Steel Structures - 8 PDF

1
Winter 2003 Design of Steel Structures 1

DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES IN FIRE
Winter 2003 Design of Steel Structures 6-2
OVERVIEW
This section will:
provide information to calculate performance of steel
buildings exposed to fires
describe simple methods for designing individual steel
members to resist fire exposure, including:
calculations of elevated temperatures
methods of fire protection
information on the thermal and mechanical properties of steel
at elevated temperatures
BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL
STRUCTURES IN FIRE
When steel structures are under fire exposure:
steel temperatures increase
strength and stiffness of the steel are reduced
This leads to deformation and failure depending
on applied loads and support conditions
Increase in steel temperatures depends on:
fire severity
area of steel exposed to fire
amount of applied fire protection
BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL
STRUCTURES IN FIRE
Protected steel members can have excellent fire
resistance
Unprotected steel members perform poorly in fires
Steel has high thermal conductivity values than
most other materials
Thermal expansion of steel members can cause
damage in other parts of the building
BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL
STRUCTURES IN FIRE
The main factors affecting the behaviour of steel
structures in fire are as follows:
elevated temperatures in the steel members
applied loads on the steel members
mechanical properties of steel members
geometry of the steel members
FIRE-RESISTANCE RATINGS
Verification Methods
Generic Ratings
Proprietary Ratings
Calculated Ratings
2
Design for fire resistance requires: provided fire
resistance > design fire severity
The verification may be in the time domain,
temperature domain or strength domain
Time domain method is traditionally used for fire-
resistance ratings
In the time domain, required fire resistance may
be prescribed by codes or calculated by formulae
Required fire resistance is then compared with the
fire-resistance rating of the selected assembly
In temp. domain, comparison is made between
the limiting steel temp. and the maximum temp.
reached during fire exposure
The limiting temperature is usually provided by
codes and standards
In strength domain, load-bearing capacity of the
steel member is compared with the expected load
on the member during fire
Generic Ratings
Generic ratings assign a time of fire resistance to
materials with no reference to manufacturers
Many codes provide lists of generic ratings for
structural steel members
The table below is an example taken from NBC
Minimum thickness of solid concrete protection to
steel columns to provide fire resistance (NBC)
Time (hours) 1/2 3/4 1 1.5 2 3 4
Thickness (mm) 25 25 25 25 39 64 89
Proprietary Ratings
Manufacturers of passive fire protection products
provide listings of ratings
The ratings are similar to generic ratings but they
relate to more closely defined products
Proprietary ratings usually include reference to
the size and shape of the member
Below is an example of proprietary ratings
Proprietary Ratings
Thickness of proprietary spray-on protection
required to provide fire resistance to a steel beam
or column (ASFPCM, 1988)
F/V is section factor and V/F effective thickness
Section size Fire resistance
F/V (m
-l
) V/F (mm) 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours
70 14.3 10 22 36 50
110 9.1 10 28 47 65
150 6.7 12 33 54 75
190 5.3 13 37 60 83
230 4.3 14 39 64 89
270 3.7 15 41 68 94
Proprietary Ratings
Steel beam and column protected with spray-on
material
3
Calculated Ratings
Calculation methods for steel structures under
fire exposure will compare loads with load
capacity in the strength domain
There are two main types of calculation:
simple calculation model which is used for single
members
general calculation model which requires use of
computer program for analysis of complex structures
STEEL TEMPERATURES
To design steel structures for fire, the temperature
of the steel must be known
The exposure may be standard time-temp. curve
or real curves
Calculation Methods
In simple hand calculations, best-fit empirical
formulae are used to obtain the temperature
Simple hand calculations assume uniform
temperature over the cross section of steel
A simple computer program can be used with a
step-by-step calculation technique:
with a constant temperature over the cross section
assuming a lumped mass of steel at uniform temp.
This method can be used with any design fire
curve as input
Calculation Methods
Available design charts can provide graphical
results of simple calculations
Advanced computer-based methods can calculate
temperatures within a cross section
In most calculations, 2-D models are suitable,
assuming uniform temp. along the member
3-D heat transfer calculations may be useful, e.g.,
at member junctions
Section Factor
The rate of temp. rise in structural steel members
exposed to fire depends on the section factor
The section factor is a measure of ratio of heated
perimeters to the area/mass of the cross sections
The section factor is important because the rate of
heat input is directly proportional to the area
exposed to the fire environment
Section Factor
The section factor can be expressed in one of
following four different methods:
ratio of heated surface area to volume, both per unit
length, F/V (m
-1
)
ratio of heated perimeter to cross section area, H
p
/A
(m
-1
)
ratio of heated surface area to mass, both per unit
length, F/ M (m
2
/tonne)
effective thickness, V/F or A/H
p
(m or mm)
The first two ratios are identical (see Table below)
4
Section Factor
F = surface area of unit length of member (m
2
)
V = volume of steel in unit length of member (m
3
)
H
p
= heated perimeter of cross section (m)
A = cross-sectional area of section (m
2
)
M = mass per unit length of member (tonne)
Section Factor
Table defining section factor in the Eurocode
Section Factor
The ratio, V/F or A/H
p
is an effective thickness of
the cross section
The section factor is:
V/F = t/2 for a steel plate of thickness t, exposed to a
fire on both sides
V/F = t for a hollow tube of thickness t
V/F is one half of the average thickness of the
different parts for an I-beam
See Tables provided from appendix C in
Textbook
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the section factor for a steel H-section
column, of dimensions 300x300 mm. The column
is exposed to fire on all four sides.
Make calculations for (a) box-type protection and
(b) spray-on protection
GIVEN:
Height of section h = 300 mm
Width of section b = 300 mm
Flange thickness T = 20 mm
Web thickness t = 8 mm
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
CALCULATION:
(a) Box-type protection
Area of cross section:
A = 2(b x T) + t(h-2T) = 14080 mm
2
= 0.01408 m
2
Volume of 1 m length:
V = A x 1.0m = 0.01408 m
3
Perimeter of section:
H
p
= 2 (b+h)= 1200 mm = 1.2 m
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Surface area of 1 m length F = H
p
x 1.0m = 1.2 m
2
Section factor H
p
/A = 1.2/0.01408 = 85.2 m
-1
Section factor F/V = 1.2/0.01408 = 85.2 m
-1
Effective thickness V/F = 1000/(F/ V) = 11.7 mm
5
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
(b) Spray-on protection
Perimeter of section
H
p
= 2 (b + h + (b-t)) = 1784 mm = 1.78 m
Surface area of 1 m length F=H
p
x 1.0m = 1.78 m
2
Section factor H
p
/A = 1.78/0.01408 = 126m
-1
Section factor F/ V = 1.78/0.01408 = 126 m
-1
Effective thickness V/F = 1000/(F/V)=7.9 mm
Thermal Properties
For calculating temperatures in fire-exposed
structures, knowledge of materials thermal
properties is necessary
The density of steel is 7850 kg/m
3
and remains
essentially constant with temperature
The specific heat of steel varies with temp.
For example, Eurocode gives the relation shown
in the Figure below (peak at ~ 730C)
Thermal Properties
Specific heat of steel as a function of temperature
Thermal Properties
For simple calculations, the specific heat can be
taken as C
p
= 600 J/kg-K
It is more accurate to use the equations below:
C
p
= 425+0.773T-1.69x10
-3
T
2
+2.22x10
-6
T
3
for 20C T < 600C
C
p
= 666+13002/(738-T) for 600C T < 735C
C
p
= 545+17820/(T-731) for 735C T < 900C
C
p
= 650 for 900C T 1200C
T is the steel temperature (C)
Thermal Properties
The thermal conductivity, k, of steel varies with
temp. as shown in the Figure below (Eurocode)
k reduces linearly from 54 W/m-K at 0C to 27.3
W/m-K at 800C
For simple calculations, thermal conductivity can
be taken as k = 45 W/m-K
Thermal Properties
Thermal conductivity of steel as a function of
temperature
6
Thermal Properties
It is more accurate to use the equations below:
k = 54 - 0.0333 T for 20C T < 800C
k = 27.3 for 800C T 1200C
T is the steel temperature (C)
Temperature Calculation for
Unprotected Steel
Under fire, unprotected steel members can reach
high temp. quickly
Below, two 'lumped mass' methods of calculating
temperature are explained
With significant temp. gradients within the cross
section, the lumped-mass method is not valid, e.g.
I-beam with a concrete slab on top
In this case a FEM should be used
Unprotected Steel -
Best-fit method
An empirical formula to predict the time t (min) for
unprotected steel members to reach a limiting
temp. T
lim
(C) when exposed to standard fires is:
t = 0.54(T
lim
- 50)/(F/V)
0.6
F/V is the section factor (m
-1
)
This expression is valid for:
10 F/V 300 m
-1
(3.3 V/F 100 mm)
400C T
lim
600C
10 min t 80 min
Unprotected Steel -
Best-fit method
The equation can be used to calculate the
expected temperature at a particular time
This is an approximate best-fit empirical equation
For more accurate design, it is recommended that
temperatures be calculated using the step-by-step
method (below) or a FEM
Unprotected Steel -
Step-by-step method
The step-by-step method for unprotected steel is
based on the principle that heat entering the
steel over the exposed surface area in a small
time step t (s) is equal to heat required to raise
the temp. of the steel by T
s
(C) assuming that
the section is a lumped mass at uniform temp.:
heat entering = heat to raise temperature
q F t =
s
c
s
V T
s

s
is the density of steel (kg/m
3
)
Unprotected Steel -
Step-by-step method
c
s
is the specific heat of steel (J/kg K)
T
s
is the change in steel temperature in the time
step (C or K)
q is the heat transfer at the surface (W/m
2
) as:
q" = h
c
(T
f
-T
s
) + (T
f
4
T
s
4
)
h
c
is the convective heat transfer coefficient
(W/m
2
K)
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (56.7x10
-12
kW/m
2
K
4
)
7
Unprotected Steel -
Step-by-step method
is the resultant emissivity
T
f
is the temperature in the fire environment (K)
T
s
is the temperature of the steel (K)
Re-arranging the equations give:
Ts = (F/V)(1/(
s
c
s
)) [h
c
(T
f
-T
s
) + (T
f
4
-T
s
4
)] t
The convective heat transfer coefficient, h
c
, is
recommended to have a value of 25 W/m
2
K
Eurocode recommends 25 W/m
2
K for standard
fires and 50 W/m
2
K for hydrocarbon fires
Unprotected Steel -
Step-by-step method
Eurocode recommends a value of resultant
emissivity of 0.50
Eurocode suggests a time step of no more than
30 s, and a minimum value of the section factor
F/V of 10 m
-1
(maximum value of V/F of 100 mm)
This type of calculation can give good predictions
of unprotected steel beam temp. in standard fire-
resistance tests
See table below for the calculation method
Unprotected Steel -
Step-by-step method
Table showing a spreadsheet calculation for
temperatures of unprotected steel sections
Time Steel temperature
Ts
Fire temperature
Tf
Difference in
temperature
Change in steel
temperature Ts
t1 = t Initial steel
temperature Tso
Fire temperature
halfway through time
step (at t/2)
Tf - Tso Calculate from
equation of Ts
with values of Tf
and Tso from this
row
t2 = t1 + t Ts fromprevious time
step + Ts from
previous row
Fire temperature half
way through time step
(at t1 + t/2)
Tf - Ts Calculate from
Equation of Ts
with values of Tf
and Ts from this
row
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Use the step-by-step method to calculate the steel
temperature of an unprotected beam exposed to
the ISO 834 standard fire.
The beam section factor F/V is 200 m
-1
. Use a
convective heat transfer coefficient h
c
= 25 W/m
2
K
and emissivity =0.6. The density of steel is 7850
kg/m
3
and the specific heat is 600 J/kg-K. Use a
time step of 0.5 min.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The first two minutes of the solution are shown in
the table below. The results are plotted in Figure
6-54.
Time
(minutes)
Time at half
step
Steel
temperature
Ts
ISO fire
temperature at
half step Tf
Difference in
temperature
Change in
steel
temperature
0.0 0.25 20.0 184.6 164.6 6.8
0.5 0.75 26.8 311.6 284.7 13.8
1.0 1.25 40.6 379.3 338.7 18.2
1.5 1.75 58.8 425.8 366.9 21.5
2.0 2.25 80.3 461.2 380.9 24.0
2.5
3.0
Protected Steel
With applied thermal insulation, protected steel
members heat up more slowly than unprotected
members
Two approximate calculation methods are given
below (as in unprotected steel)
For steel members protected with heavy
insulating materials or with temp.-dependent
thermal properties, a FEM should be used
8
Protected Steel -
Best-fit method
The following approximate formula predicts the
time t (min) for a steel member protected with
light, dry insulation to reach a limiting temp. T
lim
(C) when exposed to the standard fire:
t = 40 (T
lim
- 140) [(d
i
/ k
i
)/(F/V)]
0.77
k
i
is the thermal conductivity of insulation (W/m-K)
d
i
is the thickness of the insulation (m)
Protected Steel -
Best-fit method
This equation is valid in the following ranges:
30 t 240 min
400C T
lim
600C
10 F/V 300 m
-1
(3.3 V/F 100 mm)
0.1 d
i
/k
i
0.3 m
2
K/W
Protected Steel -
Best-fit method
For insulation containing moisture, a time delay t
v
(min) can be added to the time t (previously
calculated), using:
t
v
= m
i
d
i
2
/ (5k
i
)

i
is the insulation density (kg/m
3
)
m is the insulation moisture content (%)
For more accurate design, it is recommended that
temperatures be calculated using the step-by-step
method (below) or a FEM
Protected Steel -
Step-by-step method
The iterative calculation method for protected
steel is similar to that for unprotected steel
It is assumed that the internal surface of the
insulation is at the same temp. as the steel
The equation is:
T
s
= (F/V)(k
i
/d
i

s
c
s
)
[
s
c
s
/ (
s
c
s
+(F/V) d
i
i
c
i
/ 2)] (T
f
-T
s
) t
c
i
is the specific heat of the insulation (J/kg K)
Protected Steel -
Step-by-step method
The table used for unprotected steel can be used
to calculate protected steel with T
s
changing
Eurocode suggests a time step of 30 s
For insulation with low mass and specific heat, i.e.
insulation heat capacity will not highly slow temp.
increase of steel, then the term in [ ] is ignored
The insulation heat capacity can be ignored if it is
less than 1/2 of that of the steel section, i.e.,
s
c
s
A/2 >
i
c
i
A
i
Protected Steel -
Step-by-step method
A
i
is the insulating material cross-sectional area
and A is the steel cross sectional area
The effect of time delay for moist materials can
be incorporated into the calculation by modifying
the specific heat of the insulating material to
include a local increase of specific heat at 100C
The table below shows typical values of thermal
properties of insulating materials
9
Protected Steel -
Step-by-step method
Table of thermal properties of insulation materials
Material
Density
i
(kg/m
3
)
Thermal
conductivity
ki
(W/m-K)
Specific heat
ci
(J/kg K)
Equilibrium
moisture
content
%
Sprays:
Sprayed mineral fibre
300 0.12 1200 1
Perlite or vermiculite plaster 350 0.12 1200 15
High-density perlite or
vermiculite plaster
550 0.12 1200 15
Boards:
Fibre-silicate or fibre-calcium
silicate
600 0.15 1200 3
Gypsumplaster 800 0.20 1700 20
Compressed fibre boards:
Mineral wool, fibre silicate
150 0.20 1200 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
temperature of a protected beam exposed to the
ISO 834 standard fire. The beam is the same as
in Worked Example 2. The beam is protected with
50 mm of lightweight insulating material which has
thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/m-K, specific heat
1100 J/kg K and density 300 kg/m
3
.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
6-54, with another curve for 15 mm of insulation.
Time
(minutes)
Time at half
step
Steel
temperature
Ts
ISO fire
temperature at
half step Tf
Difference in
temperature
Change in
steel
temperature
0.0 0.25 20.0 184.6 164.6 0.62
0.5 0.75 20.6 311.6 290.9 1.10
1.0 1.25 21.7 379.3 357.6 1.35
1.5 1.75 23.1 425.8 402.7 1.52
2.0 2.25 24.6 461.2 436.6 1.65
2.5
3.0
Typical Steel Temperatures
The Figure (a) below shows steel temperatures
for a beam with F/V = 200 m
-1
(V/F = 5 mm),
exposed to the ISO standard fire, calculated using
the step-by-step method:
the top curve is the ISO fire temperature
the second curve is the temperature of an unprotected
steel beam
The lower two curves are protected with insulating
material, using thickness values of 15 and 50 mm
The Figure (b) shows steel temperatures for the
same beam exposed to a parametric fire,
calculated using the step-by-step method:
the top curve is the fire temperature
the second curve is the steel beam with no protection
the lower two curves are protected with insulating
material, using thickness values of 15 and 50 mm
Typical steel temp. for unprotected/protected steel
beams exposed to standard (a) and real (b) fires
10
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
temperature of an unprotected beam exposed to a
parametric fire. The beam is the same as in
Worked Example 2. The fire compartment is
made from lightweight concrete with density 2000
kg/m
2
, specific heat 840 J/kg-K and thermal
conductivity 0.8 W/m-K. The room is 5 m square
and 3 m high with one window 2.4 m wide and 1.5
m high. The fuel load is 800 MJ/m
2
floor area.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Length of room l
1
= 5.0 m
Width of room l
2
= 5.0 m
Height of room H
r
= 3.0 m
Area of internal surfaces:
A
t
= 2 (l
1
l
2
+ l
1
H
r
+ l
2
H
r
)
A
t
= 2 (5 x 5 + 5 x 3 + 5 x 3) = 110 m
2
Height of window H
v
= 1.5 m
Width of window B = 2.4 m
Area of window A
v
= B H
v
= 2.4 x 1.5 = 3.6 m
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Ventilation factor
F
v
= A
v
H
v
/A
t
= 3.6 x 1.5/110 = 0.04 m
-1/2
Fuel load (floor area) e
f
= 800 MJ/m
2
Fuel load (total area)
e
t
= e
f
A
f
/ A
t
= 800 x 25.0/110 = 182 MJ/m
2
Thermal conductivity k = 0.8 W/m-K
Density = 2000 kg/m
3
Specific heat c
p
= 840 J/kg-K
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Thermal inertia b = kc
p
= 1160 W s
0.5
/m
2
K
(medium)
Gamma factor =(F
v
/0.04)
2
/(b/1900)
2
= 2.69
The parametric fire can be calculated using this
value of gamma.
6-54.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Time
(minutes)
Parametric fire
temperature
Steel
temperature Ts
Fire temperature
(average of this and
next step) Tf
Difference in
temperature
Change in steel
temperature
0.0 0.0 20.0 114.6 94.6 3.7
0.5 229.2 23.7 305.9 282.2 13.5
1.0 382.6 37.2 434.5 397.3 23.1
1.5 486.4 60.3 522.1 461.8 31.5
2.0 557.8 91.8 582.8 491.0 38.1
2.5 607.8
3.0
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Repeat Worked Example 4 with the beam
protected with 50 mm of the insulation as in
Worked Example 3.
6-54.
11
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Time
(minutes)
Parametric fire
temperature
Steel
temperature Ts
Fire temperature
(average of this and
next step) Tf
Difference in
temperature
Change in steel
temperature
0.0 0.0 20.0 114.6 94.6 0.36
0.5 229.2 20.4 305.9 285.6 1.08
1.0 382.6 21.4 434.5 413.1 1.56
1.5 486.4 23.0 522.1 499.1 1.88
2.0 557.8 24.9 582.8 557.9 2.11
2.5 607.8
3.0
Temp. of any steel members exposed to the
standard fire can easily be obtained from charts
The Figure below gives the temperature of
unprotected steel members after any time of
exposure, as a function of F/V (m
-1
)
This can be used for any member for which the
section factor is known
Chart for calculating temperatures of unprotected
steel members exposed to the standard fire
The Figure below gives the temperature of
protected steel members after any time of
exposure, as a function of the modified section
factor (F/V)(k
i
/d
i
) (W/m
3
K)
This can be used for any member for which the
section factor and insulation are known
Chart for calculating temperatures of protected steel
members exposed to the standard fire
Composite Construction
Composite construction refers to combined
structural systems of steel and concrete both
contributing to the load-bearing capacity
In many composite structures, steel members
are protected from fire exposure by concrete
Figure below shows an example of a composite
system (a concrete slab on a steel beam)
Above equations may be used as rough
calculations
12
Composite construction with concrete slab on steel
deck and steel beam
Heat-transfer programs are necessary for
accurate predictions of temperatures
For light steel framing members used in wall and
floor assemblies, accurate prediction of
temperatures requires a heat transfer computer
program (will be studied in future lectures)
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
A number of alternative passive fire protection
systems are available to reduce temperature
increase in steel structures exposed to fire
Concrete Encasement
A traditional method for fire protection of steel is
encasement in poured concrete
The required concrete thickness to achieve the
required standard ratings is given in codes
Concrete encasement is not widely used because
it is expensive and time-consuming
Board Systems
Board systems can be used to protect structural
steel
Gypsum board has good insulating properties
Board systems have the advantages that they are
easy to install and finish
Board systems are more often used for columns
than for beams
Boards are usually glued or screwed to metal or
wood framing
Spray-on Systems
Spray-on protection is often the cheapest form of
passive fire protection for steel members
Spray-on materials are usually cement-based
with some form of glass or cellulosic fibrous
reinforcing to hold the material together
Spray-on protection has the disadvantages of
being wet and messy
Spray-on materials are more often used for
beams than for columns
Spray-on protection is easy to apply to
complicated details such as connections
13
Intumescent Paint
Intumescent paint is a special paint that swells up
into a thick charry mass when heated
Several coats of paint may have to be applied to
obtain the necessary thickness
A disadvantage of intumescent paint is the high
cost compared to board and spray-on materials
All intumescent paints are proprietary products
and many are under continual development
Concrete Filling
Hollow steel sections can be filled with concrete to
improve the fire performance
The filling concrete can be plain or reinforced
The steel tube can provide excellent structural
confinement to the concrete at ambient
It is essential to provide vent holes to prevent
excessive steam pressure from exploding the
hollow member during heating
Water Filling
A less common but effective way of preventing
rapid heating of hollow steel sections is to fill them
with water
A plumbing system is necessary to ensure that
the system works
Additives may be necessary to prevent corrosion,
and to prevent freezing in cold climates
This method of protection is expensive and is
used for special structures only
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
STEEL AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURE
In the following, the effects of mechanical
properties of the steel on the behaviour of steel
structures in fire are reviewed
Components of Strain
The deformation of steel at elevated temp. can
be formulated by the change in strain as:
= -
i
=
th
(T) +
(,T) +
cr
(,T,t)
is the total strain at time t

i
is the initial strain at time t = 0

th
(T) is the thermal strain

(,T) is the stress-related strain

cr
(,T,t) is the creep strain
Components of Strain
For simple structural members such as S.S.
beams, only the stress-related strain needs to be
considered (reduced strength at elevated temp.)
For more complex structural systems, the thermal
and creep strains must also be considered (use of
computer models)
14
Thermal Strain
The thermal strain is the thermal expansion that
occurs when materials are heated
At ambient, the coefficient of thermal expansion
is usually taken to be 11.7x10
-6
/C
At high temperatures, the coefficient increases
For normal design purposes, Eurocode
recommends a linear coefficient of 14x10
-6
/C
Thermal Strain
This gives the thermal elongation of steel L/L
as function of temperature T (C) by:
L / L = 14 x 10
-6
(T - 20)
For the design of simple single beams and
columns, it is not usually necessary to calculate
and include the effects of thermal strains
Thermal restraint forces developing in beams
are usually beneficial to fire performance
Creep Strain
At ambient, creep is relatively insignificant in
structural steel
At high temp., creep becomes very significant
especially over temp. of 400 or 500C
The Figure below shows that the creep is highly
dependent on temp. and stress level
The creep deformations accelerate rapidly when
creep strain curves becomes almost vertical
Creep is usually not included explicitly in fire
design models (lack of data and knowledge)
Usually implicitly included in stress-strain curves
Creep Strain
Creep of steel tested in tension
Stress-related Strain
Stress-strain relationships at elevated temp. can
be obtained from tests
Figures below show typical stress-strain curves
for structural steel at elevated temperatures
Stress-strain curves for typical-hot rolled steel at
elevated temperature
15
Stress-strain curves for prestressing steel at
elevated temperature
In the figure for hot-rolled, it is seen that:
yield strength and modulus of elasticity both
decrease with increasing temp.
ultimate tensile strength increases slightly at
moderate temp. before decreasing at higher temp.
In the figure for cold-drawn prestressing, the
yield point is not well-defined and behaviour at
elevated temp. is slightly different
Stress-related Strain -
Proof strength and yield strength
At ambient, designing structural steel members
requires knowledge of the steel yield strength
At ambient, most structural steels have a well-
defined yield strength
At high temp., this good definition disappears
The Figure below shows a sketch of stress-strain
relationships for a typical steel, showing:
a well-defined yield strength at normal temp.
a much softer curve at elevated temp.
Stress-strain curves for steel illustrating yield
strength and proof strength
A value of yield strength is required for design at
elevated temperatures
1% proof strength, as the effective yield strength
in fire calculations, is recommended
In the Figure, line AB is constructed to pass
through 1% strain and is parallel to the linear
elastic portion of the 400C curve
The vertical value of point B defines the 1% proof
strain, and can be used for any steel temp.
Design values
There is a large scatter in the reporting of steel
properties at elevated temperatures
A review of data by Harmathy (1993) is shown in
the Figures below
The first figure is for hot-rolled steel and the
second for cold-worked steel
The scatter is clear, maybe due to lack of clear
definition of yield strength
The dotted lines are suggested design values
16
Design values
Scatter in published results of hot-rolled steel
Design values
Scatter in published results of cold-worked steel
Design values
For design purposes, different national building
codes proposed slightly different design values
The Figure below shows examples of typical
relationships for structural, reinforcing and
prestressing steel
Design values
Design curves for reduction in yield strength and
modulus of elasticity of steel with temperature
Design values
The equations representing the lines are:
k
y,T
= (905 - T)/690 for structural steel
k
y,T
= (720 - T)/470 for reinforcing steel
k
y,T
= (700 - T)/550 for prestressing steel
k
y,T
is the ratio of f
y,T
(yield strength at elevated
temp.) to f
y
(ambient yield strength)
The equations above can be used to give the
steel limiting temp. for a given load ratio r
load
Design values
The limiting temp. (temp. at which an individual
steel member is expected to fail) are given by:
T
lim
= 905 - 690 r
load
structural steel
T
lim
= 720 - 470 r
load
reinforcing steel
T
lim
= 700 - 550 r
load
prestressing steel
17
Design values
Another example of curves given by Eurocode,
are shown in Figure below, defining reduction in
yield strength, elastic limit and elasticity modulus
Based on a Eurocode critical temp. expression,
an approximation of yield strength reduction is:
k
y,T
= {0.9674(1 + exp[(T - 482)/39.19])}
-1/3.833
Other equations are published around the world
Curves used for reduction in yield strength vary
from a country to another (variation in definition)
Design values
Reduction in yield strength and modulus of elasticity
with temperature
Modulus of elasticity
Buckling calculations requires elasticity modulus
Under fire exposure, calculations are often in the
elastic range and therefore the modulus of
elasticity would also be required for elastic
calculations in most cases
The reduction in modulus of elasticity shows
similar trend as the reduction in yield strength
Previous Figures showed the trend of E vs. T
Modulus of elasticity
An example of relationship for modulus of
elasticity is given by the 1
st
figure as:
k
E,T
=1.0+T/[2000 ln(T/1100)] 0 < T 600C
k
E,T
=690(1-T/1000)/(T-53.5) 600 < T 1000C
k
E,T
is the ratio of E
T
(high temp. modulus of
elasticity) to E (ambient modulus of elasticity)
The Eurocode reduction in modulus of elasticity
with temp. is shown in the 2
nd
Figure
DESIGN OF STEEL MEMBERS
EXPOSED TO FIRE
Design Methods
Design of Individual Members
Bolted and Welded Connections
Design Methods
There are two main methods for structural design
of steel structures exposed to fire:
simplified design method for single elements
general method for restrained members, more
complex assemblies, or large frames
The simplified method is described first
18
Design Methods - Verification
Verification in the strength domain requires:
U
*
fire
R
fire
U
*
fire
is design force resulting from applied loads
at the time of the fire
R
fire
is load-bearing capacity in fire situation
Applied loads have been described earlier
Design forces are obtained from the applied
loads using structural analysis
Strength reduction factor is 1 at high temp.
The design force U
*
fire
may be axial force N
*
fire
,
bending moment M
*
fire
, or shear force V
*
fire
occurring singly or in combination
The load capacity is calculated as axial force N
f
,
bending moment M
f
or shear force V
f
in the same
combination as design force
The calculations of the load capacity are based on
the mechanical properties of steel at elevated
temperatures
The recommendations for member design,
presented below, are based on the Eurocode
The design process can be adapted anywhere
provided calculation equations are available
The simplified method follows the ultimate
strength design method with values of modulus
of elasticity and yield strength of steel reduced at
elevated temperatures
Design of steel structures assumes that steel is
ductile with the stress-strain curve below (dotted)
Stress-strain curve with elasto-plastic approximation
At ambient, structural design requires prevention
of:
collapse (strength limit state) and
excessive deformations (serviceability limit state)
At ambient, most design process efforts are to
ensure that excessive deformations do not occur
Design for fire resistance is mainly concerned with
preventing collapse
Design of Individual Members
Tension members
Simply supported beams
Continuous beams
Columns
19
Design of Individual Members -
Tension members
Single tension members are relatively simple
elements to design and the stresses are often
uniform over the cross section
The design equation for tension members is:
N
*
fire
N
f
Design for fire depends on whether the temp. is
uniform over the cross section
Tension members
If the temperature is uniform, the tensile load-
bearing capacity is obtained from:
N
f
= A k
y,T
f
y
A is the area of the cross section (mm
2
)
k
y,T
is the reduction factor for yield strength of the
steel at temperature T
f
y
is the yield strength of the steel at ambient
(MPa)
Tension members
Often, there is a temperature gradient over the
cross section, so the strength of the member
can be obtained by summing contributions of
different parts, considering the temp.-reduced
yield strength of each part
This equation is based on the assumption that
steel is a ductile material, so that sufficient
elongation can occur for each elemental area to
develop its yield strength
Tension members
The design equation is:
N
f
= !
i=1,n
A
i
k
y,Ti
f
y
A
i
is an elemental area of the cross section with a
temp. T
i
and k
y,Ti
is the reduction factor for yield
strength of the steel at temp. T
i
It is also conservative to assume that the whole
cross section is at the max. temp.
The Figure below shows distribution of internal
forces for uniform and non-uniform temp.
Tension members
Internal forces in a steel tension member
The design equation for flexure is given by:
M
*
fire
M
f
The strength of bending members in fire depends
on temperature uniformity over the cross section
In addition, susceptibility of the beams cross
section to local buckling should be considered
20
For uniform temperature, the design load-bearing
capacity can be obtained as:
M
f
= S k
y,T
f
y
(plastic design)
M
f
= Z k
y,T
f
y
(elastic design)
S is plastic section modulus (mm
3
)
Z is elastic section modulus (mm
3
)
k
y,T
is reduction factor for yield strength of the
steel at temp. T
f
y
is yield strength of the steel at ambient (MPa)
The decision to use elastic or plastic design
depends on the compactness of the cross section
The Figure below shows mid-span moment vs.
deflection for a S.S. steel beam showing plastic
behaviour can be achieved for compact sections
The equation for plastic design applies if the
shape of the steel section is such that full plastic
moment can be achieved without local buckling
occurring (Class 1 or 2)
Moment-deflection relationship for a steel beam
The equation for elastic design should be used
for sections achieving the elastic moment only
without local buckling occurring (Class 3)
For light cold-rolled sections susceptible to local
buckling (Class 4), a simple design approach is
to ensure that the steel temperature does not
exceed 350C or 400C
With a temp. gradient over a cross section, it is
accurate to calculate the temp. of each part, so
that the member strength is obtained by adding
up contributions of different parts, considering
temp.-reduced yield strength of each part as:
M
f
= !
i=1,n
A
i
z
i
k
y,Ti
f
y
z
i
is the distance from the plastic neutral axis to
the centroid of the elemental area
The plastic neutral axis of a flexural section with a
non-uniform temp. distribution is the axis
perpendicular to the plane of bending such that
elemental areas yielding in compression and
tension on either side of the axis are in equal
The axis is then located such that (at time t):
!
i=1,n
A
i
z
i
k
y,Ti
f
y
= 0
21
The figure below shows distribution of internal
forces in a simple rectangular flexural member
with a uniform and non-uniform temp. gradient
As in the case of tension members, with a
temperature gradient over the cross section, it is
conservative to assume that the whole cross
section is at the maximum temperature
Internal forces in a steel flexural member
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Fire calculation in strength domain
For a simply supported steel beam of known span,
load, yield strength, and section properties,
calculate the flexural strength after 15 minutes
exposure to the standard fire. The beam has no
applied fire protection, and is exposed on 3 sides.
GIVEN
Dead load G
k
= 8.0 kN/m (including self weight)
Live load Q
k
= 15.0 kN/m
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Beam span L = 8.0 m
Beam size 410 mm deep and 54 kg/m
This is a 'compact' section (type 1)
Plastic section modulus S = 1060 x 10
3
mm
3
Section factors:
Area to volume ratio F/V = 190 m
-1
(Effective
thickness V/F = 5.3 mm)
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
COLD CALCULATIONS
Strength reduction factor = 0.9
Yield strength f
y
= 300 MPa
Design load (cold) w
c
= 1.2G
k
+ 1.6Q
k
= 33.6 kN/m
Bending moment M
*
cold
= w
c
L
2
/8 = 269 kN-m
Bending strength M
n
= Sf
y
= 318 kN-m (assume
adequate lateral restraint)
Design flexural strength M
n
= 286 kN-m
Design is OK (M
*
cold
< M
n
)
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
FIRE CALCULATIONS
Strength reduction factor = 1.0 (hence not used
in the calculations)
Design load (fire) w
f
= G
k
+0.4Q
k
= 14.0 kN/m
Bending moment M
*
fire
= w
f
L
2
/8 = 112 kN-m
Temperature after time t:
T = 1.85t (F/V)
0.6
+50 (best fit Equation)
Temperature after 15 minutes:
T = 1.85 x 15 x 190
0.6
+ 50 = 696C
22
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Yield strength reduction k
y,T
= (905-T)/690 = 0.30
Flexural capacity:
M
f
= S k
y,T
f
y
(assume adequate lateral restraint)
M
f
= 1060 x 10
3
x 0.30 x 300/10
6
= 95 kN-m
Design fails (M
*
fire
> M
f
)
(Note: For more accurate calculations, the
maximum temperature should be calculated by
the step-by-step method. The flexural calculation
method would be identical.)
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Fire calculation in time domain
For a simply supported steel beam of known
span, load, yield strength, and section properties,
calculate the time to failure when exposed on
three sides to the standard fire: (a) unprotected,
and (b) protected with insulation of known
thickness and properties.
GIVEN
Dead load G
k
= 6.0 kN/m (including self weight)
Live load Q
k
= 12.5 kN/m
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Beam span L = 15.0 m
Beam size 760mm deep and 147 kg/m
This is a 'compact' section (type 1)
Plastic section modulus S =4480 x 10
3
mm
3
Section factors:
Area to volume ratio F/V = 119 m
-1
(Effective
thickness V/F = 8.4 mm)
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
COLD CALCULATIONS
Strength reduction factor = 0.9
Yield strength f
y
= 300 MPa
Design load (cold) w
c
= 1.2G
k
+1.6Q
k
= 27.2 kN/m
Bending moment M
*
cold
= w
c
L
2
/8 = 765 kN-m
Bending strength M
n
= S f
y
= 1344 kN-m ( = R
cold
)
(assume adequate lateral restraint)
Design flexural strength M
n
= 1210 kN-m
Design is OK (M
*
cold
< M
n
)
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
FIRE CALCULATIONS
Design load (fire) w
f
= G
k
+ 0.4Q
k
= 11 kN/m
Bending moment M
*
fire
= w
f
L
2
/8 = 309 kN-m
Load ratio r
load
= M
*
fire
/ R
cold
= 309/1344 = 0.23
Limiting steel temperature:
T
lim
= 905-690 r
load
= 746C
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
(a) Unprotected steel (three-sided exposure)
Time to reach limiting temperature:
t = 0.54 (T
lim
-50)/(F/V)
0.6
t = 0.54 (746-50)/119
0.6
= 21.4 minutes
Design is OK if the equivalent fire severity is no
more than 21 minutes.
23
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
(b) Protected steel
Thickness of insulation d
i
= 0.020 m (20 mm)
Thermal conductivity k
i
=0.10 W/m-K
Time to reach limiting temperature:
t = 40 (T
lim
-140) [(d
i
/k
i
)/(F/V)]
0.77
t = 40 (746-140) [(0.02/0.10)/119]
0.77
= 177 min
Moisture content of insulation m = 15%
Density of insulation
i
= 800 kg/m
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Time delay for insulation:
t
v
= m
i
d
i
2
/(5 k
i
)
t
v
= 15x800x0.02
2
/(5x0.10) = 9.6 minutes
Total time t
tolal
= t + t
v
= 186 minutes
Design is OK if the equivalent fire severity is no
more than 186 minutes.
(Note: For more accurate calculations, the
maximum temperature should be calculated by the
step-by-step method. The flexural calculation
method would be identical.)
Lateral torsional buckling
Shear
Simply supported beams -
Slender beams with no lateral restraint to the
compression edge can fail by buckling before the
cross section flexural capacity is reached
Lateral torsional buckling does not occur if:
compression edge is restrained against lateral
movement or
cross section is reasonably compact and the
slenderness is not too large
Buckling is allowed for using a strength reduction
factor, which reduces the design strength
The reduction amount depends on the:
unrestrained length of the beam
compactness of the cross section
The Eurocode permits ignoring buckling for well
restrained fire-exposed beams of Class 1 or 2
For beams with larger distances between lateral
restraint locations, the flexural capacity that
allows for buckling, is reduced by a factor
See textbook for reduction factors
Shear
The design equation to resist a shear force V
*
fire
during fire is:
V
*
fire
V
f
The design shear resistance V
f
under fire is:
V
f
= k
y,T
V
c
V
c
is the design shear resistance of the cross
section for normal temperature design
With a temp. gradient over the cross section, V
f
should be based on the max. temp.
24
Continuous beams
Continuous beams over many supports are
different from simply supported beams
The main advantage of continuity in fire design is
the possible moment redistribution during fire,
often leading to fire resistance increase
A negative aspect of flexural continuity in steel
beams is the lack of lateral restraint at the
compression regions near the supports
Continuous beams
The Figure below shows 2 situations:
a S.S. beam will fail once a plastic hinge forms at the
centre
A continuous beam will fail once 3 plastic hinges form
Design of continuous beams is similar to that of
simply supported beams, but including the
redistribution of moments
Continuous beams
Failure mechanisms for simply supported and
continuous beams
Columns
Design of columns is often difficult because:
usually, lateral buckling must be considered
prediction of behaviour is not very reliable
With a temp. gradient over cross sections, often
computer programs need to be used
This is because thermal bowing and instability
considerations dominate the behaviour
The Eurocode gives an approximate design
method based on the assumption that the whole
cross section is at the maximum temperature T
m
Columns
For the calculation, the steel temperature must
be the maximum temperature
This method may become unconservative when
thermal gradient causes significant bowing
The design equations for a column subjected to
an axial load N
*
fire
is:
N
*
fire
N
f
Columns
In the approximate method, the compressive
load-bearing capacity is obtained from:
N
f
= (
fi
/1.2) A k
y,Tm
f
y

fi
is the ambient buckling factor, calculated
using the effective length for fire design cases
A is the area of the cross section, k
y,Tm
is the
reduction factor for yield strength of steel which
is at the max. temp. T
m
, and f
y
is the yield
strength of the steel at ambient
1.2 is an empirical correction factor
25
Columns
The design of columns in fire conditions should
follow similar principles as for normal temp.
design with a factor of (1/1.2)
The factor
fi
may have a different name in other
codes
The buckling length of a column is usually the
same as calculated in normal temp. design
In braced frames, the buckling length changes as
shown in the following Figure
Columns
Effective lengths of fire exposed columns in a multi-
storey frame
Bolted and Welded Connections
Welded connections perform well under fire
Generally, bolted connections behave well
despite the bolt strength drop with high temp.
There has been very limited research into the fire
performance of bolted steel connections
Design of bolted beam-to-column connections
should allow for very high tensile forces which
can occur during the fire decay stage
DESIGN OF STEEL BUILDINGS
EXPOSED TO FIRE
Steel buildings design cannot be cost-effective
by the simple methods described previously
It is necessary to use computer programs for
analysis of the fire-exposed structure
Such programs will impose deformations on the
structure and calculate the total strain in a
member resulting from the deformations
DESIGN OF STEEL BUILDINGS
EXPOSED TO FIRE
The process is to calculate the stress-related
strain, calculate the internal forces in each
member, and compare with the applied loads
The general method is essential for structures
with large displacements
Calculated fire resistance of a structural steel
member is different when single vs. part of a
frame (enhanced in a frame)
Multi-storey Steel Framed
Buildings
Recent large fires in steel framed buildings have
showed good fire performance of steel frames
compared to individual element performance
This excellent behaviour is due to steel ductility
These observations have been supported by
extensive computer analyses
A large series of full-scale fire tests was
conducted at Cardington Lab, BRE, England
26
Multi-storey Steel Framed
Buildings
The actions can take place in 2-D or 3-D,
depending on the geometry of the building and
the layout of the structure
The large deformations are often accompanied
by local buckling of the steel members
The high axial tensile forces can result in
fractures of buckled beams after the fire
Computer models were also used to help
interpret the behaviour of the Cardington tests

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Winter 2003 Design of Steel Structures 1

(,T) is the stress-related strain

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