esente) ae
o" !onstitutiona# )i$ensions, an) $ust %e )ete$ine) %: the !outs. The a)$issi%i#it: o" a
state$ent in the "a!e o" a !#ai$ that it ?as o%taine) in vio#ation o" the )e"en)antDs !onstitutiona#
ights is an issue the eso#ution o" ?hi!h has #ong sin!e %een un)etaAen %: this Cout. See #opt
v. Utah" ((' U.S. 594 0(8842. -u)i!ia# so#utions to =o%#e$s o" !onstitutiona# )i$ension have
evo#ve) )e!a)e %: )e!a)e. As !outs have %een =esente) ?ith the nee) to en"o!e !onstitutiona#
ights, the: have "oun) $eans o" )oing so. That ?as ou es=onsi%i#it: ?hen -scobedo ?as
%e"oe us, an) it is ou B+$?1D es=onsi%i#it: to)a:. Whee ights se!ue) %: the Constitution ae
invo#ve), thee !an %e no u#e$aAing o #egis#ation ?hi!h ?ou#) a%ogate the$.
,
Be!ause o" the natue o" the =o%#e$ an) %e!ause o" its e!uent signi"i!an!e in nu$eous !ases,
?e have to this =oint )is!usse) the e#ationshi= o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege to =o#i!e
inteogation ?ithout s=e!i"i! !on!entation on the "a!ts o" the !ases %e"oe us. We tun no? to
these "a!ts to !onsi)e the a==#i!ation to these !ases o" the !onstitutiona# =in!i=#es )is!usse)
a%ove. In ea!h instan!e, ?e have !on!#u)e) that state$ents ?ee o%taine) "o$ the )e"en)ant
un)e !i!u$stan!es that )i) not $eet !onstitutiona# stan)a)s "o =ote!tion o" the =ivi#ege.
No. 95E. Miranda v. (ri+ona
On Ma!h (3, (EJ3, =etitione, Enesto Mian)a, ?as aeste) at his ho$e an) taAen in !usto):
to a +hoeni< =o#i!e station. 6e ?as thee i)enti"ie) %: the !o$=#aining ?itness. The =o#i!e then
tooA hi$ to BInteogation Roo$ No. &B o" the )ete!tive %ueau. Thee he ?as @uestione) %: t?o
=o#i!e o""i!es. The o""i!es a)$itte) at tia# that Mian)a ?as not a)vise) that he ha) a ight to
have an attone: =esent.
B/55D
T?o hous #ate, the B+$?Do""i!es e$ege) "o$ the inteogation
oo$ ?ith a ?itten !on"ession signe) %: Mian)a. At the to= o" the state$ent ?as a t:=e)
=aaga=h stating that the !on"ession ?as $a)e vo#untai#:, ?ithout theats o =o$ises o"
i$$unit: an) B?ith "u## Ano?#e)ge o" $: #ega# ights, un)estan)ing an: state$ent I $aAe $a:
%e use) against $e.B
B/56D
At his tia# %e"oe a >u:, the ?itten !on"ession ?as a)$itte) into evi)en!e ove the o%>e!tion o"
)e"ense !ounse#, an) the o""i!es testi"ie) to the =io oa# !on"ession $a)e %: Mian)a )uing
the inteogation. Mian)a ?as "oun) gui#t: o" Ai)na==ing an) a=e. 6e ?as senten!e) to &' to
3' :easD i$=ison$ent on ea!h !ount, the senten!es to un !on!uent#:. On a==ea#, the Su=e$e
Cout o" AiHona he#) that Mian)aDs !onstitutiona# ights ?ee not vio#ate) in o%taining the
!on"ession, an) a""i$e) the !onvi!tion. E8 AiH. (8, 4'( +.&) 9&(. In ea!hing its )e!ision, the
!out e$=hasiHe) heavi#: the "a!t that Mian)a )i) not s=e!i"i!a##: e@uest !ounse#.
We evese. Fo$ the testi$on: o" the o""i!es an) %: the a)$ission o" es=on)ent, it is !#ea that
Mian)a ?as not in an: ?a: a==ise) o" his ight to !onsu#t ?ith an attone: an) to have one
=esent )uing the inteogation, no ?as his ight not to %e !o$=e##e) to in!i$inate hi$se#"
e""e!tive#: =ote!te) in an: othe $anne. Without these ?anings, the state$ents ?ee
ina)$issi%#e. The $ee "a!t that he signe) a state$ent ?hi!h !ontaine) a t:=e)*in !#ause stating
that he ha) B"u## Ano?#e)geB o" his B#ega# ightsB )oes not a==oa!h the Ano?ing an) inte##igent
Page 30 of 75
?aive e@uie) to e#in@uish !onstitutiona# ights. Cf. #aynes v. Washington" 393
U.S. B+$?"D 5'3, 5(&*5(3 0(EJ32; #aley v. &hio" 33& U.S. 5EJ, J'( 0(E482 0o=inion o" MR
-USTICE DOU1LAS2.
No. 9J'. /ignera v. New *or)
+etitione, Mi!hae# ,ignea, ?as =i!Ae) u= %: Ne? /oA =o#i!e on O!to%e (4, (EJ', in
!onne!tion ?ith the o%%e: thee )a:s ea#ie o" a BooA#:n )ess sho=. The: tooA hi$ to the
(9th Dete!tive S@ua) hea)@uates in Manhattan. So$eti$e theea"te, he ?as taAen to the JJth
Dete!tive S@ua). Thee a )ete!tive @uestione) ,ignea ?ith es=e!t to the o%%e:. ,ignea
oa##: a)$itte) the o%%e: to the )ete!tive. The )ete!tive ?as asAe) on !oss*e<a$ination at
tia# %: )e"ense !ounse# ?hethe ,ignea ?as ?ane) o" his ight to !ounse# %e"oe %eing
inteogate). The =ose!ution o%>e!te) to the @uestion, an) the tia# >u)ge sustaine) the o%>e!tion.
Thus, the )e"ense ?as =e!#u)e) "o$ $aAing an: sho?ing that ?anings ha) not %een given.
Whi#e at the JJth Dete!tive S@ua), ,ignea ?as i)enti"ie) %: the stoe o?ne an) a sa#es#a): as
the $an ?ho o%%e) the )ess sho=. At a%out 3 =.$., he ?as "o$a##: aeste). The =o#i!e then
tans=ote) hi$ to sti## anothe station, the 9'th +e!in!t in BooA#:n, B"o )etention.B At (( =.$.,
,ignea ?as @uestione) %: an assistant )isti!t attone: in the =esen!e o" a heaing e=ote,
?ho tans!i%e) the @uestions an) ,igneaDs ans?es. This ve%ati$ a!!ount o" these =o!ee)ings
!ontains no state$ent o" an: ?anings given %: the assistant )isti!t attone:. At ,igneaDs tia#
on a !hage o" "ist )egee o%%e:, the )ete!tive testi"ie) as to the oa# !on"ession. The
tans!i=tion o" the state$ent taAen ?as a#so into)u!e) in evi)en!e. At the !on!#usion o" the
testi$on:, the tia# >u)ge !hage) the >u: in =at as "o##o?sI
The #a? )oesnDt sa: that the !on"ession is voi) o inva#i)ate) %e!ause the =o#i!e o""i!e )i)nDt
a)vise the )e"en)ant as to his ights. Di) :ou hea ?hat B+$?$D I sai)R I a$ te##ing :ou ?hat the
#a? o" the State o" Ne? /oA is.
,ignea ?as "oun) gui#t: o" "ist )egee o%%e:. 6e ?as su%se@uent#: a)>u)ge) a thi)*"e#on:
o""en)e an) senten!e) to 3' to J' :easD i$=ison$ent.
B/5;D
The !onvi!tion ?as a""i$e) ?ithout
o=inion %: the A==e##ate Division, Se!on) De=at$ent, &( A==.Div.&) 95&, &5& N./.S.&) (E,
an) %: the Cout o" A==ea#s, a#so ?ithout o=inion, (5 N./.&) E9', &'9 N.E.&) 5&9, &5E N./.S.&)
859, remittitur amended" (J N./.&) J(4, &'E N.E.&) ((', &J( N./. .&) J5. In agu$ent to the
Cout o" A==ea#s, the State !onten)e) that ,ignea ha) no !onstitutiona# ight to %e a)vise) o"
his ight to !ounse# o his =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination.
We evese. The "oegoing in)i!ates that ,ignea ?as not ?ane) o" an: o" his ights %e"oe the
@uestioning %: the )ete!tive an) %: the assistant )isti!t attone:. No othe ste=s ?ee taAen to
=ote!t these ights. Thus, he ?as not e""e!tive#: a==ise) o" his Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege o o"
his ight to have !ounse# =esent, an) his state$ents ae ina)$issi%#e.
No. 9J(. Westover v. United States
At a==o<i$ate#: EI45 =.$. on Ma!h &', (EJ3, =etitione, Ca# Ca#vin Westove, ?as aeste)
%: #o!a# =o#i!e in Oansas Cit: as a sus=e!t in t?o Oansas Cit: o%%eies. A e=ot ?as a#so
e!eive) "o$ the FBI that he ?as ?ante) on a "e#on: !hage in Ca#i"onia. The #o!a# authoities
tooA hi$ to a =o#i!e station an) =#a!e) hi$ in a #ine*u= on the #o!a# !hages, an), at a%out ((I45
=.$., he ?as %ooAe). Oansas Cit: =o#i!e inteogate) Westove B+$?%D on the night o" his aest.
6e )enie) an: Ano?#e)ge o" !i$ina# a!tivities. The ne<t )a:, #o!a# o""i!es inteogate) hi$
Page 31 of 75
again thoughout the $oning. Shot#: %e"oe noon, the: in"o$e) the FBI that the: ?ee
though inteogating Westove an) that the FBI !ou#) =o!ee) to inteogate hi$. Thee is
nothing in the e!o) to in)i!ate that Westove ?as eve given an: ?aning as to his ights %:
#o!a# =o#i!e. At noon, thee s=e!ia# agents o" the FBI !ontinue) the inteogation in a =ivate
intevie? oo$ o" the Oansas Cit: +o#i!e De=at$ent, this ti$e ?ith es=e!t to the o%%e: o" a
savings an) #oan asso!iation an) %anA in Sa!a$ento, Ca#i"onia. A"te t?o o t?o an) one*ha#"
hous, Westove signe) se=aate !on"essions to ea!h o" these t?o o%%eies ?hi!h ha) %een
=e=ae) %: one o" the agents )uing the inteogation. At tia#, one o" the agents testi"ie), an) a
=aaga=h on ea!h o" the state$ents states, that the agents a)vise) Westove that he )i) not have
to $aAe a state$ent, that an: state$ent he $a)e !ou#) %e use) against hi$, an) that he ha) the
ight to see an attone:.
Westove ?as tie) %: a >u: in "e)ea# !out an) !onvi!te) o" the Ca#i"onia o%%eies. 6is
state$ents ?ee into)u!e) at tia#. 6e ?as senten!e) to (5 :easD i$=ison$ent on ea!h !ount,
the senten!es to un !onse!utive#:. On a==ea#, the !onvi!tion ?as a""i$e) %: the Cout o"
A==ea#s "o the Ninth Ci!uit. 34& F.&) J84.
We evese. On the "a!ts o" this !ase, ?e !annot "in) that Westove Ano?ing#: an) inte##igent#:
?aive) his ight to e$ain si#ent an) his ight to !onsu#t ?ith !ounse# =io to the ti$e he $a)e
the state$ent.
B/5?D
At the B+$?5D ti$e the FBI agents %egan @uestioning Westove, he ha) %een in
!usto): "o ove (4 hous, an) ha) %een inteogate) at #ength )uing that =eio). The FBI
inteogation %egan i$$e)iate#: u=on the !on!#usion o" the inteogation %: Oansas Cit: =o#i!e,
an) ?as !on)u!te) in #o!a# =o#i!e hea)@uates. A#though the t?o #a? en"o!e$ent authoities
ae #ega##: )istin!t, an) the !i$es "o ?hi!h the: inteogate) Westove ?ee )i""eent, the
i$=a!t on hi$ ?as that o" a !ontinuous =eio) o" @uestioning. Thee is no evi)en!e o" an:
?aning given =io to the FBI inteogation, no is thee an: evi)en!e o" an ati!u#ate) ?aive o"
ights a"te the FBI !o$$en!e) its inteogation. The e!o) si$=#: sho?s that the )e"en)ant
)i), in "a!t, !on"ess a shot ti$e a"te %eing tune) ove to the FBI "o##o?ing inteogation %:
#o!a# =o#i!e. Des=ite the "a!t that the FBI agents gave ?anings at the outset o" thei intevie?,
"o$ WestoveDs =oint o" vie?, the ?anings !a$e at the en) o" the inteogation =o!ess. In
these !i!u$stan!es, an inte##igent ?aive o" !onstitutiona# ights !annot %e assu$e).
We )o not suggest that #a? en"o!e$ent authoities ae =e!#u)e) "o$ @uestioning an:
in)ivi)ua# ?ho has %een he#) "o a =eio) o" ti$e %: othe authoities an) inteogate) %: the$
?ithout a==o=iate ?anings. A )i""eent !ase ?ou#) %e =esente) i" an a!!use) ?ee taAen into
!usto): %: the se!on) authoit:, e$ove) %oth in ti$e an) =#a!e "o$ his oigina# suoun)ings,
an) then a)e@uate#: a)vise) o" his ights an) given an o==otunit: to e<e!ise the$. But hee,
the FBI inteogation ?as !on)u!te) i$$e)iate#: "o##o?ing the state inteogation in the sa$e
=o#i!e station ** in the sa$e !o$=e##ing suoun)ings. Thus, in o%taining a !on"ession "o$
Westove B+$?6D the "e)ea# authoities ?ee the %ene"i!iaies o" the =essue a==#ie) %: the #o!a#
in*!usto): inteogation. In these !i!u$stan!es, the giving o" ?anings a#one ?as not su""i!ient
to =ote!t the =ivi#ege.
No. 584. California v. Stewart
In the !ouse o" investigating a seies o" =use*snat!h o%%eies in ?hi!h one o" the vi!ti$s ha)
)ie) o" in>uies in"#i!te) %: he assai#ant, es=on)ent, Ro: A##en Ste?at, ?as =ointe) out to Los
Ange#es =o#i!e as the en)ose o" )ivi)en) !he!As taAen in one o" the o%%eies. At a%out 9I(5
Page 32 of 75
=.$., -anua: 3(, (EJ3, =o#i!e o""i!es ?ent to Ste?atDs house an) aeste) hi$. One o" the
o""i!es asAe) Ste?at i" the: !ou#) sea!h the house, to ?hi!h he e=#ie), B1o ahea).B The
sea!h tune) u= vaious ite$s taAen "o$ the "ive o%%e: vi!ti$s. At the ti$e o" Ste?atDs
aest, =o#i!e a#so aeste) Ste?atDs ?i"e an) thee othe =esons ?ho ?ee visiting hi$. These
"ou ?ee >ai#e) a#ong ?ith Ste?at, an) ?ee inteogate). Ste?at ?as taAen to the Univesit:
Station o" the Los Ange#es +o#i!e De=at$ent, ?hee he ?as =#a!e) in a !e##. Duing the ne<t
"ive )a:s, =o#i!e inteogate) Ste?at on nine )i""eent o!!asions. E<!e=t )uing the "ist
inteogation session, ?hen he ?as !on"onte) ?ith an a!!using ?itness, Ste?at ?as iso#ate)
?ith his inteogatos.
Duing the ninth inteogation session, Ste?at a)$itte) that he ha) o%%e) the )e!ease) an)
state) that he ha) not $eant to hut he. +o#i!e then %ought Ste?at %e"oe a $agistate "o the
"ist ti$e. Sin!e thee ?as no evi)en!e to !onne!t the$ ?ith an: !i$e, the =o#i!e then e#ease)
the othe "ou =esons aeste) ?ith hi$.
Nothing in the e!o) s=e!i"i!a##: in)i!ates ?hethe Ste?at ?as o ?as not a)vise) o" his ight
to e$ain si#ent o his ight to !ounse#. In a nu$%e o" instan!es, B+$?;D ho?eve, the
inteogating o""i!es ?ee asAe) to e!ount eve:thing that ?as sai) )uing the inteogations.
None in)i!ate) that Ste?at ?as eve a)vise) o" his ights.
Ste?at ?as !hage) ?ith Ai)na==ing to !o$$it o%%e:, a=e, an) $u)e. At his tia#,
tans!i=ts o" the "ist inteogation an) the !on"ession at the #ast inteogation ?ee into)u!e) in
evi)en!e. The >u: "oun) Ste?at gui#t: o" o%%e: an) "ist )egee $u)e, an) "i<e) the =ena#t:
as )eath. On a==ea#, the Su=e$e Cout o" Ca#i"onia evese). J& Ca#.&) 59(, 4'' +.&) E9, 43
Ca#.R=t. &'(. It he#) that, un)e this CoutDs )e!ision in-scobedo" Ste?at shou#) have %een
a)vise) o" his ight to e$ain si#ent an) o" his ight to !ounse#, an) that it ?ou#) not =esu$e in
the "a!e o" a si#ent e!o) that the =o#i!e a)vise) Ste?at o" his ights.
B/60D
We a""i$.
B/61D
In )ea#ing ?ith !usto)ia# inteogation, ?e ?i## not =esu$e that a )e"en)ant has
%een e""e!tive#: a==ise) o" his ights an) that his =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination has %een
a)e@uate#: sa"egua)e) on a e!o) that )oes not sho? that an: ?anings have %een given o that
an: e""e!tive a#tenative has %een e$=#o:e). No !an a Ano?ing an) inte##igent ?aive
o" B+$??D these ights %e assu$e) on a si#ent e!o). Futhe$oe, Ste?atDs stea)"ast )enia# o"
the a##ege) o""enses though eight o" the nine inteogations ove a =eio) o" "ive )a:s is su%>e!t
to no othe !onstu!tion than that he ?as !o$=e##e) %: =esistent inteogation to "ogo his Fi"th
A$en)$ent =ivi#ege.
Thee"oe, in a!!o)an!e ?ith the "oegoing, the >u)g$ents o" the Su=e$e Cout O" AiHona in
No. 95E, o" the Ne? /oA Cout o" A==ea#s in No. 9J', an) o" the Cout o" A==ea#s "o the Ninth
Ci!uit in No. 9J(, ae evese). The >u)g$ent o" the Su=e$e Cout o" Ca#i"onia in No. 584 is
a""i$e).
.t is so ordered.
P
Togethe ?ith No. 9J', /ignera v. New *or)" on !etioai to the Cout o" A==ea#s o" Ne? /oA
an) No. 9J(, Westover v. United States" on !etioai to the Unite) States Cout o" A==ea#s "o
the Ninth Ci!uit, %oth ague) Fe%ua: &8*Ma!h (, (EJJ, an) No. 584,California v. Stewart" on
!etioai to the Su=e$e Cout o" Ca#i"onia, ague) Fe%ua: &8*Ma!h &, (EJJ.
Page 33 of 75
(.
Compare United States v. Childress" 349 F.&) 448 0C.A. 9th Ci.(EJ52, with Collins v. 0eto"348
F.&) 8&3 0C.A. 5th Ci.(EJ52. Compare 1eople v. orado" J& Ca#.&) 338, 3E8 +.&) 3J(, 4&
Ca#.R=t. (JE 0(EJ42, with 1eople v. #artgraves" 3( I##.&) 395, &'& N.E.&) 33 0(EJ42.
&.
See" e.g." EnAe Q E#sen, Counse# "o the Sus=e!tI Massiah v. United States an) -scobedo v.
.llinois" 4E Minn.L.Rev. 49 0(EJ42; 6e$an, The Su=e$e Cout an) Resti!tions on +o#i!e
Inteogation, &5 Ohio St.L.-. 44E 0(EJ42; Oa$isa, E@ua# -usti!e in the 1atehouses an)
Mansions o" A$ei!an Ci$ina# +o!e)ue, in Ci$ina# -usti!e in Ou Ti$e ( 0(EJ52;
Do?#ing, -scobedo an) Be:on)I The Nee) "o a Fouteenth A$en)$ent Co)e o" Ci$ina#
+o!e)ue, 5J -.Ci$.L., C. Q +. S. (43, (5J 0(EJ52.
The !o$=#e< =o%#e$s a#so =o$=te) )is!ussions %: >uists. Compare BaHe#on, La?, Moa#it:,
an) Civi# Li%eties, (& U.C.L.A.L.Rev. (3 0(EJ42, with Fien)#:, The Bi## o" Rights as a Co)e o"
Ci$ina# +o!e)ue, 53 Ca#i".L.Rev. E&E 0(EJ52.
3.
Fo e<a$=#e, the Los Ange#es +o#i!e Chie" state) that,
I" the =o#i!e ae e@uie) . . . to . . . esta%#ish that the )e"en)ant ?as a==ise) o" his !onstitutiona#
guaantees o" si#en!e an) #ega# !ounse# =io to the utteing o" an: a)$ission o !on"ession, an)
that he inte##igent#: ?aive) these guaantees . . . a ?ho#e +an)oaDs %o< is o=ene) as to un)e
?hat !i!u$stan!es . . . !an a )e"en)ant inte##igent#: ?aive these ights. . . . A##egations that
$o)en !i$ina# investigation !an !o$=ensate "o the #a!A o" a !on"ession o a)$ission in eve:
!i$ina# !ase is tota##: a%su)S
+aAe, 4' L.A.Ba Bu##. J'3, J'9, J4& 0(EJ52. 6is =ose!utoia# !ounte=at, Disti!t Attone:
/ounge, state) that
KILt %egins to a==ea that $an: o" these see$ing#: esti!tive )e!isions ae going to !onti%ute
)ie!t#: to a $oe e""e!tive, e""i!ient an) =o"essiona# #eve# o" #a? en"o!e$ent.
L.A. Ti$es, O!t. &, (EJ5, =. (. The "o$e +o#i!e Co$$issione o" Ne? /oA, Mi!hae# -.
Mu=h:, state) o" -scobedo,
What the Cout is )oing is aAin to e@uiing one %o<e to "ight %: Ma@uis o" Tueens%u: u#es
?hi#e =e$itting the othe to %utt, gouge an) %ite.
N./. Ti$es, Ma: (4, (EJ5, =. 3E. The "o$e Unite) States Attone: "o the Disti!t o"
Co#u$%ia, Davi) C. A!heson, ?ho is =esent#: S=e!ia# Assistant to the Se!eta: o" the Teasu:
0"o En"o!e$ent2, an) )ie!t#: in !hage o" the Se!et Sevi!e an) the Bueau o" Na!oti!s,
o%seve) that
+ose!ution =o!e)ue has, at $ost, on#: the $ost e$ote !ausa# !onne!tion ?ith !i$e. Changes
in !out )e!isions an) =ose!ution =o!e)ue ?ou#) have a%out the sa$e e""e!t on the !i$e ate
as an as=iin ?ou#) have on a tu$o o" the %ain.
Page 34 of 75
Tuote) in 6e$an, supra" n. &, at 5'', n. &9'. Othe vie?s on the su%>e!t in genea# ae !o##e!te)
in Weis%eg, +o#i!e Inteogation o" Aeste) +esonsI A SAe=ti!a# ,ie?, 5& -.Ci$.L., C. Q +.S.
&( 0(EJ(2.
4.
This is ?hat ?e $eant in -scobedo ?hen ?e s=oAe o" an investigation ?hi!h ha) "o!use) on an
a!!use).
5.
See" for e3ample" I, Nationa# Co$$ission on La? O%sevan!e an) En"o!e$ent, Re=ot on
La?#essness in La? En"o!e$ent 0(E3(2 KWi!Aesha$ Re=otL; Booth, Con"essions, an)
Metho)s E$=#o:e) in +o!uing The$, 4 So. Ca#i".L.Rev. 83 0(E3'2; Oau=e, -u)i!ia#
E<a$ination o" the A!!use) ** A Re$e): "o the Thi) Degee, 3' Mi!h.L.Rev. (&&4 0(E3&2. It
is signi"i!ant that instan!es o" thi)*)egee teat$ent o" =isones a#$ost invaia%#: tooA =#a!e
)uing the =eio) %et?een aest an) =e#i$ina: e<a$ination. Wi!Aesha$ Re=ot, at (JE; 6a##,
The La? o" Aest in Re#ation to Conte$=oa: So!ia# +o%#e$s, 3 U.Chi.L.Rev. 345, 359
0(E3J2. See also Foote, La? an) +o#i!e +a!ti!eI Sa"egua)s in the La? o" Aest, 5&
N?.U.L.Rev. (J 0(E592.
J.
0rown v. Mississippi" &E9 U.S. &98 0(E3J2; Chambers v. 'lorida" 3'E U.S. &&9 0(E4'2; Canty v.
(labama" 3'E U.S. J&E 0(E4'2; White v. Te3as" 3(' U.S. 53' 0(E4'2; /ernon v. (labama"3(3
U.S. 549 0(E4(2; Ward v. Te3as" 3(J U.S. 549 0(E4&2; (shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S.
(43 0(E442; Malins)i v. New *or)" 3&4 U.S. 4'( 0(E452; Leyra v. enno" 349 U.S.
55J0(E542. See also Williams v. United States" 34( U.S. E9 0(E5(2.
9.
In a))ition, see 1eople v. Wa)at" 4(5 I##. J(', ((4 N.E.&) 9'J 0(E532; Wa)at v. #arlib" &53 F.&)
5E 0C.A. 9th Ci.(E582 0)e"en)ant su""eing "o$ %oAen %ones, $u#ti=#e %uises an) in>uies
su""i!ient#: seious to e@uie eight $onthsD $e)i!a# teat$ent a"te %eing $anhan)#e) %: "ive
=o#i!e$en2; $ier v. State" &(3 M). 55J, (3& A.&) 4E4 0(E592 0=o#i!e )o!to to#) a!!use), ?ho
?as sta==e) to a !hai !o$=#ete#: nu)e, that he =o=ose) to taAe hai an) sAin s!a=ings "o$
an:thing that #ooAe) #iAe %#oo) o s=e$ "o$ vaious =ats o" his %o):2; 0runer v. 1eople" ((3
Co#o.(E4, (5J +.&) ((( 0(E452 0)e"en)ant he#) in !usto): ove t?o $onths, )e=ive) o" "oo) "o
(5 hous, "o!e) to su%$it to a #ie )ete!to test ?hen he ?ante) to go to the toi#et2; 1eople v.
Matloc)" 5( Ca#.&) J8&, 33J +.&) 5'5 0(E5E2 0)e"en)ant @uestione) in!essant#: ove an
eveningDs ti$e, $a)e to #ie on !o#) %oa) an) to ans?e @uestions ?heneve it a==eae) he ?as
getting s#ee=:2. Othe !ases ae )o!u$ente) in A$ei!an Civi# Li%eties Union, I##inois Division,
Se!et Detention %: the Chi!ago +o#i!e 0(E5E2; +otts, The +e#i$ina: E<a$ination an) BThe
Thi) Degee,B & Ba:#o L.Rev. (3( 0(E5'2; Ste#ing, +o#i!e Inteogation an) the +s:!ho#og: o"
Con"ession, (4 -.+u%.L. &5 0(EJ52.
8.
The $anua#s @uote) in the te<t "o##o?ing ae the $ost e!ent an) e=esentative o" the te<ts
!uent#: avai#a%#e. Mateia# o" the sa$e natue a==eas in Oi)), +o#i!e Inteogation 0(E4'2;
Page 35 of 75
Mu#%a, Inteogation 0(E5(2; Dienstein, Te!hni!s "o the Ci$e Investigato E9*((5 0(E5&2.
Stu)ies !on!ening the o%seve) =a!ti!es o" the =o#i!e a==ea in LaFave, AestI The De!ision
To TaAe a Sus=e!t Into Custo): &44*439, 4E'*5&( 0(EJ52; LaFave, Detention "o Investigation
%: the +o#i!eI An Ana#:sis o" Cuent +a!ti!es, (EJ& Wash.U.L.T. 33(; Baett, +o#i!e +a!ti!es
an) the La? ** Fo$ Aest to Re#ease o Chage, 5' Ca#i".L.Rev. (( 0(EJ&2; Ste#ing, supra" n.
9, at 49*J5.
E.
The $etho)s )es!i%e) in In%au Q Rei), Ci$ina# Inteogation an) Con"essions 0(EJ&2, ae a
evision an) en#age$ent o" $ateia# =esente) in thee =io e)itions o" a =e)e!esso te<t, Lie
Dete!tion an) Ci$ina# Inteogation 03) e).(E532. The authos an) thei asso!iates ae o""i!es
o" the Chi!ago +o#i!e S!ienti"i! Ci$e Dete!tion La%oato:, an) have ha) e<tensive e<=eien!e
in ?iting, #e!tuing an) s=eaAing to #a? en"o!e$ent authoities ove a &'*:ea =eio). The: sa:
that the te!hni@ues =ota:e) in thei $anua#s e"#e!t thei e<=eien!es, an) ae the $ost e""e!tive
=s:!ho#ogi!a# statage$s to e$=#o: )uing inteogations. Si$i#a#:, the te!hni@ues )es!i%e) in
OD6aa, Fun)a$enta#s o" Ci$ina# Investigation 0(E5J2, ?ee g#eane) "o$ #ong sevi!e as
o%seve, #e!tue in =o#i!e s!ien!e, an) ?oA as a "e)ea# !i$ina# investigato. A## these te<ts
have ha) athe e<tensive use a$ong #a? en"o!e$ent agen!ies an) a$ong stu)ents o" =o#i!e
s!ien!e, ?ith tota# sa#es an) !i!u#ation o" ove 44,'''.
('.
In%au Q Rei), Ci$ina# Inteogation an) Con"essions 0(EJ&2, at (.
((.
OD6aa, supra" at EE.
(&.
In%au Q Rei), supra" at 34*43, 89. Fo e<a$=#e, in Leyra v. enno" 349 U.S. 55J 0(E542, the
inteogato*=s:!hiatist to#) the a!!use), BWe )o so$eti$es things that ae not ight, %ut in a "it
o" te$=e o ange ?e so$eti$es )o things ?e aenDt ea##: es=onsi%#e "o,B id.at 5J&, an) again,
BWe Ano? that $oa##:, :ou ?ee >ust in ange. Moa##:, :ou ae not to %e !on)e$ne),B id. at
58&.
(3.
In%au Rei), supra" at 43*55.
(4.
OD6aa, supra" at ((&.
(5.
In%au Q Rei), supra" at 4'.
(J.
.bid.
Page 36 of 75
(9.
OD6aa, supra" at ('4, In%au Q Rei), supra" at 58*5E. See Spano v. New *or)" 3J' U.S.
3(50(E5E2. A vaiant on the te!hni@ue o" !eating hosti#it: is one o" engen)eing "ea. This is
=eha=s %est )es!i%e) %: the =ose!uting attone: in Malins)i v. New *or)" 3&4 U.S. 4'(, 4'9
0(E452I
Wh: this ta#A a%out %eing un)esse)R O" !ouse, the: ha) a ight to un)ess hi$ to #ooA "o
%u##et s!as, an) Aee= the !#othes o"" hi$. That ?as @uite =o=e =o#i!e =o!e)ue. That is so$e
$oe =s:!ho#og: ** #et hi$ sit aoun) ?ith a %#anAet on hi$, hu$i#iate hi$ thee "o a ?hi#e; #et
hi$ sit in the !one, #et hi$ thinA he is going to get a she##a!Aing.
(8.
OD6aa, supra" at ('5*('J.
(E.
.d. at ('J.
&'.
In%au Q Rei), supra" at (((.
&(.
.bid.
&&.
In%au Q Rei), supra" at ((&.
&3.
In%au Q Rei), Lie Dete!tion an) Ci$ina# Inteogation (85 03) e).(E532.
&4.
Inteogation =o!e)ues $a: even give ise to a "a#se !on"ession. The $ost e!ent !ons=i!uous
e<a$=#e o!!ue) in Ne? /oA, in (EJ4, ?hen a Nego o" #i$ite) inte##igen!e !on"esse) to t?o
%uta# $u)es an) a a=e ?hi!h he ha) not !o$$itte). When this ?as )is!ovee), the =ose!uto
?as e=ote) as sa:ingI
Ca## it ?hat :ou ?ant ** %ain?ashing, h:=nosis, "ight. The: $a)e hi$ give an untue
!on"ession. The on#: thing I )onDt %e#ieve is that Whit$oe ?as %eaten.
N./. Ti$es, -an. &8, (EJ5, =. (, !o#. 5. In t?o othe instan!es, si$i#a events ha) o!!ue). N./.
Ti$es, O!t. &', (EJ4, =. &&, !o#. (; N./. Ti$es, Aug. &5, (EJ5, =. (, !o#. (. In
genea#,see Bo!ha), Convi!ting the Inno!ent 0(E3&2; FanA Q FanA, Not 1ui#t: 0(E592.
&5.
In the "outh !on"ession !ase )e!i)e) %: the Cout in the (EJ& Te$, 'ay v. Noia" 39& U.S.
3E( 0(EJ32, ou )is=osition $a)e it unne!essa: to )e#ve at #ength into the "a!ts. The "a!ts o" the
Page 37 of 75
)e"en)antDs !ase thee, ho?eve, =aa##e#e) those o" his !o)e"en)ants, ?hose !on"essions ?ee
"oun) to have esu#te) "o$ !ontinuous an) !oe!ive inteogation "o &9 hous, ?ith )enia# o"
e@uests "o "ien)s o attone:. See United States v. Murphy" &&& F.&) JE8 0C.A.&) Ci.(E552
0FanA, -.2; 1eople v. 0onino" ( N./.&) 95&, (35 N.E.&) 5( 0(E5J2.
&J.
The a%su)it: o" )en:ing that a !on"ession o%taine) un)e these !i!u$stan!es is !o$=e##e) is
a=t#: =ota:e) %: an e<a$=#e in +o"esso Suthe#an)Ds e!ent ati!#e, Ci$e an) Con"ession, 9E
6av.L.Rev. &(, 39 0(EJ52I
Su==ose a ?e##*to*)o testati< sa:s she inten)s to ?i## he =o=et: to E#iHa%eth. -ohn an) -a$es
?ant he to %e@ueath it to the$ instea). The: !a=tue the testati<, =ut he in a !ae"u##: )esigne)
oo$, out o" tou!h ?ith eve:one %ut the$se#ves an) thei !onvenient B?itnesses,B Aee= he
se!#u)e) thee "o hous ?hi#e the: $aAe insistent )e$an)s, ?ea: he ?ith !onta)i!tions o" he
assetions that she ?ants to #eave he $one: to E#iHa%eth, an) "ina##: in)u!e he to e<e!ute the
?i## in thei "avo. Assu$e that -ohn an) -a$es ae )ee=#: an) !oe!t#: !onvin!e) that E#iHa%eth
is un?oth:, an) ?i## $aAe %ase use o" the =o=et: i" she gets he han)s on it, ?heeas -ohn an)
-a$es have the no%#est an) $ost ighteous intentions. Wou#) an: >u)ge o" =o%ate a!!e=t the ?i##
so =o!ue) as the Bvo#unta:B a!t o" the testati<R
&9.
Thiteenth !entu: !o$$entatos "oun) an ana#ogue to the =ivi#ege goun)e) in the Bi%#e. BTo
su$ u= the $atte, the =in!i=#e that no $an is to %e )e!#ae) gui#t: on his o?n a)$ission is a
)ivine )e!ee.B Mai$oni)es, Mishneh Toah 0Co)e o" -e?ish La?2, BooA o" -u)ges, La?s o" the
Sanhe)in, !. (8, ((J, III /a#e -u)ai!a Seies 5&*53. See also La$$, The Fi"th A$en)$ent an)
Its E@uiva#ent in the 6a#aAhah, 5 -u)ais$ 53 0Winte (E5J2.
&8.
See Mogan, The +ivi#ege Against Se#"*In!i$ination, 34 Minn.L.Rev. (, E*(( 0(E4E2; 8
Wig$oe, Evi)en!e &8E*&E5 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2. See also Lo?e##, The -u)i!ia# Use o"
Totue, +ats I an) II, (( 6av.L.Rev. &&', &E' 0(8E92.
&E.
See +itt$an, The Co#onia# an) Constitutiona# 6isto: o" the +ivi#ege Against Se#"*In!i$ination
in A$ei!a, &( ,a.L.Rev. 9J3 0(E352; Ullmann v. United States" 35' U.S. 4&&, 445*44E 0(E5J2
0DOU1LAS, -., )issenting2.
3'.
Compare 0rown v. Wal)er" (J( U.S. 5E( 0(8EJ2; 6uinn v. United States" 34E U.S. (550(E552.
3(.
Bie" "o the Unite) States, =. &8. To the sa$e e""e!t, see Bie" "o the Unite) States, ==. 4'*4E,
n. 44, (nderson v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 35' 0(E432; Bie" "o the Unite) States, ==. (9*
(8, McNabb v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 33& 0(E432.
3&.
Page 38 of 75
Ou )e!ision to)a: )oes not in)i!ate in an: $anne, o" !ouse, that these u#es !an %e
)isega)e). When "e)ea# o""i!ia#s aest an in)ivi)ua#, the: $ust as a#?a:s !o$=#: ?ith the
)i!tates o" the !ongessiona# #egis#ation an) !ases theeun)e. See generally 6ogan Q Snee,
The McNabb7Mallory Ru#eI Its Rise, Rationa#e an) Res!ue, 49 1eo.L.-. ( 0(E582.
33.
The )e!isions o" this Cout have guaantee) the sa$e =o!e)ua# =ote!tion "o the )e"en)ant
?hethe his !on"ession ?as use) in a "e)ea# o state !out. It is no? a<io$ati! that the
)e"en)antDs !onstitutiona# ights have %een vio#ate) i" his !onvi!tion is %ase), in ?ho#e o in =at,
on an invo#unta: !on"ession, ega)#ess o" its tuth o "a#sit:. 5ogers v. 5ichmond" 3J5 U.S. 534,
544 0(EJ(2; Wan v. United States" &JJ U.S. ( 0(E&42. This is so even i" thee is a$=#e evi)en!e
asi)e "o$ the !on"ession to su==ot the !onvi!tion, e.g." Malins)i v. New *or)" 3&4 U.S. 4'(,
4'4 0(E452; 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53&, 54'*54& 0(8E92. Both state an) "e)ea# !outs
no? a)hee to tia# =o!e)ues ?hi!h seeA to assue a e#ia%#e an) !#ea*!ut )ete$ination o" the
vo#untainess o" the !on"ession o""ee) at tia#, %ac)son v. enno" 398 U.S. 3J8 0(EJ42; United
States v. Carignan" 34& U.S. 3J, 38 0(E5(2; see also Wilson v. United States" (J& U.S. J(3, J&4
0(8EJ2. A==e##ate evie? is e<a!ting, see #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3 0(EJ32; 0lac)burn
v. (labama" 3J( U.S. (EE 0(EJ'2. Whethe his !onvi!tion ?as in a "e)ea# o state !out, the
)e"en)ant $a: se!ue a =ost*!onvi!tion heaing %ase) on the a##ege) invo#unta: !haa!te o" his
!on"ession, =ovi)e) he $eets the =o!e)ua# e@uie$ents, 'ay v. Noia" 39& U.S.
3E(0(EJ32; Townsend v. Sain" 39& U.S. &E3 0(EJ32. In a))ition, see Murphy v. Waterfront
Comm2n" 398 U.S. 5& 0(EJ42.
34.
See Lisenba v. California" 3(4 U.S. &(E, &4( 0(E4(2; (shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S.
(430(E442; Malins)i v. New *or)" 3&4 U.S. 4'( 0(E452; Spano v. New *or)" 3J' U.S.
3(50(E5E2; Lynumn v. .llinois" 39& U.S. 5&8 0(EJ32; #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'30(EJ32.
35.
The =o#i!e a#so =evente) the attone: "o$ !onsu#ting ?ith his !#ient. In)e=en)ent o" an: othe
!onstitutiona# =os!i=tion, this a!tion !onstitutes a vio#ation o" the Si<th A$en)$ent ight to the
assistan!e o" !ounse#, an) e<!#u)es an: state$ent o%taine) in its ?aAe. See 1eople v.
onovan" (3 N./.&) (48, (E3 N.E.&) J&8, &43 N./.S.&) 84( 0(EJ32 0Fu#), -.2
3J.
.n re !roban" 35& U.S. 33', 34'*35& 0(E592 0BLACO, -., )issenting2; Note, 93 /a#e L.-. (''',
('48*('5( 0(EJ42; Co$$ent, 3( U.Chi.L.Rev. 3(3, 3&' 0(EJ42 an) authoities !ite).
39.
See =. 454, supra. Lo) Dev#in has !o$$ente)I
It is =o%a%#e that, even to)a:, ?hen thee is $u!h #ess ignoan!e a%out these $attes than
"o$e#:, thee is sti## a genea# %e#ie" that :ou $ust ans?e a## @uestions =ut to :ou %: a
=o#i!e$an, o at #east that it ?i## %e the ?ose "o :ou i" :ou )o not.
Dev#in, The Ci$ina# +ose!ution in Eng#an) 3& 0(E582.
Page 39 of 75
In a!!o) ?ith ou )e!ision to)a:, it is i$=e$issi%#e to =ena#iHe an in)ivi)ua# "o e<e!ising his
Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege ?hen he is un)e =o#i!e !usto)ia# inteogation. The =ose!ution $a:
not, thee"oe, use at tia# the "a!t that he stoo) $ute o !#ai$e) his =ivi#ege in the "a!e o"
a!!usation. Cf. !riffin v. California" 38' U.S. J'E 0(EJ52; Malloy v. #ogan" 398 U.S. (, 8
0(EJ42; Co$$ent, 3( U.Chi.L.Rev. 55J 0(EJ42; Deve#o=$ents in the La? ** Con"essions, 9E
6av.L.Rev. E35, ('4(*('44 0(EJJ2. See also 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53&, 5J& 0(8E92.
38.
Cf. 0etts v. 0rady" 3(J U.S. 455 0(E4&2, an) the e!uent in@ui: into s=e!ia# !i!u$stan!es it
ne!essitate). See generally Oa$isa, 0etts v. 0rady T?ent: /eas LateI The Right to Counse#
an) Due +o!ess ,a#ues, J( Mi!h.L.Rev. &(E 0(EJ&2.
3E.
See 6e$an, The Su=e$e Cout an) Resti!tions on +o#i!e Inteogation, &5 Ohio St.L.-. 44',
48' 0(EJ42.
4'.
Esti$ates o" 5'*E'U in)igen!: a$ong "e#on: )e"en)ants have %een e=ote). +o##o!A, E@ua#
-usti!e in +a!ti!e, 45 Minn.L.Rev. 939, 938*93E 0(EJ(2; BiHon, Oasano" Q Fo$a, The Right
to Counse# an) the In)igent A!!use) in Couts o" Ci$ina# -uis)i!tion in Ne? /oA State, (4
Bu""a#o L.Rev. 4&8, 433 0(EJ52.
4(.
See Oa$isa, E@ua# -usti!e in the 1atehouses an) Mansions o" A$ei!an Ci$ina# +o!e)ue, in
Ci$ina# -usti!e in Ou Ti$e (, J4*8( 0(EJ52. As ?as state) in the Re=ot o" the Attone:
1enea#Ds Co$$ittee on +ovet: an) the A)$inistation o" Fe)ea# Ci$ina# -usti!e E 0(EJ32I
When goven$ent !hooses to e<et its =o?es in the !i$ina# aea, its o%#igation is sue#: no #ess
than that o" taAing easona%#e $easues to e#i$inate those "a!tos that ae ie#evant to >ust
a)$inistation o" the #a?, %ut ?hi!h, nevethe#ess, $a: o!!asiona##: a""e!t )ete$inations o" the
a!!use)Ds #ia%i#it: o =ena#t:. Whi#e goven$ent $a: not %e e@uie) to e#ieve the a!!use) o" his
=ovet:, it $a: =o=e#: %e e@uie) to $ini$iHe the in"#uen!e o" =ovet: on its a)$inistation o"
>usti!e.
4&.
Cf. United States e3 rel. 0rown v. 'ay" &4& F.Su==. &93, &99 0D.C.S.D.N./.(EJ52; 1eople v.
Witens)i" (5 N./.&) 3E&, &'9 N.E.&) 358, &5E N./.S.&) 4(3 0(EJ52.
43.
Whi#e a ?aning that the in)igent $a: have !ounse# a==ointe) nee) not %e given to the =eson
?ho is Ano?n to have an attone: o is Ano?n to have a$=#e "un)s to se!ue one, the e<=e)ient
o" giving a ?aning is too si$=#e, an) the ights invo#ve) too i$=otant, to engage in e3 post
facto in@uiies into "inan!ia# a%i#it: ?hen thee is an: )ou%t at a## on that s!oe.
44.
Page 40 of 75
I" an in)ivi)ua# in)i!ates his )esie to e$ain si#ent, %ut has an attone: =esent, thee $a: %e
so$e !i!u$stan!es in ?hi!h "uthe @uestioning ?ou#) %e =e$issi%#e. In the a%sen!e o"
evi)en!e o" ove%eaing, state$ents then $a)e in the =esen!e o" !ounse# $ight %e "ee o" the
!o$=e##ing in"#uen!e o" the inteogation =o!ess an) $ight "ai#: %e !onstue) as a ?aive o"
the =ivi#ege "o =u=oses o" these state$ents.
45.
A#though this Cout he#) in 5ogers v. United States" 34' U.S. 3J9 0(E5(2, ove stong )issent,
that a ?itness %e"oe a gan) >u: $a: not in !etain !i!u$stan!es )e!i)e to ans?e so$e
@uestions an) then e"use to ans?e othes, that )e!ision has no a==#i!ation to the inteogation
situation ?e )ea# ?ith to)a:. No #egis#ative o >u)i!ia# "a!t"in)ing authoit: is invo#ve) hee, no
is thee a =ossi%i#it: that the in)ivi)ua# $ight $aAe se#"*seving state$ents o" ?hi!h he !ou#)
$aAe use at tia# ?hi#e e"using to ans?e in!i$inating state$ents.
4J.
The )istin!tion an) its signi"i!an!e has %een a=t#: )es!i%e) in the o=inion o" a S!ottish !outI
In "o$e ti$es, su!h @uestioning, i" un)etaAen, ?ou#) %e !on)u!te) %: =o#i!e o""i!es visiting
the house o =#a!e o" %usiness o" the sus=e!t an) thee @uestioning hi$, =o%a%#: in the =esen!e
o" a e#ation o "ien). 6o?eve !onvenient the $o)en =a!ti!e $a: %e, it $ust no$a##: !eate
a situation ve: un"avoua%#e to the sus=e!t.
Chalmer v. #. M. (dvocate" K(E54L Sess.Cas. JJ, 98 0-.C.2.
49.
See 1eople v. orado" J& Ca#.&) 338, 354, 3E8 +.&) 3J(, 39( 4& Ca#.R=t. (JE, (9E 0(EJ52.
48.
In a!!o)an!e ?ith ou ho#)ings to)a: an) in -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, 4E&,Croo)er v.
California" 359 U.S. 433 0(E582 an) Cicenia v. Lagay" 359 U.S. 5'4 0(E582, ae not to %e
"o##o?e).
4E.
In @uoting the a%ove "o$ the )issenting o=inion o" M. -usti!e Ban)eis ?e, o" !ouse, )o not
inten) to =ass on the !onstitutiona# @uestions invo#ve) in the &lmstead !ase.
5'.
S!hae"e, Fe)ea#is$ an) State Ci$ina# +o!e)ue, 9' 6av.L.Rev. (, &J 0(E5J2.
5(.
Mian)a, ,ignea, an) Westove ?ee i)enti"ie) %: e:e?itnesses. MaAe) %i##s "o$ the %anA
o%%e) ?ee "oun) in WestoveDs !a. Ati!#es sto#en "o$ the vi!ti$ as ?e## as "o$ sevea# othe
o%%e: vi!ti$s ?ee "oun) in Ste?atDs ho$e at the outset o" the investigation.
5&.
Page 41 of 75
Dea#ing as ?e )o hee ?ith !onstitutiona# stan)a)s in e#ation to state$ents $a)e, the e<isten!e
o" in)e=en)ent !oo%oating evi)en!e =o)u!e) at tia# is, o" !ouse, ie#evant to ou
)e!isions. #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3, 5(5(E 0(EJ32; Lynumn v. .llinois"39& U.S. 5&8,
539*538 0(EJ32; 5ogers v. 5ichmond" 3J5 U.S. 534, 54( 0(EJ(2; 0lac)burn v. (labama" 3J( U.S.
(EE, &'J 0(EJ'2.
53.
See" e.g." Re=ot an) Re!o$$en)ations o" the KDisti!t o" Co#u$%iaL Co$$issionesD
Co$$ittee on +o#i!e Aests "o Investigation 0(EJ&2; A$ei!an Civi# Li%eties Union, Se!et
Detention %: the Chi!ago +o#i!e 0(E5E2. An e<te$e e<a$=#e o" this =a!ti!e o!!ue) in the
Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia in (E58. SeeAing thee Bsto!A:B :oung Negoes ?ho ha) o%%e) a
estauant, =o#i!e oun)e) u= E' =esons o" that genea# )es!i=tion. Si<t:*thee ?ee he#)
ovenight %e"oe %eing e#ease) "o #a!A o" evi)en!e. A $an not a$ong the E' aeste) ?as
u#ti$ate#: !hage) ?ith the !i$e. Washington Dai#: Ne?s, -anua: &(, (E58, =. 5, !o#. (;
6eaings %e"oe a Su%!o$$ittee o" the Senate -u)i!ia: Co$$ittee on 6.R. ((499, S. &E9', S.
33&5, an) S. 3355, 85th Cong., &) Sess. 0-u#: (E582, ==. 4', 98.
54.
In (E5&, -. E)ga 6oove, Die!to o" the Fe)ea# Bueau o" Investigation, state)I
La? en"o!e$ent, ho?eve, in )e"eating the !i$ina#, $ust $aintain invio#ate the histoi!
#i%eties o" the in)ivi)ua#. To tun %a!A the !i$ina#, :et, %: so )oing, )esto: the )ignit: o" the
in)ivi)ua#, ?ou#) %e a ho##o? vi!to:.
P P P P
We !an have the Constitution, the %est #a?s in the #an), an) the $ost honest evie?s %: !outs **
%ut un#ess the #a? en"o!e$ent =o"ession is stee=e) in the )e$o!ati! ta)ition, $aintains the
highest in ethi!s, an) $aAes its ?oA a !aee o" hono, !ivi# #i%eties ?i## !ontinua##: ** an)
?ithout en) ** %e vio#ate). . . . The %est =ote!tion o" !ivi# #i%eties is an a#et, inte##igent an)
honest #a? en"o!e$ent agen!:. Thee !an %e no a#tenative.
P P P P
. . . S=e!ia# Agents ae taught that an: sus=e!t o aeste) =eson, at the outset o" an intevie?,
$ust %e a)vise) that he is not e@uie) to $aAe a state$ent an) that an: state$ent given !an %e
use) against hi$ in !out. Moeove, the in)ivi)ua# $ust %e in"o$e) that, i" he )esies, he $a:
o%tain the sevi!es o" an attone: o" his o?n !hoi!e.
6oove, Civi# Li%eties an) La? En"o!e$entI The Ro#e o" the FBI, 39 Io?a L.Rev. (95, (99*
(8& 0(E5&2.
55.
We agee that the intevie?ing agent $ust e<e!ise his >u)g$ent in )ete$ining ?hethe the
in)ivi)ua# ?aives his ight to !ounse#. Be!ause o" the !onstitutiona# %asis o" the ight, ho?eve,
the stan)a) "o ?aive is ne!essai#: high. An), o" !ouse, the u#ti$ate es=onsi%i#it: "o
eso#ving this !onstitutiona# @uestion #ies ?ith the !outs.
5J.
Page 42 of 75
A$ong the !i$es ?ithin the en"o!e$ent >uis)i!tion o" the FBI ae Ai)na==ing, (8 U.S.C.
N (&'( 0(EJ4 e).2, ?hite s#ave:, (8 U.S.C. NN &4&(*&4&3 0(EJ4 e).2, %anA o%%e:, (8 U.S.C.
N &((3 0(EJ4 e).2, intestate tans=otation an) sa#e o" sto#en =o=et:, (8 U.S.C. NN &3((*&3(9
0(EJ4 e).2, a## $anne o" !ons=ia!ies, (8 U.S.C. N 39( 0(EJ4 e).2, an) vio#ations o" !ivi#
ights (8 U.S.C. NN &4(*&4& 0(EJ4 e).2. See also (8 U.S.C. N (((4 0(EJ4 e).2 0$u)e o" o""i!e
o e$=#o:ee o" the Unite) States2.
59.
K(EJ4L Ci$.L.Rev. at (JJ*(9'. These Ru#es =ovi)e in =atI
II. As soon as a =o#i!e o""i!e has evi)en!e ?hi!h ?ou#) a""o) easona%#e goun)s "o
sus=e!ting that a =eson has !o$$itte) an o""en!e, he sha## !aution that =eson o !ause hi$ to
%e !autione) %e"oe =utting to hi$ an: @uestions, o "uthe @uestions, e#ating to that o""en!e.
The !aution sha## %e in the "o##o?ing te$sI
/ou ae not o%#ige) to sa: an:thing un#ess :ou ?ish to )o so, %ut ?hat :ou sa: $a: %e =ut into
?iting an) given in evi)en!e.
When, a"te %eing !autione) a =eson is %eing @uestione), o e#e!ts to $aAe a state$ent, a e!o)
sha## %e Ae=t o" the ti$e an) =#a!e at ?hi!h an: su!h @uestioning o state$ent %egan an) en)e)
an) o" the =esons =esent.
III . . .
P P P P .
0%2 It is on#: in e<!e=tiona# !ases that @uestions e#ating to the o""en!e shou#) %e =ut to the
a!!use) =eson a"te he has %een !hage) o in"o$e) that he $a: %e =ose!ute).
P P P P
I,. A## ?itten state$ents $a)e a"te !aution sha## %e taAen in the "o##o?ing $anneI
0a2 I" a =eson sa:s that he ?ants to $aAe a state$ent, he sha## %e to#) that it is inten)e) to $aAe
a ?itten e!o) o" ?hat he sa:s.
6e sha## a#?a:s %e asAe) ?hethe he ?ishes to ?ite )o?n hi$se#" ?hat he ?ants to sa:; i" he
sa:s that he !annot ?ite, o that he ?ou#) #iAe so$eone to ?ite it "o hi$, a =o#i!e o""i!e $a:
o""e to ?ite the state$ent "o hi$. . . .
0%2 An: =eson ?iting his o?n state$ent sha## %e a##o?e) to )o so ?ithout an: =o$=ting, as
)istin!t "o$ in)i!ating to hi$ ?hat $attes ae $ateia#.
P P P P
0)2 Wheneve a =o#i!e o""i!e ?ites the state$ent, he sha## taAe )o?n the e<a!t ?o)s s=oAen %:
the =eson $aAing the state$ent, ?ithout =utting an: @uestions othe than su!h as $a: %e nee)e)
to $aAe the state$ent !oheent, inte##igi%#e an) e#evant to the $ateia# $attesI he sha## not
=o$=t hi$.
The =io Ru#es a==ea in Dev#in, The Ci$ina# +ose!ution in Eng#an) (39*(4( 0(E582.
Page 43 of 75
Des=ite suggestions o" so$e #a<it: in en"o!e$ent o" the Ru#es, an) )es=ite the "a!t so$e
)is!etion as to a)$issi%i#it: is investe) in the tia# >u)ge, the Ru#es ae a signi"i!ant in"#uen!e in
the Eng#ish !i$ina# #a? en"o!e$ent s:ste$. See" e.g." K(EJ4L Ci$.L.Rev. at (8&, an) ati!#es
!o##e!te) in K(EJ'L Ci$.L.Rev. at &E8*35J.
58.
The into)u!tion to the -u)gesD Ru#es states in =atI
These Ru#es )o not a""e!t the =in!i=#es
P P P P
0!2 That eve: =eson at an: stage o" an investigation shou#) %e a%#e to !o$$uni!ate an) to
!onsu#t =ivate#: ?ith a so#i!ito. This is so even i" he is in !usto): =ovi)e) that, in su!h a !ase,
no uneasona%#e )e#a: o hin)an!e is !ause) to the =o!esses o" investigation o the
a)$inistation o" >usti!e %: his )oing so. . . .
K(EJ4L Ci$.L.Rev. at (JJ*(J9.
5E.
As state) %: the Lo) -usti!e 1enea# in Chalmers v. #.M (dvocate" K(E54L Sess.Cas. JJ, 98
0-.C.2I
The theo: o" ou #a? is that, at the stage o" initia# investigation, the =o#i!e $a: @uestion an:one
?ith a vie? to a!@uiing in"o$ation ?hi!h $a: #ea) to the )ete!tion o" the !i$ina#; %ut that,
?hen the stage has %een ea!he) at ?hi!h sus=i!ion, o $oe than sus=i!ion, has in thei vie?
!entee) u=on so$e =eson as the #iAe#: =e=etato o" the !i$e, "uthe inteogation o" that
=eson %e!o$es ve: )angeous, an), i" !aie) too "a, e.g." to the =oint o" e<ta!ting a
!on"ession %: ?hat a$ounts to !oss*e<a$ination, the evi)en!e o" that !on"ession ?i## a#$ost
!etain#: %e e<!#u)e). On!e the a!!use) has %een a==ehen)e) an) !hage), he has the statuto:
ight to a =ivate intevie? ?ith a so#i!ito an) to %e %ought %e"oe a $agistate ?ith a##
!onvenient s=ee) so that he $a:, i" so a)vise), e$it a )e!#aation in =esen!e o" his so#i!ito
un)e !on)itions ?hi!h sa"egua) hi$ against =e>u)i!e.
J'.
BNo !on"ession $a)e to a =o#i!e o""i!e sha## %e =ove) as against a =eson a!!use) o" an:
o""en!e.B In)ian Evi)en!e A!t N &5.
No !on"ession $a)e %: an: =eson ?hi#st he is in the !usto): o" a =o#i!e o""i!e un#ess it %e
$a)e in the i$$e)iate =esen!e o" a Magistate, sha## %e =ove) as against su!h =eson.
In)ian Evi)en!e A!t N &J. See ( Ra$as?a$i Q Ra>ago=a#an, La? o" Evi)en!e in In)ia 553*5JE
0(EJ&2. To avoi) an: !ontinuing e""e!t o" =o#i!e =essue o in)u!e$ent, the In)ian Su=e$e
Cout has inva#i)ate) a !on"ession $a)e shot#: a"te =o#i!e %ought a sus=e!t %e"oe a
$agistate, suggestingI
KILt ?ou#), ?e thinA, %e easona%#e to insist u=on giving an a!!use) =eson at #east &4 hous to
)e!i)e ?hethe o not he shou#) $aAe a !on"ession.
Page 44 of 75
Sarwan Singh v. State of 1un8ab" 44 A## In)ia Re=. (E59, Su=.Ct. J39, J44.
J(.
I Legis#ative Ena!t$ents o" Ce:#on &(( 0(E582.
J&.
(' U.S.C. N 83(0%2 0(EJ4 e).2
J3.
United States v. 5ose" &4 CMR &5( 0(E592; United States v. !unnels" &3 CMR 354 0(E592.
J4.
A#though no !onstitution e<iste) at the ti$e !on"essions ?ee e<!#u)e) %: u#e o" evi)en!e in
(89&, In)ia no? has a ?itten !onstitution ?hi!h in!#u)es the =ovision that BNo =eson a!!use)
o" an: o""en!e sha## %e !o$=e##e) to %e a ?itness against hi$se#".B Constitution o" In)ia, Ati!#e
&'032. See To=e, The Constitution o" In)ia J3*J9 0(EJ'2.
J5.
Bie" "o Unite) States in No. 9J(, Westover v. United States" ==. 44*49; Bie" "o the State o"
Ne? /oA as amicus curiae" ==. 35*3E. See also Bie" "o the Nationa# Disti!t Attone:s
Asso!iation as amicus curiae" ==. &3*&J.
JJ.
Mian)a ?as a#so !onvi!te) in a se=aate tia# on an une#ate) o%%e: !hage not =esente) hee
"o evie?. A state$ent into)u!e) at that tia# ?as o%taine) "o$ Mian)a )uing the sa$e
inteogation ?hi!h esu#te) in the !on"ession invo#ve) hee. At the o%%e: tia#, one o""i!e
testi"ie) that, )uing the inteogation, he )i) not te## Mian)a that an:thing he sai) ?ou#) %e
he#) against hi$ o that he !ou#) !onsu#t ?ith an attone:. The othe o""i!e state) that the: ha)
%oth to#) Mian)a that an:thing he sai) ?ou#) %e use) against hi$ an) that he ?as not e@uie)
%: #a? to te## the$ an:thing.
J9.
One o" the o""i!es testi"ie) that he ea) this =aaga=h to Mian)a. A==aent#:, ho?eve, he )i)
not )o so unti# a"te Mian)a ha) !on"esse) oa##:.
J8.
,ignea theea"te su!!ess"u##: atta!Ae) the va#i)it: o" one o" the =io !onvi!tions,/ignera v.
Wil)ins" Civ. EE'( 0D.C.W.D.N./. De!. 3(, (EJ(2 0une=ote)2, %ut ?as then esenten!e) as a
se!on)*"e#on: o""en)e to the sa$e te$ o" i$=ison$ent as the oigina# senten!e. R. 3(*33.
JE.
The "ai#ue o" )e"ense !ounse# to o%>e!t to the into)u!tion o" the !on"ession at tia#, note) %: the
Cout o" A==ea#s an) e$=hasiHe) %: the So#i!ito 1enea#, )oes not =e!#u)e ou !onsi)eation
o" the issue. Sin!e the tia# ?as he#) =io to ou )e!ision in -scobedoan), o" !ouse, =io to ou
)e!ision to)a: $aAing the o%>e!tion avai#a%#e, the "ai#ue to o%>e!t at tia# )oes not !onstitute a
Page 45 of 75
?aive o" the !#ai$. See" e.g." United States e3 rel. (ngelet v. 'ay" 333 F.&) (&, (J 0C.A.&)
Ci.(EJ42, aff2d" 38( U.S. J54 0(EJ52. Cf. 4iffrin" .nc. v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 93, 98 0(E432.
9'.
Be!ause o" this )is=osition o" the !ase, the Ca#i"onia Su=e$e Cout )i) not ea!h the !#ai$s
that the !on"ession ?as !oe!e) %: =o#i!e theats to ho#) his ai#ing ?i"e in !usto): unti# he
!on"esse), that thee ?as no heaing as e@uie) %: %ac)son v. enno" 398 U.S. 3J8 0(EJ42, an)
that the tia# >u)ge gave an instu!tion !on)e$ne) %: the Ca#i"onia Su=e$e CoutDs )e!ision
in 1eople v. Morse" J' Ca#.&) J3(, 388 +.&) 33, 3J Ca#.R=t. &'( 0(EJ42.
9(.
A"te !etioai ?as gante) in this !ase, es=on)ent $ove) to )is$iss on the goun) that thee
?as no "ina# >u)g$ent "o$ ?hi!h the State !ou#) a==ea#, sin!e the >u)g$ent %e#o? )ie!te) that
he %e etie). In the event es=on)ent ?as su!!ess"u# in o%taining an a!@uitta# on etia#, ho?eve,
un)e Ca#i"onia #a? the State ?ou#) have no a==ea#. Satis"ie) that, in these !i!u$stan!es, the
)e!ision %e#o? !onstitute) a "ina# >u)g$ent un)e &8 U.S.C. N (&59032 0(EJ4 e).2, ?e )enie) the
$otion. 383 U.S. E'3.
TO#
D0sse/-
6ARLAN, -., Dissenting O=inion
MR. -USTICE 6ARLAN, ?ho$ MR. -USTICE STEWART an) MR. -USTICE W6ITE >oin,
)issenting.
I %e#ieve the )e!ision o" the Cout e=esents =oo !onstitutiona# #a? an) entai#s ha$"u#
!onse@uen!es "o the !ount: at #age. 6o? seious these !onse@uen!es $a: =ove to %e, on#:
ti$e !an te##. But the %asi! "#a?s in the CoutDs >usti"i!ation see$ to $e ea)i#: a==aent no?,
on!e a## si)es o" the =o%#e$ ae !onsi)ee).
I. INTRODUCTION
At the outset, it is ?e## to note e<a!t#: ?hat is e@uie) %: the CoutDs ne? !onstitutiona# !o)e o"
u#es "o !on"essions. The "oe$ost e@uie$ent, u=on ?hi!h #ate a)$issi%i#it: o" a !on"ession
)e=en)s, is that a "ou*"o#) ?aning %e given to a =eson in !usto): %e"oe he is @uestione),
na$e#:, that he has a ight to e$ain si#ent, that an:thing he sa:s $a: %e use) against hi$, that
he has a ight to have =esent an attone: )uing the @uestioning, an) that, i" in)igent he has a
ight to a #a?:e ?ithout !hage. To "ogo these ights, so$e a""i$ative state$ent o" e>e!tion is
see$ing#: e@uie), an) theats, ti!As, o !a>o#ings to o%tain this ?aive ae "o%i))en. I", %e"oe
o )uing @uestioning, the sus=e!t seeAs to invoAe his ight to e$ain si#ent, inteogation $ust
%e "ogone o !ease; a e@uest "o !ounse# B+%0%D %ings a%out the sa$e esu#t unti# a #a?:e is
=o!ue). Fina##:, thee ae a $is!e##an: o" $ino )ie!tives, "o e<a$=#e, the %u)en o" =oo" o"
?aive is on the State, a)$issions an) e<!u#=ato: state$ents ae teate) >ust #iAe !on"essions,
?ith)a?a# o" a ?aive is a#?a:s =e$itte), an) so "oth.
B/1D
Page 46 of 75
Whi#e the "ine =oints o" this s!he$e ae "a #ess !#ea than the Cout a)$its, the teno is @uite
a==aent. The ne? u#es ae not )esigne) to gua) against =o#i!e %uta#it: o othe un$istaAa%#:
%anne) "o$s o" !oe!ion. Those ?ho use thi)*)egee ta!ti!s an) )en: the$ in !out ae e@ua##:
a%#e an) )estine) to #ie as sAi##"u##: a%out ?anings an) ?aives. Rathe, the thust o" the ne?
u#es is to negate a## =essues, to ein"o!e the nevous o ignoant sus=e!t, an) u#ti$ate#: to
)is!ouage an: !on"ession at a##. The ai$, in shot, is to?a) Bvo#untainessB in a uto=ian sense,
o, to vie? it "o$ a )i""eent ang#e, vo#untainess ?ith a vengean!e.
To in!o=oate this notion into the Constitution e@uies a staine) ea)ing o" histo: an)
=e!e)ent an) a )isega) o" the ve: =ag$ati! !on!ens that a#one $a: on o!!asion >usti": su!h
stains. I %e#ieve that easone) e<a$ination ?i## sho? that the Due +o!ess C#auses =ovi)e an
a)e@uate too# "o !o=ing ?ith !on"essions ,an) that, even i" the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege
against se#"*in!i$ination %e invoAe), its =e!e)ents, taAen as a ?ho#e, )o not sustain the =esent
u#es. ,ie?e) as a !hoi!e %ase) on =ue =o#i!:, these ne? u#es =ove to %e a high#: )e%ata%#e, i"
not one*si)e), a==aisa# o" the !o$=eting inteests, i$=ose) ove ?i)es=ea) o%>e!tion, at the
ve: ti$e ?hen >u)i!ia# estaint is $ost !a##e) "o %: the !i!u$stan!es. B+%05D
II. CONSTITUTIONAL +REMISES
It is $ost "itting to %egin an in@ui: into the !onstitutiona# =e!e)ents %: suve:ing the #i$its on
!on"essions the Cout has evo#ve) un)e the Due +o!ess C#ause o" the Fouteenth A$en)$ent.
This is so %e!ause these !ases sho? that thee e<ists a ?oAa%#e an) e""e!tive $eans o" )ea#ing
?ith !on"essions in a >u)i!ia# $anne; %e!ause the !ases ae the %ase#ine "o$ ?hi!h the Cout
no? )e=ats, an) so seve to $easue the a!tua#, as o==ose) to the =o"esse), )istan!e it tave#s,
an) %e!ause e<a$ination o" the$ he#=s evea# ho? the Cout has !oaste) into its =esent
=osition.
The ea#iest !on"ession !ases in this Cout e$ege) "o$ "e)ea# =ose!utions, an) ?ee sett#e)
on a non!onstitutiona# %asis, the Cout a)o=ting the !o$$on #a? u#e that the a%sen!e o"
in)u!e$ents, =o$ises, an) theats $a)e a !on"ession vo#unta: an) a)$issi%#e. #opt v.
Utah" ((' U.S. 594; 1ierce v. United States" (J' U.S. 355. Whi#e a #ate !ase sai) the Fi"th
A$en)$ent =ivi#ege !onto##e) a)$issi%i#it:, this =o=osition ?as not itse#" )eve#o=e) in
su%se@uent )e!isions.
B/D
The Cout )i), ho?eve, heighten the test o" a)$issi%i#it: in "e)ea#
tia#s to one o" vo#untainess Bin "a!t,B Wan v. B+%06D United States"&JJ U.S. (, (4
0@uote), ante =. 4J&2, an) then, %: an) #age, #e"t "e)ea# >u)ges to a==#: the sa$e stan)a)s the
Cout %egan to )eive in a sting o" state !out !ases.
This ne? #ine o" )e!isions, testing a)$issi%i#it: %: the Due +o!ess C#ause, %egan in (E3J
?ith 0rown v. Mississippi" &E9 U.S. &98, an) $ust no? e$%a!e so$e?hat $oe than 3' "u##
o=inions o" the Cout.
B/"D
Whi#e the vo#untainess u%i! ?as e=eate) in $an: instan!es, e.g."
Lyons v. &)lahoma" 3&& U.S. 5EJ, the Cout neve =inne) it )o?n to a sing#e $eaning, %ut, on
the !onta:, in"use) it ?ith a nu$%e o" )i""eent va#ues. To tave# @ui!A#: ove the $ain the$es,
thee ?as an initia# e$=hasis on e#ia%i#it:, e.g." Ward v. Te3as" 3(J U.S. 549, su==#e$ente) %:
!on!en ove the #ega#it: an) "ainess o" the =o#i!e =a!ti!es, e.g." (shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S.
(43, in an Ba!!usatoia#B s:ste$ o" #a? en"o!e$ent, Watts v. .ndiana" 338 U.S. 4E, 54, an)
eventua##: %: !#ose attention to the in)ivi)ua#Ds state o" $in) an) !a=a!it: "o e""e!tive
!hoi!e, e.g." !allegos v. Colorado" 39' U.S. 4E. The out!o$e ?as a !ontinuing eeva#uation on
the "a!ts o" ea!h !ase o" how much=essue on the sus=e!t ?as =e$issi%#e.
B/$D
B+%0;D
Page 47 of 75
A$ong the !iteia o"ten taAen into a!!ount ?ee theats o i$$inent )ange, e.g." 1ayne v.
(r)ansas" 35J U.S. 5J', =h:si!a# )e=ivations su!h as #a!A o" s#ee= o "oo), e.g." 5ec) v.
1ate" 3J9 U.S. 433, e=eate) o e<ten)e) inteogation, e.g." Chambers v. 'lorida" 3'E U.S. &&9,
#i$its on a!!ess to !ounse# o "ien)s, Croo)er v. California" 359 U.S. 433; Cicenia v. Lagay" 359
U.S. 5'4, #ength an) i##ega#it: o" )etention un)e state #a?, e.g." #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S.
5'3, an) in)ivi)ua# ?eaAness o in!a=a!ities, Lynumn v. .llinois" 39& U.S. 5&8. A=at "o$ )ie!t
=h:si!a# !oe!ion, ho?eve, no sing#e )e"au#t o "i<e) !o$%ination o" )e"au#ts guaantee)
e<!#usion, an) s:no=ses o" the !ases ?ou#) seve #itt#e use, %e!ause the ovea## gauge has %een
stea)i#: !hanging, usua##: in the )ie!tion o" esti!ting a)$issi%i#it:. But to $aA >ust ?hat =oint
ha) %een ea!he) %e"oe the Cout >u$=e) the ai#s in -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, it is
?oth !a=su#iHing the then*e!ent !ase o" #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3. Thee, 6a:nes
ha) %een he#) so$e (J o $oe hous in vio#ation o" state #a? %e"oe signing the )is=ute)
!on"ession, ha) e!eive) no ?anings o" an: Ain), an), )es=ite e@uests, ha) %een e"use) a!!ess
to his ?i"e o to !ounse#, the =o#i!e in)i!ating that a!!ess ?ou#) %e a##o?e) a"te a !on"ession.
E$=hasiHing es=e!ia##: this #ast in)u!e$ent an) e>e!ting so$e !onta: in)i!ia o" vo#untainess,
the Cout in a 5*to*4 )e!ision, he#) the !on"ession ina)$issi%#e.
Thee ae sevea# e#evant #essons to %e )a?n "o$ this !onstitutiona# histo:. The "ist is that,
?ith ove &5 :eas o" =e!e)ent, the Cout has )eve#o=e) an e#a%oate, so=histi!ate), an)
sensitive a==oa!h to a)$issi%i#it: o" !on"essions. It is B>u)i!ia#B in its teat$ent o" one !ase at a
ti$e, see Culombe v. Connecticut" 3J9 U.S. 5J8, J35 0!on!uing o=inion o" T6E C6IEF
-USTICE2, "#e<i%#e in its a%i#it: to es=on) to the en)#ess $utations o" "a!t =esente), an) eve
$oe "a$i#ia to the #o?e !outs. B+%0?D O" !ouse, sti!t !etaint: is not o%taine) in this
)eve#o=ing =o!ess, %ut this is o"ten so ?ith !onstitutiona# =in!i=#es, an) )isagee$ent is
usua##: !on"ine) to that %o)e#an) o" !#ose !ases ?hee it $attes #east.
The se!on) =oint is that, in =a!ti!e an), "o$ ti$e to ti$e, in =in!i=#e, the Cout has given
a$=#e e!ognition to so!iet:Ds inteest in sus=e!t @uestioning as an instu$ent o" #a?
en"o!e$ent. Cases !ountenan!ing @uite signi"i!ant =essues !an %e !ite) ?ithout
)i""i!u#t:,
B/%D
an) the #o?e !outs $a: o"ten have %een :et $oe to#eant. O" !ouse, the
#i$itations i$=ose) to)a: ?ee e>e!te) %: ne!essa: i$=#i!ation in !ase a"te !ase, the ight to
?anings having %een e<=#i!it#: e%u""e) in this Cout $an: :eas ago. 1owers v. United
States" &&3 U.S. 3'3; Wilson v. United States" (J& U.S. J(3. As e!ent#: as #aynes v.
Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3, 5(5, the Cout o=en#: a!Ano?#e)ge) that @uestioning o" ?itnesses
an) sus=e!ts Bis un)ou%te)#: an essentia# too# in e""e!tive #a? en"o!e$ent.B(ccord" Croo)er v.
California" 359 U.S. 433, 44(.
Fina##:, the !ases )is!#ose that the #anguage in $an: o" the o=inions ovestates the a!tua# !ouse
o" )e!ision. It has %een sai), "o e<a$=#e, that an a)$issi%#e !on"ession $ust %e $a)e %: the
sus=e!t Bin the un"ettee) e<e!ise o" his o?n ?i##,B Malloy v. #ogan" 398 U.S. (, 8, an) that Ba
=isone is not Vto %e $a)e the )e#u)e) instu$ent o" his o?n !onvi!tion,DB Culombe v.
Connecticut" 3J9 U.S. 5J8, 58( 0FanA"ute, -., announ!ing the CoutDs >u)g$ent an) an
o=inion2. Though o"ten e=eate), su!h =in!i=#es ae ae#: o%seve) in "u## $easue. Even the
?o) Bvo#unta:B $a: %e )ee$e) so$e B+%10D ?hat $is#ea)ing, es=e!ia##: ?hen one !onsi)es
$an: o" the !on"essions that have %een %ought un)e its u$%e##a. See" e.g." supra" n. 5. The
ten)en!: to ovestate $a: %e #ai) in =at to the "#agant "a!ts o"ten %e"oe the Cout; %ut, in an:
event, one $ust e!ogniHe ho? it has te$=ee) attitu)es an) #ent so$e !o#o o" authoit: to the
a==oa!h no? taAen %: the Cout.
Page 48 of 75
I tun no? to the CoutDs assete) e#ian!e on the Fi"th A$en)$ent, an a==oa!h ?hi!h I "anA#:
ega) as a tromp l2oeil. The CoutDs o=inion, in $: vie?, evea#s no a)e@uate %asis "o e<ten)ing
the Fi"th A$en)$entDs =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination to the =o#i!e station. Fa $oe
i$=otant, it "ai#s to sho? that the CoutDs ne? u#es ae ?e## su==ote), #et a#one !o$=e##e), %:
Fi"th A$en)$ent =e!e)ents. Instea), the ne? u#es a!tua##: )eive "o$ @uotation an) ana#og:
)a?n "o$ =e!e)ents un)e the Si<th A$en)$ent, ?hi!h shou#) =o=e#: have no %eaing on
=o#i!e inteogation.
The CoutDs o=ening !ontention, that the Fi"th A$en)$ent govens =o#i!e station !on"essions, is
=eha=s not an i$=e$issi%#e e<tension o" the #a? %ut it has #itt#e to !o$$en) itse#" in the
=esent !i!u$stan!es. 6istoi!a##:, the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination )i) not %ea at a## on
the use o" e<ta*#ega# !on"essions, "o ?hi!h )istin!t stan)a)s evo#ve); in)ee),
the histo: o" the t?o =in!i=#es is ?i)e a=at, )i""eing %: one hun)e) :eas in oigin, an)
)eive) though se=aate #ines o" =e!e)ents. . . .
8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N &&JJ, at 4'( 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2. +a!ti!e un)e the t?o )o!tines
has a#so )i""ee) in a nu$%e o" i$=otant es=e!ts.
B/5D
B+%11D Even those ?ho ?ou#) ea)i#:
en#age the =ivi#ege $ust !on!e)e so$e #inguisti! )i""i!u#ties, sin!e the Fi"th A$en)$ent, in
te$s, =os!i%es on#: !o$=e##ing an: =eson Bin an: !i$ina# !ase to %e a ?itness against
hi$se#".B Cf. Oa$isa, E@ua# -usti!e in the 1atehouses an) Mansions o" A$ei!an Ci$ina#
+o!e)ue, in Ci$ina# -usti!e in Ou Ti$e (, &5*&J 0(EJ52.
Though ?eight:, I )o not sa: these =oints an) si$i#a ones ae !on!#usive, "o, as the Cout
eiteates, the =ivi#ege e$%o)ies %asi! =in!i=#es a#?a:s !a=a%#e o" e<=ansion.
B/6D
Cetain#: the
=ivi#ege )oes e=esent a =ote!tive !on!en "o the a!!use) an) an e$=hasis u=on a!!usatoia#,
athe than in@uisitoia#, va#ues in #a? en"o!e$ent, a#though this is si$i#a#: tue o" othe
#i$itations su!h as the gan) >u: e@uie$ent an) the easona%#e )ou%t stan)a). A!!usatoia#
va#ues, ho?eve, have o=en#: %een a%so%e) into the )ue =o!ess stan)a) govening
!on"essions; this, in)ee), is ?h:, at =esent, Bthe Ainshi= o" the t?o u#es Kgovening !on"essions
an) se#"*in!i$inationL is too a==aent "o )enia#.B M!Co$i!A, Evi)en!e (55 0(E542. Sin!e
e<tension o" the genea# =in!i=#e has a#ea): o!!ue), to insist that the =ivi#ege a==#ies as su!h
seves on#: to !a: ove ina==osite histoi!a# )etai#s an) engaging hetoi! an) to o%s!ue the
=o#i!: !hoi!es to %e $a)e in egu#ating !on"essions.
6aving )e!i)e) that the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege )oes a==#: in the =o#i!e station, the Cout
evea#s that the =ivi#ege i$=oses $oe e<a!ting esti!tions than )oes the Fouteenth
A$en)$entDs vo#untainess test.
B/;D
B+%1D It then e$eges "o$ a )is!ussion o" -scobedo that
the Fi"th A$en)$ent e@uies, "o an a)$issi%#e !on"ession, that it %e given %: one )istin!t#:
a?ae o" his ight not to s=eaA an) shie#)e) "o$ Bthe !o$=e##ing at$os=heeB o"
inteogation. See ante ==. 4J5*4JJ. Fo$ these Ae: =e$ises, the Cout "ina##: )eve#o=s the
sa"egua)s o" ?aning, !ounse#, an) so "oth. I )o not %e#ieve these =e$ises ae sustaine) %:
=e!e)ents un)e the Fi"th A$en)$ent.
B/?D
The $oe i$=otant =e$ise is that =essue on the sus=e!t $ust %e e#i$inate), though it %e on#:
the su%t#e in"#uen!e o" the at$os=hee an) suoun)ings. The Fi"th A$en)$ent, ho?eve, has
neve %een thought to "o%i) a## =essue to in!i$inate oneDs se#" in the situations !ovee) %: it.
On the !onta:, it has %een he#) that "ai#ue to in!i$inate oneDs se#" !an esu#t in )enia# o"
e$ova# o" oneDs !ase "o$ state to "e)ea# !out, Maryland v. Soper" &9' U.S. E; in e"usa# o" a
Page 49 of 75
$i#ita: !o$$ission, &rloff v. Willoughby" 345 U.S. 83; in )enia# o" a )is!hage in
%anAu=t!:, $aufman v. #urwit+" (9J F.&) &(', an) in nu$eous othe a)vese
!onse@uen!es. See 8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N &&9&, at 44(*444, n. (8 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2;
Maguie, Evi)en!e o" 1ui#t N &.'J& 0(E5E2. This is not to sa: that, shot o" >ai# o totue, an:
san!tion is =e$issi%#e in an: !ase; =o#i!: an) histo: a#iAe $a: i$=ose sha= #i$its. See"
e.g." B+%1"D !riffin v. California" 38' U.S. J'E. 6o?eve, the CoutDs uns=oAen assu$=tion
that any =essue vio#ates the =ivi#ege is not su==ote) %: the =e!e)ents, an) it has "ai#e) to
sho? ?h: the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ohi%its that e#ative#: $i#) =essue the Due +o!ess C#ause
=e$its.
The Cout a==eas si$i#a#: ?ong in thinAing that =e!ise Ano?#e)ge o" oneDs ights is a sett#e)
=ee@uisite un)e the Fi"th A$en)$ent to the #oss o" its =ote!tions. A nu$%e o" #o?e "e)ea#
!out !ases have he#) that gan) >u: ?itnesses nee) not a#?a:s %e ?ane) o" thei
=ivi#ege, e.g." United States v. Scully" &&5 F.&) ((3, ((J, an) Wig$oe states this to %e the %ette
u#e "o tia# ?itnesses. See 8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N &&JE 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2. Cf. #enry v.
Mississippi" 39E U.S. 443, 45(*45& 0?aive o" !onstitutiona# ights %: !ounse# )es=ite
)e"en)antDs ignoan!e he#) a##o?a%#e2. No Fi"th A$en)$ent =e!e)ent is !ite) "o the CoutDs
!onta: vie?. Thee $ight, o" !ouse, %e easons a=at "o$ Fi"th A$en)$ent =e!e)ent "o
e@uiing ?aning o an: othe sa"egua) on @uestioning, %ut that is a )i""eent $atte
entie#:. See infra ==. 5(J*5(9.
A !#osing ?o) $ust %e sai) a%out the Assistan!e o" Counse# C#ause o" the Si<th A$en)$ent,
?hi!h is neve e<=ess#: e#ie) on %: the Cout, %ut ?hose >u)i!ia# =e!e)ents tun out to %e
#in!h=ins o" the !on"ession u#es announ!e) to)a:. To su==ot its e@uie$ent o" a Ano?ing an)
inte##igent ?aive, the Cout !ites %ohnson v. 4erbst" 3'4 U.S. 458, ante =. 495; a==oint$ent o"
!ounse# "o the in)igent sus=e!t is tie) to !ideon v. Wainwright" 39& U.S. 335, an) ouglas v.
California" 39& U.S. 353, ante =. 493; the si#ent*e!o) )o!tine is %oo?e) "o$ Carnley v.
Cochran" 3JE U.S. 5'J, ante =. 495, as is the ight to an e<=ess o""e o" !ounse#, ante =. 49(. A##
these !ases i$=ating g#osses to the Si<th A$en)$ent !on!ene) !ounse# at tia# o on a==ea#.
Whi#e the Cout "in)s no =etinent )i""een!e %et?een >u)i!ia# =o!ee)ings an) =o#i!e
inteogation, I %e#ieveB+%1$D the )i""een!es ae so vast as to )is@ua#i": ?ho##: the Si<th
A$en)$ent =e!e)ents as suita%#e ana#ogies in the =esent !ases.
B/10D
The on#: atte$=t in this Cout to !a: the ight to !ounse# into the stationhouse o!!ue)
in -scobedo" the Cout e=eating sevea# ti$es that that stage ?as no #ess B!iti!a#B than tia#
itse#". See 398 U.S. 485*488. This is ha)#: =esuasive ?hen ?e !onsi)e that a gan) >u:
in@ui:, the "i#ing o" a !etioai =etition, an) !etain#: the =u!hase o" na!oti!s %: an
un)e!ove agent "o$ a =os=e!tive )e"en)ant $a: a## %e e@ua##: B!iti!a#,B :et =ovision o"
!ounse# an) a)vi!e on that s!oe have neve %een thought !o$=e##e) %: the Constitution in su!h
!ases. The soun) eason ?h: this ight is so "ee#: e<ten)e) "o a !i$ina# tia# is the sevee
in>usti!e isAe) %: !on"onting an untaine) )e"en)ant ?ith a ange o" te!hni!a# =oints o" #a?,
evi)en!e, an) ta!ti!s "a$i#ia to the =ose!uto, %ut not to hi$se#". This )ange shinAs $aAe)#:
in the =o#i!e station, ?hee, in)ee), the #a?:e, in "u#"i##ing his =o"essiona# es=onsi%i#ities, o"
ne!essit: $a: %e!o$e an o%sta!#e to tuth"in)ing. See infra" n. (&. The CoutDs su$$a: !itation
o" the Si<th A$en)$ent !ases hee see$s to $e %est )es!i%e) as the )o$ino $etho) o"
!onstitutiona# a)>u)i!ation . . . , ?heein eve: e<=#anato: state$ent in a =evious o=inion is
$a)e the %asis "o e<tension to a ?ho##: )i""eent situation.
Page 50 of 75
Fien)#:, supra" n. (', at E5'.
III. +OLIC/ CONSIDERATIONS
E<a$ine) as an e<=ession o" =u%#i! =o#i!:, the CoutDs ne? egi$e =oves so )u%ious that thee
!an %e no )ue B+%1%D !o$=ensation "o its ?eaAness in !onstitutiona# #a?. The "oegoing
)is!ussion has sho?n, I thinA, ho? $istaAen is the Cout in i$=#:ing that the Constitution has
stu!A the %a#an!e in "avo o" the a==oa!h the Cout taAes. (nte" =. 49E. Rathe, =e!e)ent
evea#s that the Fouteenth A$en)$ent, in =a!ti!e, has %een !onstue) to stiAe a )i""eent
%a#an!e, that the Fi"th A$en)$ent gives the Cout #itt#e so#i) su==ot in this !onte<t, an) that the
Si<th A$en)$ent shou#) have no %eaing at a##. Lega# histo: has %een stet!he) %e"oe to
satis": )ee= nee)s o" so!iet:. In this instan!e, ho?eve, the Cout has not an) !annot $aAe the
=o?e"u# sho?ing that its ne? u#es ae =#ain#: )esia%#e in the !onte<t o" ou so!iet:, so$ething
?hi!h is sue#: )e$an)e) %e"oe those u#es ae enga"te) onto the Constitution an) i$=ose) on
eve: State an) !ount: in the #an).
Without at a## su%s!i%ing to the genea##: %#a!A =i!tue o" =o#i!e !on)u!t =ainte) %: the Cout, I
thinA it $ust %e "anA#: e!ogniHe) at the outset that =o#i!e @uestioning a##o?a%#e un)e )ue
=o!ess =e!e)ents $a: inheent#: entai# so$e =essue on the sus=e!t, an) $a: seeA a)vantage
in his ignoan!e o ?eaAnesses. The at$os=hee an) @uestioning te!hni@ues, =o=e an) "ai
though the: %e, !an, in the$se#ves, e<et a tug on the sus=e!t to !on"ess, an), in this #ight,
KtLo s=eaA o" an: !on"essions o" !i$e $a)e a"te aest as %eing Bvo#unta:B o Bun!oe!e)B is
so$e?hat ina!!uate, a#though ta)itiona#. A !on"ession is ?ho##: an) in!ontesta%#: vo#unta:
on#: i" a gui#t: =eson gives hi$se#" u= to the #a? an) %e!o$es his o?n a!!use.
(shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S. (43, (J( 0-a!Ason, -., )issenting2. Unti# to)a:, the o#e o" the
Constitution has %een on#: to si"t out un)ue =essue, not to assue s=ontaneous
!on"essions.
B/11D
B+%15D
The CoutDs ne? u#es ai$ to o""set these $ino =essues an) )isa)vantages intinsi! to an: Ain)
o" =o#i!e inteogation. The u#es )o not seve )ue =o!ess inteests in =eventing %#atant
!oe!ion, sin!e, as I note) ea#ie, the: )o nothing to !ontain the =o#i!e$an ?ho is =e=ae) to #ie
"o$ the stat. The u#es ?oA "o e#ia%i#it: in !on"essions a#$ost on#: in the +i!A?i!Aian sense
that the: !an =event so$e "o$ %eing given at a##.
B/1D
In shot, the %ene"it o" this ne? egi$e is
si$=#: to #essen o ?i=e out the inheent !o$=u#sion an) ine@ua#ities to ?hi!h the Cout )evotes
so$e nine =ages o" )es!i=tion. (nte" ==. 448*45J.
What the Cout #age#: ignoes is that its u#es i$=ai, i" the: ?i## not eventua##: seve ?ho##: to
"ustate, an instu$ent o" #a? en"o!e$ent that has #ong an) @uite easona%#: %een thought
?oth the =i!e =ai) "o it.
B/1"D
Thee !an %e #itt#e )ou%t that the CoutDs ne? !o)e ?ou#)
$aAe)#: )e!ease the nu$%e o" !on"essions. To ?an the sus=e!t that he $a: e$ain si#ent an)
e$in) hi$ that his !on"ession $a: %e use) in !out ae $ino o%stu!tions. To e@uie a#so an
e<=ess ?aive %: the sus=e!t an) an en) to @uestioning ?heneve he )e$us B+%16D $ust
heavi#: han)i!a= @uestioning. An) to suggest o =ovi)e !ounse# "o the sus=e!t si$=#: invites
the en) o" the inteogation. See supra" n. (&.
6o? $u!h ha$ this )e!ision ?i## in"#i!t on #a? en"o!e$ent !annot "ai#: %e =e)i!te) ?ith
a!!ua!:. Evi)en!e on the o#e o" !on"essions is notoious#:
in!o$=#ete, seeDeve#o=$ents, supra" n. &, at E4(*E44, an) #itt#e is a))e) %: the CoutDs e"een!e
Page 51 of 75
to the FBI e<=eien!e an) the esou!es %e#ieve) ?aste) in inteogation. See infra" n.(E, an)
te<t. We )o Ano? that so$e !i$es !annot %e so#ve) ?ithout !on"essions, that a$=#e e<=et
testi$on: attests to thei i$=otan!e in !i$e !onto#,
B/1$D
an) that the Cout is taAing a ea# isA
?ith so!iet:Ds ?e#"ae in i$=osing its ne? egi$e on the !ount:. The so!ia# !osts o" !i$e ae
too geat to !a## the ne? u#es an:thing %ut a haHa)ous e<=ei$entation.
Whi#e =assing ove the !osts an) isAs o" its e<=ei$ent, the Cout =ota:s the evi#s o" no$a#
=o#i!e @uestioning in te$s ?hi!h I thinA ae e<aggeate). A#%eit stingent#: !on"ine) %: the )ue
=o!ess stan)a)s, inteogation is no )ou%t o"ten in!onvenient an) un=#easant "o the sus=e!t.
6o?eve, it is no #ess so "o a $an to %e aeste) an) >ai#e), to have his house sea!he), o to
stan) tia# in !out, :et a## this $a: =o=e#: ha==en to the $ost inno!ent, given =o%a%#e !ause, a
?aant, o an in)i!t$ent. So!iet: has a#?a:s =ai) a sti"" =i!e "o #a? an) o)e, an) =ea!e"u#
inteogation is not one o" the )aA $o$ents o" the #a?.
This %ie" state$ent o" the !o$=eting !onsi)eations see$s to $e a$=#e =oo" that the CoutDs
=e"een!e is high#: )e%ata%#e, at %est, an) thee"oe not to %e ea) into B+%1;Dthe Constitution.
6o?eve, it $a: $aAe the ana#:sis $oe ga=hi! to !onsi)e the a!tua# "a!ts o" one o" the "ou
!ases evese) %: the Cout. Miranda v. (ri+ona seves %est, %eing neithe the ha)est no easiest
o" the "ou un)e the CoutDs stan)a)s.
B/1%D
On Ma!h 3, (EJ3, an (8*:ea*o#) gi# ?as Ai)na==e) an) "o!i%#: a=e) nea +hoeni<, AiHona.
Ten )a:s #ate, on the $oning o" Ma!h (3, =etitione Mian)a ?as aeste) an) taAen to the
=o#i!e station. At this ti$e, Mian)a ?as &3 :eas o#), in)igent, an) e)u!ate) to the e<tent o"
!o$=#eting ha#" the ninth ga)e. 6e ha) Ban e$otiona# i##nessB o" the s!hiHo=heni! t:=e,
a!!o)ing to the )o!to ?ho eventua##: e<a$ine) hi$; the )o!toDs e=ot a#so state) that
Mian)a ?as Ba#et an) oiente) as to ti$e, =#a!e, an) =eson,B inte##igent ?ithin no$a# #i$its,
!o$=etent to stan) tia#, an) sane ?ithin the #ega# )e"inition. At the =o#i!e station, the vi!ti$
=i!Ae) Mian)a out o" a #ineu=, an) t?o o""i!es then tooA hi$ into a se=aate oo$ to
inteogate hi$, stating a%out ((I3' a.$. Though at "ist )en:ing his gui#t, ?ithin a shot ti$e,
Mian)a gave a )etai#e) oa# !on"ession, an) then ?ote out in his o?n han) an) signe) a %ie"
state$ent a)$itting an) )es!i%ing the !i$e. A## this ?as a!!o$=#ishe) in t?o hous o #ess,
?ithout an: "o!e, theats o =o$ises, an) ** I ?i## assu$e this, though the e!o) is
un!etain, ante 4E(*4E& an) nn JJ*J9 ** ?ithout an: e""e!tive ?anings at a##.
Mian)aDs oa# an) ?itten !on"essions ae no? he#) ina)$issi%#e un)e the CoutDs ne? u#es.
One is entit#e) to "ee# astonishe) that the Constitution !an %e ea) to =o)u!e this esu#t. These
!on"essions ?ee o%taine) B+%1?D )uing %ie" )a:ti$e @uestioning !on)u!te) %: t?o o""i!es
an) un$aAe) %: an: o" the ta)itiona# in)i!ia o" !oe!ion. The: assue) a !onvi!tion "o a %uta#
an) unsett#ing !i$e, "o ?hi!h the =o#i!e ha) an) @uite =ossi%#: !ou#) o%tain #itt#e evi)en!e
othe than the vi!ti$Ds i)enti"i!ations, evi)en!e ?hi!h is "e@uent#: une#ia%#e. Thee ?as, in
su$, a #egiti$ate =u=ose, no =e!e=ti%#e un"ainess, an) !etain#: #itt#e isA o" in>usti!e in the
inteogation. /et the esu#ting !on"essions, an) the es=onsi%#e !ouse o" =o#i!e =a!ti!e the:
e=esent, ae to %e sa!i"i!e) to the CoutDs o?n "ines=un !on!e=tion o" "ainess, ?hi!h I
seious#: )ou%t is shae) %: $an: thinAing !itiHens in this !ount:.
B/15D
The teno o" >u)i!ia# o=inion a#so "a##s ?e## shot o" su==oting the CoutDs ne? a==oa!h.
A#though -scobedo has ?i)e#: %een inte=ete) as an o=en invitation to #o?e !outs to e?ite
the #a? o" !on"essions, a signi"i!ant heav: $a>oit: o" the state an) "e)ea# )e!isions in =oint
Page 52 of 75
have sought @uite nao? inte=etations.
B/16D
O" B+%0D the !outs that have a!!e=te) the
invitation, it is ha) to Ano? ho? $an: have "e#t !o$=e##e) %: thei %est guess as to this CoutDs
#iAe#: !onstu!tion; %ut none o" the state )e!isions sa? "it to e#: on the state =ivi#ege against
se#"*in!i$ination, an) no )e!ision at a## has gone as "a as this Cout goes to)a:.
B/1;D
It is a#so instu!tive to !o$=ae the attitu)e in this !ase o" those es=onsi%#e "o #a? en"o!e$ent
?ith the o""i!ia# vie?s that e<iste) ?hen the Cout un)etooA thee $a>o evisions o"
=ose!utoia# =a!ti!e =io to this !ase, %ohnson v. 4erbst" 3'4 U.S. 458, Mapp v. &hio" 3J9 U.S.
J43, an) !ideon v. Wainwright" 39& U.S. 335. In %ohnson" ?hi!h esta%#ishe) that a==ointe)
!ounse# $ust %e o""ee) the in)igent in "e)ea# !i$ina# tia#s, the Fe)ea# 1oven$ent a## %ut
!on!e)e) the %asi! issue, ?hi!h ha), in "a!t, %een e!ent#: "i<e) as De=at$ent o" -usti!e
=o#i!:. See Beane:, Right to Counse# &E*3', 34& 0(E552. InMapp" ?hi!h i$=ose) the
e<!#usiona: u#e on the States "o Fouth A$en)$ent vio#ations, $oe than ha#" o" the States
ha) the$se#ves a#ea): a)o=te) so$e su!h u#e.See 3J9 U.S. at J5(. In !ideon" ?hi!h
e<ten)e) %ohnson v. 4erbst to the States, an amicus%ie" ?as "i#e) %: && States an)
Co$$on?ea#ths uging that !ouse; on#: t?o States %esi)es that o" the es=on)ent !a$e "o?a)
to =otest. See 39& U.S. at 345. B: !ontast, in this !ase, ne? esti!tions on
=o#i!e B+%1D @uestioning have %een o==ose) %: the Unite) States an) in an amicus %ie" signe)
%: &9 States an) Co$$on?ea#ths, not in!#u)ing the thee othe States ?hi!h ae =aties. No
State in the !ount: has uge) this Cout to i$=ose the ne?#: announ!e) u#es, no has an: State
!hosen to go nea#: so "a on its o?n.
The Cout, in !#osing its genea# )is!ussion, invoAes the =a!ti!e in "e)ea# an) "oeign
>uis)i!tions as #en)ing ?eight to its ne? !u%s on !on"essions "o a## the States. A %ie" esu$e
?i## su""i!e to sho? that none o" these >uis)i!tions has stu!A so one*si)e) a %a#an!e as the
Cout )oes to)a:. 6eaviest e#ian!e is =#a!e) on the FBI =a!ti!e. Di""eing !i!u$stan!es $a:
$aAe this !o$=aison @uite untust?oth:,
B/1?D
%ut, in an: event, the FBI "a##s sensi%#: shot o"
the CoutDs "o$a#isti! u#es. Fo e<a$=#e, thee is no in)i!ation that FBI agents $ust o%tain an
a""i$ative B?aiveB %e"oe the: =usue thei @uestioning. No is it !#ea that one invoAing his
ight to si#en!e $a: not %e =evai#e) u=on to !hange his $in). An) the ?aning as to a==ointe)
!ounse# a==aent#: in)i!ates on#: that one ?i## %e assigne) %: the >u)ge ?hen the sus=e!t
a==eas %e"oe hi$; the thust o" the CoutDs u#es is to in)u!e the sus=e!t to o%tain a==ointe)
!ounse# %e"oe !ontinuing the intevie?.See ante ==. 484*48J. A==aent#:, A$ei!an $i#ita:
=a!ti!e, %ie"#: $entione) %: the Cout, has these sa$e #i$its, an) is sti## #ess "avoa%#e to the
sus=e!t than the FBI ?aning, $aAing no $ention o" a==ointe) !ounse#. Deve#o=$ents, supra" n.
&, at ('84*('8E.
The #a? o" the "oeign !ounties )es!i%e) %: the Cout a#so e"#e!ts a $oe $o)eate !on!e=tion
o" the ights o" B+%D the a!!use) as against those o" so!iet: ?hen othe )ata ae !onsi)ee).
Con!e)e)#:, the Eng#ish e<=eien!e is $ost e#evant. In that !ount:, a !aution as to si#en!e, %ut
not !ounse#, has #ong %een $an)ate) %: the B-u)gesD Ru#es,B ?hi!h a#so =#a!e othe so$e?hat
i$=e!ise #i$its on =o#i!e !oss*e<a$ination o" sus=e!ts. 6o?eve, in the !outDs )is!etion,
!on"essions !an %e, an) a==aent#: @uite "e@uent#: ae, a)$itte) in evi)en!e )es=ite )isega) o"
the -u)gesD Ru#es, so #ong as the: ae "oun) vo#unta: un)e the !o$$on #a? test. Moeove, the
!he!A that e<ists on the use o" =etia# state$ents is !ounte%a#an!e) %: the evi)ent a)$issi%i#it:
o" "uits o" an i##ega# !on"ession an) %: the >u)geDs o"ten*use) authoit: to !o$$ent a)vese#: on
the )e"en)antDs "ai#ue to testi":.
B/0D
In)ia, Ce:#on an) S!ot#an) ae the othe e<a$=#es !hosen %:
the Cout. In In)ia an) Ce:#on, the genea# %an on =o#i!e*a))u!e) !on"essions !ite) %: the Cout
Page 53 of 75
is su%>e!t to a $a>o e<!e=tionI i" evi)en!e is un!ovee) %: =o#i!e @uestioning, it is "u##:
a)$issi%#e at tia# a#ong ?ith the !on"ession itse#", so "a as it e#ates to the evi)en!e an) is not
%#atant#: !oe!e). See Deve#o=$ents, supra" n. &, at (('J*(((';5eg. v. 5amasamy K(EJ5L A.C. (
0+.C.2. S!ot#an)Ds #i$its on inteogation )o $easue u= to the CoutDs; ho?eve, estaine)
!o$$ent at tia# on the )e"en)antDs "ai#ue to taAe the stan) is a##o?e) the >u)ge, an), in $an:
othe es=e!ts, S!ot!h #a? e)esses the =ose!utoDs )isa)vantage in ?a:s not =e$itte) in this
!ount:.
B/1D
The Cout en)s its suve: %: i$=uting B+%"D a))e) stength to ou =ivi#ege against
se#"*in!i$ination sin!e, %: !ontast to othe !ounties, it is e$%o)ie) in a ?itten Constitution.
Consi)eing the #i%eties the Cout has to)a: taAen ?ith !onstitutiona# histo: an) =e!e)ent, "e?
?i## "in) this e$=hasis =esuasive.
In !#osing this ne!essai#: tun!ate) )is!ussion o" =o#i!: !onsi)eations atten)ing the ne?
!on"ession u#es, so$e e"een!e $ust %e $a)e to thei ioni! unti$e#iness. Thee is no? in
=ogess in this !ount: a $assive ee<a$ination o" !i$ina# #a? en"o!e$ent =o!e)ues on a
s!a#e neve %e"oe ?itnesse). +ati!i=ants in this un)etaAing in!#u)e a S=e!ia# Co$$ittee o" the
A$ei!an Ba Asso!iation, un)e the !hai$anshi= o" Chie" -u)ge Lu$%a) o" the Cout o"
A==ea#s "o the Se!on) Ci!uit; a )istinguishe) stu): gou= o" the A$ei!an La? Institute,
hea)e) %: +o"essos ,oen%eg an) Bato o" the 6ava) La? S!hoo#, an) the +esi)entDs
Co$$ission on La? En"o!e$ent an) A)$inistation o" -usti!e, un)e the #ea)eshi= o" the
Attone: 1enea# o" the Unite) States.
B/D
Stu)ies ae a#so %eing !on)u!te) %: the Disti!t o"
Co#u$%ia Ci$e Co$$ission, the 1eogeto?n La? Cente, an) %: othes e@ui==e) to )o
=a!ti!a# esea!h.
B/"D
Thee ae a#so signs that #egis#atues in so$e o" the States $a: %e
=e=aing to ee<a$ine the =o%#e$ %e"oe us.
B/$D
B+%$D
It is no se!et that !on!en has %een e<=esse) #est #ong*ange an) #asting e"o$s %e "ustate)
%: this CoutDs too a=i) )e=atue "o$ e<isting !onstitutiona# stan)a)s. Des=ite the CoutDs
)is!#ai$e, the =a!ti!a# e""e!t o" the )e!ision $a)e to)a: $ust inevita%#: %e to han)i!a=
seious#: soun) e""ots at e"o$, not #east %: e$oving o=tions ne!essa: to a >ust !o$=o$ise
o" !o$=eting inteests. O" !ouse, #egis#ative e"o$ is ae#: s=ee): o unani$ous, though this
Cout has %een $oe =atient in the =ast.
B/%D
But the #egis#ative e"o$s, ?hen the: !o$e, ?ou#)
have the vast a)vantage o" e$=ii!a# )ata an) !o$=ehensive stu):, the: ?ou#) a##o?
e<=ei$entation an) use o" so#utions not o=en to the !outs, an) the: ?ou#) estoe the initiative
in !i$ina# #a? e"o$ to those "ou$s ?hee it tu#: %e#ongs.
I,. CONCLUSIONS
A## "ou o" the !ases invo#ve) hee =esent e<=ess !#ai$s that !on"essions ?ee ina)$issi%#e not
%e!ause o" !oe!ion in the ta)itiona# )ue =o!ess sense, %ut so#e#: %e!ause o" #a!A o" !ounse# o
#a!A o" ?anings !on!ening !ounse# an) si#en!e. Fo the easons state) in this o=inion, I ?ou#)
a)hee to the )ue =o!ess test an) e>e!t the ne? e@uie$ents inauguate) %: the Cout. On this
=e$ise, $: )is=osition o" ea!h o" these !ases !an %e state) %ie"#:.
In t?o o" the thee !ases !o$ing "o$ state !outs, Miranda v. (ri+ona 0No. 95E2 an)/ignera v.
New *or) 0No. 9J'2, the !on"essions ?ee he#) a)$issi%#e, an) no othe eos ?oth !o$$ent
ae a##ege) %: =etitiones. B+%%D I ?ou#) a""i$ in these t?o !ases. The othe state !ase
is California v. Stewart 0No. 5842, ?hee the state su=e$e !out he#) the !on"ession
ina)$issi%#e, an) evese) the !onvi!tion. In that !ase, I ?ou#) )is$iss the ?it o" !etioai on
the goun) that no "ina# >u)g$ent is %e"oe us, &8 U.S.C. (&59 0(EJ4 e).2; =utting asi)e the ne?
tia# o=en to the State in an: event, the !on"ession itse#" has not even %een "ina##: e<!#u)e), sin!e
Page 54 of 75
the Ca#i"onia Su=e$e Cout #e"t the State "ee to sho? =oo" o" a ?aive. I" the $eits o" the
)e!ision in Stewart %e ea!he), then I %e#ieve it shou#) %e evese), an) the !ase e$an)e) so the
state su=e$e !out $a: =ass on the othe !#ai$s avai#a%#e to es=on)ent.
In the "e)ea# !ase, Westover v. United States 0No. 9J(2, a nu$%e o" issues ae aise) %:
=etitione a=at "o$ the one a#ea): )ea#t ?ith in this )issent. None o" these othe !#ai$s
a==eas to $e tena%#e, no in this !onte<t to ?aant e<ten)e) )is!ussion. It is uge) that the
!on"ession ?as a#so ina)$issi%#e %e!ause not vo#unta:, even $easue) %: )ue =o!ess
stan)a)s, an) %e!ause "e)ea#*state !oo=eation %ought the McNabb7Malloryu#e into =#a:
un)e (nderson v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 35'. 6o?eve, the "a!ts a##ege) "a## ?e## shot o"
!oe!ion, in $: vie?, an) I %e#ieve the invo#ve$ent o" "e)ea# agents in =etitioneDs aest an)
)etention %: the State too s#ight to invoAe (nderson. I agee ?ith the 1oven$ent that the
a)$ission o" the evi)en!e no? =oteste) %: =etitione ?as, at $ost, ha$#ess eo, an) t?o "ina#
!ontentions ** one invo#ving ?eight o" the evi)en!e an) anothe i$=o=e =ose!uto !o$$ent **
see$ to $e ?ithout $eit. I ?ou#) thee"oe a""i$ WestoveDs !onvi!tion.
In !on!#usionI nothing in the #ette o the s=iit o" the Constitution o in the =e!e)ents s@uaes
?ith the heav:*han)e) an) one*si)e) a!tion that is so =e!i=itous#: B+%5DtaAen %: the Cout in
the na$e o" "u#"i##ing its !onstitutiona# es=onsi%i#ities. The "oa: ?hi!h the Cout $aAes to)a:
%ings to $in) the ?ise an) "asighte) ?o)s o" M. -usti!e -a!Ason in ouglas v. %eannette" 3(E
U.S. (59, (8( 0se=aate o=inion2I
This Cout is "oeve a))ing ne? stoies to the te$=#es o" !onstitutiona# #a?, an) the te$=#es
have a ?a: o" !o##a=sing ?hen one sto: too $an: is a))e).
(. M: )is!ussion in this o=inion is )ie!te) to the $ain @uestions )e!i)e) %: the Cout an)
ne!essa: to its )e!ision; in ignoing so$e o" the !o##atea# =oints, I )o not $ean to i$=#:
agee$ent.
&. The !ase ?as 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53& 0@uote) ante =. 4J(2. Its histoi!a# =e$ises
?ee a"te?a)s )is=ove) %: Wig$oe, ?ho !on!#u)e) Bthat no assetions !ou#) %e $oe
un"oun)e).B 3 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N 8&3, at &5', n. 5 03) e).(E4'2. The Cout inUnited States v.
Carignan" 34& U.S. 3J, 4(, )e!#ine) to !hoose %et?een 0ram an) Wig$oe, an) Stein v. New
*or)" 34J U.S. (5J, (E(, n. 35, !ast "uthe )ou%t on 0ram.Thee ae, ho?eve, sevea# Cout
o=inions ?hi!h assu$e in )i!ta the e#evan!e o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege to
!on"essions. 0urdeau v. Mcowell" &5J U.S. 4J5, 495; see Shotwell Mfg. Co. v. United
States" 39( U.S. 34(, 349. On 0ram an) the "e)ea# !on"ession !ases
genea##:, see Deve#o=$ents in the La? ** Con"essions, 9E 6av.L.Rev. E35, E5E*EJ( 0(EJJ2.
3. Co$$ent, 3( U.Chi.L.Rev. 3(3 Q n. ( 0(EJ42, states that, %: the (EJ3 Te$, 33 state !oe!e)
!on"ession !ases ha) %een )e!i)e) %: this Cout, a=at "o$ =e !uia$s. Spano v. New *or)" 3J'
U.S. 3(5, 3&(, n. &, !o##e!ts &8 !ases.
4. Bato Q ,oen%eg, Aest, Detention, Inteogation an) the Right to Counse#, JJ Co#.L.Rev.
J&, 93 0(EJJ2I
In "a!t, the !on!e=t o" invo#untainess see$s to %e use) %: the !outs as a shothan) to e"e to
=a!ti!es ?hi!h ae e=e##ent to !ivi#iHe) stan)a)s o" )e!en!: o ?hi!h, un)e the
!i!u$stan!es, ae thought to a==#: a )egee o" =essue to an in)ivi)ua# ?hi!h un"ai#: i$=ais
his !a=a!it: to $aAe a ationa# !hoi!e.
Page 55 of 75
See 6e$an, The Su=e$e Cout an) Resti!tions on +o#i!e Inteogation, &5 Ohio St.L.-. 44E,
45&*458 0(EJ42; Deve#o=$ents, supra" n. &, at EJ4*E84.
5. See the !ases s:no=siHe) in 6e$an, supra" n. 4, at 45J, nn. 3J*3E. One not too )istant
e<a$=#e is Stroble v. California" 343 U.S. (8(, in ?hi!h the sus=e!t ?as Ai!Ae) an) theatene)
a"te his aest, @uestione) a #itt#e #ate "o t?o hous, an) iso#ate) "o$ a #a?:e t:ing to see
hi$; the esu#ting !on"ession ?as he#) a)$issi%#e.
J. A$ong the e<a$=#es given in 8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N &&JJ, at 4'( 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2,
ae theseI the =ivi#ege a==#ies to an: ?itness, !ivi# o !i$ina#, %ut the !on"ession u#e =ote!ts
on#: !i$ina# )e"en)ants; the =ivi#ege )ea#s on#: ?ith !o$=u#sion, ?hi#e the !on"ession u#e
$a: e<!#u)e state$ents o%taine) %: ti!A o =o$ise, an) ?hee the =ivi#ege has %een nu##i"ie)
** as %: the Eng#ish BanAu=t!: A!t ** the !on"ession u#e $a: sti## o=eate.
9. A))itiona##:, thee ae =e!e)ents an) even histoi!a# agu$ents that !an %e aa:e) in "avo o"
%inging e<ta*#ega# @uestioning ?ithin the =ivi#ege. See generally Maguie, Evi)en!e o" 1ui#t
N &.'3, at (5*(J 0(E5E2.
8. This, o" !ouse, is i$=#i!it in the CoutDs into)u!to: announ!e$ent that BKoLu )e!ision
in Malloy v. #ogan" 398 U.S. ( 0(EJ42 Ke<ten)ing the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege to the StatesL
ne!essitates an e<a$ination o" the s!o=e o" the =ivi#ege in state !ases as ?e##.B(nte" =. 4J3. It is
a#so in!onsistent ?ith Malloy itse#", in ?hi!h e<tension o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent to the States
este) in =at on the vie? that the Due +o!ess C#ause esti!tion on state !on"essions has, in
e!ent :eas, %een Bthe sa$e stan)a)B as that i$=ose) in "e)ea# =ose!utions assete)#: %: the
Fi"th A$en)$ent. 398 U.S. at 9.
E. I #a: asi)e -scobedo itse#"; it !ontains no easoning o even genea# !on!#usions a))esse) to
the Fi"th A$en)$ent, an) in)ee) its !itation in this ega) see$s su=ising in vie?
o" -scobedo2s =i$a: e#ian!e on the Si<th A$en)$ent.
('. Sin!e the Cout !ons=i!uous#: )oes not asset that the Si<th A$en)$ent itse#" ?aants its
ne? =o#i!e inteogation u#es, thee is no eason no? to )a? out the e<te$e#: =o?e"u#
histoi!a# an) =e!e)entia# evi)en!e that the A$en)$ent ?i## %ea no su!h $eaning. See
generally Fien)#:, The Bi## o" Rights as a Co)e o" Ci$ina# +o!e)ue, 53 Ca#i".L.Rev. EDE, E43*
E48 0(EJ52.
((. See supra" n. 4, an) te<t. O" !ouse, the use o" te$s #iAe vo#untainess invo#ves @uestions o"
#a? an) te$ino#og: @uite as $u!h as @uestions o" "a!t. See Collins v. 0eto"348 F.&) 8&3, 83&
0!on!uing o=inion2; Bato Q ,oen%eg, supra" n. 4, at 9&*93.
(&. The CoutDs vision o" a #a?:e B$itigatKingL the )anges o" untust?othinessB 0ante" =. 49'2
%: ?itnessing !oe!ion an) assisting a!!ua!: in the !on"ession is #age#: a "an!:; "o i" !ounse#
aives, thee is ae#: going to %e a =o#i!e station !on"ession. Watt v. .ndiana"338 U.S. 4E, 5E
0se=aate o=inion o" -a!Ason, -.2I BKALn: #a?:e ?oth his sa#t ?i## te## the sus=e!t in no
un!etain te$s to $aAe no state$ent to =o#i!e un)e an: !i!u$stan!es.BSee EnAe Q E#sen,
Counse# "o the Sus=e!t, 4E Minn.L.Rev. 49, JJ*J8 0(EJ42.
(3. This nee) is, o" !ouse, ?hat $aAes so $is#ea)ing the CoutDs !o$=aison o" a =o%ate >u)ge
ea)i#: setting asi)e as invo#unta: the ?i## o" an o#) #a): %a)gee) an) %e#eaguee) %: the ne?
Page 56 of 75
heis. (nte" ==. 459*458, n. &J. With ?i##s, thee is no =u%#i! inteest save in a tota##: "ee !hoi!e;
?ith !on"essions, the so#ution o" !i$e is a !ountevai#ing gain ho?eve the %a#an!e is eso#ve).
(4. See" e.g." the vo#u$inous !itations to !ongessiona# !o$$ittee testi$on: an) othe sou!es
!o##e!te) in Culombe v. Connecticut" 3J9 U.S. 5J8, 598*59E 0FanA"ute, -., announ!ing the
CoutDs >u)g$ent an) an o=inion2.
(5. In Westover" a seasone) !i$ina# ?as =a!ti!a##: given the CoutDs "u## !o$=#e$ent o"
?anings, an) )i) not hee) the$. The Stewart !ase, on the othe han), invo#ves #ong )etention
an) su!!essive @uestioning. In /ignera" the "a!ts ae !o$=#i!ate), an) the e!o) so$e?hat
in!o$=#ete.
(J.
K-Lusti!e, though )ue to the a!!use), is )ue to the a!!use a#so. The !on!e=t o" "ainess $ust not
%e staine) ti## it is nao?e) to a "i#a$ent. We ae to Aee= the %a#an!e tue.
Snyder v. Massachusetts" &E( U.S. E9, (&& 0Ca)oHo, -.2.
(9. A nao? ea)ing is given inI United States v. 5obinson" 354 F.&) ('E 0C.A.&) Ci.2;avis v.
North Carolina" 33E F.&) 99' 0C.A.4th Ci.2; -dwards v. #olman" 34& F.&) J9E 0C.A. 5th
Ci.2; United States e3 rel. Townsend v. &gilvie" 334 F.&) 839 0C.A. 9th Ci.2;1eople v.
#artgraves" 3( I##.&) 395, &'& N.E.&) 33; State v. 'o3" ... Io?a ..., (3( N.W.&) J84; 5owe v.
Commonwealth" 3E4 S.W.&) 95( 0O:.2; 1ar)er v. Warden" &3J M). &3J, &'3 A.&) 4(8; State v.
#oward" 383 S.W.&) 9'( 0Mo.2; 0ean v. State" ... Nev. ..., 3E8 +.&) &5(;State v. #odgson" 44
N.-. (5(, &'9 A.&) 54&; 1eople v. !unner" (5 N./.&) &&J, &'5 N.E.&) 85&; Commonwealth e3
rel. Linde v. Maroney" 4(J +a. 33(, &'J A.&) &88; 0rowne v. State"&4 Wis.&) 4E(, (3( N.W.&)
(JE.
An a$=#e ea)ing is given inI United States e3 rel. 5usso v. New %ersey" 35( F.&) 4&E 0C.A.3)
Ci.2; Wright v. ic)son" 33J F.&) 898 0C.A. Eth Ci.2; 1eople v. orado" J& Ca#.&) 338, 3E8 +.&)
3J(; State v. ufour" ... R.I. ..., &'J A.&) 8&; State v. Neely" &3E Oe. 489, 3E5 +.&)
559, modified" 3E8 +.&) 48&.
The !ases in %oth !ategoies ae those ea)i#: avai#a%#e; thee ae !etain#: $an: othes.
(8. Fo instan!e, compare the e@uie$ents o" the !ata#:ti! !ase o" 1eople v. orado" J& Ca#.&)
338, 3E8 +.&) 3J(, with those #ai) )o?n to)a:. See also Ta:no, The Devi#s o" Due +o!ess in
Ci$ina# Dete!tion, Detention, an) Tia#, 33 U.Chi.L.Rev. J59, J9'.
(E. The CoutDs obiter dictum not?ithstan)ing, ante =. 48J, thee is so$e %asis "o %e#ieving that
the sta=#e o" FBI !i$ina# ?oA )i""es i$=otant#: "o$ $u!h !i$e ?ithin the Aen o" #o!a#
=o#i!e. The sAi## an) esou!es o" the FBI $a: a#so %e unusua#.
&'. Fo !itations an) )is!ussion !oveing ea!h o" these =oints, see Deve#o=$ents, supra"n. &, at
('E(*('E9, an) EnAe Q E#sen, supra" n. (&, at 8' Q n. E4.
&(. On !o$$ent, see 6a)in, Othe Ans?esI Sea!h an) SeiHue, Coe!e) Con"ession, an)
Ci$ina# Tia# in S!ot#an), ((3 U.+a.L.Rev. (J5, (8( an) nn. EJ*E9 0(EJ42. Othe e<a$=#es ae
#ess stingent sea!h an) seiHue u#es an) no auto$ati! e<!#usion "o vio#ation o" the$, id. at
Page 57 of 75
(J9*(JE; gui#t %ase) on $a>oit: >u: ve)i!ts, id. at (85, an) =etia# )is!ove: o" evi)en!e on
%oth si)es, id. at (95.
&&. O" =ati!u#a e#evan!e is the ALIDs )a"ting o" a Mo)e# Co)e o" +e*Aaign$ent +o!e)ue,
no? in its "ist tentative )a"t. Whi#e the ABA an) Nationa# Co$$ission stu)ies have ?i)e
s!o=e, the "o$e is #en)ing its a)vi!e to the ALI =o>e!t an) the e<e!utive )ie!to o" the #atte is
one o" the e=otes "o the Mo)e# Co)e.
&3. See %ie" "o the Unite) States in Westover" =. 45. The N./. Ti$es, -une 3, (EJJ, =. 4( 0#ate
!it: e).2 e=ote) that the Fo) Foun)ation has a?a)e) W(,('',''' "o a "ive*:ea stu): o"
aests an) !on"ession in Ne? /oA.
&4. The Ne? /oA Asse$%#: e!ent#: =asse) a %i## to e@uie !etain ?anings %e"oe an
a)$issi%#e !on"ession is taAen, though the u#es ae #ess sti!t than ae the CoutDs. N./. Ti$es,
Ma: &4, (EJJ, =. 35 0#ate !it: e).2.
&5. The Cout ?aite) (& :eas a"te Wolf v. Colorado" 338 U.S. &5, )e!#ae) =iva!: against
i$=o=e state intusions to %e !onstitutiona##: sa"egua)e) %e"oe it !on!#u)e), in Mapp v.
&hio" 3J9 U.S. J43, that a)e@uate state e$e)ies ha) not %een =ovi)e) to =ote!t this inteest,
so the e<!#usiona: u#e ?as ne!essa:.
TO#
D0sse/-
W6ITE, -., Dissenting
MR. -USTICE W6ITE, ?ith ?ho$ MR. -USTICE 6ARLAN an) MR. -USTICE STEWART
>oin, )issenting.
I
The =o=osition that the =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination "o%i)s in*!usto): inteogation
?ithout the ?anings s=e!i"ie) in the $a>oit: o=inion an) ?ithout a !#ea ?aive o" !ounse# has
no signi"i!ant su==ot in the histo: o" the =ivi#ege o in the #anguage o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent.
As "o the Eng#ish authoities an) the !o$$on #a? histo:, the =ivi#ege, "i$#: esta%#ishe) in
the se!on) ha#" o" the seventeenth !entu:, ?as neve a==#ie) e<!e=t to =ohi%it !o$=e##e)
>u)i!ia# inteogations. The u#e e<!#u)ing !oe!e) !on"essions $atue) a%out ('' :eas #ate,
K%Lut thee is nothing in the e=ots to suggest that the theo: has its oots in the =ivi#ege against
se#"*in!i$ination. An), so "a as the !ases evea#, the =ivi#ege, as su!h, see$s to have %een
given e""e!t on#: in >u)i!ia# =o!ee)ings, in!#u)ing the =e#i$ina: e<a$inations %: authoiHe)
$agistates.
Mogan, The +ivi#ege Against Se#"*In!i$ination, 34 Minn.L.Rev. (, (8 0(E4E2.
Ou o?n !onstitutiona# =ovision =ovi)es that no =eson Bsha## %e !o$=e##e) in an: !i$ina#
!ase to %e a ?itness against hi$se#".B These ?o)s, ?hen
Page 58 of 75
K!Lonsi)ee) in the #ight to %e she) %: ga$$a an) the )i!tiona: . . . , a==ea to signi": si$=#:
that no%o): sha## %e B+%6D !o$=e##e) to give oa# testi$on: against hi$se#" in a !i$ina#
=o!ee)ing un)e ?a: in ?hi!h he is )e"en)ant.
Co?in, The Su=e$e CoutDs Constu!tion o" the Se#"*In!i$ination C#ause, &E Mi!h.L.Rev. (,
&. An) thee is ve: #itt#e in the suoun)ing !i!u$stan!es o" the a)o=tion o" the Fi"th
A$en)$ent o in the =ovisions o" the then e<isting state !onstitutions o in state =a!ti!e ?hi!h
?ou#) give the !onstitutiona# =ovision an: %oa)e $eaning. Ma:es, The Fe)ea# WitnessD
+ivi#ege Against Se#"*In!i$inationI Constitutiona# o Co$$on*La?R 4 A$ei!an -ouna# o"
Lega# 6isto: ('9 0(EJ'2. Su!h a !onstu!tion, ho?eve, ?as !onsi)ea%#: nao?e than the
=ivi#ege at !o$$on #a?, an), ?hen eventua##: "a!e) ?ith the issues, the Cout e<ten)e) the
!onstitutiona# =ivi#ege to the !o$=u#so: =o)u!tion o" %ooAs an) =a=es, to the o)ina:
?itness %e"oe the gan) >u:, an) to ?itnesses genea##:. 0oyd v. United States" ((J U.S. J(J,
an) Counselman v. #itchcoc)" (4& U.S. 549. Both u#es ha) so#i) su==ot in !o$$on #a?
histo:, i" not in the histo: o" ou o?n !onstitutiona# =ovision.
A "e? :eas #ate, the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege ?as si$i#a#: e<ten)e) to en!o$=ass the then
?e## esta%#ishe) u#e against !oe!e) !on"essionsI
In !i$ina# tia#s, in the !outs o" the Unite) States, ?heeve a @uestion aises ?hethe a
!on"ession is in!o$=etent %e!ause not vo#unta:, the issue is !onto##e) %: that =otion o" the
Fi"th A$en)$ent to the Constitution o" the Unite) States, !o$$an)ing that no =eson Bsha## %e
!o$=e##e) in an: !i$ina# !ase to %e a ?itness against hi$se#".B
0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53&, 54&. A#though this vie? has "oun) a==ova# in othe
!ases, 0urdeau v. Mcowell" &5J U.S. 4J5, 495; 1owers v. United States" &&3 U.S. 3'3,
3(3;Shotwell v. United States" 39( U.S. 34(, 349, it has a#so %een @uestione), see 0rown v.
Mississippi" &E9 U.S. &98, &85; United States v. Carignan" B+%;D 34& U.S. 3J, 4(; Stein v. New
*or)" 34J U.S. (5J, (E(, n. 35, an) "in)s s!ant su==ot in eithe the Eng#ish o A$ei!an
authoities, see generally 5egina v. Scott" Deas. Q Be## 49; 3 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N 8&3 03)
e).(E4'2, at &4E 0Ba !on"ession is not e>e!te) %e!ause o" an: !onne!tion ?ith the =ivi#ege
against se#"*!i$inationB2, an) &5', n. 5 0=ati!u#a#: !iti!iHing 0ram2; 8 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e
N &&JJ, at 4''*4'( 0M!Naughton ev.(EJ(2. Whateve the sou!e o" the u#e e<!#u)ing !oe!e)
!on"essions, it is !#ea that, =io to the a==#i!ation o" the =ivi#ege itse#" to state !outs, Malloy v.
#ogan" 398 U.S. (, the a)$issi%i#it: o" a !on"ession in a state !i$ina# =ose!ution ?as teste) %:
the sa$e stan)a)s as ?ee a==#ie) in "e)ea# =ose!utions. .d. at J*9, ('.
0ram" ho?eve, itse#" e>e!te) the =o=osition ?hi!h the Cout no? es=ouses. The @uestion
in 0ram ?as ?hethe a !on"ession, o%taine) )uing !usto)ia# inteogation, ha) %een !o$=e##e),
an), i" su!h inteogation ?as to %e )ee$e) inheent#: vu#nea%#e, the CoutDs in@ui: !ou#) have
en)e) thee. A"te e<a$ining the Eng#ish an) A$ei!an authoities, ho?eve, the Cout )e!#ae)
thatI
In this !out a#so, it has %een sett#e) that the $ee "a!t that the !on"ession is $a)e to a =o#i!e
o""i!e, ?hi#e the a!!use) ?as un)e aest in o out o" =ison, o ?as )a?n out %: his @uestions,
)oes not ne!essai#: en)e the !on"ession invo#unta:, %ut, as one o" the !i!u$stan!es, su!h
i$=ison$ent o inteogation $a: %e taAen into a!!ount in )ete$ining ?hethe o not the
state$ents o" the =isone ?ee vo#unta:.
Page 59 of 75
(J8 U.S. at 558. In this es=e!t, the Cout ?as ?ho##: !onsistent ?ith =io an) su%se@uent
=onoun!e$ents in this Cout.
Thus, =io to 0ram" the Cout, in #opt v. Utah" ((' U.S. 594, 583*589, ha) u=he#) the
a)$issi%i#it: o" a B+%?D !on"ession $a)e to =o#i!e o""i!es "o##o?ing aest, the e!o) %eing
si#ent !on!ening ?hat !onvesation ha) o!!ue) %et?een the o""i!es an) the )e"en)ant in the
shot =eio) =e!e)ing the !on"ession. Re#:ing on #opt" the Cout u#e) s@uae#: on the issue
in Sparf and #ansen v. United States" (5J U.S. 5(, 55I
Counse# "o the a!!use) insist that thee !annot %e a vo#unta: state$ent, a "ee o=en !on"ession,
?hi#e a )e"en)ant is !on"ine) an) in ions un)e an a!!usation o" having !o$$itte) a !a=ita#
o""en!e. We have not %een e"ee) to an: authoit: in su==ot o" that =osition. It is tue that the
"a!t o" a =isoneDs %eing in !usto): at the ti$e he $aAes a !on"ession is a !i!u$stan!e not to %e
ove#ooAe), %e!ause it %eas u=on the in@ui: ?hethe the !on"ession ?as vo#untai#: $a)e o
?as e<tote) %: theats o vio#en!e o $a)e un)e the in"#uen!e o" "ea. But !on"ine$ent o
i$=ison$ent is not, in itse#", su""i!ient to >usti": the e<!#usion o" a !on"ession i" it a==eas to
have %een vo#unta:, an) ?as not o%taine) %: =utting the =isone in "ea o %: =o$ises.
WhatonDs C.Ev. Eth e). NN JJ(, JJ3, an) authoities !ite).
(ccord" 1ierce v. United States" (J' U.S. 355, 359.
An) in Wilson v. United States" (J& U.S. J(3, J&3, the Cout ha) !onsi)ee) the signi"i!an!e o"
!usto)ia# inteogation ?ithout an: ante!e)ent ?anings ega)ing the ight to e$ain si#ent o
the ight to !ounse#. Thee, the )e"en)ant ha) ans?ee) @uestions =ose) %: a Co$$issione, ?ho
ha) "ai#e) to a)vise hi$ o" his ights, an) his ans?es ?ee he#) a)$issi%#e ove his !#ai$ o"
invo#untainess.
The "a!t that Ka )e"en)antL is in !usto): an) $ana!#e) )oes not ne!essai#: en)e his state$ent
invo#unta:, no is that ne!essai#: the e""e!t o" =o=u#a e<!ite$ent shot#: =e!e)ing. . . . An) it
is #ai) )o?n B+%"0D that it is not essentia# to the a)$issi%i#it: o" a !on"ession that it shou#)
a==ea that the =eson ?as ?ane) that ?hat he sai) ?ou#) %e use) against hi$, %ut, on the
!onta:, i" the !on"ession ?as vo#unta:, it is su""i!ient though it a==ea that he ?as not so
?ane).
Sin!e 0ram" the a)$issi%i#it: o" state$ents $a)e )uing !usto)ia# inteogation has %een
"e@uent#: eiteate). 1owers v. United States" &&3 U.S. 3'3, !ite) Wilson a==oving#: an) he#)
a)$issi%#e as vo#unta: state$ents the a!!use)Ds testi$on: at a =e#i$ina: heaing even though
he ?as not ?ane) that ?hat he sai) $ight %e use) against hi$. Without an: )is!ussion o" the
=esen!e o a%sen!e o" ?anings, =esu$a%#: %e!ause su!h )is!ussion ?as )ee$e) unne!essa:,
nu$eous othe !ases have )e!#ae) that BKtLhe $ee "a!t that a !on"ession ?as $a)e ?hi#e in the
!usto): o" the =o#i!e )oes not en)e it ina)$issi%#e,BMcNabb v. United States" 3(8 U.S. 33&,
34J; accord" United States v. Mitchell" 3&& U.S. J5, )es=ite its having %een e#i!ite) %: =o#i!e
e<a$ination, Wan v. United States" &JJ U.S. (, (4;United States v. Carignan" 34& U.S. 3J, 3E.
LiAe?ise, in Croo)er v. California" 359 U.S. 433, 439, the Cout sai) that
the %ae "a!t o" =o#i!e B)etention an) =o#i!e e<a$ination in =ivate o" one in o""i!ia# state
!usto):B )oes not en)e invo#unta: a !on"ession %: the one so )etaine).
An) "ina##:, in Cicenia v. Lagay" 359 U.S. 5'4, a !on"ession o%taine) %: =o#i!e inteogation
a"te aest ?as he#) vo#unta: even though the authoities e"use) to =e$it the )e"en)ant to
Page 60 of 75
!onsu#t ?ith his attone:. See generally Culombe v. Connecticut" 3J9 U.S. 5J8, 589*J'& 0o=inion
o" FanA"ute, -.2; 3 Wig$oe, Evi)en!e N 85(, at 3(3 03) e).(E4'2; see also -o:, A)$issi%i#it:
o" Con"essions 38, 4J 0(84&2.
On#: a tin: $inoit: o" ou >u)ges ?ho have )ea#t ?ith the @uestion, in!#u)ing to)a:Ds $a>oit:,
have !onsi)ee) in*!usto): inteogation, ?ithout $oe, to %e a vio#ation o" the Fi"th
A$en)$ent. An) this Cout, as B+%"1D eve: $e$%e Ano?s, has #e"t stan)ing #itea##:
thousan)s o" !i$ina# !onvi!tions that este) at #east in =at on !on"essions taAen in the !ouse o"
inteogation %: the =o#i!e a"te aest.
II
That the CoutDs ho#)ing to)a: is neithe !o$=e##e) no even stong#: suggeste) %: the #anguage
o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent, is at o))s ?ith A$ei!an an) Eng#ish #ega# histo:, an) invo#ves a
)e=atue "o$ a #ong #ine o" =e!e)ent )oes not =ove eithe that the Cout has e<!ee)e) its
=o?es o that the Cout is ?ong o un?ise in its =esent einte=etation o" the Fi"th
A$en)$ent. It )oes, ho?eve, un)es!oe the o%vious ** that the Cout has not )is!ovee) o
"oun) the #a? in $aAing to)a:Ds )e!ision, no has it )eive) it "o$ so$e ie"uta%#e sou!es;
?hat it has )one is to $aAe ne? #a? an) ne? =u%#i! =o#i!: in $u!h the sa$e ?a: that it has in
the !ouse o" inte=eting othe geat !#auses o" the Constitution.
B/1D
This is ?hat the Cout
histoi!a##: has )one. In)ee), it is ?hat it $ust )o, an) ?i## !ontinue to )o unti# an) un#ess thee
is so$e "un)a$enta# !hange in the !onstitutiona# )isti%ution o" goven$enta# =o?es.
But i" the Cout is hee an) no? to announ!e ne? an) "un)a$enta# =o#i!: to goven !etain
as=e!ts o" ou a""ais, it is ?ho##: #egiti$ate to e<a$ine the $o)e o" this o an: othe
!onstitutiona# )e!ision in this Cout, an) to in@uie into the a)visa%i#it: o" its en) =o)u!t in
te$s o" the #ong*ange inteest o" the !ount:. At the ve: #east, the CoutDs te<t an) easoning
shou#) ?ithstan) ana#:sis, an) %e a "ai e<=osition o" the !onstitutiona# =ovision ?hi!h its
o=inion inte=ets. De!isions B+%"D #iAe these !annot est a#one on s:##ogis$, $eta=h:si!s o
so$e i##*)e"ine) notions o" natua# >usti!e, a#though ea!h ?i## =eha=s =#a: its =at. In =o!ee)ing
to su!h !onstu!tions as it no? announ!es, the Cout shou#) a#so )u#: !onsi)e a## the "a!tos an)
inteests %eaing u=on the !ases, at #east inso"a as the e#evant $ateia#s ae avai#a%#e, an), i" the
ne!essa: !onsi)eations ae not teate) in the e!o) o o%taina%#e "o$ so$e othe e#ia%#e
sou!e, the Cout shou#) not =o!ee) to "o$u#ate "un)a$enta# =o#i!ies %ase) on s=e!u#ation
a#one.
III
Fist, ?e $a: in@uie ?hat ae the te<tua# an) "a!tua# %ases o" this ne? "un)a$enta# u#e. To
ea!h the esu#t announ!e) on the goun)s it )oes, the Cout $ust sta: ?ithin the !on"ines o" the
Fi"th A$en)$ent, ?hi!h "o%i)s se#"*in!i$ination on#: i" !o$=e##e). 6en!e, the !oe o" the
CoutDs o=inion is that, %e!ause o" the
!o$=u#sion inheent in !usto)ia# suoun)ings, no state$ent o%taine) "o$ KaL )e"en)ant Kin
!usto):L !an tu#: %e the =o)u!t o" his "ee !hoi!e,
ante at 458, a%sent the use o" a)e@uate =ote!tive )evi!es as )es!i%e) %: the Cout. 6o?eve,
the Cout )oes not =oint to an: su))en inush o" ne? Ano?#e)ge e@uiing the e>e!tion o" 9'
:easD e<=eien!e. No )oes it asset that its nove# !on!#usion e"#e!ts a !hanging !onsensus
a$ong state !outs, see Mapp v. &hio" 3J9 U.S. J43, o that a su!!ession o" !ases ha) stea)i#:
Page 61 of 75
eo)e) the o#) u#e an) =ove) it un?oAa%#e, see !ideon v. Wainwright" 39& U.S. 335. Rathe
than asseting ne? Ano?#e)ge, the Cout !on!e)es that it !annot tu#: Ano? ?hat o!!us )uing
!usto)ia# @uestioning, %e!ause o" the innate se!e!: o" su!h =o!ee)ings. It e<ta=o#ates a =i!tue
o" ?hat it !on!eives to %e the no$ "o$ =o#i!e investigatoia# $anua#s, =u%#ishe) in (E5E an)
(EJ& o ea#ie, ?ithout an: atte$=t to a##o? "o a)>ust$ents in =o#i!e =a!ti!es that
$a: B+%""D have o!!ue) in the ?aAe o" $oe e!ent )e!isions o" state a==e##ate ti%una#s o
this Cout. But even i" the e#ent#ess a==#i!ation o" the )es!i%e) =o!e)ues !ou#) #ea) to
invo#unta: !on"essions, it $ost assue)#: )oes not "o##o? that ea!h an) eve: !ase ?i## )is!#ose
this Ain) o" inteogation o this Ain) o" !onse@uen!e.
B/D
Inso"a as a==eas "o$ the CoutDs
o=inion, it has not e<a$ine) a sing#e tans!i=t o" an: =o#i!e inteogation, #et a#one the
inteogation that tooA =#a!e in an: one o" these !ases ?hi!h it )e!i)es to)a:. -u)ge) %: an: o"
the stan)a)s "o e$=ii!a# investigation uti#iHe) in the so!ia# s!ien!es, the "a!tua# %asis "o the
CoutDs =e$ise is =atent#: ina)e@uate.
A#though, in the CoutDs vie?, in*!usto): inteogation is inheent#: !oe!ive, the Cout sa:s that
the s=ontaneous =o)u!t o" the !oe!ion o" aest an) )etention is sti## to %e )ee$e) vo#unta:.
An a!!use), aeste) on =o%a%#e !ause, $a: %#ut out a !on"ession ?hi!h ?i## %e a)$issi%#e
)es=ite the "a!t that he is a#one an) in !usto):, ?ithout an: sho?ing that he ha) an: notion o" his
ight to e$ain si#ent o o" the !onse@uen!es o" his a)$ission. /et, un)e the CoutDs u#e, i" the
=o#i!e asA hi$ a sing#e @uestion, su!h as BDo :ou have an:thing to sa:RB o BDi) :ou Ai## :ou
?i"eRB, his es=onse, i" thee is one, has so$eho? %een !o$=e##e), even i" the a!!use)
has B+%"$D %een !#ea#: ?ane) o" his ight to e$ain si#ent. Co$$on sense in"o$s us to the
!onta:. Whi#e one $a: sa: that the es=onse ?as Binvo#unta:B in the sense the @uestion
=ovoAe) o ?as the o!!asion "o the es=onse, an) thus the )e"en)ant ?as in)u!e) to s=eaA out
?hen he $ight have e$aine) si#ent i" not aeste) an) not @uestione), it is =atent#: unsoun) to
sa: the es=onse is !o$=e##e).
To)a:Ds esu#t ?ou#) not "o##o? even i" it ?ee agee) that, to so$e e<tent, !usto)ia#
inteogation is inheent#: !oe!ive. See (shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S. (43, (J( 0-a!Ason, -.,
)issenting2. The test has %een ?hethe the tota#it: o" !i!u$stan!es )e=ive) the )e"en)ant o" a
B"ee !hoi!e to a)$it, to )en:, o to e"use to ans?e,B Lisenba v. California"3(4 U.S. &(E, &4(,
an) ?hethe =h:si!a# o =s:!ho#ogi!a# !oe!ion ?as o" su!h a )egee that Bthe )e"en)antDs ?i##
?as ove%one at the ti$e he !on"esse),B #aynes v. Washington"393 U.S. 5'3, 5(3; Lynumn v.
.llinois" 39& U.S. 5&8, 534. The )uation an) natue o"incommunicado !usto):, the =esen!e o
a%sen!e o" a)vi!e !on!ening the )e"en)antDs !onstitutiona# ights, an) the ganting o e"usa# o"
e@uests to !o$$uni!ate ?ith #a?:es, e#atives o "ien)s have a## %een ight#: ega)e) as
i$=otant )ata %eaing on the %asi! in@ui:. See" e.g." (shcraft v. Tennessee" 3&& U.S.
(43; #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3.
B/"D
B+%"%D But it has neve %een suggeste), unti# to)a:,
that su!h @uestioning ?as so !oe!ive an) a!!use) =esons so #a!Aing in ha)ihoo) that the ve:
"ist es=onse to the ve: "ist @uestion "o##o?ing the !o$$en!e$ent o" !usto): $ust %e
!on!#usive#: =esu$e) to %e the =o)u!t o" an ove%one ?i##.
I" the u#e announ!e) to)a: ?ee tu#: %ase) on a !on!#usion that a## !on"essions esu#ting "o$
!usto)ia# inteogation ae !oe!e), then it ?ou#) si$=#: have no ationa# "oun)ation. Compare
Tot v. United States" 3(E U.S. 4J3, 4JJ; United States v. 5omano"38& U.S. (3J. ( fortiori" that
?ou#) %e tue o" the e<tension o" the u#e to e<!u#=ato: state$ents, ?hi!h the Cout e""e!ts a"te
a %ie" )is!ussion o" ?h:, in the CoutDs vie?, the: $ust %e )ee$e) in!i$inato:, %ut ?ithout
an: )is!ussion o" ?h: the: $ust %e )ee$e) !oe!e). See Wilson v. United States" (J& U.S. J(3,
Page 62 of 75
J&4. Even i" one ?ee to =ostu#ate that the CoutDs !on!en is not that a## !on"essions in)u!e) %:
=o#i!e inteogation ae !oe!e), %ut athe that so$e su!h !on"essions ae !oe!e) an) =esent
>u)i!ia# =o!e)ues ae %e#ieve) to %e ina)e@uate to i)enti": the !on"essions that ae !oe!e) an)
those that ae not, it ?ou#) sti## not %e essentia# to i$=ose the u#e that the Cout has no?
"ashione). Tans!i=ts o o%seves !ou#) %e e@uie), s=e!i"i! ti$e #i$its, tai#oe) to "it the
!ause, !ou#) %e i$=ose), o othe )evi!es !ou#) %e uti#iHe) to e)u!e the !han!es that othe?ise
in)is!eni%#e !oe!ion ?i## =o)u!e an ina)$issi%#e !on"ession.
On the othe han), even i" one assu$e) that thee ?as an a)e@uate "a!tua# %asis "o the
!on!#usion that a## !on"essions o%taine) )uing in*!usto): inteogation ae the =o)u!t o"
!o$=u#sion, the u#e =o=oun)e) %: B+%"5D the Cout ?ou#) sti## %e iationa#, "o, a==aent#:, it
is on#: i" the a!!use) is a#so ?ane) o" his ight to !ounse# an) ?aives %oth that ight an) the
ight against se#"*in!i$ination that the inheent !o$=u#siveness o" inteogation )isa==eas. But
i" the )e"en)ant $a: not ans?e ?ithout a ?aning a @uestion su!h as BWhee ?ee :ou #ast
nightRB ?ithout having his ans?e %e a !o$=e##e) one, ho? !an the Cout eve a!!e=t his
negative ans?e to the @uestion o" ?hethe he ?ants to !onsu#t his etaine) !ounse# o !ounse#
?ho$ the !out ?i## a==ointR An) ?h:, i" !ounse# is =esent an) the a!!use) nevethe#ess
!on"esses, o !ounse# te##s the a!!use) to te## the tuth an) that is ?hat the a!!use) )oes, is the
situation an: #ess !oe!ive inso"a as the a!!use) is !on!ene)R The Cout a==aent#: ea#iHes its
)i#e$$a o" "oe!#osing @uestioning ?ithout the ne!essa: ?anings %ut, at the sa$e ti$e,
=e$itting the a!!use), sitting in the sa$e !hai in "ont o" the sa$e =o#i!e$en, to ?aive his
ight to !onsu#t an attone:. It e<=e!ts, ho?eve, that the a!!use) ?i## not o"ten ?aive the ight,
an), i" it is !#ai$e) that he has, the State "a!es a sevee, i" not i$=ossi%#e %u)en o" =oo".
A## o" this $aAes ve: #itt#e sense in te$s o" the !o$=u#sion ?hi!h the Fi"th A$en)$ent
=os!i%es. That a$en)$ent )ea#s ?ith !o$=e##ing the a!!use) hi$se#". It is his "ee ?i## that is
invo#ve). Con"essions an) in!i$inating a)$issions, as su!h, ae not "o%i))en evi)en!e; on#:
those ?hi!h ae !o$=e##e) ae %anne). I )ou%t that the Cout o%seves these )istin!tions to)a:.
B: !onsi)eing an: ans?es to an: inteogation to %e !o$=e##e) ega)#ess o" the !ontent an)
!ouse o" e<a$ination, an) %: es!a#ating the e@uie$ents to =ove ?aive, the Cout not on#:
=events the use o" !o$=e##e) !on"essions, %ut, "o a## =a!ti!a# =u=oses, "o%i)s inteogation
e<!e=t in the =esen!e o" !ounse#. That is, instea) o" !on"ining itse#" to =ote!tion o" the ight
against !o$=e##e) B+%"6D se#"*in!i$ination the Cout has !eate) a #i$ite) Fi"th A$en)$ent
ight to !ounse# ** o, as the Cout e<=esses it, a Bnee) "o !ounse# to =ote!t the Fi"th
A$en)$ent =ivi#ege. . . .B(nte at 49'. The "o!us then is not on the ?i## o" the a!!use), %ut on
the ?i## o" !ounse#, an) ho? $u!h in"#uen!e he !an have on the a!!use). O%vious#: thee is no
?aant in the Fi"th A$en)$ent "o thus insta##ing !ounse# as the a%ite o" the =ivi#ege.
In su$, "o a## the CoutDs e<=oun)ing on the $ena!ing at$os=hee o" =o#i!e inteogation
=o!e)ues, it has "ai#e) to su==#: an: "oun)ation "o the !on!#usions it )a?s o the $easues it
a)o=ts.
I,
Citi!is$ o" the CoutDs o=inion, ho?eve, !annot sto= ?ith a )e$onstation that the "a!tua# an)
te<tua# %ases "o the u#e it =o=oun)s ae, at %est, #ess than !o$=e##ing. E@ua##: e#evant is an
assess$ent o" the u#eDs !onse@uen!es $easue) against !o$$unit: va#ues. The CoutDs )ut: to
assess the !onse@uen!es o" its a!tion is not satis"ie) %: the uttean!e o" the tuth that a va#ue o"
Page 63 of 75
ou s:ste$ o" !i$ina# >usti!e is Bto es=e!t the invio#a%i#it: o" the hu$an =esona#it:B an) to
e@uie goven$ent to =o)u!e the evi)en!e against the a!!use) %: its o?n in)e=en)ent
#a%os. (nte at 4J'. Moe than the hu$an )ignit: o" the a!!use) is invo#ve); the hu$an
=esona#it: o" othes in the so!iet: $ust a#so %e =eseve). Thus, the va#ues e"#e!te) %: the
=ivi#ege ae not the so#e )esi)eatu$; so!iet:Ds inteest in the genea# se!uit: is o" e@ua# ?eight.
The o%vious un)e=inning o" the CoutDs )e!ision is a )ee=*seate) )istust o" a## !on"essions. As
the Cout )e!#aes that the a!!use) $a: not %e inteogate) ?ithout !ounse# =esent, a%sent a
?aive o" the ight to !ounse#, an) as the Cout a## %ut a)$onishes the #a?:e to B+%";D a)vise
the a!!use) to e$ain si#ent, the esu#t a))s u= to a >u)i!ia# >u)g$ent that evi)en!e "o$ the
a!!use) shou#) not %e use) against hi$ in an: ?a:, ?hethe !o$=e##e) o not. This is the not so
su%t#e ovetone o" the o=inion ** that it is inheent#: ?ong "o the =o#i!e to gathe evi)en!e "o$
the a!!use) hi$se#". An) this is =e!ise#: the nu% o" this )issent. I see nothing ?ong o i$$oa#,
an) !etain#: nothing un!onstitutiona#, in the =o#i!eDs asAing a sus=e!t ?ho$ the: have
easona%#e !ause to aest ?hethe o not he Ai##e) his ?i"e, o in !on"onting hi$ ?ith the
evi)en!e on ?hi!h the aest ?as %ase), at #east ?hee he has %een =#ain#: a)vise) that he $a:
e$ain !o$=#ete#: si#ent, see -scobedo v. .llinois" 398 U.S. 498, 4EE 0)issenting o=inion2. Unti#
to)a:, Bthe a)$issions o !on"essions o" the =isone, ?hen vo#untai#: an) "ee#: $a)e, have
a#?a:s anAe) high in the s!a#e o" in!i$inating evi)en!e.B 0rown v. Wal)er"(J( U.S. 5E(,
5EJ; see also #opt v. Utah" ((' U.S. 594, 584*585. +ati!u#a#: ?hen !oo%oate), as ?hee the
=o#i!e have !on"i$e) the a!!use)Ds )is!#osue o" the hi)ing =#a!e o" i$=#e$ents o "uits o" the
!i$e, su!h !on"essions have the highest e#ia%i#it:, an) signi"i!ant#: !onti%ute to the !etitu)e
?ith ?hi!h ?e $a: %e#ieve the a!!use) is gui#t:. Moeove, it is %: no $eans !etain that the
=o!ess o" !on"essing is in>uious to the a!!use). To the !onta:, it $a: =ovi)e =s:!ho#ogi!a#
e#ie", an) enhan!e the =os=e!ts "o eha%i#itation. This is not to sa: that the va#ue o" es=e!t "o
the invio#a%i#it: o" the a!!use)Ds in)ivi)ua# =esona#it: shou#) %e a!!o)e) no ?eight, o that a##
!on"essions shou#) %e in)is!i$inate#: a)$itte). This Cout has #ong ea) the Constitution to
=os!i%e !o$=e##e) !on"essions, a sa#uta: u#e "o$ ?hi!h thee shou#) %e no eteat. But I see
no soun) %asis, "a!tua# o othe?ise, an) the Cout gives none, "o !on!#u)ing that the =esent
u#e against the e!ei=t o" !oe!e) !on"essions is ina)e@uate "o theB+%"?D tasA o" soting out
ina)$issi%#e evi)en!e, an) $ust %e e=#a!e) %: the per se u#e ?hi!h is no? i$=ose). Even i"
the ne? !on!e=t !an %e sai) to have a)vantages o" so$e sot ove the =esent #a?, the: ae "a
out?eighe) %: its #iAe#: un)esia%#e i$=a!t on othe ve: e#evant an) i$=otant inteests.
The $ost %asi! "un!tion o" an: goven$ent is to =ovi)e "o the se!uit: o" the in)ivi)ua# an) o"
his =o=et:. Lan+etta v. New %ersey" 3'J U.S. 45(, 455. These en)s o" so!iet: ae seve) %: the
!i$ina# #a?s ?hi!h "o the $ost =at ae ai$e) at the =evention o" !i$e. Without the
easona%#: e""e!tive =e"o$an!e o" the tasA o" =eventing =ivate vio#en!e an) eta#iation, it is
i)#e to ta#A a%out hu$an )ignit: an) !ivi#iHe) va#ues.
The $o)es %: ?hi!h the !i$ina# #a?s seve the inteest in genea# se!uit: ae $an:. Fist, the
$u)ee ?ho has taAen the #i"e o" anothe is e$ove) "o$ the steets, )e=ive) o" his #i%et:,
an) thee%: =evente) "o$ e=eating his o""ense. In vie? o" the statisti!s on e!i)ivis$ in this
!ount:,
B/$D
an) o" the nu$%e o" instan!es B+%$0D in ?hi!h a==ehension o!!us on#: a"te
e=eate) o""enses, no one !an sensi%#: !#ai$ that this as=e!t o" the !i$ina# #a? )oes not =event
!i$e o !onti%ute signi"i!ant#: to the =esona# se!uit: o" the o)ina: !itiHen.
Page 64 of 75
Se!on)#:, the s?i"t an) sue a==ehension o" those ?ho e"use to es=e!t the =esona# se!uit:
an) )ignit: o" thei neigh%o un@uestiona%#: has its i$=a!t on othes ?ho $ight %e si$i#a#:
te$=te). That the !i$ina# #a? is ?ho##: o =at#: ine""e!tive ?ith a seg$ent o" the =o=u#ation o
?ith $an: o" those ?ho have %een a==ehen)e) an) !onvi!te) is a ve: "au#t: %asis "o
!on!#u)ing that it is not e""e!tive ?ith es=e!t to the geat %u#A o" ou !itiHens, o "o thinAing
that, ?ithout the !i$ina# #a?s, B+%$1D o in the a%sen!e o" thei en"o!e$ent, thee ?ou#) %e no
in!ease in !i$e. Agu$ents o" this natue ae not %one out %: an: Ain) o" e#ia%#e evi)en!e
that I have seen to this )ate.
Thi)#:, the #a? !on!ens itse#" ?ith those ?ho$ it has !on"ine). The ho=e an) ai$ o" $o)en
=eno#og:, "otunate#:, is as soon as =ossi%#e to etun the !onvi!t to so!iet: a %ette an) $oe
#a?*a%i)ing $an than ?hen he #e"t. So$eti$es thee is su!!ess, so$eti$es "ai#ue. But at #east
the e""ot is $a)e, an) it shou#) %e $a)e to the ve: $a<i$u$ e<tent o" ou =esent an) "utue
!a=a%i#ities.
The u#e announ!e) to)a: ?i## $easua%#: ?eaAen the a%i#it: o" the !i$ina# #a? to =e"o$
these tasAs. It is a )e#i%eate !a#!u#us to =event inteogations, to e)u!e the in!i)en!e o"
!on"essions an) =#eas o" gui#t:, an) to in!ease the nu$%e o" tia#s.
B/%D
Ci$ina# tia#s,
no B+%$D $atte ho? e""i!ient the =o#i!e ae, ae not sue %ets "o the =ose!ution, no shou#)
the: %e i" the evi)en!e is not "oth!o$ing. Un)e the =esent #a?, the =ose!ution "ai#s to =ove
its !ase in a%out 3'U o" the !i$ina# !ases a!tua##: tie) in the "e)ea# !outs. See Fe)ea#
O""en)esI (EJ4, supra" note 4, at J 0Ta%#e 42, 5E 0Ta%#e (2; Fe)ea# O""en)esI (EJ3, supra" note
4, at 5 0Ta%#e 32; Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia O""en)esI (EJ3, supra" note 4, at & 0Ta%#e (2. But it is
so$ething e#se again to e$ove "o$ the o)ina: !i$ina# !ase a## those !on"essions ?hi!h
heeto"oe have %een he#) to %e "ee an) vo#unta: a!ts o" the a!!use), an) to thus esta%#ish a
ne? !onstitutiona# %aie to the as!etain$ent o" tuth %: the >u)i!ia# =o!ess. Thee is, in $:
vie?, eve: eason to %e#ieve that a goo) $an: !i$ina# )e"en)ants ?ho othe?ise ?ou#) have
%een !onvi!te) on ?hat this Cout has =evious#: thought to %e the $ost satis"a!to: Ain) o"
evi)en!e ?i## no?, un)e this ne? vesion o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent, eithe not %e tie) at a## o
?i## %e a!@uitte) i" the StateDs evi)en!e, $inus the !on"ession, is =ut to the test o" #itigation.
I have no )esie ?hatsoeve to shae the es=onsi%i#it: "o an: su!h i$=a!t on the =esent
!i$ina# =o!ess.
In so$e unAno?n nu$%e o" !ases, the CoutDs u#e ?i## etun a Ai##e, a a=ist o othe !i$ina#
to the steets an) to the envion$ent ?hi!h =o)u!e) hi$, to e=eat his !i$e ?heneve it
=#eases hi$. As a !onse@uen!e, thee ?i## not %e a gain, %ut a #oss, in hu$an )ignit:. The ea#
!on!en is not the un"otunate !onse@uen!es o" this ne? )e!ision on the !i$ina# #a? as an
a%sta!t, )ise$%o)ie) seies o" authoitative =os!i=tions, %ut the i$=a!t on those ?ho e#: on
the =u%#i! authoit: "o =ote!tion, an) ?ho, ?ithout it, !an on#: engage in vio#ent se#"*he#= ?ith
guns, Anives an) the he#= o" thei neigh%os si$i#a#: in!#ine). Thee is, o" B+%$"D !ouse, a
saving "a!toI the ne<t vi!ti$s ae un!etain, unna$e) an) une=esente) in this !ase.
No !an this )e!ision )o othe than have a !oosive e""e!t on the !i$ina# #a? as an e""e!tive
)evi!e to =event !i$e. A $a>o !o$=onent in its e""e!tiveness in this ega) is its s?i"t an) sue
en"o!e$ent. The easie it is to get a?a: ?ith a=e an) $u)e, the #ess the )eteent e""e!t on
those ?ho ae in!#ine) to atte$=t it. This is sti## goo) !o$$on sense. I" it ?ee not, ?e shou#)
Page 65 of 75
=ost*haste #i@ui)ate the ?ho#e #a? en"o!e$ent esta%#ish$ent as a use#ess, $isgui)e) e""ot to
!onto# hu$an !on)u!t.
An) ?hat a%out the a!!use) ?ho has !on"esse) o ?ou#) !on"ess in es=onse to si$=#e,
non!oe!ive @uestioning an) ?hose gui#t !ou#) not othe?ise %e =ove)R Is it so !#ea that
e#ease is the %est thing "o hi$ in eve: !aseR 6as it so un@uestiona%#: %een eso#ve) that, in
ea!h an) eve: !ase, it ?ou#) %e %ette "o hi$ not to !on"ess, an) to etun to his envion$ent
?ith no atte$=t ?hatsoeve to he#= hi$R I thinA not. It $a: ?e## %e that, in $an: !ases, it ?i## %e
no #ess than a !a##ous )isega) "o his o?n ?e#"ae, as ?e## as "o the inteests o" his ne<t vi!ti$.
Thee is anothe as=e!t to the e""e!t o" the CoutDs u#e on the =eson ?ho$ the =o#i!e have
aeste) on =o%a%#e !ause. The "a!t is that he $a: not %e gui#t: at a##, an) $a: %e a%#e to
e<ti!ate hi$se#" @ui!A#: an) si$=#: i" he ?ee to#) the !i!u$stan!es o" his aest an) ?ee
asAe) to e<=#ain. This e""ot, an) his e#ease, $ust no? a?ait the hiing o" a #a?:e o his
a==oint$ent %: the !out, !onsu#tation ?ith !ounse#, an) then a session ?ith the =o#i!e o the
=ose!uto. Si$i#a#:, ?hee =o%a%#e !ause e<ists to aest sevea# sus=e!ts, as ?hee the %o):
o" the vi!ti$ is )is!ovee) in a house having sevea# esi)ents, compare %ohnson v. State" &38
M). (4', &'9 A.&) J43 0(EJ52, cert. denied" 38& U.S. ('(3, it ?i## o"ten B+%$$D %e tue that a
sus=e!t $a: %e !#eae) on#: though the esu#ts o" inteogation o" othe sus=e!ts. 6ee too, the
e#ease o" the inno!ent $a: %e )e#a:e) %: the CoutDs u#e.
Mu!h o" the tou%#e ?ith the CoutDs ne? u#e is that it ?i## o=eate in)is!i$inate#: in a##
!i$ina# !ases, ega)#ess o" the seveit: o" the !i$e o the !i!u$stan!es invo#ve). It a==#ies to
eve: )e"en)ant, ?hethe the =o"essiona# !i$ina# o one !o$$itting a !i$e o" $o$enta:
=assion ?ho is not =at an) =a!e# o" oganiHe) !i$e. It ?i## s#o? )o?n the investigation an) the
a==ehension o" !on"e)eates in those !ases ?hee ti$e is o" the essen!e, su!h as Ai)na==ing, see
0rinegar v. United States" 338 U.S. (J', (83 0-a!Ason, -., )issenting2; 1eople v. Modesto" J&
Ca#.&) 43J, 44J, 3E8 +.&) 953, 95E 0(EJ52, those invo#ving the nationa# se!uit:, see United
States v. rummond" 354 F.&) (3&, (49 0C.A.&) Ci.(EJ52 0en %an!2 0es=ionage !ase2, pet. for
cert. pending" No. (&'3, Mis!., O.T. (EJ5; cf. !essner v. United States" 354 F.&) 9&J, 93', n. ('
0C.A. ('th Ci.(EJ52 0u=ho#)ing, in es=ionage !ase, tia# u#ing that 1oven$ent nee) not su%$it
!#assi"ie) =otions o" inteogation tans!i=t2, an) so$e o" those invo#ving oganiHe) !i$e. In
the #atte !onte<t, the #a?:e ?ho aives $a: a#so %e the #a?:e "o the )e"en)antDs !o##eagues,
an) !an %e e#ie) u=on to insue that no %ea!h o" the oganiHationDs se!uit: taAes =#a!e even
though the a!!use) $a: "ee# that the %est thing he !an )o is to !oo=eate.
At the sa$e ti$e, the CoutDs per se a==oa!h $a: not %e >usti"ie) on the goun) that it =ovi)es
a B%ight #ineB =e$itting the authoities to >u)ge in a)van!e ?hethe inteogation $a: sa"e#: %e
=usue) ?ithout >eo=a)iHing the a)$issi%i#it: o" an: in"o$ation o%taine) as a !onse@uen!e.
No !an it %e !#ai$e) that >u)i!ia# ti$e an) e""ot, assu$ing that is a e#evant
!onsi)eation, B+%$%D ?i## %e !onseve) %e!ause o" the ease o" a==#i!ation o" the ne? u#e.
To)a:Ds )e!ision #eaves o=en su!h @uestions as ?hethe the a!!use) ?as in !usto):, ?hethe his
state$ents ?ee s=ontaneous o the =o)u!t o" inteogation, ?hethe the a!!use) has e""e!tive#:
?aive) his ights, an) ?hethe nontesti$onia# evi)en!e into)u!e) at tia# is the "uit o"
state$ents $a)e )uing a =ohi%ite) inteogation, a## o" ?hi!h ae !etain to =ove =o)u!tive o"
un!etaint: )uing investigation an) #itigation )uing =ose!ution. Fo a## these easons, i" "uthe
esti!tions on =o#i!e inteogation ae )esia%#e at this ti$e, a $oe "#e<i%#e a==oa!h $aAes
Page 66 of 75
$u!h $oe sense than the CoutDs !onstitutiona# stait>a!Aet, ?hi!h "oe!#oses $oe
)is!i$inating teat$ent %: #egis#ative o u#e$aAing =onoun!e$ents.
A==#:ing the ta)itiona# stan)a)s to the !ases %e"oe the Cout, I ?ou#) ho#) these !on"essions
vo#unta:. I ?ou#) thee"oe a""i$ in Nos. 95E, 9J', an) 9J(, an) evese in No. 584.
(.
O" !ouse, the Cout )oes not )en: that it is )e=ating "o$ =io =e!e)ent; it e<=ess#:
oveu#es Croo)er an) Cicenia" ante at 49E, n. 48, an) it a!Ano?#e)ges that, in the instant B!ases,
?e $ight not "in) the )e"en)antsD state$ents to have %een invo#unta: in ta)itiona#
te$s,B ante at 459.
&.
In "a!t, the t:=e o" sustaine) inteogation )es!i%e) %: the Cout a==eas to %e the e<!e=tion,
athe than the u#e. A suve: o" 3EE !ases in one !it: "oun) that, in a#$ost ha#" o" the !ases, the
inteogation #aste) #ess than 3' $inutes. Baett, +o#i!e +a!ti!es an) the La? ** Fo$ Aest to
Re#ease o Chage, 5' Ca#i".L.Rev. ((, 4(*45 0(EJ&2. Tuestioning ten)s to %e !on"use) an)
s=oa)i!, an) is usua##: !on!entate) on !on"ontations ?ith ?itnesses o ne? ite$s o" evi)en!e
as these ae o%taine) %: o""i!es !on)u!ting the investigation. See generally LaFave, AestI The
De!ision to TaAe a Sus=e!t into Custo): 38J 0(EJ52; ALI, A Mo)e# Co)e o" +e*Aaign$ent
+o!e)ue, Co$$enta: N 5.'(, at (9', n. 4 0Tent.Da"t No. (, (EJJ2.
3.
B: !ontast, the Cout in)i!ates that, in a==#:ing this ne? u#e, it B?i## not =ause to in@uie in
in)ivi)ua# !ases ?hethe the )e"en)ant ?as a?ae o" his ights ?ithout a ?aning %eing
given.B (nte at 4J8. The eason given is that assess$ent o" the Ano?#e)ge o" the )e"en)ant %ase)
on in"o$ation as to age, e)u!ation, inte##igen!e, o =io !onta!t ?ith authoities !an neve %e
$oe than s=e!u#ation, ?hi#e a ?aning is a !#ea*!ut "a!t. But the o""i!esD !#ai$ that the: gave
the e@uisite ?anings $a: %e )is=ute), an) "a!ts es=e!ting the )e"en)antDs =io e<=eien!e
$a: %e un)is=ute), an) %e o" su!h a natue as to vitua##: =e!#u)e an: )ou%t that the )e"en)ant
Ane? o" his ights. See United States v. 0olden" 355 F.&) 453 0C.A. 9th Ci.(EJ52, petition for
cert. pending" No. ((4J, O.T. (EJ5 0Se!et Sevi!e agent2; 1eople v. u 0ont" &35 Ca#.A==.&)
844, 45 Ca#.R=t. 9(9, pet. for cert. pending No. ('53, Mis!., O.T. (EJ5 0"o$e =o#i!e o""i!e2.
4.
+e!ise statisti!s on the e<tent o" e!i)ivis$ ae unavai#a%#e, in =at %e!ause not a## !i$es ae
so#ve) an) in =at %e!ause !i$ina# e!o)s o" !onvi!tions in )i""eent >uis)i!tions ae not
%ought togethe %: a !enta# )ata !o##e!tion agen!:. Beginning in (EJ3, ho?eve, the Fe)ea#
Bueau o" Investigation %egan !o##ating )ata on BCaees in Ci$e,B ?hi!h it =u%#ishes in its
Uni"o$ Ci$e Re=ots. O" E&,8JE o""en)es =o!esse) in (EJ3 an) (EJ4, 9JU ha) a =io aest
e!o) on so$e !hage. Ove a =eio) o" (' :eas, the gou= ha) a!!u$u#ate) 434,''' !hages.
FBI, Uni"o$ Ci$e Re=ots ** (EJ4, &9*&8. In (EJ3 an) (EJ4, %et?een &3U an) &5U o" a##
o""en)es senten!e) in 88 "e)ea# )isti!t !outs 0e<!#u)ing the Disti!t Cout "o the Disti!t o"
Co#u$%ia2 ?hose !i$ina# e!o)s ?ee e=ote) ha) =evious#: %een senten!e) to a te$ o"
i$=ison$ent o" (3 $onths o $oe. A==o<i$ate#: an a))itiona# 4'U ha) a =io e!o) #ess
than =ison 0>uveni#e e!o), =o%ation e!o), et!.2. A)$inistative O""i!e o" the Unite) States
Page 67 of 75
Couts, Fe)ea# O""en)es in the Unite) States Disti!t CoutsI (EJ4, <, 3J 0heeina"te !ite) as
Fe)ea# O""en)esI (EJ42; A)$inistative O""i!e o" the Unite) States Couts, Fe)ea# O""en)es
in the Unite) States Disti!t CoutsI (EJ3, &5*&9 0heeina"te !ite) as Fe)ea# O""en)esI (EJ32.
Duing the sa$e t?o :eas in the Disti!t Cout "o the Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia, %et?een &8U an)
35U o" those senten!e) ha) =io =ison e!o)s, an) "o$ 39U to 4'U ha) a =io e!o) #ess
than =ison. Fe)ea# O""en)esI (EJ4, <ii, J4, JJ; A)$inistative O""i!e o" the Unite) States
Couts, Fe)ea# O""en)es in the Unite) States Disti!t Cout "o the Disti!t o" Co#u$%iaI (EJ3,
8, (' 0heeina"te !ite) as Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia O""en)esI (EJ32.
A si$i#a =i!tue is o%taine) i" one #ooAs at the su%se@uent e!o)s o" those e#ease) "o$
!on"ine$ent. In (EJ4, (&.3U o" =esons on "e)ea# =o%ation ha) thei =o%ation evoAe)
%e!ause o" the !o$$ission o" $a>o vio#ations 0)e"ine) as one in ?hi!h the =o%atione has %een
!o$$itte) to i$=ison$ent "o a =eio) o" E' )a:s o $oe, %een =#a!e) on =o%ation "o ove
one :ea on a ne? o""ense, o has a%s!on)e) ?ith "e#on: !hages outstan)ing2. T?ent:*thee an)
t?o*tenths =e!ent o" =ao#ees an) (J.EU o" those ?ho ha) %een $an)atoi#: e#ease) a"te
sevi!e o" a =otion o" thei senten!e #iAe?ise !o$$itte) $a>o vio#ations. Re=ots o" the
+o!ee)ings o" the -u)i!ia# Con"een!e o" the Unite) States an) Annua# Re=ot o" the Die!to o"
the A)$inistative O""i!e o" the Unite) States CoutsI (EJ5, (38. See also Man)e# et
al." Re!i)ivis$ Stu)ie) an) De"ine), 5J -.Ci$.L., C. Q +. S. 5E 0(EJ52 0?ithin "ive :eas o"
e#ease, J&.33U o" sa$=#e ha) !o$$itte) o""enses =#a!ing the$ in e!i)ivist !atego:2.
5.
Eight:*eight "e)ea# )isti!t !outs 0e<!#u)ing the Disti!t Cout "o the Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia2
)is=ose) o" the !ases o" 33,38( !i$ina# )e"en)ants in (EJ4. On#: (&.5U o" those !ases ?ee
a!tua##: tie). O" the e$aining !ases, 8E.EU ?ee te$inate) %: !onvi!tions u=on =#eas o"
gui#t: an) ('.(U ?ee )is$isse). State) )i""eent#:, a==o<i$ate#: E'U o" a## !onvi!tions
esu#te) "o$ gui#t: =#eas. Fe)ea# O""en)esI (EJ4,supra" note 4, 3*J. In the Disti!t Cout "o
the Disti!t o" Co#u$%ia, a highe =e!entage, &9U, ?ent to tia#, an) the )e"en)ant =#ea)e)
gui#t: in a==o<i$ate#: 98U o" the !ases te$inate) =io to tia#. .d. at 58*5E. No e#ia%#e
statisti!s ae avai#a%#e !on!ening the =e!entage o" !ases in ?hi!h gui#t: =#eas ae in)u!e)
%e!ause o" the e<isten!e o" a !on"ession o o" =h:si!a# evi)en!e uneathe) as a esu#t o" a
!on"ession. Un)ou%te)#: the nu$%e o" su!h !ases is su%stantia#.
+eha=s o" e@ua# signi"i!an!e is the nu$%e o" instan!es o" Ano?n !i$es ?hi!h ae not so#ve).
In (EJ4, on#: 388,E4J, o &3.EU, o" (,J&J,594 seious Ano?n o""enses ?ee !#eae). The
!#eaan!e ate ange) "o$ 8E.8U "o ho$i!i)es to (8.9U "o #a!en:. FBI, Uni"o$ Ci$e
Re=ots ** (EJ4, &'*&&, ('(. Those ?ho ?ou#) e=#a!e inteogation as an investigatoia# too# %:
$o)en s!ienti"i! investigation te!hni@ues signi"i!ant#: oveesti$ate the e""e!tiveness o" =esent
=o!e)ues, even ?hen inteogation is in!#u)e).
TO#
CDI/#ar-
CLARO, -., Dissenting in +at, Con!uing in +at
MR. -USTICE CLARO, )issenting in Nos. 95E, 9J', an) 9J(, an) !on!uing in the esu#t in No.
584.
Page 68 of 75
It is ?ith eget that I "in) it ne!essa: to ?ite in these !ases. 6o?eve, I a$ una%#e to >oin the
$a>oit: %e!ause its o=inion goes too "a on too #itt#e, ?hi#e $: )issenting %ethen )o not go
@uite "a enough. No !an I >oin in the CoutDs !iti!is$ o" the =esent =a!ti!es o" =o#i!e an)
investigato: agen!ies as to !usto)ia# inteogation. The $ateia#s it e"es to as B=o#i!e
$anua#sB
B/1D
ae, as I ea) the$, $ee#: ?itings in this "ie#) %: =o"essos an) so$e =o#i!e
o""i!es. Not one is sho?n %: the e!o) hee to %e the o""i!ia# $anua# o" an: =o#i!e )e=at$ent,
$u!h #ess in univesa# use in !i$e )ete!tion. Moeove, the e<a$=#es o" =o#i!e %uta#it:
$entione) %: the Cout
B/D
ae ae e<!e=tions to the thousan)s o" !ases B+%00D that a==ea eve:
:ea in the #a? e=ots. The =o#i!e agen!ies ** a## the ?a: "o$ $uni!i=a# an) state "o!es to the
"e)ea# %ueaus ** ae es=onsi%#e "o #a? en"o!e$ent an) =u%#i! sa"et: in this !ount:. I a$
=ou) o" thei e""ots, ?hi!h, in $: vie?, ae not "ai#: !haa!teiHe) %: the CoutDs o=inion.
I
The ipse di3it o" the $a>oit: has no su==ot in ou !ases. In)ee), the Cout a)$its that B?e
$ight not "in) the )e"en)antsD state$ents KheeL to have %een invo#unta: in ta)itiona#
te$s.B (nte" =. 459. In shot, the Cout has a))e) $oe to the e@uie$ents that the a!!use) is
entit#e) to !onsu#t ?ith his #a?:e an) that he $ust %e given the ta)itiona# ?aning that he $a:
e$ain si#ent an) that an:thing that he sa:s $a: %e use) against hi$. -scobedo v. .llinois" 398
U.S. 498, 4E'*4E( 0(EJ42. No? the Cout "ashions a !onstitutiona# u#e that the =o#i!e $a:
engage in no !usto)ia# inteogation ?ithout a))itiona##: a)vising the a!!use) that he has a ight
un)e the Fi"th A$en)$ent to the =esen!e o" !ounse# )uing inteogation an) that, i" he is
?ithout "un)s, !ounse# ?i## %e "unishe) hi$. When, at an: =oint )uing an inteogation, the
a!!use) seeAs a""i$ative#: o i$=#ie)#: to invoAe his ights to si#en!e o !ounse#, inteogation
$ust %e "ogone o =ost=one). The Cout "uthe ho#)s that "ai#ue to "o##o? the ne? =o!e)ues
e@uies ine<oa%#: the e<!#usion o" an: state$ent %: the a!!use), as ?e## as the "uits theeo".
Su!h a sti!t !onstitutiona# s=e!i"i! insete) at the neve !ente o" !i$e )ete!tion $a: ?e## Ai##
the =atient.
B/"D
B+%01D Sin!e thee is at this ti$e a =au!it: o" in"o$ation an) an a#$ost tota# #a!A
o" e$=ii!a# Ano?#e)ge on the =a!ti!a# o=eation o" e@uie$ents tu#: !o$=aa%#e to those
announ!e) %: the $a>oit:, I ?ou#) %e $oe estaine), #est ?e go too "a too "ast.
II
Custo)ia# inteogation has #ong %een e!ogniHe) as Bun)ou%te)#: an essentia# too# in e""e!tive
#a? en"o!e$ent.B #aynes v. Washington" 393 U.S. 5'3, 5(5 0(EJ32. Re!ognition o" this "a!t
shou#) =ut us on gua) against the =o$u#gation o" )o!tinaie u#es. Es=e!ia##: is this tue ?hee
the Cout "in)s that Bthe Constitution has =es!i%e)B its ho#)ing, an) ?hee the #ight o" ou =ast
!ases, "o$ #opt v. Utah" ((' U.S. 594 0(8842, )o?n to #aynes v. Washington" supra" is
to B+%0D the !onta:. In)ee), even in-scobedo" the Cout neve hinte) that an a""i$ative
B?aiveB ?as a =ee@uisite to @uestioning; that the %u)en o" =oo" as to ?aive ?as on the
=ose!ution; that the =esen!e o" !ounse# ** a%sent a ?aive ** )uing inteogation ?as e@uie);
that a ?aive !an %e ?ith)a?n at the ?i## o" the a!!use); that !ounse# $ust %e "unishe) )uing
an a!!usato: stage to those una%#e to =a:; no that a)$issions an) e<!u#=ato: state$ents ae
B!on"essions.B To e@uie a## those things at one gu#= shou#) !ause the Cout to !hoAe ove $oe
!ases than Croo)er v. California" 359 U.S. 433 0(E582, an) Cicenia v. Lagay" 359 U.S.
5'4 0(E582, ?hi!h it e<=ess#: oveu#es to)a:.
Page 69 of 75
The u#e =io to to)a: ** as M. -usti!e 1o#)%eg, the autho o" the CoutDs o=inion
in-scobedo" state) it in #aynes v. Washington ** )e=en)e) u=on Ba tota#it: o" !i!u$stan!es
evi)en!ing an invo#unta: . . . a)$ission o" gui#t.B 393 U.S. at 5(4. An) he !on!#u)e)I
O" !ouse, )ete!tion an) so#ution o" !i$e is, at %est, a )i""i!u#t an) a)uous tasA e@uiing
)ete$ination an) =esisten!e on the =at o" a## es=onsi%#e o""i!es !hage) ?ith the )ut: o" #a?
en"o!e$ent. An) !etain#: ?e )o not $ean to suggest that a## inteogation o" ?itnesses an)
sus=e!ts is i$=e$issi%#e. Su!h @uestioning is un)ou%te)#: an essentia# too# in e""e!tive #a?
en"o!e$ent. The #ine %et?een =o=e an) =e$issi%#e =o#i!e !on)u!t an) te!hni@ues an)
$etho)s o""ensive to )ue =o!ess is, at %est, a )i""i!u#t one to )a?, =ati!u#a#: in !ases su!h as
this, ?hee it is ne!essa: to $aAe "ine >u)g$ents as to the e""e!t o" =s:!ho#ogi!a##: !oe!ive
=essues an) in)u!e$ents on the $in) an) ?i## o" an a!!use). . . . We ae hee i$=e##e) to the
!on!#usion, "o$ a## o" the "a!ts =esente), that the %oun)s o" )ue =o!ess have %een e<!ee)e).
.d. at 5(4*5(5. B+%0"D
III
I ?ou#) !ontinue to "o##o? that u#e. Un)e the Btota#it: o" !i!u$stan!esB u#e o" ?hi!h $:
Bothe 1o#)%eg s=oAe in #aynes" I ?ou#) !onsi)e in ea!h !ase ?hethe the =o#i!e o""i!e,
=io to !usto)ia# inteogation, a))e) the ?aning that the sus=e!t $ight have !ounse# =esent at
the inteogation, an), "uthe, that a !out ?ou#) a==oint one at his e@uest i" he ?as too =oo to
e$=#o: !ounse#. In the a%sen!e o" ?anings, the %u)en ?ou#) %e on the State to =ove that
!ounse# ?as Ano?ing#: an) inte##igent#: ?aive) o that, in the tota#it: o" the !i!u$stan!es,
in!#u)ing the "ai#ue to give the ne!essa: ?anings, the !on"ession ?as !#ea#: vo#unta:.
Rathe than e$=#o:ing the a%ita: Fi"th A$en)$ent u#e
B/$D
?hi!h the Cout #a:s )o?n, I
?ou#) "o##o? the $oe =#ia%#e )i!tates o" the Due +o!ess C#auses o" the Fi"th an) Fouteenth
A$en)$ents ?hi!h ?e ae a!!usto$e) to a)$inisteing, an) ?hi!h ?e Ano? "o$ ou !ases ae
e""e!tive instu$ents in =ote!ting =esons in =o#i!e !usto):. In this ?a:, ?e ?ou#) not %e a!ting
in the )aA, no, in one "u## s?ee=, !hanging the ta)itiona# u#es o" !usto)ia# inteogation ?hi!h
this Cout has "o so #ong e!ogniHe) as a >usti"ia%#e an) =o=e too# in %a#an!ing in)ivi)ua#
ights against the ights o" so!iet:. It ?i## %e soon enough to go "uthe ?hen ?e ae a%#e to
a==aise ?ith so$e?hat %ette a!!ua!: the e""e!t o" su!h a ho#)ing.
I ?ou#) a""i$ the !onvi!tions in Miranda v. (ri+ona" No. 95E; /ignera v. New *or)" No. 9J',
an) Westover v. United States" No. 9J(. In ea!h o" those !ases, I "in) "o$ the !i!u$stan!es no
?aant "o evesa#. In B+%0$D California v. Stewart" No. 584, I ?ou#) )is$iss the ?it o"
!etioai "o ?ant o" a "ina# >u)g$ent, &8 U.S.C. N (&59032 0(EJ4 e).2; %ut, i" the $eits ae to %e
ea!he), I ?ou#) a""i$ on the goun) that the State "ai#e) to "u#"i## its %u)en, in the a%sen!e o" a
sho?ing that a==o=iate ?anings ?ee given, o" =oving a ?aive o a tota#it: o" !i!u$stan!es
sho?ing vo#untainess. Shou#) thee %e a etia#, I ?ou#) #eave the State "ee to atte$=t to =ove
these e#e$ents.
(.
-.g." In%au Q Rei), Ci$ina# Inteogation an) Con"essions 0(EJ2; OD6aa, Fun)a$enta#s O"
Ci$ina# Investigation 0(E5J2; Dienstein, Te!hni!s "o the Ci$e Investigato 0(E5&2; Mu#%a,
Inteogation 0(E5(2; Oi)), +o#i!e Inteogation 0(E4'2.
Page 70 of 75
&.
As )eve#o=e) %: $: Bothe 6ARLAN, post ==. 5'J*5(4, su!h !ases, ?ith the e<!e=tion o" the
#ong*)is!S:##a%us Q O=inions On#: in 0ram v. United States" (J8 U.S. 53& 0(8E92, ?ee
a)e@uate#: teate) in te$s o" )ue =o!ess.
3.
The Cout =oints to Eng#an), S!ot#an), Ce:#on an) In)ia as having e@ua##: igi) u#es. As in
Bothe 6ARLAN =oints out, post" ==. 5&(*5&3, the Cout is $istaAen in this ega), "o it
ove#ooAs !ounte%a#an!ing =ose!utoia# a)vantages. Moeove, the e@uie$ents o" the Fe)ea#
Bueau o" Investigation )o not a==ea "o$ the So#i!ito 1enea#Ds #ette, ante"==. 484*48J, to %e
as sti!t as those i$=ose) to)a: in at #east t?o es=e!tsI 0(2 The o""e o" !ounse# is ati!u#ate)
on#: as Ba ight to !ounse#B; nothing is sai) a%out a ight to have !ounse# =esent at the !usto)ia#
inteogation. 0See also the e<a$=#es !ite) %: the So#i!ito 1enea#, Westover v. United
States" 34& F.&) J84, J85 0(EJ52 0Bight to !onsu#t !ounse#B2; %ac)son v. United States" 339 F.&)
(3J, (38 0(EJ42 0a!!use) Bentit#e) to an attone:B2.2 In)ee), the =a!ti!e is that, ?heneve the
sus=e!t
)e!i)es that he ?ishes to !onsu#t ?ith !ounse# %e"oe $aAing a state$ent, the intevie? is
te$inate) at that =oint. . . . When !ounse# a==eas in =eson, he is =e$itte) to !on"e ?ith his
!#ient in =ivate.
This !#ea#: in)i!ates that the FBI )oes not ?an that !ounse# $a: %e =esent )uing !usto)ia#
inteogation. 0&2 The So#i!ito 1enea#Ds #ette statesI
KTLhose ?ho have %een aeste) "o an o""ense un)e FBI >uis)i!tion, o ?hose aest is
!onte$=#ate) "o##o?ing the intevie?, Kae a)vise)L o" a ight to "ee !ounse# i" the: ae una%#e to
=a:, an) the avai#a%i#it: o" su!h !ounse# "o$ the -u)ge.
So =hase), this ?aning )oes not in)i!ate that the agent ?i## se!ue !ounse#. Rathe, the
state$ent $a: ?e## %e inte=ete) %: the sus=e!t to $ean that the %u)en is =#a!e) u=on hi$se#",
an) that he $a: have !ounse# a==ointe) on#: ?hen %ought %e"oe the >u)ge o at tia# ** %ut not
at !usto)ia# inteogation. As I vie? the FBI =a!ti!e, it is not as %oa) as the one #ai) )o?n
to)a: %: the Cout.
4.
In $: vie?, thee is Bno signi"i!ant su==otB in ou !ases "o the ho#)ing o" the Cout to)a: that
the Fi"th A$en)$ent =ivi#ege, in e""e!t, "o%i)s !usto)ia# inteogation. Fo a )is!ussion o" this
=oint, see the )issenting o=inion o" $: Bothe W6ITE, post ==. 5&J*53(.
?. Cor+*s De20c-0
FFo a !i$e to e<ist, thee $ust %e an in>ue) =at: 0Co=us De#i!ti2. Thee !an %e no san!tion
o =ena#t: i$=ose) on one %e!ause o" this Constitutiona# ight.G Shee v. Cu##en 48( F. E45
Arc30e #. SHERAR( A++e22a/-(
).
Page 71 of 75
Jose+3 M. CULLEN( D0s-r0c- D0rec-or I/-er/a2 Re)e/*e
Ser)0ce( e- a2.( A++e22ees.
No. 9(*(558.
U/0-e1 S-a-es Co*r- o. A++ea2s(
N0/-3 C0rc*0-.
-u#: 3, (E93.
Reheaing Denie) Aug. (3, (E93.
A!hie +. Shea =o se.
Ste=hen F. Ei#=ein 0ague)2, De=t. o" -usti!e, Washington, D. C., L. +ati!A 1a:, III, Asst. Att:.
1en., De=t. o" -usti!e, Washington, D. C., -a$es L. Bo?ning, -., U. S. Att:., San Fan!is!o,
Ca#., Wa#te 6. F#eis!he, Tho$as -. +ess, De=t. o" -usti!e, Washington, D. C., "o a==e##ees.
O+INION
Be"oe EL/ an) OILOENN/, Ci!uit -u)ges, an) SOO+IL,C Disti!t -u)ge.
EL/, Ci!uit -u)geI
(
A==e##ant Shea ?as )is!hage) "o$ his =osition as an Intena# Revenue Sevi!e "ie#) agent
"o##o?ing his e"usa# to "unish e!o)s "o a =esona# ta< au)it. A"te "u##: e<hausting his
a)$inistative e$e)ies, Shea "i#e) this a!tion in the Unite) States Disti!t Cout seeAing
estoation o" his goven$ent =osition togethe ?ith the %a!A =a: an) othe %ene"its #ost
%e!ause o" the )is!hage. The Disti!t Cout gante) the a==e##eesD $otion "o su$$a:
>u)g$ent, an) this a==ea# "o##o?e).
&
Shea !onten)s that )is$issa# "o$ goven$ent sevi!e, %ase) so#e#: u=on a e"usa# to su%$it
to an a##ege)#: un?aante) an) uneasona%#e au)it e@uest, !onstitutes a =ena#t: ?ong"u##:
i$=ose) u=on the e<e!ise o" "outh a$en)$ent ights. 6e a#so agues that the Intena#
Revenue Sevi!e ?as =ati!u#a#: an<ious to see hi$ )is$isse) %e!ause he ha) a##ege)#: given
a Senate Su%!o$$ittee in"o$ation that ?ou#) #ate %e use) in =u%#i! heaings to the
e$%aass$ent o" the Sevi!e. The 1oven$ent, to the !onta:, agues that a==e##antDs
)is$issa# "o##o?e) su%stantia# !o$=#ian!e ?ith a==#i!a%#e =o!e)ues, that )is$issa# is a
$atte so#e#: ?ithin e<e!utive )is!etion, that the te$ination ?as not a%ita: o !a=i!ious,
an) that SheaDs !#ai$ that the e@ueste) au)it ?as uneasona%#e un)e the Fouth A$en)$ent
is ?ho##: ?ithout $eit.
3
The Disti!t Cout )i) not ea!h a==e##antDs "outh a$en)$ent !ontentions, u#ing, instea), thatI
4
B. . . the s!o=e o" evie? in the Disti!t Cout o" this t:=e o" a)$inistative =o!ee)ing is
#i$ite), =o%a%#: #i$ite) as :ou !an get, to the )ete$ination o" the e<isten!e o" =ast )ue
=o!ess an) a su%stantia# %asis "o the esu#ts o" the =o!e)ue ?hi!h is e$=#o:e) in !onne!tion
?ith the e<e!ise o" )is!etion.B
Page 72 of 75
5
We )isagee.
J
In See v. Seatt#e, ";6 U.S. %$1, 89 S. Ct. (939, (8 L.E).&) E43 0(EJ92, the Su=e$e Cout
evese) a==e##antDs !onvi!tion "o e"using to =e$it a e=esentative o" the !it: "ie
)e=at$ent to ente an) ins=e!t his #o!Ae) !o$$e!ia# ?aehouse ?ithout a ?aant an)
?ithout =o%a%#e !ause to %e#ieve that a vio#ation o" an: $uni!i=a# o)inan!e ha) o!!ue)
theein. The Cout he#) thatI
9
B0W2hi#e the )e$an) to ins=e!t $a: %e issue) %: the agen!:, in the "o$ o" an a)$inistative
su%=oena, it $a: not %e $a)e an) en"o!e) %: the ins=e!to in the "ie#), an) the su%=oenae)
=at: $a: o%tain >u)i!ia# evie? o" the easona%#eness o" the )e$an) =io to su""eing
=ena#ties "o e"using to !o$=#:.BI). at 544, 545, 89 S.Ct. at (94'. Co$=ae W:$an v.
-a$es, $00 U.S. "0?, E( S. Ct. 38(, &9 L.E).&) 4'8 0(E9(2 0ho#)ing that ?hee ?e#"ae
%ene"its ?ee te$in ate) %e!ause the e!i=ient e"use) to %e intevie?e) in he ho$e, no
sea!h un) e the Fouth A$en)$ent ?as invo#ve), that even i" it ?ee a sea!h it ?as not
uneasona%#e, an) that even i" thee ?ee an uneasona%#e sea!h, the ?e#"ae e!i=ient ha)
?aive) the ight to o%>e!t %: a!!e=ting %ene"its2.
8
Moe s=e!i"i!a##:, in Reis$an v. Ca=#in, "6% U.S. $$0, 84 S.Ct. 5'8, (( L. E).&) 45E 0(EJ42,
the Cout he#) that ?hen a !ha##enge to an a)$inistative su$$ons "o a ta< au)it is Be>e!te)
%: the heaing e<a$ine an) the ?itness sti## e"use0s2 to testi": o =o)u!e, the e<a$ine is
given no =o?e to en"o!e !o$=#ian!e o to i$=ose san!tions "o non!o$=#ian!e.B I). at 445,
84 S.Ct. at 5(&. Instea), the Cout u#e), i" the Se!eta: o" the Teasu: insists on en"o!ing
the su$$ons, he $ust =o!ee) un)e &J U.S.C. Se!. 94'&0%2, ?hi!h gants >uis)i!tion to the
Disti!t Couts o" the Unite) States B%: a==o=iate =o!ess to !o$=e# su!h atten)an!e,
testi$on:, o =o)u!tion o" %ooAs, =a=es, o othe )ata.B I).
E
Thus, !onta: to the a)$inistative =o!e)ue "o##o?e) in SheaDs !ase, un)e Se!. 94'&0%2
the ta<=a:e is a""o)e) the !o$=#ete =ote!tion o" a >u)i!ia# )ete$ination %ase) u=on
a)vesa: =o!ee)ings in ?hi!h an: o" his !ha##enges to the su$$ons !an %e "u##: aie). BIn
su!h a =o!ee)ing on#: a e"usa# to !o$=#: ?ith an o)e o" the )isti!t >u)ge su%>e!ts the
?itness to !onte$=t =o!ee)ings.B 395 U.S. at 44J, 84 S.Ct. at 5(&. Futhe$oe, the
goven$enta# inteest in !on)u!ting a easona%#e ta< au)it is a#so =ote!te) %e!ause the !out,
%ase) u=on its heaing, has "u## =o?e to )ete$ine i" the a)$inistative su$$ons shou#) %e
en"o!e).
('
The See an) Reis$an )e!isions, an) the statuto: =o!e)ues o" Se!. 94'&0%2, e"#e!t the
o%vious !on!en that thee %e no san!tion o =ena#t: i$=ose) u=on one %e!ause o" his e<e!ise
o" !onstitutiona# ights. In S=eva!A v. O#ein, ";% U.S. %11, 89 S.Ct. J&5, (9 L.E).&) 594
0(EJ92, "o e<a$=#e, the Su=e$e Cout he#) that an attone: !ou#) not %e )is%ae) so#e#:
%e!ause he !#ai$e) his =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination in e"using to =ovi)e e!o)s an)
testi$on: "o an investigation into his a##ege) =o"essiona# $is!on)u!t. BIn this !onte<t
D=ena#t:D is not esti!te) to "ine o i$=ison$ent. It $eans, as ?e sai) in 1i""in v.
Ca#i"onia, ";0 U.S. 50?, 85 S.Ct. (&&E, (4 L.E).&) ('J 0(EJ52, the i$=osition o" an: san!tion
Page 73 of 75
?hi!h $aAes assetion o" the Fi"th A$en)$ent =iv#ege D!ost#:.BD I). at 5(5, 89 S.Ct. at J&8. In
1ait: v. Ne? -ese:, ";% U.S. $?", 89 S.Ct. J(J, (9 L.E).&) 5J& 0(EJ92, a !o$=anion !ase to
S=eva!A, =o#i!e o""i!es ?ee !onvi!te) in a state !out o" !ons=iing to o%stu!t >usti!e. Duing
thei tia#, the =ose!ution ?as a##o?e) to into)u!e in!u#=ato: state$ents taAen %:
investigatos a"te the o""i!es ha) %een a)vise) that e"usa# to give ans?es ?ou#) #ea) to
)is!hage "o$ thei =ositions. The Su=e$e Cout evese) the !onvi!tions, ho#)ing that BThe
!hoi!e given =etitiones ?as eithe to "o"eit thei >o%s o to in!i$inate the$se#ves. The o=tion
to #ose thei $eans o" #ive#ihoo) o to =a: the =ena#t: o" se#"*in!i$ination is the antithesis o"
"ee !hoi!e to s=eaA out o to e$ain si#ent.B I). at 4E9, 89 S.Ct. at J(8. See Bo:) v. Unite)
States, 115 U.S. 515, J S.Ct. 5&4, &E L.E). 94J 0(88J2 0a statute o""eing the o?ne o" goo)s in
a "o"eitue a!tion an e#e!tion %et?een =o)u!ing a )o!u$ent o "o"eitue o" the goo)s at issue
?as he#) to %e a "o$ o" !o$=u#sion in vio#ation o" %oth the Fouth an) Fi"th A$en)$ents2;
Ma##o: v. 6ogan, "6; U.S. 1, 84 S.Ct. (48E, (& L.E).&) J53 0(EJ42 0a =eson has the ight Bto
e$ain si#ent un#ess he !hooses to s=eaA in the un"ettee) e<e!ise o" his o?n ?i##, an) to su""e
no =ena#t: . . . "o su!h si#en!eB2; Sanitation Men v. Sanitation Co$$D., "? U.S. ;0, 88 S.Ct.
(E(9, &' L.E).&) ('8E 0(EJ82 0=u%#i! e$=#o:ees, #iAe a## othe =esons, ae entit#e) to the
%ene"it o" the !onstitutiona# =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination, an) the: $a: not %e "a!e)
?ith =o!ee)ings ?hi!h =esent the$ ?ith a !hoi!e %et?een suen)eing thei !onstitutiona#
ights o thei >o%s2; 1a)ne v. Bo)ei!A, "? U.S. 6", 88 S.Ct. (E(3, &' L. E).&) ('8&
0(EJ82 0Bthe $an)ate o" the geat =ivi#ege against se#"*in!i$ination )oes not to#eate the
atte$=t, ega)#ess o" its u#ti$ate e""e!tiveness, to !oe!e a ?aive o" the i$$unit: it !on"es
on =ena#t: o" the #oss o" e$=#o:$entB2.
((
In the =esent !ase, the Intena# Revenue Sevi!e =#a!e) Shea in the untena%#e =osition o"
having to )e!i)e ?hethe to su%$it to an a##ege)#: uneasona%#e an) un?aante) ta<
e<a$ination, o, shou#) he e"use, to su""e the =ena#t: o" )is$issa#. This ?as !#ea#: a =ena#t:
that in"inge) u=on the !onstitutiona# ight to %e "ee "o$ uneasona%#e sea!hes %e!ause, as a
=a!ti!a# $atte, the on#: $anne %: ?hi!h a ta<=a:e !an =event an uneasona%#e sea!h is to
?ithho#) his e!o)s =en)ing >u)i!ia# )ete$ination in en"o!e$ent =o!ee)ings. C". E##iott v.
A$ei!an M"g. Co., (38 F.&) J98 05th Ci. (E432 0BThe e$e): against "o!e) i$=o=e
)is!#osue, an) the o==otunit: "o testing its =o=iet: is si$=#: to e"use to )is!#ose an) to
have the Disti!t Cout u#e u=on the $atte in en"o!e$ent =o!ee)ingsB2. I" the u#e ?ee
othe?ise, the ight to %e "ee "o$ uneasona%#e sea!hes ?ou#) not e<ist e<!e=t at the
)is!etion o" the ta< !o##e!to.
(&
In so ho#)ing, ?e )o not ea!h the @uestion o" ?hethe Shea is !oe!t in his !ontention that
the au)it ?as, as a $atte o" "a!t, an uneasona%#e an) un?aante) )e$an). We ho#) on#: that
in the a%sen!e o" =io >u)i!ia# )ete$ination o" that @uestion, his )is!hage ?as un?aante).
Reis$an v. Ca=#in, su=a.
(3
Sin!e Shea su%$itte) the e@ueste) ta< e!o)s to the au)ito "o##o?ing his )is!hage, the
e@uie) en"o!e$ent =o!ee)ings un)e Se!. 94'&0%2 ?ou#) no? %e $oot. A!!o)ing#:, the
!ause is e$an)e) to the Disti!t Cout, ?ith )ie!tions to o)e Shea einstate) to his "o$e
=osition ?ithin the Intena# Revenue Sevi!e. The Disti!t Cout ?i## a#so )ete$ine the a$ount
o" %a!A =a: an) %ene"its, i" an:, ?hi!h ae )ue to Shea %e!ause o" his i##ega# )is!hage.
Page 74 of 75
(4
Revese) an) e$an)e), ?ith )ie!tions.
C
6onoa%#e Otto R. SAo=i#, Unite) States Disti!t -u)ge, +ot#an), Oegon, sitting %: )esignation
10. CraF.or1 ). Was30/8-o/, 54( U.S. 3J 0&''42, The Con"ontation C#ause o" the Si<th
A$en)$ent 0a==#i!a%#e to the States though the Fouteenth A$en)$ent2 =ovi)esI BIn a##
!i$ina# =ose!utions, the a!!use) sha## en>o: the ightM to %e !on"onte) ?ith the ?itnesses
against hi$.B This ight has a ve: s=e!i"i! =u=ose. The "o!us o" the C#ause is on getting the
tuth out o" a ?itness, an) a##o?ing a tie o" "a!t to )ete$ine ?hethe the ?itness in)ee) to#)
the tuth.
o)ne:*)a#e; !#ass
+ivate Attone: 1enea#
333 N<<<< L<<<<< St.
6igh Shoa#s, Noth Cao#ina
A$ei!an Nationa#
Page 75 of 75