OP1IMISA1ION OI HVAC SYS1LMS IOR

LNLRGY LIIICILNCY IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS

Kennedy Otieno Aduda




A dissertation submitted to the laculty o Lngineering and Built Lnironment,
Uniersity o the \itwatersrand, Johannesburg in ulilment o the requirements or the
degree o Master o Science in Building.












Johannesburg, October 2009
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DLCLARA1ION

1his dissertation is my own unaided work and has not been submitted beore or any
degree or examination in any uniersity. It is being submitted to the Uniersity o the
\itwatersrand, Johannesburg in ulilment o the requirements or degree o Master o
Science ,Building,.

Signature:

lull Names: Kennedy Otieno Aduda

Date: 26 October 2009








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DLDICA1ION

1his dissertation is dedicated to my mother \unis, my sister Llizabeth and my wie
Lunice.
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ABS1RAC1

1his research was motiated by the twin needs o increasing access to energy as a
resource and reducing carbon dioxide emission leels in South Arica. 1his took into
account that South Arica`s electricity sector is highly carbon intensie and that in 200-
2008 the country experienced irregular electricity supply due to low electricity
production resere`. 1o eectiely address its energy challenges South Arica must
undertake strategic electricity demand reduction ia the practice o energy eiciency. It is
approximated that 30 to 40 o all primary energy is used in buildings worldwide, and
a good portion o this ends up sericing the heating, entilation and air conditioning
,lVAC, systems. Indeed, certain quarters` report that 50 to 65 o the world`s
electrical energy in the commercial sector is used by lVAC systems. 1his indicates that
any meaningul electricity demand management in the commercial and public building
sector must lay emphasis on the eiciency o the lVAC system. 1his study examined
how the concept o `optimisation or energy eiciency` can be used to reduce electricity
consumption by lVAC systems in public buildings. A case study approach was adopted
in which lVAC systems in public library buildings in the Southern region o Lkurhuleni
Metropolitan Municipality, the Uniersity o the \itwatersrand and CSIR complex were
sureyed. Using a combination o structured obseration, questionnaires and interiews
with key inormants, key data were collected and ealuated on ordinal scale. 1he items
ealuation were public conersance with lVAC operation, aailability o placard,
responsibility assignment or energy management, energy consumption budget, design
philosophy, schedule o operation, control type, occupants conersance with lVAC
controls, energy measurements and monitoring systems, maintenance planning, response
time in correcting aults, contact details or reporting aults, maintenance responsibility,
age o equipment,retroits and installation and commissioning. It was reealed that oer
0 o lVAC systems in public buildings ailed to meet the basic requirements or
energy eiciency and could hence be categorised as energy ineicient`. At the end o the
study a series o prescriptie and prophylactic interentions are proposed to optimize
lVAC systems or energy eiciency in public buildings in South Arica.
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ACKNOWLLDGLMLN1S

I would like to acknowledge my superisor, Proessor 1alukhaba or his patience and
guidance during this work. I would also like to oer sincere gratitude to members o
sta and ellow students at the School o Construction Lconomics and Management or
their unending support, encouragement, kindness and warmth.

Not to be orgotten are my riends. 1hank you or the encouragement during this
period. linally, I would like to express heartelt appreciation to my amily or their loe,
prayers and support during my studies.
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ABBRLVIA1IONS


ASlRAL: American Society o leating, Rerigerating and Air-Conditioning
Lngineers
CIBSL: Chartered Institution o Building Serices Lngineer
CV: Constant Volume Systems
DML: Department o Minerals and Lnergy
LIA: Lnergy Inormation Department
LSKOM: South Arica`s Llectricity Supply Commission
lVAC: leating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
OPLC: Organisation o Oil Producing Countries
UNDP: United Nations Deelopment Programme
UNLP: United Nations Lnironmental Programme
VAV: Variable Air Volume Systems
1DV: 1hermal Displacement Method
SA: South Arica
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LIS1 OI 1ABLLS

1able Page
2.1a: 1otal Primary Lnergy in S.A.

23
2.1b: 1otal Llectricity production in S. A. 23
2.5 a: Limits o Lnergy Saings due to use o arious an olume control
methods

40
2.6: Minimum coeicient o perormance o A,C Lquipment 54
3.1a: Approaches to answering questions 58
3.1b: Attribute details

60
3.2: Schools o thoughts guiding research 64
3.3: Sampling methodologies

69
3.4: Summary o methods applied in the case study


4.5: Are the Occupants ully conersant or amiliar with lVAC control
system in the building

9
4.8a: Laluation details o management issues

106
4.8b: Laluation details design philosophy

10
4.8c: Laluation details o operations schedule

108
4.8d Laluation Details or Controls

109
4.8e: Laluation details o maintenance

110
4.8: Laluation details o installation and commissioning

111
4.9 Rating or optimisation or energy

115
4.9 b: Percentiles

116
4.9c: Measures o ariability

116






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LIS1 OI IIGURLS

Iigure Page
2.2 a: Llectricity Demand by Sector in SA 26
2.2 b: linal Lnergy Demand by Sector in SA 26
2.2c: Shares o Lnergy Use in Dierent Building 1ypes 2
2.2d: Lnergy Consumption by Lie Cycle Phase or Selected Cases 28
2.4: Main components in lVAC systems

31
2.5: Illustrations o competing philosophies o design 36
2.5a: lrequencies o major problem occurrences in lVAC systems 45
2.5b: Lnergy saing potential in lVAC residential units 45
3.1 Knowledge Claims, Strategies o Inquiry, and Methods Leading to
Approaches and Design Process
63
4.2a Ownership details o buildings 82
4.2b: Public Users,Visitors Conersance with lVAC systems operations 83
4.2c: Percentages o buildings displaying placards on lVAC systems
operations,malunction reporting
84
4.2d: Use o building 85
4.2e: Assignment o responsibility or energy management 86
4.2: Lnergy consumption budget 8
4.2g: Lnergy conseration program 88
4.3 a: 1ypes o lVAC systems in use 90
4.3 b: 1ypes o lVAC systems in use 90
4.3 c: 1ypes o Centralised lVAC system used 91
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Iigure Page
4 .3d Categories o Packaged lVAC systems 91
4.4a: lours o operation & ownership details 93
4.4b: Operation schedule 93
4.4 e: Occupancy leels in buildings 94
4.4g: Occupancy leels & ownership category 95
4.5a: Combinations o lVAC systems Control components in buildings 95
4.5b: Conditions o controls in lVAC systems 9
4.6a: Buildings with Lnergy Measurement Systems in Place 98
4.6b: Buildings with LMM Systems in Place Showing Ownership details 99
4.6c: Planned Maintenance serice or lVAC systems in buildings 100
4.6d: Response time to correct aults 101
4.6e: Contact details or reporting aults in systems 101
4.6: lVAC Maintenance Responsibility 102
4.6i: Age o lVAC systems,age o retroits 103
4.a: Commissioning in lVAC systems 105
4.8: Box Plot or the distribution 11
4.9: listogram plot 11


x

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1ABLL OI CON1LN1S

CHAP1LR J: IN1RODUC1ION................................................................................................. 14
1.1 BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................ 14
1.2 PROBLLM S1A1LMLN1.......................................................................................................... 16
1.3 RA1IONALL.............................................................................................................................. 17
1.4 OBJLC1IVLS ............................................................................................................................. 17
1.5 RLSLARCl QULS1IONS......................................................................................................... 18
1.6 SCOPL AND LIMI1A1IONS .................................................................................................... 19
1. S1RUC1URL Ol 1lL 1lLSIS................................................................................................. 20
CHAP1LR 2: LI1LRA1URL RLVILW...................................................................................... 22
2.1 IN1RODUC1ION ..................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 LNLRG\ IN BUILDINGS: lROM PRODUC1ION 1O OPLRA1ION .................................. 23
2.3 LNLRG\ LllICILNC\ IN BUILDINGS ................................................................................ 29
2.4 lVAC S\S1LMS........................................................................................................................ 30
2.5 OP1IMISA1ION Ol lVAC S\S1LMS lOR LNLRG\........................................................... 32
2.5.1 Management......................................................................................................................... 32
2.5.2 Design.................................................................................................................................. 33
2.5.3 Operations ........................................................................................................................... 43
2.5.4 Controls ............................................................................................................................... 43
2.5.5 Maintenance ......................................................................................................................... 44
2.5.6 Installation and Commissioning............................................................................................ 49
2.5. Ducts and Ductwork ............................................................................................................ 30
2.5.8 Lnergy Liciency and Lie-Cycle Cost Analysis.................................................................... 30
2.6 LNLRG\ LllICILN1 S1ANDARDS lOR BUILDINGS IN SOU1l AlRICA...................... 31
2.6.1 Lnergy Liciency in Buildings Part 1: General Requirements ............................................... 32
,SANS 204-1:2008 Ldition 1, Standards South Arica, 2008, ......................................................... 32
2.6.2 Lnergy Liciency in Buildings Part 3: General Requirements ............................................... 33
,SANS 204-3:2008 Ldition 1, Standards South Arica, 2008, ......................................................... 33
2. CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................... 34
CHAP1LR 3: RLSLARCH ML1HODOLOGY........................................................................... S7
3.1 IN1RODUC1ION ..................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 S1RA1LG\................................................................................................................................ 39
3.2.1 Research Description............................................................................................................ 39
3.2.2 Paradigmatic lramework ...................................................................................................... 62
3.3 ML1lODS AND 1OOLS.......................................................................................................... 63
3.3.1 Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 66
3.3.2 Interiewing ......................................................................................................................... 68
3.3.3 Obseration.......................................................................................................................... 70
3.3.4 Documentary Research......................................................................................................... 71
3.3.5 Questionnaire....................................................................................................................... 73
3.4 CASL S1UD\............................................................................................................................. 74
3.4.1 Generalisation o Cases ........................................................................................................ 76
3.4.2 Case Study Methods ............................................................................................................. 76
3.4.3 Validity and Reliability .......................................................................................................... 78
3.5 ANAL\SIS lOR LllICILNC\,OP1IMISA1ION................................................................... 78
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3.6 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................... 79
CHAP1LR 4: PRLSLN1A1ION OI IINDINGS....................................................................... 81
4.1 IN1RODUC1ION ..................................................................................................................... 81
4.2 MANAGLMLN1........................................................................................................................ 81
4.2.1 Ownership o buildings ........................................................................................................ 81
4.2.2 Use o Building..................................................................................................................... 84
4.2.3 Accountability ...................................................................................................................... 83
4.2.4 Budgeting ............................................................................................................................. 86
4.2.5 Lnergy conseration............................................................................................................. 87
4.3 DLSIGN ..................................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.1 Design Philosophy & methods o load analysis..................................................................... 88
4.3.2 1ypes o Lquipment,Lquipment selection ........................................................................... 89
4.4 OPLRA1IONS ........................................................................................................................... 92
4.4.1 Schedule o operations ......................................................................................................... 92
4.4.2 Occupancy leels.................................................................................................................. 94
4.5 CON1ROLS................................................................................................................................ 96
4.6 MAIN1LNANCL....................................................................................................................... 98
4.6.1 Measurement and Monitoring............................................................................................... 98
4.6.2 Maintenance Planning........................................................................................................... 99
4.6.3 Age o equipment,retroits................................................................................................. 103
4. INS1ALLA1ION AND COMMISSIONING........................................................................... 104
4.8 BASL LllICILNC\ AND OP1IMISA1ION lOR LNLRG\................................................ 103
4.9 SUMMAR\ Ol lINDINGS ..................................................................................................... 112
4.9.1 Management....................................................................................................................... 112
4.9.2 Design................................................................................................................................ 113
4.9.3 Operations ......................................................................................................................... 113
4.9.4 Controls ............................................................................................................................. 113
4.9.5 Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 113
4.9.6 Installation and Commissioning.......................................................................................... 114
Source: lield Results, 2008.......................................................................................................... 113
4.9. Optimisation or Lnergy..................................................................................................... 116
CHAP1LR S: ANALYSIS............................................................................................................ 118
5.1 IN1RODUC1ION ................................................................................................................... 118
5.2 MANAGLMLN1...................................................................................................................... 118
5.2.1 Ownership o buildings ...................................................................................................... 118
5.2.2 Use o Building................................................................................................................... 119
5.2.3 Accountability or energy management ............................................................................... 119
5.2.4 Lnergy Consumption Budget.............................................................................................. 120
S.2.S Lnergy conservation........................................................................................................ 120
5.3 DLSIGN ................................................................................................................................... 121
5.3.1 Design Philosophy & methods o load analysis................................................................... 121
5.3.2 1ypes o Lquipment,Lquipment selection ......................................................................... 122
5.4 OPLRA1IONS ......................................................................................................................... 124
5.5 CON1ROLS.............................................................................................................................. 123
5.6 MAIN1LNANCL..................................................................................................................... 126
5.6.1 Measurement and Monitoring............................................................................................. 126
5.6.2 Maintenance Planning......................................................................................................... 126
5.6.3 Age o systems ................................................................................................................... 128
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5. INS1ALLA1ION AND COMMISSIONING........................................................................... 129
5. CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................... 129
CHAP1LR 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RLCOMMLNDA1IONS .............................................. 131
6.1 IN1RODUC1ION ................................................................................................................... 131
6.2 CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................... 132
6.2.1 Management....................................................................................................................... 132
6.2.2 Design................................................................................................................................ 132
6.2.3 Operations ......................................................................................................................... 133
6.2.4 Controls ............................................................................................................................. 133
6.2.5 Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 133
6.2.6 Re-commissioning and Retro-commissioning ..................................................................... 133
6.3 RLCOMMLNDA1IONS.......................................................................................................... 133
6.3.1 Low capital inestment eorts............................................................................................ 134
6.3.2 ligh capital inestment eorts ........................................................................................... 133
6.3.3 luture Research.................................................................................................................. 138
RLILRLNCLS............................................................................................................................ 139
APPLNDICLS............................................................................................................................. 1S1
APPLNDIX A: RA1ING AND 1\PLS Ol lVAC S\S1LMS..................................................... 1371
APPLNDIX B: LNLRG\ LllICILNC\ INDICA1ORS.............................................................. 137
APPLNDIX C: DA1A COLLLC1ION SlLL1 ............................................................................ 160
APPLNDIX D: IN1LRVIL\ GUIDLLINL \I1l LIASON OllICLRS ................................... 168
APPLNDIX L: QULS1IONNAIRL.............................................................................................. 169

14

CHAP1LR J: IN1RODUC1ION

J.J BACKGROUND

leating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning ,lVAC, systems are used to maintain a
comortable indoor enironment ,that is, indoor temperature, humidity and air
cleanliness, where this cannot be achieed naturally. 1here are seeral types o lVAC
systems used in buildings. 1hese include single zone or multiple zone types when
classiied according to the number thermal zone created or constant olume or ariable
air olume when categorised according to air low mode. 1he use o a particular lVAC
type depends on building type, thermal requirements as well as location and purpose or
which it is designed ,American Institute o Architects, 1993,. It is thereore necessary or
studies ocussing on energy use in lVAC systems to be building speciic, this would
ensure increased applicability to the already existing buildings.

1he London-based Chartered Institution o Building Serices Lngineers ,CIBSL,
deines an energy eicient building as that which proides the required internal
enironment and serices with minimum energy use in a cost eectie and
enironmental riendly manner ,CIBSL, 2004,. In concurrence, the Lnergy Inormation
Administration ,LIA, is o the opinion that energy eiciency is best measured by energy
intensity, that is to say that the best indicator or energy eiciency is the ratio o energy
consumption o the system to some measure o demand or energy serices by the
system ,LIA, 2004,.

Buys ,2002, idealises the lVAC systems as being composed o a sub systems like
cooling plant, air handling units, ducting, piping and insulation, air conditioning control
and instrumentation, cooling towers, electrical panel and wiring, entilation ans and
pumps. 1hese systems consume energy during their operations, part o the energy does
useul work whereas another part is lost as heat and in unnecessary air
moement,disturbance. 1aking cue rom the positions adanced by LIA ,2004, and

15

CIBSL ,2004,, energy eiciency o lVAC systems can thereore be deined as the ratio
o the energy used to do useul work ,energy output, to the total energy input o the
system. It also a conceied opinion that as long as research goes on the eiciency leels
will continually improe as new ways are discoered to reduce the total energy input.

Optimisation o a unction is the process o inding its relatie maximum or minimum
,Dowling, 2001,. \hile airming Dowling`s concept, Papalambros ,2002, states that
optimisation may either inole mathematical selection process o proper unctional
orm among arious alternaties or broadly entail ine tuning aspects o perormance o
systems. In this research optimisation` was used in the context o making better as
described by the broad deinition gien by Papalambros ,2002:1,. Lnergy eiciency in
the context o this research can be described as oerall demand reduction o electricity
requirement by lVAC systems ia continuous practices and techniques that consume
less power while not compromising the standard o task perormance. In the
optimisation o lVAC system or energy purposes, ocus is on surpassing the base leel
o energy eiciency according to the best established practices and standards.

1he study was undertaken with a background o serious electricity power outages and
load shedding mainly because o the low electricity production resere experienced by
the main electricity producing body in South Arica ,LSKOM,. It is reported that South
Arica`s electricity production resere was between 8-10 during 200 and 2008
,Republic o South Arica, 2008,. 1he world`s recommended electricity production
resere ranges rom 15 to 18 ,LSKOM, 200,. 1his orced the South Arican
goernment to embark on a multi-pronged approach to remedy the situation by
expanding and rehabilitation the existing power stations as well as engaging in campaigns
to reduce electricity demand. 1his is eidenced in the 2005 Lnergy Liciency Strategy
paper released by South Arica`s goernment which sets out to accomplish electricity
demand reduction through energy eiciency by 12 beore 2014 ,Department o
Minerals and Lnergy, 2005:12,.


16

1his study examines how the concept o `optimisation or energy eiciency` can be used
during the design, installation, commissioning, operations and maintenance o lVAC
systems in public buildings.

J.2 PROBLLM S1A1LMLN1

1he main motiation or this research were the twin needs o increasing access to energy
as a resource and reducing carbon dioxide emission leels in South Arica. 1hese needs
are closely tied in South Arica since oer 9 o South Arica`s electricity is deried
rom coal ,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005, and South Arica has a relatiely
high Green louse Gas ,GlG, emissions ranking at 3
th
position in the world ,with .8
tons o CO
2
per annum,. 1his is against the background that

energy related actiities
account or oer 8 o the GlG emissions in South Arica ,United Nations
Deelopment Programme, 200,.

\hile adocating or energy eiciency in buildings and particularly in lVAC systems,
one must not lose site o the act that 30 to 40 o the world`s total energy is used in
buildings ,UNLP, 200,. Any reduction in the amount o energy consumed by building
would thereore relect greatly on the total global energy consumption. It is urther
noted that a signiicant amount o energy is used in lVAC systems. In South Arica
Mathews et at ,2002:2, estimated that 50 o energy in the commercial sector in South
Arica is utilised or air conditioning. 1he actual portion o energy used by lVAC
systems in buildings is not known. loweer Buys ,2002, notes that the saings potential
in lVAC system`s energy use generally ranges rom 30 to 0. It is on this premise
that this research set out to inestigate energy eiciency practices associated with lVAC
systems in buildings.

It must be noted that preious studies like Mathews and Kruger ,1990, Buys ,2000,,
Mathews and Botha ,2003, amongst others did not examine lVAC systems in public
buildings and were largely unspeciic to this area. Price ,2006, promotes this thought by

17

insisting that energy eicient maintenance o lVAC systems is building speciic and
system ocused. As such standardised and minimalist interentions should be discarded
or total solutions which address the distinct internal enironmental requirements o the
building ,Price, 2006,. 1his thereore underlines the signiicance o this study.

J.3 RA1IONALL

1his study yielded tailor-made recommendations on energy eiciency o lVAC systems
in public buildings in South Arica. 1his is in line with South Arica`s energy eiciency
strategy that motiates or achieement o electricity demand reduction by 12 rom the
leel in 2004 come the year 2014,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005,. In iew o
the act that South Arica`s electricity production resere is less than the conentional
norm, it is hoped that the energy eiciency practices promoted as a result o by this
study would go some way in reeing up the extra electricity thus contributing to the
stability o electricity supply. By extension this would improe the energy security
situation in South Arica and allow or increased electricity supply needed or improed
liing conditions and general economic growth.

In addition the study will contribute to ormulation o energy eiciency policies and
programmes required or public buildings in South Arica. Larlier studies by Ntsoane
,2005, and later Reinink ,200, both underline the importance o concrete policy
rameworks and programmes in energy eiciency implementation. Such policies are
oten based on practical research work, hence the basis o this study.

J.4 OBJLC1IVLS

1he study aimed at identiying the extent and eects o optimisation or energy
eiciency on the design, installation, commissioning, operations, control and
maintenance o lVAC systems or existing public buildings in Johannesburg. 1he
research set out to make a detailed analysis o aailable methods, actors and conditions

18

aecting the management, design, installation, commissioning, control, operations and
maintenance o lVAC systems with a iew to optimising them or energy eiciency.
1he speciic objecties o the research were:

i. 1o establish the current state o energy eiciency practices in lVAC systems in
public buildings in Greater Johannesburg.

ii. 1o analyse or energy eiciency the management, design, operations, controls,
maintenance, installation and commissioning o lVAC systems installed in
selected existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg

iii. 1o identiy possible optimisation practices o the lVAC systems or energy
eiciency in selected existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg

i. 1o identiy the possible eects o optimisation o lVAC systems or energy
eiciency in selected existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg

J.S RLSLARCH QULS1IONS

1his research was guided by the ollowing main question:

1o what extents are the lVAC systems in selected existing public buildings in
Greater Johannesburg currently optimised or energy eiciency and what are the
eects o their optimisation`

1o eectiely answer the research question the ollowing sub questions were generated:

1. \hat is the current state o lVAC systems in selected existing public
buildings in Greater Johannesburg`


19

2. 1o what extent are the practices associated with the management, design,
operations, controls, maintenance, installation and commissioning o
lVAC systems energy-eicient in selected public buildings in Greater
Johannesburg`

3. \hat are the possible optimisation practices, techniques and standards
applicable or energy eiciency improement o lVAC systems in selected
existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg`

J.6 SCOPL AND LIMI1A1IONS

1he research used selected case studies o public acilities in the greater Johannesburg
area. 1his was motiated by the necessity to hae uniorm data. Uniormity o climate
and building types studied ensured that there were no diiculties in data analysis and
classiication. Public buildings were speciically chosen or the simple reason that they
proide the best options or pioneering the implementation o energy eiciency issues
in lVAC systems taken that they already exist in a deined administratie and
management structure. Case based studies o buildings was particularly encouraged on
the basis that buildings are all unique and speciic in their construction, design purpose,
location and hence comort requirement. Much general based research has been done
but it is important to undertake urther case studies to speciically address indiidual
building`s energy management needs.

In this respect, the idea o zeroing in on public buildings and particularly library based
ones in Johannesburg is adocated with an understanding that unique results and insight
would be gained in the process. Additionally, whereas in the priate sector the utility bills
are treated as proit reduction actors, the public sector is mainly drien towards serice
deliery rather than proit. lence laxities oten exist with regards to cost reductions and
control.


20

1he study excludes any discussion on contribution o lVAC systems to global climate
change through emission or use o ClCs ,Chloroluorocarbons, or lClCs
,lydrocholorolorocarbons,. 1his was mainly because in as much as the energy
eiciency studies are partly motiated by the need to reduce GlG emissions it was
assumed that the greatest agenda problem in South Arica are the energy related
emissions
1
as reported by the United Nations Deelopment Programme ,200,.


J.7 S1RUC1URL OI 1HL 1HLSIS

1his work is arranged into six chapters namely introduction, literature reiew,
methodology, presentation o results, discussion and conclusions and recommendations.

Chapter One: 1he Introduction, gies a background to the study and presents
the core issues ,like objecties, research questions and scope, underpinning the
research.
Chapter 1wo: 1he Literature reiew presents the theoretical ramework
associated with energy eiciency in buildings, while also deling into recognised
norms o practice or lVAC systems in this area.
Chapter 1hree: 1he Methodology, presents selected methods and the
methodological ramework used in the study while also comparing them with other
options aailable.
Chapter lour: 1he Presentation o lindings, gies a summarised outcome o the
case studies.
Chapter lie: 1he Analysis, explains the implications o results while also
exploring meanings associated with issues arising rom the study.

1
Lnergy-related GlG emissions are pegged at 8 o the total according to a report by United Nations
Deelopment Programme ,200,.

21

Chapter Six, Conclusions and Recommendations, summarizes the study indings,
and gies implications and associated recommendations. 1his chapter discusses
emerging study themes beyond the data analysed.
1he Sections containing reerences and appendices appear at the end o the
thesis.


22

CHAP1LR 2: LI1LRA1URL RLVILW

2.J IN1RODUC1ION

1his chapter presents an oeriew o main concepts applied in the energy optimisation
o lVAC systems in buildings. 1he chapter is diided into seen sections. 1he irst
section presents background inormation on energy eiciency studies, energy and the
electricity situation in South Arica and goes on to identiy key concerns in the sector.
1he second and third sections discuss energy use and eiciency issues in buildings,
percentage energy consumptions in the lie-cycle context are gien in addition to
approaches or eiciency programs.

1he ourth and ith sections speciically dwell on lVAC systems and optimisation
strategies in buildings. 1he optimisation strategies in lVAC systems or energy use in
buildings are thematically reiewed under the banners o design, management,
operations, controls, maintenance, installation and commissioning. 1he sixth section
analyses the proposed energy eiciency standards in buildings, while the last section
presents a summary o the literature reiew.

Lnergy eiciency studies trace their roots back to the 190`s during the oil crisis when
member countries o the Organisation o Petroleum Lxporting Countries` ,OPLC,
instituted an oil embargo which crippled the world. Up to that time the world worried
minimally about energy resource usage. loweer the resulting scarcity and increase in
price o the commodity made seeral countries critically examine energy eiciency` as a
way o unlocking additional energy resources or use ,Matsugawa et al, 1993,. Other
actors that motiate energy eiciency studies include the realisation that the world`s
resources are slowly getting depleted, constantly increasing prices and insatiable demand
or existing energy resources, sti competition or the aailable energy resources and the
threat o global climate change.

23

1his study concentrates on lVAC systems that use electricity as the only source o
energy. It thereore makes sense that background inormation on the electricity supply
situation in South Arica be presented. In the year 2005, South Arica`s total energy
production was 6 Quadrillion B1u against a comparatie consumption o 5 Quadrillion
Btu.


1able 2.1a 1otal Primary Lnergy in S.A. ,Quadrillion B1u,
,Source: Lnergy Inormation Administration, 200,

1able 2.1 b: 1otal Llectricity production in S. A. ,billion Kilowatt-hours,
,Source: Lnergy Inormation Administration, 200,


1he corresponding electricity production and consumption or that year was 228 Billion
Kilowatt-hours and 211 Billion Kilowatt-hours respectiely ,Lnergy Inormation
Administration, 200,. 1ables` 2.1a and 2.1b gie key details on South Arica`s energy
supply.

1he electricity production and consumption data highlight the key issue o oerall access
to clean energy as it can be clearly noted that the existing resere is currently ery low. In
2005 2006
S. Arica Arica \orld Rank S. Arica
Production
,Quadrillion B1u,
6 35 460 11 NA
Consumption
,Quadrillion B1u,
5 14 463 12 NA
2005 2006 Description
S. Arica Arica \orld Rank S. Arica
Production
,Billion Kilowatt-hours,
228 533 1,351 15 NA
Consumption
,Billion Kilowatt-hours,
211 44 15,4 15 NA
Net Lxports,Imports,-,
40 10 3,82 18 NA



24

their annual report or the business year 2005, the main electricity producing company in
South Arica, LSKOM, openly declared that at 8 the country`s electricity production
resere was below the world`s recommended leel which is 15 ,LSKOM, 200,. 1he
result o this has been persistent power supply interruptions at peak demand times in
2008.

1o eectiely sole this problem, South Arica can resort to three solutions, irstly
electricity demand reduction, secondly optimal electricity demand scheduling and lastly
increase the quantity o electricity generation. All the three methods can play a signiicant
role in alleiating the persistent energy problem. loweer, the strategic demand
reduction ia the practice o energy eiciency seems the most eectie and cost-eicient
method. 1his is because it inoles the use o the same amount o electricity input to
undertake a greater amount o work.

It should be noted that whilst acknowledging that electricity demand reduction is made
diicult by the perceied low price o power, lack o knowledge and understanding o
the concepts, institutional barriers, resistance to change and lack o oerall inestors`
conidence due to lengthy payback period the South Arican Lnergy Liciency Strategy
remains ocussed on an oerall electricity demand reduction o 12 by the year 2015 as
a means o alleiating energy poerty ,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005,. 1he
promise o increased access to electricity ia demand reduction makes a conincing
argument or energy eiciency studies.

Another issue o concern in the South Arica`s energy sector is high carbon dioxide
intensity. 1his is mainly due to the act that coal remains the dominant total energy
supply source at 0 o the country`s primary energy ollowed by electricity and natural
gas at 28 and 2 respectiely, in addition coal uels 93 o electricity production
,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005,. Aailable data indicate that the South
Arica`s energy sector remains the highest contributor to carbon dioxide gas emissions to
the atmosphere at approximately 0 ,United Nations Deelopment Programme, 200,.
It is thereore true to assert that any demand reduction as a result o energy eiciency

25

would greatly contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions especially Carbon
Dioxide.

2.2 LNLRGY IN BUILDINGS: IROM PRODUC1ION 1O OPLRA1ION

In a report the United Nations Lnironmental Programme obsered that 30-40 o
all primary energy is used in buildings worldwide ,UNLP, 200,. 1he report urther
states that residential buildings use more energy compared to non residential ones. In
deeloping countries the ormer accounts or up to 90 o primary energy use in the
sector ,UNLP, 200,. Neertheless it must be realised that in as much as the residential
sector accounts or the bulk o energy use in buildings, the study o the non residential
buildings is equally important i progress is to be made in energy demand reduction.

In South Arica studies hae shown that the building Industry ,commercial sector and
residential sector, jointly account or 2 o electricity use and 12 o the inal energy
use ,Department o Minerals and Lnergy et at., 2002,. 1he details are shown in ligure
2.2a and ligure 2.2b.

In an earlier study, Anderssen et at. ,1995, reealed that South Arica`s commercial sector
in municipal areas accounts or 20 to 2 o energy whereas the residential buildings
use 40 to 4. 1his succinctly underlies the act that the building sector needs to
deelop means o reducing electricity demand to accommodate expanded access to the
utility.

1hat residential buildings use o more energy compared to commercial buildings is
urther underlined by studies by Larth 1rends ,2005,, howeer the actual amounts aries
according to geographical location, economic deelopment and cultural orientation. 1his
is illustrated in ligure 2.2 c.

26

Transport, 2%
Agriculture, 3%
Commerce, 10%
Residential, 17%
Industry, 68%
Transport
Agriculture
Commerce
Residential
Industry

ligure 2.2 a: Llectricity Demand by Sector in SA ,Source: DML et at., 2002,

Marine Bunkers,
5%
Industry, 42%
Transport, 19%
Residential, 9%
Agriculture, 2%
Commerce, 3%
Non Energy, 16%
Others, 2%
Marine Bunkers
Industry
Transport
Residential
Agriculture
Commerce
Non Energy
Others

ligure 2.2 b: linal Lnergy Demand by Sector in SA ,Source: DM et at., 2002,

Jones ,1998, categorises building energy as embodied, grey, induced, operational or
demolition-recycling.


27

Jones ,1998, and later Sartori and lestnes ,2006, amongst others gie the ollowing
deinitions o dierent categories o energy:

1. vboaiea evergy is deined as the energy used in manuacturing o the building
materials or in its extraction or mining.
2. Crey everg, is that energy used in the transportation o the building materials
between the plant to the site.
3. vavcea everg, is deined as the actual energy used during construction process
while operation energy is that used during the occupancy period
4. Devotitiovrec,ctivg everg, is deined by Jones ,1998, as that energy which is used
when demolishing the building or recycling its components. It is thus maniest at
the end o the lie cycle o the building.

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Sub Saharan
Africa
Asia(Excl.
Middle East)
Europe North America Central
America &
Caribean
Middle East &
North Africa
South
America
Oceania Developed Developing
Commercial & Public
Services Buildings
Residential Buildings

ligure 2.2c: Shares o Lnergy Use in Dierent Building 1ypes ,Source: Larth 1rends,
2005,
28

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0%
Finnish Offices(Jumila,2004)
Japanese
Offices(Suzuki&Oka,1998)
US Offices(Jumila, 2004)
Energy Consumption
Demolition Energy
Maintenance Energy
Construction Energy

ligure 2.2d: Lnergy Consumption by Lie Cycle Phase or Selected Cases, Source: Jumila
,2004,


ligure 2.2d is used to illustrate dierent energy compositions or commercial buildings
or selected case studies. lrom the cases shown in ligure 2.2d it is eident that the
greatest amount o energy in the lie cycle o a building is that used during the occupancy
period. Lnergy use in buildings during the occupancy period is thus o major concern i
signiicant demand reduction is to be achieed. It should also be noted that energy use in
buildings ary depending on the building type and use to which its put as well as design
considerations and climatic conditions.


29

2.3 LNLRGY LIIICILNCY IN BUILDINGS

Lnergy eiciency in buildings is motiated by the twin issues o economic returns due to
saings in energy use and reduction in the emissions o carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere. Stewart ,1990, reports that in the 1980`s the US lederal Goernment
embarked on a programme which led to a cumulatie cost saing o 31 1012 B1u or
a cumulatie inancial saing o >1.9 x 10
9
in energy use by institutional buildings . In
South Arica, the Lnergy Liciency Strategy paper asserts that 25 saings is possible in
the commercial and public building sector ,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005,.
In a nutshell enormous opportunities exist or energy saings by enhanced eiciency
measures in buildings.

In a more recent study, Liang et at., ,200, recognises that improing energy eiciency in
buildings is one o the most cost-eectie ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
particularly CO
2
emission. It is primarily because o this that China has set an agenda to
reduce energy consumption or buildings by 50. 1his is highly signiicant taking into
account that China's buildings sector accounts or 23 o China's total energy use and
that the country is second in the release o greenhouse gas emissions ,mainly as carbon
dioxide, to the atmosphere ,Liang et at., 200,.

An issue o concern in building is whether to ocus energy eiciency programmes on
new buildings or on already existing buildings. In commenting on this lolness ,2008,
obseres that whereas most o the energy eiciency eorts realistically target new
construction or, to a limited extent, portions o existing buildings undergoing major
renoation, it is eident that approximately 86 o building construction expenditures
relate to renoation o existing buildings, not to new construction. lolness ,2008, goes
on to state that or most new buildings, perormance signiicantly deteriorates in the irst
three years o operation by as much as 30. 1his implies that to eectiely reach
meaningul energy demand reduction in buildings it is important to hae a consistent
energy eiciency programme or existing buildings.

30

Lnergy portolio management through programmes like Lnergy Star` run by the U.S.
Lnironmental Protection Agency ,LPA, and the American Institute o Architects
,AIA, Sustainability 2030 programme among others should be encouraged to increase
energy eiciency in buildings. At the same time lolness ,2008, adises that initiaties
or energy eiciency should not only ocus on the selection and energy management
techniques or systems and equipment but must in addition lay emphasis on operation
and maintenance. \hile supporting the principle o irst time right` lolness ,2008, goes
on to adise that the design must be energy eicient rom the onset ,lolness, 2008,.

Another key interention worth mentioning is the idea o building labelling or example
the green building concept. Green buildings concepts include Leadership in Lnergy and
Lnironmental Design` ,LLLD,, the Canadian Lnergy labelling initiatie ,LnerGuide,,
Green Star ,dierent countries like Australia, South Arica and the US,, Comprehensie
Assessment System or Building Lnironmental Liciency` ,CASBLL,, and BRL
Lnironmental Assessment Method ,BRLAM, among others. Kats ,2003, reports that
on aerage, green buildings use 30 less energy than conentional buildings. 1his
reduction is primarily rom reduced electricity purchases and secondarily rom reduced
peak energy demand.
2.4 HVAC SYS1LMS

leating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning ,lVAC, system in buildings are used or
improing indoor air quality and proision o adequate thermal comort ,US LPA,
2008,. It is reported that in the world 65 o the electrical energy in the commercial
sector is used by lVAC systems ,Buys, 2002,. 1his percentage is speciically 50 in the
US and also in South Arica ,US LIA, 1994, Mathews et at., 2002,. 1his indicates that any
meaningul electricity demand management in the commercial and public building sector
must lay emphasis on the eiciency o the lVAC system.

1he improement o the perormance o lVAC system relies heaily on a clear
understanding o its processes and sub-systems. Krarti ,2000, identiies components in
31

lVAC system as the air handling unit which is composed o dampers to control the
amount o air distributed by the system and the preheat coil to warm the outside air to
aoid reezing problems, other components are the ilter, which ensures that the
supplied air is not polluted by dirt, cooling coils to condition the air supply to meet the
cooling load, humidiiers to add moisture to the air supply where humidity control is
proided and a distribution system composed o ducts and duct systems ,Krarti,2000,.


ligure 2.4: Main components in lVAC systems ,Source: LPA, undated,


1he consumption o energy by lVAC systems is mainly determined by a combination
o arious types o arrangements in the air handling units. Krarti ,2000, describes these
arrangements as either constant air olume ,CAV, systems or ariable air olume ,VAV,
systems, VAV systems are louted as generally more energy eicient than CAV systems,
key energy interentions in lVAC systems are ,Krarti, 2000,:

i. Operation o lVAC systems only during occupancy and when needed
ii. Llimination o oercooling and oerheating o conditioned spaces
iii. Reduction o reheat
32

i. Use o economiser cycles to proide ree cooling and heating wheneer possible
or heat recoery systems to eliminate mechanical air conditioning
. Reduction o supply air

1he key to eectie energy eiciency thereore relies on optimisation o lVAC systems
based on the aboe guidelines.

2.S OP1IMISA1ION OI HVAC SYS1LMS IOR LNLRGY

1his research is on core energy eiciency issues in the use o leating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning ,lVAC, Systems in buildings. 1his is o paramount importance
because oer 30 o the world`s energy is used in building and construction industry
,International Lnergy Agency, 2005,. lurthermore, it is reported that o the energy used
by the commercial sector in South Arica, approximately 50 is accounted or by
lVAC systems ,Mathews et at., 2002.

1his would mean that a minor energy saings in lVAC system would hae a marked
impact on electricity demand in South Arica. At the moment great energy saings
potentials exist in lVAC systems in buildings, Buys ,2002, approximates the potential as
ranging rom 30 to 0. lrom the oregoing, this would thereore imply that minimal
energy saings o 30 in lVAC systems would imply an oerall energy saings o
approximately 15 in the commercial sector. 1he sections below reiew energy
eiciency options or lVAC systems in buildings.

2.S.J Management

1his section reiews energy eiciency issues in lVAC systems relating to ownership, the
use to which the building is put, accountability o sta, budgeting and conseration.


33

Ownership of buildings

\ilkinson and Reed ,2006, obsere that tenants hae the capacity to implement energy
eiciency retroits. 1he tenants must thereore not be ignored while planning or energy
eiciency in lVAC systems. Another issue worth taking into account is the barrier
created by ownership and management structures in buildings and how they aect
energy eiciency in lVAC systems. 1he \orld Lnergy Council ,2008, contend that
outsourcing energy eicient management or lVAC systems in public systems may be
rustrated by oer-cautiousness related to perceied job losses and loss o controls,
protracted public procurement rules apart rom the associated cumbersome and tedious
administratie work ,\orld Lnergy Council, 2008, Sardianou, 2008,.

Use of Building

lVAC systems are oten purpose-built to suit building operations. As an example a
personal oice or multiple working space oice with arious zones may hae
customised thermostat setting and would a use dual-speed system thermostat or a
programmable thermostat to allow or multiple zone settings whereas an entertainment
theatre or hall would successully use a single thermal setting as the lVAC system is a
single zone type ,Air lorce leat and Air, 2008,. \here the public or a large number o
people are allowed into the building \ulingho ,1999, recommends that a clearly
isible placard explaining the details o operations and contact numbers o the sta to
report malunctioning o the lVAC systems to must be displayed therein. 1his limits
the number o down times while also eliminating the energy wastage or andalism that is
associated with inappropriate operations.

Accountability for energy management

1o hae clear chain o command and to delineate proper responsibility or energy
eiciency, Bream ,1986, clearly articulates the importance o an energy manager to be
accountable or energy management programs. Bream ,1986, urther identiies ways o
appointing the energy manager as including appointing a member o the organisation
34

then training him or the task, appointing o a suitably skilled person or the task, use o
an outsourced consultant or purchase o a commercial energy technology or lastly the
use o a specialist energy company. \hicheer method chosen or haing somebody
responsible or energy management, the key issue would be to ormulate and implement
an energy management programme.

Lnergy Consumption Budget

According to Bream ,1986,, inance is the means by which we quantity energy saing
measures and also the means by which the success o energy saing programs are judged.
1his implies that to ormulate a ocussed energy management programme a irm budget
or energy consumption must be put in place. 1he actual consumption will then be
benchmarked against the budget.

Lnergy use in lVAC systems must not be an exception, indeed Olosson et at. ,2004,
assert that a negotiated, statistical based or lie cycle based energy consumption budget
orms a key role in assessment o energy eiciency perormance in buildings.

Lnergy conservation

A typical energy conseration actiity would inole capital inestment, improement in
operation o the plant equipment, improement in general housekeeping and an eectie
management o inormation ,1albot, 1986,. It should be taken into account that energy
conseration programmes may be a low capital or high capital enture. Low capital
inestment energy conseration measures entail readjusting operating conditions like
space air temperature, air supply elocity, chilled water temperatures, and the resetting o
operation conditions to match seasonal changes, and peak or o peak situations and a
reduction o operation time ,long et at., 2003,.
33

2.S.2 Design

Len though seeral design issues exist, this study ocussed mainly on the issues o
competing design philosophies, power density and equipment selection. 1hese issues
ollow in sections below.

Competing Design Philosophies

1he philosophy o design greatly aects the energy use in engineering and the built
enironment. Currently there are two competing philosophies o design in lVAC
systems: these are the conentional,mixing method and the 1hermal Displacement
Ventilation Method ,1DV,.

1he 1DV technique o lVAC systems is based on the buoyancy theory and operates on
the principle that that warm and more polluted air has a low density and will tend to rise
in the indoor enironment ,Lunneburg, 2003, Massachusetts Institute o 1echnology,
1999,.

In 1DV systems, conditioned air is supplied at low elocity near the loor and polluted
air is extracted near the ceiling ,Lunneburg, 2003, Massachusetts Institute o
1echnology, 1999,. On the other hand, conentional lVAC systems use the mixing
technique whereby air is supplied to the ceiling at relatiely high elocity at about -
O
C
below the desired room temperature. 1he supplied air then mixes with the room air to
proide a nearly uniorm temperature which recirculates thereater ,Massachusetts
Institute o 1echnology, 1999,. ligure 2.5 illustrates this.

36




ligure 2.5: Illustrations o competing philosophies o design ,conentional mixed
method is on top and 1DV method on the bottom,, source: Roth et al, 2002


In the design o a data centre at Massachusetts Institute o 1echnology it was ound that
a 1DV system oered a reduction in energy consumption by 22 as compared to the
conentional method. 1his was attributed to the supply o air being approximately 3
O
C
warmer than the conentional system. It is also apparent that the 1DV based system has
a better opportunity to take adantage o the air-side economiser cycle, naturally cooling
the building using outdoor air instead o mechanically cooled air ,Massachusetts Institute
o 1echnology, 1999,.

loweer it is apparent that 1DV lVAC systems are not a common market occurrence.
1his is because o the method remains largely unreined and is not integrated with design
37

practices and standards. Lunneburg ,2003, concurs with this by arguing that most
building simulation programs are based on conentional design and use heat balance
methods or load calculation. 1his neglects the principle behind 1DV that air will stratiy
according to temperature dierences and will not mix. Accordingly this ensures that
simulations do not take into account the reduced air supply and cooling load when 1DV
is employed, leading to oersized lVAC systems ,Lunneburg, 2003,.

Power Density

1he success o lVAC system design is highly dependent on the accurate prediction o
design load. A design load prediction exercise may be cumbersome when done manually.
As a result, seeral simulation programs hae been deeloped to simpliy and quicken
the load prediction process. 1he hallmark o a good simulation program is its ability to
run easily on a personal computer and to accurately predict the load situations while
being reasonably aordable ,\alsh et at., 2003,.

luang et at., ,2006, urther insists that the program must be capable o dynamic use or
energy management control. 1his is exempliied in the use o real-time control set points
to regulate energy management unctions such as outside air economiser, programmed
start and stop lead time, load reset and occupied time adaptie strategy which led to
energy saings o 14 to 1. In South Arica the use o the QUICKcontrol
programme deeloped by 1LMM International,Pty, Ltd been touted as one o the most
releant in the local building industry ,Buys, 2002,.

loweer Kaanaugh et at., ,2006, obseres that in most cases the simulation process is
ery complicated, time consuming and inaccessible. 1heir study suggests the use o a
power density approach as an alternatie in lVAC sizing and appraisal ,Kaanaugh et
at., 2006,. 1he power density approach inoles calculating the heating load or cooling
loads o a system as required by the American Society o leating Rerigeration and Air
Condition Lngineers ,ASlRAL, Standard 90.1-2004, ater which respectie speciic
design loads or energy-eicient buildings are diided by the system energy-eiciency
38

ratio ,B1u,\h or COP, or cooling and the thermal eiciency ,_
t
, or heating to arrie
at the respectie power densities.

1ypes of HVAC equipment

Lnergy eiciency measures must be purpose-made to suit the speciic lVAC equipment
operated. Categories o equipments reiewed here include room conditioning units,
radiators, under-loor heaters, centralised lVAC systems combining heating and cooling
operation, propeller ans and roo-top units.

Room conditioning units

Room conditioning units oer personalised control systems and are thereore a natural
choice or spaces like oices and reading rooms ,\ulingho, 1999,. As such, these
systems could proe ideal or energy eiciency strategies based on minimisation o hours
o operations and spaces conditioned.

Radiators

Lnergy eiciency strategies in radiators must centre on hitch ree operations o
thermostats and heat ins. It is or this reason that \ulingho ,1999, adises on
oerhauls o the thermostatic controls and heat trapping against the exterior walls or
curtains be aoided.

Under-floor Heaters

Lin et at., ,2005, compares the eiciency o under-loor heating systems with space
heating system showing that it saes liing and working space since it is integrated into
the building enelope. Unlike space heating it is not dependant on the mean eectie
temperature which is a unction o the ambient air and the radiant surace temperatures
and thereore achiees comortable conditions with a cooler air temperature by a large
39

loor-heating surace. In addition it minimises indoor air pollution by the simple act that
it eliminates orced air moement.

Centralised HVAC systems

1he main issues arising rom centralised lVAC systems are aoidance o constant speed
motors, use o ariable olume systems, adoption o adjustable speed dries and
adoption o suitable power transmission systems. 1he use o ariable air olume ,VAV,
systems in lVAC units is preerred oer constant olume systems or the simple reason
that they minimise the reheat energy waste and in the process lead to increased energy
saings ,\endes, 1994, Krarti, 2000,. A study by Xu ,2005, obsered that a reduction in
the air change rate by 10 could result in a power reduction o approximately 2. 1his
implies that adoption o ariable speed motors would oer a window o opportunity
towards great energy saings in these lVAC systems.

\endes ,1994, asserts that Adjustable speed dries could lead to up to 50 energy
saings. \endes ,1994, goes on to apportion energy saings as deried rom an
operations in ariable air olume systems as 25 to 5, depending on operational
capacity and weather data during operations and or cooling and heating equipments in
VAV systems as 5 to 30, depending on preailing weather conditions ,\endes,
1994,.

1he use o dierent olume control methods urther inluences the amount o energy
saings achieable in VAV systems. 1able 2.5a on the next page illustrates this in detail.







40

1able 2.5 a: Limits o Lnergy Saings due to use o arious an olume control methods
in VAV systems at an aerage o 60 peak air low ,Source: \endes, 1994,




In air handlers the use o ans is a central element in the operation and hence an energy
use proides the key to energy eiciency in these systems. In addition, modes o power
transmission systems greatly determine the energy eiciency o lVAC systems. \ith
good maintenance 5 to 10 energy saings could be achieed i synchronous belts
with sot-start motor systems were retroitted as obsered by Oman ,2006,.

Rooftop units

Rootop units are oten preerred oer other types o lVAC equipment or their
relatiely low costs, ease in installation, economy o loor space. 1hey eliminate the plant
room requirement and are applicable or seeral tenants to own and operate without
inoling the landlord in purchasing and paying or the system. It is howeer asserted
that these systems hae a relatiely lower Coeicient o Operation ,ASlRAL Press,
200,. As a result their use must be only recommended where space requirement is an
issue, or where the installation o lVAC system was an aterthought and skilled labour
or the required maintenance and installation is lacking.

Item Description Maximum Lnergy
Saings
1 Backward inclined ans with discharge dampers 13
2 Airoil or BI ans with Inlet anes 36
3 lorward cure ans with discharge dampers
located 3 an diameters rom the an
48
4 Adjustable speed drie 50
5 lorward cure ans with inlet anes 5
6 Adjustable requency AC motor control 8

41

Variable Speed Drives

1he use o ariable speed control or ans, pumps, chillers and lVAC systems is
adocated or by many an energy saing criteria. Lquation 2.5a gies a theoretical
relationship between an power and air supply ,Lnergy Innoators Initiatie, 2002,:

\2~\1 ,Q2,Q1,
3
,2.5a,

,\here: \1~Power at 100 airlow ,Q1,. \hen the low is reduced to 80 percent, the
new Power ,\2, will be \1 ,0.8,
3
~ 0.51 or 51 percent,.

In Variable lrequency Dries, the motor and an speed are reduced and the losses are
ideally much smaller. 1he adoption o ariable inlet anes technology urther enhances
the probable energy saings due to its ability to maintain adantageous pressure leels
while operating.

In a case study in Vancouer, Canada a building had its lVAC system retroitted. 1he
initial system was composed o 5 lP supply an motor and 40 lP return an motor
which proided air or ariable and constant olume mixing and heating boxes ,Lnergy
Innoators Initiatie, 2002,. 1he retroit replaced the old motors with 50 lP supply and
25 lP return motors. 1he return motors were itted with ariable inlet anes to maintain
the pressure in the system. Based on a 24-hour duty cycle o operation, the new system
realised an annual saing o approximately >6,294 per year ,using 199 rates, with a
simple payback period o three years ,Lnergy Innoators Initiatie, 2002,.

Xu ,2005, urge the adoption o ariable speeds methods or improing energy eiciency
in lVAC systems by asserting that an power is proportional to the cube o airlow rate
or airlow speed and thus a reduction in the air change rate by 10 may result in a
power reduction o approximately 2 ,Xu, 2005,. Accordingly, Xu ,2005, explains
that the energy eiciency o an ilter unit systems depends on the size and layout o the
oerall recirculation systems, the eiciency o indiidual ans and an-ilter units, the
42

ilter media, the controllability o the airlows, and pressures in the air systems. 1hus the
maximisation o energy eiciency or the an ilter units depends on the use o units
with a higher eiciency and an optimisation o the operation and control units. It is
thereore understandable that Variable Speed dries ,VSDs, are used in an ilter units to
improe energy eiciency by operating at higher airlow speeds. 1his according to Xu
,2005,, allows or lexibility during operation ,Xu, 2005,.

V-Belts versus Synchronous Belts

1he choice o belt dries or air handlers also hase an eect on energy eiciency in
lVAC system. Oman ,2006, obseres that whereas most air handlers in lVAC systems
use V-belt dries or power transmission, the use o synchronous belts oers seeral
adantages oer V-belts, these are ,Oman, 2006,:

i. Lnergy efficiency: \hen well maintained, the operational eiciency o V-belts
is 95 to 98. During operations this reduces by approximately 5 to 10
depending on maintenance leel. In comparison, synchronous belts retain an
energy eiciency o approximately 98 percent throughout the lie cycle. 1his is
because V-belts hae thicker cross-sections than synchronous belts, and require
more energy to bend around sheaes due to riction caused by the wedging
action, whereas synchronous belts rely on toothed grip.
ii. Maintenance and tuning: 1he optimum belt tension is maintained at all times
or synchronous belts whereas V-belts require regular tensioning to maintain
this.

loweer Oman ,2006, recommends that synchronous belts should only be used in air
handlers that hae a sot start and those drien by an AC inerter because o the high
start up loads and structurally rigid centres which may lead to ailure o the belts and
their replacement costs.


43

2.S.3 Operations

A schedule o operations and occupancy is highly important or energy eiciency in
lVAC systems. 1he turning o o lVAC systems when not in use eliminates or
reduces the use o energy through unnecessary conditioning, reheat losses and
an,pump operations. It thereore ollows that lVAC systems should only be operated
when necessary. In this regard it is adisable that or buildings with a regular schedule o
operations, timers should be used to stop and start components ,\ulingho, 1999,.
\ulingho ,1999, urther adises on the use o placards at controls, and the
assignment o the task or responsibility or switching a unit on and o to space
administrators or security personnel, and the use o automatic controls in personalised
spaces.

1his brings to the ore the issue o ensuring that lVAC systems are not operational
when they are not needed and also that the operational capacity o the lVAC system is
matched to the leel o occupancy or the number o occupants in the room. In this
regard it would seem prudent to use personal sensors to actiate switches on entry into
rooms, use controls connected with the lighting systems to ensure operations only when
lights are on and use o timed turn-o switches to limit the conditioning to selected
periods o time or a combination o these ,\ulingho, 1999,.
2.S.4 Controls

\ulingho ,1999, argues that automatic controls are oten better than manual controls
and stresses that wheneer the ormer are installed care should be taken to inorm
occupants o the working modalities o the systems. In addition lexibility should be
allowed or where occupancy patterns luctuate. It should howeer be noted that the
idea o energy eicient control system is now more adanced as eidenced by the use o
uzzy-control logic systems. luzzy control logic systems create instructions which are
conerted by algorithms into a series o control unctions. A study conducted in the
44

USA concluded that uzzy control systems can lead to realisation o an aerage 5
energy saing in lVAC systems ,Roth et at., 2002,.

1hese control systems achiee energy saings through seeral approaches including:
irstly, by proiding the stability o a control system, secondly by oering a ine turned
operation o controllers, thirdly by real-time optimisation o operating parameters,
ourthly by operationalising the strategies which would otherwise not be possible with
classic control systems and lastly by enabling the system to optimise deliery o heating
and cooling based on occupancy patterns ,Roth et at., 2002,.

2.S.S Maintenance

Maintenance is the process o ensuring that physical assets continue to ulil their
intended unctions in a cost eectie and sustainable manner ,Lam, 200,. As such it is a
process which is highly controlled by considerations o total lie costs, simplicity or
complexity o designs, technology used in construction, lexibility in operations and
reliability o the building serice equipment.

1he sustainable maintenance o lVAC systems should thereore not only be ocused on
the traditional goal o trouble-ree operation but must also embrace the need or energy
eiciency in operations. A study done in 1999 in Caliornia State o the United States o
America reported that major problems o lVAC installation and maintenance are oer-
sizing, inadequate airlow and improper rerigerant charge, and the requencies o
unwanted occurrences ,CLL, 2000,.

ligure 2.5a illustrates the major indings espoused by this study. Sometimes serious
maintenance and energy costs results rom an incomplete or poor installation procedure.
1his normally leads to improper equipment, improper air supply and the use o
improper rerigerants.

43


47%
70%
44%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Oversizing
Inadequate
airflow
Improper
refrigerant
charge
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y

o
f

p
r
o
b
l
e
m
Frequency of occurance

ligure 2.5a: lrequencies o major problem occurrences in lVAC systems ,Source:
Neme et at., 1999, as reported by CLL, 2000,.



10%
7%
13%
15%
35%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Proper sizing
Proper airflow
Proper
Refrigerant
Charging
Duct Sealing
All
A
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
Prcentage Energy Saving Potential

ligure 2.5b: Lnergy saing potential in lVAC residential units ,Source: Neme et at.,
1999, as reported by CLL, 2000,


46

1he CLL ,2000, goes on to report that in most lVAC systems in the United States o
America great energy saings can be made with proper sizing, proper airlow and proper
rerigerant charging and that the total potential energy saings is approximately 35.
1his is illustrated in ligure 2.5b.

Price ,2006, gies seeral attributes o energy eicient maintenance o lVAC systems.
1hese include the ability to be building-speciic and system-ocused, as such standardised
and minimal interentions can be discarded or total solutions which address distinct
internal enironmental requirements o the building. Secondly the inolement o
management is important in the monitoring and reporting process to ensure eectie
tracking o indiidual components` and system`s perormances ia established records
and trends while making sure that early signs o reduced eiciencies are noted and dealt
with eectiely. 1hirdly, continuous tuning should be incorporated with maintenance
and operation processes to ensure optimisation at all times and lastly replacement and
upgrade policies should be implemented to gie the systems the beneit o improed
technology ,Price, 2006,. 1he main theme dominating the idea o energy eicient
maintenance is speciicity to systems, measurement and eedback processes in
maintenance with monitoring and dynamic response to malunctioning o systems.
1hese speciic issues are discussed below.

Monitoring and Measurement

A crucial task in energy saing, or conseration or eiciency practices or lacility
Managers and Lngineers is normally the measurement o the amount o energy
consumed by building equipment. It is only ater measurement o the actual
consumption that a benchmark and a reasonable budget can be established to allow or a
ocussed energy eiciency programme. Van Gorp ,2004, reports that modern
measurements systems now play key roles including the use o Lnterprise Lnergy
Management ,LLM, systems to irst proide accurate energy metering and sub metering
which is highly crucial in ensuring reliability. Secondly the LLM system can be used to
47

conduct energy audits in the systems and lastly the measured data can be used or load
proiling which is a necessity in scheduling and planning ,Van Gorp, 2004,.

Maintenance Planning

1he key objectie o energy eicient maintenance is sustainable continuous, trouble-ree,
cost-eectie and unctional operation o physical assets ,Price, 2006, Lam, 200,.
1rouble-ree operations are howeer quite challenging where there is only little or
inadequate unds earmarked or maintenances. 1his would imply eentual collapse o
systems or a marked reduction in its unctional eiciency. It is on this basis that Maisely
and Beerly ,200, assert that all lVAC systems must hae an Lnergy Master Plan that
has clearly articulated goals aimed at minimal energy use, optimum occupancy, optimum
comort and optimum maintenance oer its lie cycle.

As such 1sang ,1999, writes o reactie maintenance and describes it as ollowing in the
traditional perception o maintenance`s role as ixing broken items. 1his must be
aoided as it leads to generally eiciency. loweer 1sang ,1999, and later Reees ,2008,
note that many property managers go or reduced maintenance expenditure because the
eects are long-term and may not be noticeable during their management term. 1his is
because the primary reason or non-allocation o maintenance unds is the need to
operate on a minimum budget.

lorner et at. ,199, and De Groote ,1995, all adocate maintenance perormance audits
as ways o ensuring unctional improements. 1his is only possible in a planned
maintenance system which is currently shunned by the lacility Managers in the
buildings. Reactie maintenance leads to energy ineicient operations. An example to
point out is the act that the most common power transmission drie in centralised air
systems is -belt and pulley connection. According to Oman ,2006, this means that
regular belt adjustment and maintenance is mandatory as during operations their
eiciency o transmission reduces by approximately 5 to 10 depending on the
maintenance leel.
48

As acilities managers become more inormed o energy eicient maintenance it will be
necessary to go a notch higher by instead practicing Risk Based Lngineering ,RBL,. 1his
according to Khan and laddara ,2003, would entail using a plan that ensures early
correction o anticipated problems and conseration, recoery and use o rerigerants.
lor lVAC systems, RBL would entail a risk estimation which inoles unctional
analysis o the components and probable ailure scenarios. A consequent analysis o the
ailure would entail calculation on energy eiciency or cost, based the consequences o a
ailure and a probabilistic ailure analysis which is oten carried out by custom designed
sotware ,Khan and laddara, 2003,. 1he results o these are then used to plan or
maintenance such that limited resources are allocated to where it is most needed and to
ensure optimal operation.

Age of systems


1he age o lVAC systems become crucial due to the elaborate maintenance
requirement needed. Indeed, Adnot et at. ,2006, clearly state that age is not a problem er
.e where perormance and maintenance is good but note that perormance o aged
equipment cannot be guaranteed because most proessionals are unamiliar with old
technology.

On the other hand Maisely and Beerly ,200, clearly capture the emerging theme in
maintenance which ties it to the lie cycle context and assert that optimisation o
maintenance must ensure that the maintenance requirement is reduced by the
elimination o aged components amongst other things.

According to Reees ,2008,, key issues considered while assessing the maintenance
speciications in existing buildings are the act that their elements were not designed to
be used or longer hours, increased occupant density and possible redundancy in
technology. 1his complicates matters urther taken that age reduces perormance and is
related to obsolescence ,Canadian lousing and lousing Corporation, Undated,. In the
49

last 10 years new and more eicient technologies hae been introduced which are more
energy eicient than old technologies. An example o this is highlighted by the
synchronous belt dries ersus V-belt dries or Variable Speed Motors ersus constant
speed motors and 1DV systems ersus conectional mixing methods.
2.S.6 Installation and Commissioning

1he ASlRAL guideline 0-2005 deines the covvi..iovivg roce.. as a quality-ocussed
process inoling eriication and documentation o acilities and systems to check or
compliance with the owner`s project requirements with regards to installation, planning,
testing, operations and maintenance ,American Society o leating, Rerigeration and Air
Conditioning Lngineers, 2005,. Subsequently, covtivvov. covvi..iovivg is deined by this
document as the continuation o the commissioning process during occupancy and
operation o the building, while recovvi..iovivg is the application o the commissioning
process requirements to a project that has been deliered using the commissioning
process. \hile stressing the importance o commissioning process, CIBSL ,1998,
acknowledges that it is crucial i unctionality o equipment according to design purpose
and eedback during the initial phase is to be ensured.

Retrocovvi..iovivg is deined by ASlARL as the application o the commissioning
process to an existing acility that was not preiously commissioned ,ASlRAL guideline
0-2005,. It is recommended that buildings haing lVAC systems classiied as not
properly commissioned should be re-commissioned or retro-commission. 1his would
enable the buildings to enjoy improed indoor enironmental quality and comort,
improed controls and zoning, reduced operations and maintenance costs and lastly
improed energy saings as a result o optimisation associated with the exercise ,Piette
and Nordman, 1996, Portland energy Conseration, 200,.



30

2.S.7 Ducts and Ductwork

Duct and ductwork orm an integral part o the lVAC energy eiciency agenda and
their design and maintenance is o great importance. \hether ia the optimisation
method or a conentional method, the duct design methods entail the calculation o the
cross sectional dimensions o the duct sections and working out the duct layout system,
duct shapes, duct materials and duct construction methods including equipment and
ittings or this purpose ,Classen, 2003,.

In a study at Leokoloa mine, Classen ,2003, deduced that the use o optimisation
techniques oer conentional ones in duct design could realise saings in the range o
5 to 20 in lie cycle cost. Studies hae howeer ailed to categorically ground
optimisation techniques o design with the right design theory due to problems in
ductwork pressure balancing the complexity o the combined supply and return low
analysis. 1his particular research ,Optimisation o lVAC systems or energy eiciency
in public buildings, did not touch on duct design but instead examined it in relation to
maintenance.

2.S.8 Lnergy Lfficiency and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis

Like any other project, the economic beneits o lVAC systems must be eectiely
examined beore commencement o works. In this respect Gruman ,1991, asserts that
selling energy conseration to the owner o a building requires a good sense o economic
logical argument.

Buys ,2002, obseres that decisions haing the biggest impact on the cost o lVAC
system are taken during the preliminary phase and hence economic analysis must be
taken at this stage ,Buys, 2002,. Lie-Cycle Cost ,LCC, analysis is becoming increasingly
popular among proessionals in the built enironment as the preerred tool or economic
ealuation. 1hrough LCC analysis, all actors that inluence the total system cost in the
31

lietime are identiied and quantiied. Subjectie actors such as uel cost adjustments,
component reliability, and maintenance costs are also included. LCC analysis can be used
to assess the economic consequences o any decision by comparing two or more
alternaties ,Lacey, 1993, Matson, 1990,.

lor lVAC systems, the key issues or LCC are annual cost comparison based on
analysis o energy costs, capital costs and maintenance costs. According to Schicht
,1991, the contributions to total cost can be broken down as energy costs, contributing
65 to 5 percent, capital costs, that is, interest plus depreciation, contributing 15 to 25
percent and maintenance costs, contributing 10 percent ,Schicht, 1991,.

2.6 LNLRGY LIIICILN1 S1ANDARDS IOR BUILDINGS IN SOU1H
AIRICA

1wo categories o standards eature prominently with regards to lVAC systems. 1hese
are the standards that proide guidelines on the design load prediction and those that
deal with energy eiciency issues. 1he International standards or lVAC systems are
mainly guided by ASlRAL standard 62.1-2 and ASlRAL standard 90.1-2 and, the
LN15243 and LN139 ,ANSI/ASHRAE, 2001: LN Standard, 200a and LN
Standard, 200b).

In South Arica, the preparation o national standards to regulate energy eiciency
practice in buildings was expected to end in 200 ,Reynolds, 200,. 1his did not
materialise. loweer a drat standard or energy eiciency in buildings was published
or public comments in mid 2008. 1his was the Lnergy Liciency in Buildings Part 1, 2
and 3 Ldition 1-SANS204-1, 2, 3:2008 which are aailable in drat copies ,Standards
South Arica, 2008a, Standards South Arica, 2008b and Standards South Arica, 2008c,.
Part 1 explains the general requirements o the standards. Part 2 discusses Lnergy
Liciency in naturally entilated buildings. Part 3 is applicable to Lnergy Liciency or
32

artiicially entilated buildings. Sections below separately reiew the key issues tackled by
parts 1 and 2 o the irst edition energy eiciency standard in buildings.

1he main criticism that has been labelled about the irst edition o the energy eiciency
standard in building is the act that it does not make any proision or existing buildings
but ocuses on new buildings instead. 1his is despite the act that aailable literature
suggests that existing building stock contributes 85 o the expenditure in the building
and construction industry ,lolness, 2008,

2.6.J Lnergy Lfficiency in Buildings Part J: General Requirements
(SANS 204-J:2008 Ldition J, Standards South Africa, 2008)

SANS 204-1:2008 edition 1 speciies the general requirements or design and operation
o energy eicient buildings with artiicial enironmental control and subsystems. It
outlines the maximum energy demand and maximum annual consumption in accordance
with seeral classiications o occupancies o buildings and preailing climatic conditions.
1here are 31 main building classiications and each is assigned a speciic design
occupancy period that outlines hours per day o occupancy and days per week o
occupancy that is to be used or the design o the lVAC system.

1he standard states that the building enelope needs to be designed to use thermal loads
,that is the need to hae acceptable thermal elements in the building`s abric or
reasonable heat gains and heat loss, or eectie lVAC systems energy consumption
and stresses the use o lie-cycle costing and occupancy schedules as key parameters that
should be taken into account during design and speciication.

1he need to hae only energy-rated appliances itted in new buildings is also emphasised
in addition to ensure compliance with the requirements o SANS 10400-O and the
design o systems to limit heat loss and heat gains rom pipes, and ducts in the lVAC
systems.
33


\ith regards to operation and maintenance, the standard aims or purpose-drien
planned maintenance based on the operation o the mechanical,electrical components,
and economic energy eiciency. It also emphasises the need to use standardised parts
and upgrading o plants to increase the eiciencies o the components.

2.6.2 Lnergy Lfficiency in Buildings Part 3: General Requirements
(SANS 204-3:2008 Ldition J, Standards South Africa, 2008)

Part 3 o the standards asserts the use o general green building design principles,
insulation and appropriate building materials and techniques to minimise heat loss and
heat gain by buildings. It urther speciies minimum thermal resistance alues ,R alues,
or dierent climatic zones.

Concerning air-side system-design criteria it outlines the supplementary controls that
should be proided or special zones as long as the total supply to the comort zones is
not more than 25 o the oerall system supply and that the total conditioned loor area
is smaller than 100 m
2
. 1he an motor power is required to satisy CAV or VAV an
systems except where the system total an motor power is less than 5 k\ or the system
with only an-coil units has indiidual motor power less than 5 k\.

Cooling and heating eiciencies or equipment are recommended to be according to
ASlRAL 90.1. 1he standard also makes it mandatory or air conditioning systems to
hae temperature controls with set points ranging rom 20
o
C - 25
o
C and dead band o
at least 2
o
C. It is also mandatory to hae humidity control capable o preenting the use
o energy to increase relatie humidity aboe 30 during humidiication or to decrease
relatie humidity below 60 during dehumidiication. Zone based controls are outlined
as requirements or both heating and cooling operations.

34

lor unitary systems and packaged air conditioning equipment, minimum coeicients o
perormance ,COP, igures are prescribed. 1hese are as detailed in table 2.6.



1able 2.6: Minimum coeicient o perormance o Unitary and Packaged Air
Conditioning Lquipment

J 2 3
Lquipment type Capacity range Minimum COP
Unitary and Split type 2.5
19 2.6
1040 2.96
400 2.2
Packaged and split air
conditioning
0 2.64
\ater-cooled package 20 3.2
NO1L 1: COP should be as determined under summer design condensing
conditions o 35
0
C dry bulb ambient or air cooled systems and summer design
wet bulb or water-cooled systems
NO1L 2: I a resistance heating is used, heating power consumption may not
exceed cooling power consumption except in the case o equipment o 10 k\
NO1L 3: COP should include airside an power but exclude waterside cooling
system power

2.7 CONCLUSIONS

1he twin issues o scarcity o electricity supply
2
and the high carbon intensity
3
nature
emerge as key concerns in South Arica. 1his reinorces the importance o energy

2
LSKOM ,200, irmly warns that the 8 electricity production resere is lower than the practiced norm
o 15 which is needed or un-interrupted power supply in electricity distribution.

3
1he United Nations Deelopment Programme ,200, indicates that 0 o carbon dioxide emissions in
South Arica are generated by electricity generation actiities.
33

eiciency as a way o reducing emissions o carbon dioxide to the atmosphere while also
improing access to electricity ia demand reduction. 1owards this end it is worth
noting that despite the act that energy eiciency eorts has been rustrated by the
perceied low price, institutional barriers, resistance to change and lack o oerall
inestors` conidence due to lengthy payback period, South Arica`s energy eiciency
strategy underlies its commitment to reduce demand reduction by 12 by 2014
,Department o Minerals and Lnergy, 2005,. Lnergy eiciency studies thereore become
o strategic importance in South Arica`s drie towards achieing energy security, this
proides motiation or this research.

1he building sector consumes 30-40 o world`s energy and is thereore a natural ocus
in energy eiciency ,UNLP, 200,. It is howeer notable that most o the building`s
energy consumption is during construction and later during it operations and occupation
period ,Jumila, 2004,. It is thereore logical that any energy and by extension electricity
demand reduction in building must lay emphasis on the operations and occupation
period. In South Arica, energy eiciency studies in lVAC systems is particularly
justiied by the act that a large portion o energy is used towards this end, Buys ,2002,
estimates this igure as 65 in the commercial sector. 1he ocus o this study in existing
buildings is urther supported by lolness ,2008, who asserts that this category o
buildings orms the bulk o expenditure in the building industry.

1he optimisation o lVAC systems in buildings could lead to large energy saings.
Much research has been done but none has so ar presented conclusiely the exact
saings potentials that can be oered by the optimisation o lVAC systems. Buys
,2002, estimates the general energy saings potential in lVAC systems as ranging rom
30 to 0.

1he optimisation o lVAC systems or energy eiciency in existing buildings is
supported by research claims that link energy saings to retroitting o seeral
components. 1his is demonstrated by assertions by \endes ,1994, that use o arious
36

an olume control methods at an aerage o 60 peak air low in VAV systems leads to
energy saings o 13 to 8. lurther on, Oman ,2006, estimates that the uses o
synchronous drie systems with sot-start motor types achiees a nominal saing o 5
to 10.

In South Arica, the ocus o energy eiciency research in buildings has mainly been in
the area o labelling and green building implementation as eidenced by Reinink ,200,
and Ntsoane ,2005,. In addition lVAC energy eiciency research has oten been
simulation based and geared towards heay commercial uses as eidenced by Mathews et
at.,2002,, Buys ,2002, and Claasen ,2003,. Research in energy eiciency o lVAC
systems in buildings in South Arica thereore remains untouched, leading to a gap in
knowledge. In addressing this issue this research ocuses on existing public buildings in
South Arica.

37

CHAP1LR 3: RLSLARCH ML1HODOLOGY
3.J IN1RODUC1ION

1his chapter describes the research procedures, methods and tools used in the study and
explain reasons or selection o the ramework.

1his study was conducted in 2008. A total o twenty two buildings were studied with
buildings in the Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality accounting or 16 o the total.
1he Uniersity o the \itwatersrand accounted or ie buildings and at CSIR only one
building was selected or study. It must be noted that all the buildings studied were
partially or ully used as libraries, with unlimited access to isitors during the time o
operation. 1his research was guided by the main question to what extents are the
lVAC systems in these selected existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg
currently optimised or energy eiciency and what would be the eects o their
optimisation` 1o conduct the study the research question was thematically diided into
three questions.

1he irst sub question was \hat is the current state o lVAC systems in selected
existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg 1his question sought descriptie
knowledge o lVAC systems installed in the acilities isited. 1he approach towards
answering it was thus ia obseration and interiew.

1he second question was 1o what extent are the practices, techniques and standards
associated with lVAC systems energy-eicient in the selected existing public buildings
in Greater Johannesburg` In answering the second question, document reiew and
obseration were used.

1he third sub question was \hat are the possible optimisation practices, techniques and
standards applicable or energy eiciency improement o lVAC systems in the
selected existing public buildings in Greater Johannesburg`
38

1able 3.1a: Approaches to answering questions ,Source: Author`s Construction,


1hough related to the second question this question diered in the context that its
answer entailed ormulation o recommendations on the most suitable way to optimise
lVAC systems studied. 1he approach towards answering this question was thus totally
reliant on literature reiew.



Sub Question Details o Data Required Data Collecting
Instrument
Data Source Method o
analysis

Q1. \hat is the current state o
lVAC systems in the selected
existing public buildings in
Greater Johannesburg

A1. Description o
Current standards,
practices and techniques
and types o lVAC
systems in the selected
existing public buildings
in Greater
Johannesburg.,It is
enisaged that one has to
proceed rom known to
unknown hence the
establishment o current
practices, techniques etc.
orms the initial point o
research.

B1. Building
surey during
which the
ollowing will be
used: Direct
obseration,
Interiew
Questionnaire
and
Documents



C1. Buildings
Building Operators
Building Occupants
Documents e.g. SANS
208, SANS10400

D1. Narratie
Analysis based
on theoretical
ramework,
Descriptie
statistics using
weighted mean

Q2 1o what extent are the
practices, techniques and
standards associated with lVAC
systems energy eicient in the
selected existing public buildings
in Greater Johannesburg

A2. Inoles deinition o
optimisation, ollowed by
comparatie analysis o
A1 aboe on the one
hand and the best
practices, standards and
techniques shown by
literature and
international norm

B2. Literature
reiew and
against the
background o
establishments
deried rom A2

C2. Buildings
Building Operators,
Documents e.g. SANS
208, SANS10400,
Journals, Books,
Reports, Memoranda

D2. Narratie
Analysis based
on theoretical
ramework,
Descriptie
statistics using
weighted mean

Q3. \hat are the possible
optimisation practices,
techniques and standards
applicable or energy eiciency
improement o lVAC systems
in the selected existing public
buildings in Greater
Johannesburg


A3. Inoles the
ormulation o
recommendations on the
most suitable way to
optimise lVAC systems
studied based on
aailable options rom
the literature.

B3. Literature
reiew on options
aailable or
energy eiciency
or dierent types
o lVAC systems

C3. Documents e.g.
Standards and codes o
practice, Journals,
Books and Reports.

D3. Narratie
Analysis based
on theoretical
ramework
39

1able 3.1a on illustrates the approach taken to answer the research question. lurther
details concerning methodological issues are exhaustiely discussed in sections 3.2 to 3.5
o the dissertation. 1his research initially established the base perormance o lVAC
systems in terms o energy utilisation in selected existing public buildings then analysed
opportunities or their optimisation. 1he study thus looked at attributes shown on 1able
3.1b. 1hese attributes ormed the basis or describing lVAC systems, judging whether
they were energy-eicient or not. lurther details ollow.
3.2 S1RA1LGY

1his section describes the approach used in the study and contextually places it in
paradigmatic ramework. 1he philosophical orientation and the link with methods
selected are thus discussed in this section.
3.2.J Research Description

1he research is described hereunder in terms o purpose, ramework, possible outcomes,
and process chosen.

Lxploratory, descriptive or explanatory research

Research may be termed as exploratory, or descriptie or explanatory depending on the
type o objecties set ,Durrheim, 1999,. Lxploratory studies` use open, lexible and
inductie methods and are oten geared towards preliminary inestigations in ground
breaking research areas. Descriptie studies` accurately describe, categorise or measure
attributes o phenomena using methods which stress accuracy and reliability like
sampling sureys. Lxplanatory studies` on the other hand are causal in nature and
employ experimental or quasi-experimental methods ,Durrheim, 1999,. 1his study was
combined aspects which were both exploratory` and descriptie` in nature. It was
exploratory and descriptie in that it respectiely sought to establish the trends while
categorising and measuring aspects o optimisation possibilities in energy eiciency in
lVAC systems in existing public buildings in Johannesburg.

60

1able 3.1b: Attribute details
Description of attribute Comments
Ownership details Preliminary inormation
Public conersance with lVAC operation More than 50 conersance indicate energy
eiciency practice
Aailability o placard Aailability indicates energy eiciency
Use o building Preliminary inormation
Responsibility assignment,accountability or
energy management
Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Lnergy consumption budget Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Lnergy conseration program Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Design philosophy ,1DV or Conentional
mixing,
1DV indicates higher energy eiciency
1ype o equipment operated Preliminary inormation
lVAC power density Preliminary inormation
Schedule o operation
Occupancy leels
Synchronised schedule o operation and controls
indicates energy eiciency adherence
Control 1ype luzzy-Logic controls indicate higher energy
eiciency
Controls condition Good condition indicate energy eiciency
adherence
Occupants conersance with lVAC controls More than 50 conersance indicates energy
eiciency practice
Lnergy measurements,monitoring systems Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Maintenance planning Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Response time in correcting aults Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Contact details or reporting aults Practice indicates energy eiciency adherence
Leakage in ducting Presence indicates poor energy eiciency practice
Maintenance responsibility Preliminary inormation
Age o equipment,retroits Lquipment oer 20 years illustrates ineicient
energy use
Improper installation Indicates poor energy eiciency practice
Due commissioning Indicates energy eiciency
Source: Author`s construction
61

Inductive or deductive

Deductie logic in research entails setting theory and conirming it ia a series o
obserations in a process which is hypothesis drien and procedures which are
reproducible ,O`Leary, 2004,. Inductie research logic on the other hand commences
with a series o obserations rom which theories are constructed, amended or grounded
,Durrheim, 1999,. 1hough considered as using a mixed logical ramework, this research
was more inductie than deductie. 1his is in consideration o the act that despite the
setting o theories in the beginning, its methodological processes generated indings
which helped ground the theoretical ramework. 1hus in order to answer the second and
third research questions the best practices in optimisation o lVAC systems were
described in the literature reiew section and obseration made were then used to reine
them in the discussion section.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Research can be qualiied as either qualitatie or quantitatie according to the methods
o data presentation, analysis o collected data ,O`Leary, 2004, and use o theory
Creswell ,2003,. O`Leary explains that quantitatie data will be presented as numbers
and analysed using statistics whereas qualitatie data will be represented as narraties
,with use o pictures, icons, words, and analysed ia thematic explorations. \ith regards
to the use o theory, quantitatie approach oten uses theory to proide explanations or
constructs. On the other hand in qualitatie research, theory may generate theory using
an inductie process
4
or it may apply existing theory as guidelines or the research
procedure ,Creswell, 2003,. In this particular study sets o theories in energy eiciency
proided guidelines or inestigating the optimisation o lVAC systems or energy
eiciency in selected existing buildings in Greater Johannesburg. 1hus, the literature
reiew section was used to gie a theoretical orientation to the study. 1he research

4
Inductie process in this case is explained by Creswell ,2003, as emanating rom collection o
data ia interiews, questionnaires amongst others, then analysing the data to orm broad patterns or
themes, the researcher then examines the themes to orm theories which are then put across as indings.

62

instruments deeloped were thereore within the conines o the theories emanating
rom the literature reiew. Despite the strong arguments put across to support
categorisation o research as either qualitatie or quantitatie it should be noted
similarities exist in paradigms ollowed, methods, logic o inerence and approaches to
analysis in both domains ,Bryman, 2001: 19, Silerman, 2000:11 and Grix, 2004:116,.
1his study does not qualiy as entirely a qualitatie study as quantitatie techniques
5
were
used in collecting, analysis, and presentation o the data.

3.2.2 Paradigmatic Iramework

1he our main schools o thought that guide research works are
positiism,postpositiism, constructiism,interpretatiism, adocacy,participatory, and
pragmatism ,Creswell, 2003, Blanche and Durrheim 1999:16,. 1he schools o thought
are deined along rigid paradigms. Punch ,2005, describes paradigms as systems that
include interrelated practice, thinking and assumptions that deine the nature o the
research enquiry along the three dimensions o ontology, epistemology and
methodology, urther on ontology' is used to speciy the nature o reality that is to be
studied and what can be known about it whereas epistemology` speciies the nature o
relationship between the researcher and what can be known and methodology` how a
researcher may go about practically studying whateer he or beliees can be known.
Interlink between paradigms and the research design is best captured by Creswell
(2003) in the statement that new claims to knowledge must follow a clearly defined
pattern in which methods, strategies and instruments are closely intertwined (refer to
Figure 3.1).

Thus, it is expected that objectives of research or nature of the problem would lead to
the adoption of specific methods, strategies and instruments. 1able 3.2 outlines the

5
1he quantitatie methods reerred to here include stratiied sampling or questionnaire administration,
use o charts and graphs to present indings.
63

schools o thoughts and associated characteristics. 1he methods and tools chosen must
correspond to the school o thought adopted by research.





ligure 3.1 Knowledge Claims, Strategies o Inquiry, and Methods Leading to Approaches
and Design Process ,Source: Creswell, 2003,


1his particular study could be categorised as either inormed by positiist,postpositiist
or constructiist,interpretatiist. A conenient sample was adopted in the research ater
high non response rate rom a number o lacilities Managers` contacted to participate in
the study. Use o multiple methods and approaches as employed in the study is
supported by the need or triangulation o methods`. 1his is supported by Bryman
,1984,, who argues that multiple methodologies imply better oerall iew o reality.



Approaches to
Research
Qualitatie
Quantitatie
Mixed Methods

Design Processes of Research
Questions
1heoretical lens
Data Collection
Data analysis
\rite-up
Validation
Llements of Inquiry


Alternative knowledge claims
Strategies of Inquiry
Methods

Researcher's
conception
1ranslated
into Practice
64

1able 3.2: Schools o thoughts guiding research ,Source: Creswell, 2003,

School o thought Characteristics
A1. Positiism,Postpositiism
Determinism
Reductionism
Lmpirical Obseration and
Measurement
1heory eriication
B1. Positiism,Postpositiism
a. Causes probably determine eects or outcomes
b. Intent on reducing ideas to ariables that constitute
hypotheses and research questions
c. Knowledge deeloped is based on careul
obseration and measurements o reality
d. 1heory is tested by data collection ollowed by
analysis then reised in line with the tests

A2. Constructiism,Interpretiism
Understanding
Multiple participant meanings
Social and historical construction
1heory generation
B2. Constructiism
a. Indiiduals seek to understand the world in which
they lie and work
b. Inquirers inductiely deelop a theory or pattern
o meaning
c. Participants` iew ery much part o the research
d. Researcher is to make sense o the meanings o
obserations and role players
A3. Adocacy,participatory
Political
Lmpowerment issue-oriented
Collaboratie
Change-oriented

B3. Adocacy,participatory
a. Research must be action oriented to help
marginalized peoples
b. Research must contain action agenda or reorm
c. Inquiries must be completed with others and not
on or to others

A4. Pragmatism
Consequences o actions
Problem-centred
Pluralistic
Real-world practice
B4. Pragmatism
a. Knowledge claims arise out o actions, situations
and consequences
b. Concern should be on what works
c. 1ruth is what works at the time
d. Researchers hae reedom o choice on research
approaches


1he positiist,postpositiist characteristics o the study include:

a. 1he study was motiated by the act that management practices in buildings
aects the oerall energy eiciency o lVAC systems. 1his concurs in with the
determinist aspect o the theory that causes probably determine eects or outcomes.
b. 1he main research question was reduced into 3 sub questions which were then
diided into ariables to be tested. 1hus, a reductionist approach is maniested in the
process.
63

c. Using structured obseration, the study was able to identiy practices and
technologies aecting energy eiciency in lVAC systems in buildings. 1his
approach is empiricist. 1he other positiist methods
6
applied were sampling and
questionnaires. 1he main sampling method used was snowballing

.
d. 1he data collected was transormed to ordinal measures which were then
analysed using descriptie statistics to support theories in energy eiciency measures
or lVAC systems in buildings.

1wo main interpretatiist aspects o the study were eident, these were:

a. 1he need to holistically understand the practices associated with lVAC systems
in public buildings. Qualitatie methods ,interiew and document reiew, were
applied to gather data on management, maintenance and operation o the lVAC
systems in public buildings.
b. 1he interiew respondents` opinions and narration on management and
operation procedures in the building inormed the analysis, conclusions and
recommendations o the study.

3.3 ML1HODS AND 1OOLS

1his section discusses seeral methods and tools that were aailable or use and also
proides a rationale. O` Leary ,2004, deines methods as techniques used to collect data
and tools as being used to help in data collection procedure. 1he speciic methods
discussed include sampling, obseration, documentary research, questionnaire use,
energy audit and interiew.
1wo reasons are proided or the use o multiple methods in this study. 1he irst one
was the desire to triangulate indings so that reliability and alidity is increased. 1his is
supported by \in ,1994, while arguing or conergence in lines o inquiry as o

6
Interpretatie methods included documentary research, obseration and interiew were largely
qualitatie.

Snowball sampling relies on reerrals rom colleagues and riends details are aailable in section 3.3.1
66

paramount importance to alidation o indings. 1he second reason was the act that
naturally dierent methods oten complement each other. In this particular study
obseration method was used to gather data relating to trends,practices identiied in
theory in the literature reiew ,this included type o equipment operated, aailability or
lack o aailability o placards among others,.

Interiews on the other hand were used in this study to collect data pertaining to
maintenance, management practices and plans including energy conseration
programmes and energy planning. Questionnaires targeted inormation about cultural
issues, dressing mode, conersance with the equipment and awareness to policy issues.
1he document reiew only targeted the appropriateness o key public policy papers on
energy eiciency and how energy eiciency impacted on the lVAC systems in
buildings.

3.3.J Sampling

avtivg is the selection o a part o whole population or study whereas a cev.v. is the
study o the whole population ,Rao, 2000,. O`Leary ,2004, urther underlines the
importance attached to proper deinition o population being studied. In this particular
study the population being studied was public library buildings in Gauteng area. In the
context o this study public buildings allowed relatiely unrestricted access and these
could include educational and research acilities, car parks, entertainment halls and
oices. loweer due to lack o access and the need to maintain uniormity o data the
study opted or library based buildings. A total o 22 buildings had their lVAC systems
studied. In addition to this, questionnaires were sent to 40 respondents.

\ith regards to the population size ,the number o buildings,, the number may not be
the minimum o thirty recommended or statistical analysis by O`Leary ,2004,.
Representatieness was howeer achieed by the act that the population sample
captures all the arious elements,characteristics o the population under study and that
67

in the case o goernment owned buildings the whole segment o libraries in a region
were studied
8
, in addition 5 library buildings out o a total 9 at the Uniersity o the
\itwatersrand were studied. 1o proide urther diersity into energy management
strategies one building at the CSIR complex in Pretoria was included in the sample. 1he
ield study commenced in mid October 2008 and ended in mid Noember 2008. 1he
ocus was on management, design, controls, operations, maintenance and
installations,commissioning that hae continued to inluence lVAC systems oer the
years, hence its releance and setting was not bound by dates.

Sampling methods

Ravaov .avtivg vetboa was not used in selection o buildings or study. lorms o
random sampling include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratiied
random sampling. 1he study employed non random sampling techniques ,purposie,.
1able 3.3 reiews the arious sampling techniques aailable in the context o this study.


Rao ,2000, identiies vov robabitit,,^ov ravaov .avtivg as including bavaic/ea, .vorbatt,
rotvvtar, and covrevievce sampling. In the selection o buildings or the study snowball
sampling was the main method ater the ailure o acilities managers to respond to
requests to use their buildings. Despite the act that sometimes non probability sampling
is dismissed, this study was laid on the premise adanced by O`Leary ,2004, that as long
as case selection is done with representatieness in mind non-random samples will
credibly represent the population.

As the names suggest, handpicked sampling select cases purposiely while snowball
sampling uses reerrals to select cases. Volunteer sampling on the other hand relies on
the olunteers to study as cases, while conenience sampling select cases in a manner
conenient to the researcher ,O`Leary, 2004,. 1he buildings in Braamontein ,at the

8
All the library buildings in Southern Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality were studied, these were 15 in
total.
68

Uniersity o the \itwatersrand, were covrevievtt, .etectea because o existing linkage and
ease o accessibility. 1he CSIR building was handpicked to highlight certain aspects o
energy management o lVAC systems in public buildings, this ensured odder or
argument deelopment during the research.

It must be emphasised that representatieness was maintained in this research despite
the use o non random sampling methods. 1his was achieed through fir.tt, ensuring that
the buildings studied were clearly deined thus only library buildings were selected, this
ensured uniormity and consistency. ecovat,, all the library buildings at the two study
clusters ,Braamontein-\its and Lkurhuleni, were studied, hence eliminating the
possibility o sampling bias. linally, the inclusion o the oice building rom a third
cluster ,CSIR, Pretoria, ensured diersity which ensured that additional aspects in the
optimisation o lVAC systems or energy eiciency in buildings were captured in the
study. 1hese aspects included budgeting, use o occupant-customised control systems,
accountability or energy management and zone-based lVAC system units.

1able 3.3 gies a summary the arious sampling techniques and their relatie strengths
and weaknesses.

3.3.2 Interviewing

Interiewing is the act o collection or gathering inormation or research purposes ia
erbal interaction or conersation ,Pedhazur and Schmelkin, 1991, Punch, 2005,.
lontana and lrey ,1994, list types o interiews as being indiidual-ace to ace, group-
ace to ace, or telephone interiews on one hand and structured, semi-structured or
unstructured interiews on the other hand. 1he main types o interiew options and
their applicability are reiewed hereunder.
69

1able 3.3: Sampling methodologies

Source: Author`s construction
Category Description Comments in relation to the study

Simple random
sampling

1he process demands ull identiication o the population. It is
cumbersome and was not used in the process due to limitation in
resources.

Stratiied sampling

\as used in the selection o respondents to questionnaires due
to its ability to improe representation while remaining cost
eectie.

Systematic
sampling

It was not used in the study due to the act that it does not work
well where accessibility is a problem as the n
th.
case may decline
to take part in the study.
Random sampling

Cluster sampling

It was not used in the study due to the act that it does not work
well where accessibility is a problem and cost reduction is a
necessity.

Voluntary sampling

\as not used or the simple act that it may lead to bias as the
oluntary cases are always in the extreme group which is biased.

landpicked
sampling

One case was handpicked to ensure that certain aspects o the
subject were discussed in the study.

Snowball sampling

Due to accessibility and non response problem the study relied
heaily on reerrals hence it qualiied as the perect sampling
method or the buildings study
Non-random
sampling

Purposie sampling

1he Uniersity o \itwatersrand acilities ,Braamontein cluster,
were studied due to the conenience in terms o network, costs
and time to do the research.

70

In structured interiew the respondent is queried on preset interiew and response is in
preset categories, this is what is oten short and stimulating and could sometimes qualiy
as a questionnaire ,Punch, 2005,. Its applicability is indeed similar to the questionnaires
and it is also preerred or its elimination o bias. It is howeer not applicable where
there is need to ealuate the interiewee response ,Pedhazur and Schmelkin, 1991,. 1his
method was not used in the study.

Punch ,2005, describes unstructured interiews as oten non-standardised, open-ended
and sometimes in-depth or ethnographic in nature. It is adantageous in the sense that
the response is not limited to speciied categories and interactions are increased or the
interiewee and the interiewer. Most importantly howeer the interiewer has an
opportunity to exact more control in presentation and thus eliminate possible
ambiguities in the raming o questions ,Pedhazur and Schmelkin, 1991,. 1his method
was used to gather inormation rom the lacilities Managers at the Uniersity o the
\itwatersrand and at the Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality. 1he Liaison in-charges
during the study opportunity were aailable during the building surey period. 1hus,
inormation like use o budget or energy consumption, energy management plans,
maintenance planning and response time to correct malunctioning systems were
obtained ia unstructured interiews.

3.3.3 Observation

O` Leary ,2004, describes ob.erratiov as systematic way o gathering data while relying
ully on the researcher`s isual senses. loweer, researchers are warned that obseration
as a data collection tool may be hampered by seeral disadantages. 1hese include fir.tt,
their inherent bias which may impact greatly on the obseration made, .ecovat, the act
that personal history, experiences and expectations oten inluence perceptions and thus
pose a credibility challenge to obsered data and ta.tt,, replication o the obseration
when made inormally may be diicult, thus reducing the conidence leel ,O` Leary,
2004,.
71


Seeral types o obseration methods exist, these include structured, semi-structured and
unstructured obseration methods. O` Leary ,2004, deines vv.trvctvrea ob.erratiov as
inoling obserers` attempts to collect data without predetermined criteria then moing
on to make deductions concerning emergent themes. trvctvrea ob.erratiov techniques on
the other hand use predetermined criteria related to people, eents, practices, issues,
behaiour, actions, situations and phenomena being obsered while .evi.trvctvrea
obserations use guidelines ,schedules and checklists, to organise already made
obserations ,O` Leary, 2004,. 1his study used structured obseration in the orm o
energy audit inspection sheets and obseration checklists to collect data concerning the
condition o the building abric, dress o the building occupants, types o lVAC
systems in use, positioning and type o control systems used, signs o possible leakages
on ducts and installation positions o the ans. Details o the checklists and building
energy surey sheet can be ound in Appendix D. It must howeer be noted that
obsered eatures were triangulated with questionnaire results and interiews to ensure
consistency and reliability. 1his remoed any bias that could hae been introduced in
either o the methods.

3.3.4 Documentary Research

Scott and Marlene ,2006, describe documentary research as reiew o already existing
materials to arrie at desired conclusion. 1he documents proiding eedstock to the
research are named by \in ,1994, as including external covvvviqve. ,examples are letters,
memoranda,, reports detailing eents ,including agendas, minutes, proposals,
memoranda,, ormal statements o the same case and media clippings,. 1his research
used documentary research to collect data on standards and goernment polices with
regards to energy eiciency in lVAC systems in buildings. In the case study use was
72

made o memorandum
9
to sta on energy conseration measures and past reports
detailing aspects o the same case study
10
.

\hilst using the existing documents it was noted that speciic care had to be taken to
aoid the pitalls o using the documents as standalone sources o truth. 1hus eort was
made to use them to corroborate eidence rom obseration as well as questionnaires.
lailure to do this would results in what \in ,1994: 82, reers to as potential oer-
reliance on documents in case study research`. 1he ollowing documents were among
those studied:

Draft energy efficiency standards for South Africa (Standards South Africa, 2008)

All the parts o this document are considered releant to this research. 1he document is
still considered to be a drat paper but is the irst attempt to legislate and make a
standard on energy eiciency in buildings. As such it orms the backbone or analysis on
building standards with regards to this study. 1he document appears as SANS 204-
1:2008 Ldition 1, SANS 204-2:2008 Ldition 1 and SANS 204-3:2008 Ldition 1
,Standards South Arica, 2008a, Standards South Arica, 2008b and Standards South
Arica, 2008c,

Lnergy Lfficiency Strategy for South Africa (Department of Lnergy, 200S)

In the energy optimisation o lVAC systems in public buildings, reiew was made o
general goernment policy on energy eiciency. 1his then narrowed down to the
implementation o the policy to commercial and public buildings with use o lVAC
systems in existing and new buildings.


9
1his was a memorandum rom the General Manager-Llectricity written to sta at Lkurhuleni urging
them to adopt arious conseration measures.

10
1hese included property management reports giing details o loor area sizes or the sites isited.
73

3.3.S Questionnaire

Pedhazur and Schmelkin ,1991, describe interiews as inormation gathering tools which
are to a large extent sel administered and which hae the adantage o being less
susceptible to bias as interiewer eects and deiations rom the instructions are
eliminated. 1he use o questionnaires was used because it enjoys seeral adantages.
Pedhazur and Schmelkin ,1991, lists the adantages oer interiews: fir.tt, their relatiely
low cost o administration as it demands less selection, training, and superision o sta,
.ecovat, they reduce the chances o a bias and fivatt, they lead to greater conidentiality
and anonymity. As this study was limited in resources ,time and money, in addition to
the need to protect the conidentiality o sources it was thereore decided to use
questionnaires or gathering data.

A total o 40 questionnaires were administered to building operators and occupants.
Questionnaires were administered to one occupant and one operator per building
studied. 1his ensured representatieness or all the sites isited.

1he questionnaires were used to inestigate o issues relating to management,
operations, control, maintenance and installation and commissioning. A summary o key
issues interrogated by the questionnaires are discussed below and the questionnaire used
or the study is in the Appendix L.
.
Management: Questions in this category explored issues concerning ownership and use
o buildings, accountability or energy management, energy consumption budget and
energy conseration measures in place.
Operations: Schedule o operations- 1he questionnaire sought to establish the
building`s and lVAC system`s schedule o operations in hours per day and days per
week. In addition it was asked whether the operation o the lVAC systems was in any
way linked to the operation o the whole building. Concerning occupancy leels, the
occupants were asked how oten they isited the library and also whether their isit
74

pattern to the acility was constant throughout the year or whether it depended on the
season.
Controls: Building occupants and operators were asked i they were amiliar with the
control settings,operation o the lVAC system and i any training had been conducted
in respect to this.
Maintenance: 1he building operators were asked i here were energy consumption
meters in place or the building, urther inquiries were made as to whether these
included sub meters or dierent installations in the building. Questionnaires sought to
determine details o maintenance planning and what inormed the type o maintenance
arrangement used in the acility. 1he response time needed to correct aulty lVAC
systems was also inestigated by the questionnaire. Issues such as age o equipment or
retroit and whether the maintenance management was done in-house or outsourced
were asked in the questionnaire.
Installation and commissioning: 1he questionnaires sought to establish whether the
lVAC systems had maintenance manuals, commissioning hand-oer notes and as-built
drawings.

3.4 CASL S1UDY

Punch ,2005, describe ca.e .tva, as inoling the examination o one case or a small
number o cases in details,in-depth, using appropriate methods in its natural setting
whilst recognising its complexity and acknowledging its context. Case studies may be
categorised as ivtriv.ic where the study is undertaken to improe understanding o the
case or iv.trvvevtat where key emphasis is on giing insight into an issue or reining
theory or cottectire where the instrumental case study is extended to coer seeral cases
and the ocus is on learning about a phenomenon or population or general condition
,Punch, 2005, O`Leary, 2004,.

1his research used the approach o a collectie case study where the issue was the
Optimisation o lVAC systems or energy eiciency` in existing public building. 1o
73

gain a good understanding o the case it was decided to use seeral goernment owned
and research institution buildings which acted as independent cases and chose seeral
important attributes in the optimisation o procedures in management, operations,
controls, maintenance, installation and commissioning o lVAC systems with to achiee
energy eiciency. 1hus, the cases can be loosely categorised as goernment owned
buildings ,which included the library buildings in Alberton, Germiston, Boksburg,
Llsburg, Dinwiddie, Leondale, Katlehong, Isaac Mokoena, 1hokoza, Ldenpark, Palm
Ridge, Zonkizizwe, Vosloorus, Spruitiew, Brackenhurst and Reigerspark, and Research
Institution owned buildings ,which included John Moat, \illiam Cullen, \artenweiller,
Ldu-com and Albert \essels at the Uniersity o the \itwatersrand and Building 2 at
the CSIR complex,.

A case study approach was chosen or seeral reasons. 1his included the act that it
allowed an opportunity or new ideas and hypotheses to emerge rom the collectie
study, as described by Pedhazur and Schmelkin ,1991,.

Another reason or the adoption o the case study approach was its detailed nature
which Lindegger ,1999, reers to as richly ideographic` and oten leads to critical
relection on existing theories. Len though only one case could hae been studied, the
choice was made to study seeral buildings built at dierent historical periods, shaped by
dierent social norms and itted with dierent lVAC systems. 1he ability to study
lVAC systems in buildings in rich suburbs, townships, goernment owned and
research-institution owned all at the same time led to rich indings. 1his is what O`Leary
,2004, reers to as increased authenticity that is not possible with use o other surey
instruments in his statement below:

1he goal ,o case study, is authenticity and richness and in-depth understanding
that goes beyond what is generally possible in large scale surey research`
,O`Leary, 2004: 116,

76

3.4.J Generalisation of Cases

1raditionally a case study approach is oten criticised due to diiculties in generalising
their indings ,Punch, 2005,. loweer, this is not applicable in this study because a
collection o cases was used rather than a single case approach. lurthermore, Punch
,2005, dismisses this argument on seeral aspects, fir.tt, each case may desere to be
studied as a stand-alone domain to inestigate its intrinsic nature, .ecovat, the study o
negatie cases is also as important as the general ones, lastly, the use o conceptualisation
methods in the study o cases ensures that seeral aspects are explained which may lead
to new prepositions and hypotheses.

3.4.2 Case Study Methods

\in ,1994, names the underlying principles o data collection or a high quality case
study as irstly, the use o multiple sources o eidence, secondly the ormulation o a
case study database which assembles distinctie eidence and lastly maintains eidence
that is explicitly linked to the research questions. Case study as a research strategy
employs seeral methods which are named by \in ,2004, and O` Leary ,2004, as
including documentation, archial records, interiews, direct obseration, participant
obseration and physical arteacts.

1his study used documentation to triangulate the indings emanating rom obserations
made during the building surey. In addition, an analysis o documents concerning the
new energy eiciency standards or buildings in and green building ratings in South
Arica were done. lurther, details on the documentary research as applied by this study
were discussed in section 3.3.4. Direct obseration was the main method applied in the
building surey. 1he obseration mode was basically structured with priority being gien
to lVAC systems in place at the buildings isited. lurther details on obseration in this
study appeared in section 3.3.3.

77

1his study employed sel distributed questionnaires in addition to personal interiews.
Questionnaires were distributed to building occupants and operators in a bid to gather
pertinent inormation concerning management, scheduling, controls, operations and
maintenance o the lVAC systems. Details o these were discussed in sections 3.3.2 and
3.3.5. 1able 3.4 summarises the methods and used in the case study.

1able 3.4: Summary o methods used in the case study

Method Data details Data sources
Direct
Obseration
vitaivg c qvivevt:
Building abric, lVAC systems types
Date o installation` types o lVAC
systems in use, positioning and type o
control systems used signs o possible
leakages on ducts and installation
positions o the ans.
Occvavt. c Oeratiov.:
Dressing & attitude o the building
occupants,
Obserations during
building surey
conducted in the 22
buildings isited
Interiew Operation schedule
Attitude o operators and occupants
Management policies
Maintenance planning
listorical background o equipment
Lnergy conseration and management

Respondents
lacility Managers and 1echnicians
at the isited buildings
Questionnaire Operation schedule
Attitude o operators and occupants
Management policies
Maintenance planning
listorical background o equipment
Lnergy conseration and management

Respondents
Building operators
,1 per building,
Building Occupants
,1 per building,
Documents listorical background o equipment
Lnergy conseration and management
Memos,
Lnergy Liciency Strategy,2005,
Standards and Codes o practice
,SANS204, SANS 10400 etc,
Source: Author`s construction

78

3.4.3 Validity and Reliability

1he use o multiple sources o eidence speciically direct obseration, interiews, and
questionnaire entrenched the construct alidity and reliability in this study and ensured a
triangulation o indings and an eentual high leel o accuracy. 1his is reerred to as
covrergevce of tive. of ivqvir,` by \in ,1994: 92,. who argues that the use o multiple sources
o eidence implies the equal measures o similar phenomenon under study and in the
process this adequately addresses construct alidity` issues. 1he deelopment o a case
distinctie database using case study notes ,prepared during ield study,, narraties
,gleaned rom interiews, and case study documents ensured that reliability concerns
were addressed.

3.S ANALYSIS IOR LIIICILNCY/OP1IMISA1ION

In presenting the results, sight has not been lost that the key theme o this study is
optimisation and energy eiciency. In this aspect the study deined its minimum
requirements and considerations or lVAC systems to as energy-eicient then went
ahead to lay down the equialent considerations or optimisation. It is on this basis that
the lVAC systems were judged as energy-eicient, energy-ineicient and optimised or
energy eiciency or not. 1his ealuation is o paramount importance, taking into
account that the research graitates around the three key points: fir.tt, the need to
establish the current state o lVAC systems in public buildings, .ecovat, to establish the
extent o energy eiciency in lVAC systems in public buildings and ta.tt,, identiy
possible energy based optimisation practices applicable to lVAC systems in public
buildings.

1he irst point was established by surey ollowed by general description o key themes
around management, design, operations, control, maintenance, installation and
commissioning. 1he last issues were inestigated using a points based ealuation
deeloped with the aid o theories discussed in chapter two and the principles adopted
79

rom the long Kong Buildings Lnironmental Assessment Method System commonly
reerred to as lK-BLAM` ,Centre o Lnironmental 1echnology, 1999,. 1he key
ealuation items were seenteen in number. 1hese were public conersance with lVAC
operation, aailability o placard, responsibility assignment or energy management,
energy consumption budget, design philosophy ,1DV or Conentional mixing,,
schedule o operation, control type, occupants conersance with lVAC controls, energy
measurements and monitoring systems, maintenance planning, response time in
correcting aults, contact details or reporting aults, maintenance responsibility, age o
equipment,retroits and installation and commissioning.

A point was awarded or eery item ealuated as energy-eicient whereas energy
ineiciency earned zero or eery item judged. Items ealuated as optimised energy
eiciency or as achieing best practice were awarded two points. 1hese points were then
weighted under the categories o management, design, operations, control, maintenance
and installation and commissioning. 1he maximum points attainable were thus twele
or best practice achieement, whereas the minimum points needed to achiee a base
energy eiciency was seenteen. 1able 3.6 ,Appendix B, illustrates the ealuation
criteria in greater detail.

3.6 CONCLUSIONS


1o eectiely answer the question !bat i. tbe effect of otivi.atiov of 1.C .,.tev. for
everg, efficievc, iv ei.tivg .etectea vbtic bvitaivg. iv ]obavve.bvrg.` the research employed a case
study approach in which a set o twenty two cases were purposiely sampled. 1he
criterion or case selection was the use o building as a library, accessibility to be public,
and management to be either by a research institution or goernment. 1he cases selected
were distributed between Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality-Southern zone library
buildings ,16 buildings in total,, Uniersity o the \itwatersrand buildings ,5 buildings in
total, and CSIR ,1 building,. 1he cases at Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality were
80

selected using snowball sampling, whereas those at the Uniersity o the \itwatersrand
and the CSIR were selected based on conenience,purposie sampling. Accessibility
diiculties, limited time and inance dictated the use o snowball sampling and
conenience,purposie sampling techniques in the study.

1he dominant methodological procedures were qualitatie though the research could be
eectiely described as employing mixed methods. 1he methods and tools used in the
study included questionnaires, interiews, structured obseration and documentary
research. Questionnaires were distributed to 40 respondents ,building operators and
occupants, who were selected on the basis o stratiied sampling with 2 respondents
being selected per building studied. Interiews with the Liaison Oicers in the study
acilitated the build up o case-distinctie notes which enabled case-speciic details to be
established. Structured obseration on the acilities isited helped in establishing details
like types, conditions and practices o lVAC systems in the studied buildings.
Documentary eidence was used to establish practices and techniques in the
installations.

In general it can be said that the studied was largely interpretatie in nature with aspects
o positiists` methods being applied in the inestigation. 1he interpretatie nature
allowed the beneits o contextualising the indings while the positiists` method enabled
the study to maintain additional reliability and alidity due to the replicable nature.
81

CHAP1LR 4: PRLSLN1A1ION OI IINDINGS
4.J IN1RODUC1ION

1his section attempts to answer the research questions posed earlier on. 1he results were
obtained ater energy audits on 22 buildings. 1he audits mainly ocused on lVAC
systems operated in the buildings. In addition questionnaires on operations and
management o lVAC systems were distributed to building operators,tenants and
occupants,building users.

1he results are categorised and presented under the headings management, design,
operations, controls, maintenance and installation and commissioning. In addition,
eiciency and optimisation ealuation results are presented later in section 4.8. lurther
details about this chapter are discussed in the sections below.
4.2 MANAGLMLN1

1his section presents results about ownership, details o buildings, use to which the
building is put, accountability, budgeting and energy conseration programmes in place
in the buildings.
4.2.J Ownership of buildings


A total o 22 buildings were studied in the research. O these, 6 buildings belonged to
research institutions whereas 16 buildings belonged to the goernment through the
Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality. Ownership details o the building are o prime
importance because it inluences the type o energy eiciency programmes pursued.
ligure 4.2a illustrates the percentage details o the building ownership categories.



82

ligure 4.2a Ownership details o buildings


Source: lield interiew, 2008


All the buildings studied were those accessible to a large number o people as the general
public, as students or as researchers. Due to this large number o users the issue o
conersance with lVAC systems operations was considered o prime importance. \hen
asked whether they were conersant with the lVAC systems operation, the majority o
the building occupants and also operators responded negatiely. ,Reer to ligure 4.2b.,

1he terms building occupants` was used to reer to the general public or
students,researchers isiting the building whereas building operators` reerred to
employees tasked with managing the building acility. 1his issue was inestigated
because a lack o knowledge may result in a high susceptibility to abuse o systems which
could lead to energy ineiciency ,\ulingho, 1999,.





83

ligure 4.2b: Public Users,Visitors Conersance with lVAC systems operations

Public Users/Visitors and building operators conversant with operating
HVAC system in the building
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
P
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
n

c
o
n
v
e
r
s
a
n
t

w
i
t
h

o
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
f

H
V
A
C

s
y
s
t
e
m

i
n

t
h
e

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
Public users 10% 90%
Building operators 60% 40%
Yes No

Source: lield interiew, 2008

Another issue inestigated was the method o communicating operations procedure or
enorcing amiliarity with lVAC systems, \ulingho ,1999, adocates the use o
placards in this regards, arguing that they are cheap and to the point.

Obserations reealed that all the buildings managed by Research Institutions ,\its
Uniersity and CSIR, had placards giing contacts to report general malunctioning and
operations instructions in place. 1his is as shown in ligure 4.2c. 1he positioning o the
placards were howeer not suitable as most occupants could hardly een recall haing
seen them.




84

ligure 4.2c: Percentages o buildings displaying placards on lVAC systems
operations,malunction reporting

Percentages of buildings displaying placards on HVAC Systems
operations/malfunction reporting
0
30
100
130
ercenLages wl Lh
pl acards
100 0
ercenLages wl LhouL
pl acards
0 100
8esearch lns. 8ul l dl ngs CovernmenL 8ul l dl ngs


Source: lield interiew, 2008

4.2.2 Use of Building

Issues inestigated under the heading use o building` included the purpose or which
the building was constructed and the period during which the building was put to use.
1he buildings studied were oerwhelmingly or library use. O all the buildings studied
64 were entirely or library use only whereas the remainder were or mixed usage
,Oice and Library, 14, mixed usage ,Oice, Library and Lntertainment lall, 14
and, mixed usage ,Oice, Library, Car Parking and Lntertainment lall, with Oice only
accounting or 4.



83

lig 4.2d: Use o building


Source: lield interiew, 2008

4.2.3 Accountability


It is normally important to hae speciic task assignment or any management actions to
succeed. 1his study reealed that there was nobody speciically tasked with energy
management in 20 o the buildings isited ,reer ligure 4.2e,. Only 2 buildings had
operators tasked with energy management.

1his implied a lack o planning or energy management and urther highlighted the act
that or most buildings the use o energy by the building equipment and by extension the
lVAC systems was not a consideration.



86


lig. 4.2e: Assignment o responsibility or energy management


Source: lield results, 2008

4.2.4 Budgeting

Budgets are important in resource allocation because they put a ceiling on its use and in
the process enorce saings. Lnergy use in lVAC systems must not be an exception,
this study reealed that only one building isited had an annual energy budget with
associated costs attached to it.

It should be noted that een this sole building ,haing an energy consumption budget,
did not speciically hae a deined allocation or lVAC system consumption but rather
had a general amount allocated to water and electricity consumption.



87

ligure 4.2: Lnergy consumption budget


Source: lield results, 2008

4.2.S Lnergy conservation

All the goernment-owned buildings studied did not hae energy saing programmes in
place to reduce,control consumption or lVAC systems. On the other hand, all
research institutions isited practiced some measure o energy saing, at the CSIR
departments were allocated utilities budget which had to be adhered to.

In addition, use was made o lVAC systems using ariable requency drie motors to
limit consumption o electricity. At the Uniersity o the \itwatersrand sites special
emphasis was made on closing doors on account o the weather, use o placards to urge
aster reporting o abnormalities and centralised operations o systems.


88

ligure 4.2g: Lnergy conseration programme

Energy Saving Program
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
Buildings with Energy
Saving Program
27% 0
Buildings without
Energy Saving Program
0 63%
Research Ins. Buildings Government Buildings

Source: lield interiew, 2008

4.3 DLSIGN

1he approach taken was to inestigate the design philosophy used in the analysis o the
heating,cooling load and the types o equipment selected or the building. 1hese are
discussed in the sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.

4.3.J Design Philosophy & methods of load analysis

1he issue inestigated under this heading was the use o conentional , mixing methods
ersus total displacement olume ,1DV, method in the design process and the methods
o load analysis employed during design process. All the buildings studied employed
conentional ,mixing technique in lVAC systems design. 1his is despite the act that
89

aailable literature suggest that approximately 20 energy saing may be realised using
while using 1DV method ,Roth et at., 2002, Lunneburg, 2003,.

1he method o load analysis is o great importance because the heating,cooling load
estimation is the key determinant o equipment size. 1he precision o the heating
,cooling load calculation is thereore highly crucial as oer-estimation leads to selection
o an oersized system and thereore unnecessary high amount o energy consumption.
On the other hand, under-estimation o the heating ,cooling load would lead to an
under-sized equipment selection hence a likely lVAC system ailure.

4.3.2 1ypes of Lquipment/Lquipment selection

In this research it was reealed that oer 65 o the buildings isited used room
conditioning units and sel contained lVAC systems. ligure 4.2a and 4.2b outline the
distribution and types o lVAC systems encountered in this study.

It was reealed that 45 o the buildings studied used packaged lVAC systems and that
a urther 35 used a mixture o packaged and centralised. Only 20 o the buildings
studied used centralised lVAC systems. lurther dierentiations in the lVAC systems
distribution appear in ligures 4.3 c and 4.3d








90

20%
45%
35%
Centralised Air systems
Packaged HVAC systems
Centralised Air systems &
Packaged HVAC systems
ligure 4.3a: 1ypes o lVAC systems in use
















Source: lield interiew, 2008


ligure 4.3b: 1ypes o lVAC systems in use

Source: lield results, 2008 ,NB: 1here were multiple types o lVAC systems at some
buildings,
91

7
3
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Multi-zone VAV
Single-zone VAV
CV system
T
y
p
e
s

o
f

C
e
n
t
r
a
l
i
s
e
d

H
V
A
C

s
y
s
t
e
m
s

U
s
e
d
Number of Buildings
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radiators
Self Contained HVAC, Underfloor heaters
Underfloor Heaters, Radiators, Convectors
Self Contained HVAC
Number of Buildings
ligure 4.3c: 1ypes o Centralised lVAC system used
Source: lield interiew, 2008

ligure 4 .3d Categories o Packaged lVAC systems
Source: lield interiew, 2008
Details o lVAC systems obsered during the study appear in 1able 4.2 ,Appendix B,.
92

4.4 OPLRA1IONS

1his section examines the leel o occupancy and schedule o operations to ind out i
re-sequencing o these could improe the energy eiciency attribute o the lVAC
systems studied.

4.4.J Schedule of operations

1he study reealed that in three o research buildings, lVAC systems operated 24 hours
daily whereas in a urther two, the lVAC systems operated or a period o between 8-12
hours daily. Only one research institution building studied had its lVAC system
operating only when the occupants needed it. All the goernment owned buildings
operated their lVAC systems 8-12 hours daily. It was also reealed that the lVAC
systems in all the buildings except one were operated as long as buildings were
operational. 1he CSIR building acility was the only one that had lVAC system
operating only wheneer the occupants needed it. 1he details o the operations
schedules or the lVAC systems studied in this research are as summarised in ligure
4.4a and 4.4b.

1he turning o o lVAC systems when not in use eliminates or reduces the use o
energy through unnecessary conditioning, reheat losses and an,pump operations. It
thereore ollows that lVAC systems should only be operated when necessary. In this
regard it is adised that or buildings with regular schedule o operations, timers should
be used to stop and start components ,\ulingho, 1999,.









93

ligure 4.4a: lours o operation & ownership details


Source: lield results, 2008


ligure 4.4b: Operation schedule
Schedule of Operation (Hours of Operation)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
24 hrs. Only when
needed
12-24 hrs. 0-8 hrs. 8-12 hrs.
Daily Operation Hours
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s

Source: lield results, 2008


94

4.4.2 Occupancy levels

ligures 4.4e and 4.4 illustrate the obsered leel o occupancy in the buildings isited. It
was obsered that in oer hal o the buildings the occupancy leel was less than 50 o
the optimum designed space ,reer to lig.4.4e,.

ligure 4.4 e: Occupancy leels in buildings
Level of Occupancy
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%
Less than 25%
25% to 50%
50% to 75%
Over 75%
%

O
c
c
u
p
a
n
c
y
Proportion of buildings

Source: lield results, 2008

It was urther reealed that occupancy leel in Research Institution owned buildings
were aboe 50 o the ull capacity at all times ,reer ligure 4.4g,.







93

lig. 4.4g: Occupancy leels & ownership category
Occupancy levels & ownership
0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%
Government
Buildings
Research Ins.
Buildings
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

O
c
c
u
p
a
n
c
y
Percentage of buildings
Less than 25% 25% to 50% 50% to 75% Over 75%

Source: lield interiew, 2008

ligure 4.5a: Combinations o lVAC systems Control components in buildings

Source: lield results, 2008
96

4.S CON1ROLS

liteen goernment-operated buildings used classic control systems with the greatest
proportion being the type 1 combination
11
. Details are as shown in ligure 4.5. 1ype 1
control combination allows or basic operation by manually switching the systems on
and o while haing a proision or operating the lVAC components on a timer based
on occupancy schedules,pattern. \hereas this system is an energy saing opportunity, it
allows little or personalised spaces and irregular occupancy patterns. A ew goernment
buildings used type 2
12
control combination which did not hae a manual oerride
system but which was zone-based to handle multiple room temperatures.

1he research institution buildings used only type 3
13
and type 4
14
control combinations.
1he ormer allows or centralised operation o On,O Isolator, 1imer and Auto-
1hermostat components whereas the later ensures indiidualised room operation ia an
On,O Isolator, 1imer, lan Speed Controls, 1emperature controls aailable ia remote
control set. 1his ensures not only customised room conditions but also greater
opportunities or energy saings. \ulingho ,1999, argues that automatic controls are
oten better than manual controls and stresses that wheneer the ormer are installed
care should be taken to inorm occupants o the working modalities o the systems. In
addition lexibility should be allowed or where occupancy patterns luctuate. 1his iew
is satisied entirely in the type 4 control components combination which was only used
in one building.

1he lack o use o type 4 control component combinations is probably associated with
the inesse and high costs that go with it. Another key issue inestigated was amiliarity
o the building occupants and users with lVAC system controls. 1he study reealed

11
1ype 1 control combination is composed o On,O Isolator, 1imer & Auto-1hermostat with manual
oer-ride
12
1ype 2 control combination is composed o On,O Isolator, 1imer & Auto-1hermostat, Zone
Controls
13
1ype 3 control combination is composed o On,O Isolator, 1imer & Auto-1hermostat
14
1ype 4 control combination is Indiidualised system with On,O Isolator, 1imer, lan Speed Controls,
1emperature controls aailable ia remote control set
97

that in all buildings isited the occupants were not ully conersant with the operations
o the control systems ,reer to 1able 4.5,. 1his lies in the ace o the assertion that non
amiliarity with controls oten lead to andalism ,\ulingho, 1999,. In this case no
andalism on the control knobs was reported in the buildings studied.

1able 4.5: Are the Occupants ully conersant or amiliar with lVAC control system in
the building
Source: lield results, 2008

Neertheless, it would be greatly adantageous i operators were gien inormation on
the operation o the control systems ia the use o placards or oice bulletins. In
summary, the conditions o controls were good in the research institutions buildings but
oscillated between good and poor or goernment buildings ,reer ligure 4.5b,.

ligure 4.5b: Conditions o controls in lVAC systems

Source: lield results, 2008
Response Category

Buildings Category



No \es
Goernment Buildings 100 0
Research Ins. Buildings 100 0
98

4.6 MAIN1LNANCL

1he aspects o maintenance inestigated in this section included telemetry, planning in
maintenance and age o equipment or retroits. 1he details ollow in the next sections.
4.6.J Measurement and Monitoring

A crucial task in energy saing, or conseration or eiciency practices or lacility
Managers and Lngineers is normally a measurement o the amount o energy consumed
by building equipment. 1he study reealed that close to a quarter o the buildings had
energy consumption measurement systems in place. lurther inquiry established that een
where the energy measurement system was in place, the meters were rarely read and the
idea was as recent as the electricity supply crisis in the country. ligures 4.65a and 4.6b
illustrates the results in details.


ligure 4.6a: Buildings with Lnergy Measurement Systems in Place
Energy Measurement System
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0%
Buildings with
Energy
Consumption
Meters/monitoring
system
Buildings without
energy
consumption
meters/monitoring
systems
Proportion of Buildings

Source: lield results
99



It should also be noted that all the buildings with energy measurement systems in place
were those managed by Research Institutions ,\its Uniersity,. It was urther noted that
at the time o research the meters were barely 8 months old and the actual readings were
unknown to the lacilities Managers in the institutions. Attempts to acquire the measured
consumption was unsuccessul.


ligure 4.6b: Buildings with Lnergy Measurement Systems in Place Showing Ownership
details
Relationship between ownership/management & energy
consumption measurement
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Research Ins. Buildings Government Buildings
Categories of ownership/mamagement
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
Percentage wi th Energy Consumpti on Meters/moni tori ng system
Percentage wi thout energy consumpti on meters/moni tori ng systems

Source: lield interiew, 2008

4.6.2 Maintenance Planning

1he research reealed that there were no planned maintenance serices or lVAC
systems in any building except one ,reer to ligure 4.6c,. lurther inquiry reealed that
100

the reasons or lack o planned maintenance serices or lVAC systems included lack o
adequate inancial allocation, insuicient manpower and ignorance. 1he lVAC systems
in the buildings were only repaired when they became aulty or less eicient. In the
buildings in the research institutions, maintenance and repair serices were mainly
outsourced and the skeletal sta aailable presided oer the management aspect o the
job. In goernment-owned buildings the repair and maintenance work were the
responsibility o the sta proided by the goernment.

ligure 4.6c: Planned Maintenance serice or lVAC systems in buildings


Source: lield results, 2008

lurther eidence o interesting maintenance tendencies are in the act that in all the
centralised systems installations no duct cleaning had been undertaken since installation
o the systems. Lighty percent o the centralised lVAC systems had duct works with
possible leakage, this urther underlined the preailing poor maintenance practices in
public buildings. 1he case or maintenance management is een worsened by the act
101

that the goernment buildings tend to hae unreasonably long response time to correct
deects in the systems ,oer 4 weeks, and that correction depended on aailability o
unds and was not automatic ,reer to ligures 4.6d and 4.6e,. 1his led to a situation
whereby a number o buildings managed by goernment had their lVAC systems aulty.

ligure 4.6d: Response time to correct aults
Source: lield results, 2008

ligure 4.6e: contact details or reporting aults in systems

Source: lield interiew, 2008
102

Additionally, it was discoered that the goernment-owned buildings did not hae
publicly isible guidelines or users to report aults in the system. On the other hand, in
the research institutions buildings placards were used to adise occupants to report
malunctions in the building elements. 1his ensured a reliable eedback mechanism
necessary or successul maintenance.

It was also obsered that the responsibility or the maintenance o lVAC systems in the
research institution buildings was entirely outsourced to contractors with speciic skilled
sta being in-charge o works superision ,reer to ligure 4.6,. 1he contractors were on
a list o institution-preerred endors, these contractors were always called wheneer
required or reactie maintenance duty by the institutions.

ligure 4.6: lVAC Maintenance Responsibility

1
6
6
0
5
10
15
20
Who is in charge of HVAC system maintenance in the
building?
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
Building Operator 16 0
Maintenance Contractor
0 6
Government Buildings Research Ins. Buildings

Source: lield results, 2008

103

4.6.3 Age of equipment/retrofits

ligure 4.6i illustrates the age o categories or lVAC systems studied in this research. In
cases where the lVAC systems had retroits, the equipment age was taken as the age o
the retroits.


ligure 4.6i: Age o lVAC systems,age o retroits
Age of HVAC systems or age of retrofits in buildings
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Government Buildings Research Ins. Buildings
Category of HVAC systems/retrofit ages
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
2 to 3 yrs. 3 to 5 yrs. 5 to 10 yrs. Over 10 yrs.

Source: lield Results

It was ound that goernment buildings operated relatiely new lVAC systems
compared to the research institutions. 1his could be explained by the act that in a
number o goernment buildings isited. Most lVAC systems were installed as an
aterthought or as later improements in buildings ,these include Vosloorus, 1hokoza,
Ldenpark, Spruitiew, Katlehong, Zonkizizwe and Reigerspark,. Len goernment
buildings with old lVAC systems had retroits undertaken in them in the last 10 years.

104

4.7 INS1ALLA1ION AND COMMISSIONING

1he key issues examined in this section were improper installation and due
commissioning. Discussions on this appear below.

Improper installation

Interiew with the liaison in-charge at Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Library reealed that
certain lVAC installations ,in particular the lVAC systems at Isaac Mokoena,
Spruitiew, Zonkizizwe, were improperly installed and neer operated or a long time
ater the handed oer o the acilities. 1his orced the management to install the room
conditioning units which are currently operational in the buildings.

1he Reigerspark acility ,Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Library, howeer had a slightly
dierent type o improper installation. In this case the room conditioning units were all
installed on one side o the reading hall leading to the issue o poor positioning o
equipment in acilities. Ideally the lVAC units would hae been uniormly distributed in
the building.

Concerning radiators,element heaters it was reealed that the installations at John
Moat building were oten positioned below the curtains leading to a situation whereby
the heated air was easily entilated out o the window. \ulingho ,1999, articulates
that where element heaters are used, the heated air must be away rom the window and
directed towards the centre o the room.

Commissioning

1he study reealed that lVAC systems in a substantial number o buildings were not
duly commissioned. 1hese were 10 Goernment Buildings and 2 Research Buildings.
1he due commissioning process required proper documentation, maintenance manuals
103

and hand oer notes aailable to the building operators beore the initial operation.
Details o buildings with Commissioned lVAC systems are presented in ligure 4.a.

lig. 4.a: Commissioning o lVAC systems
HVAC Systems Commissioning Process
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Government Buildings Research Ins. Buildings
Category of buildings
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

b
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
Bui l di ngs wi th Commi ssi oned HVAC systems
Bui l di ngs wi th Non-commi ssi oned HVAC systems

Source: lield interiew, 2008

4.8 BASL LIIICILNCY AND OP1IMISA1ION IOR LNLRGY

In an eort to classiy the lVAC systems in buildings as either energy-ineicient,
achieing base energy eiciency or optimally energy-eicient, the assessments were
based on the criteria described in section 3.5. At the end o award o points, any lVAC
system achieing a weighted score o 6 points was deemed as haing attained the base
energy eiciency, a weighted score o less than 6 was deemed ineicient whereas a
weighted score o to 12 was categorised as optimally energy-eicient. 1ables 4.8a to
4.8 illustrate the scores resulting rom ealuation o eiciency leels and optimisation
possibilities in this study.


106

1able 4.8a: Laluation details o management issues
Laluation Points Awarded

Site,Building

PC AP LM LB LC
\t. Mean
Leandale 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vosloorus 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ldenpark 0 0 0 0 0 0
1hokoza 0 0 0 0 0 0
Spruitiew 0 0 0 0 0 0
Llsburg 0 0 0 0 0 0
Boksburg 0 0 0 0 0 0
Germiston 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dinwiddie 0 0 0 0 0 0
Katlehong 0 0 0 0 0 0
Isaac Mokena 0 0 0 0 0 0
Zonkizizwe 0 0 0 0 0 0
Reigerpark 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brackenhurst 2 0 0 0 0
0.40
Alberton 0 0 0 0 0
0
Palm Ridge 0 0 0 0 0
0
CSIR Building 2 2 1 0 1 2
1.2
\illiam Cullen 0 1 1 0 1
0.6
\artenweiller 0 1 2 0 1
0.8
John Moat 0 1 0 0 1
0.4
Ldu-Com 0 1 0 0 1
0.4
Donald Gordon 0 1 0 0 1
0.4
Key
PC: Conersance o public with systems,
AP: Placards or operation,ault reporting
LM: Assignment o responsibility or energy management
LB: Lnergy Budget,
LC: Lnergy Conseration

Source: lield Results, 2008




107

1able 4.8b: Design philosophy ealuation

Site,Building

Design Philosophy
Laluation
Leandale 0
Vosloorus 0
Ldenpark 0
1hokoza 0
Spruitiew 0
Llsburg 0
Boksburg 0
Germiston 0
Dinwiddie 0
Katlehong 0
Isaac Mokena 0
Zonkizizwe 0
Reigerpark 0
Brackenhurst 0
Alberton 0
Palm Ridge 0
CSIR Building 2 0
\illiam Cullen 0
\artenweiller 0
John Moat 0
Ldu-Com 0
Donald Gordon 0
Source: lield Results, 2008





108

1able 4.8c: Laluation details o operations schedule
Site,Building
Operations Schedule Laluation
Leandale 0
Vosloorus 0
Ldenpark 0
1hokoza 0
Spruitiew 0
Llsburg 0
Boksburg 0
Germiston 0
Dinwiddie 0
Katlehong 0
Isaac Mokena 0
Zonkizizwe 0
Reigerpark 0
Brackenhurst 0
Alberton 0
Palm Ridge 0
CSIR Building 2 2
\illiam Cullen 1
\artenweiller 1
John Moat 1
Ldu-Com 1
Donald Gordon 1
Source: lield Results, 2008


109

1able 4.8d Laluation Details or Controls
Laluation Points
Site,Building



Control 1ype

Occupants'
Conersance
\t. Mean
Leandale 1 0
0.5
Vosloorus 1 0
0.5
Ldenpark 1 0
0.5
1hokoza 0 0
0
Spruitiew 1 0
0.5
Llsburg 1 0
0.5
Boksburg 1 0
0.5
Germiston 0 0
0
Dinwiddie 1 0
0.5
Katlehong 0 0
0
Isaac Mokena 0 0
0
Zonkizizwe 1 0
0.5
Reigerpark 1 0
0.5
Brackenhurst 1 0
0.5
Alberton 0 0
0
Palm Ridge 0 0
0
CSIR Building 2 2 0
1
\illiam Cullen 1 0
0.5
\artenweiller 1 0
0.5
John Moat 1 0
0.5
Ldu-Com 1 0
0.5
Donald Gordon 1 0
0.5
Source: lield Results, 2008




110

1able 4.8e: Laluation details o maintenance
Laluation Points
Site,Building


LMM

MP

R1

CD

MR

AG

\t. Mean
Leandale 0 0 0 1 1 1
0.5
Vosloorus 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Ldenpark 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
1hokoza 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Spruitiew 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Llsburg 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Boksburg 0 0 0 1 1 1
0.50
Germiston 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Dinwiddie 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Katlehong 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Isaac Mokena 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Zonkizizwe 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Reigerpark 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Brackenhurst 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
Alberton 0 0 0 1 1 1
0.50
Palm Ridge 0 0 0 1 1 2
0.6
CSIR Building 2 0 2 2 1 2 2
1.50
\illiam Cullen 1 1 2 2 2 1
1.50
\artenweiller 1 1 2 2 2 2
1.6
John Moat 1 1 2 2 2 1
1.5
Ldu-Com 1 1 2 2 2 2
1.6
Donald Gordon 1 1 2 2 2 2
1.6
Key
LMM: Lnergy Measurement & Monitoring
MP: Maintenance Planning
R1: Response time in correcting aults,
CD: Contact Details or reporting aults
MR: Maintenance responsibility,
AG: Age o equipment
Source: lield Results, 2008
111

1able 4.8: Laluation details o installation and commissioning
Laluation Points
Site,Building



Installation

Commissioning

\t. Mean
Leandale 1 1
1
Vosloorus 1 0
0.50
Ldenpark 1 1
1
1hokoza 1 0
0.50
Spruitiew 0 0
0
Llsburg 1 0
0.50
Boksburg 1 1
1
Germiston 1 1
1
Dinwiddie 1 0
0.50
Katlehong 1 0
0.50
Isaac Mokena 0 0
0
Zonkizizwe 0 0
0
Reigerpark 0 0
0
Brackenhurst 1 1
1
Alberton 1 1
1
Palm Ridge 1 0
0.50
CSIR Building 2 2 2
2
\illiam Cullen 1 0
1
\artenweiller 1 1
1
John Moat 0 0
0
Ldu-Com 1 1
1
Donald Gordon 1 1
1
Source: lield Results, 2008




112

4.9 SUMMARY OI IINDINGS

1wenty two buildings were studied in this research. O these sixteen were categorised as
goernment-owned while the rest were considered research institution owned. 1he
buildings studied were mainly used or library purposes, other uses also included
entertainment, parking and oice space. lindings generally reealed lVAC systems in
selected existing public buildings to be hampered by practices which do not encourage
energy eiciency in their management, design, operations, control systems, maintenance,
installation and commissioning. 1he sections ,4.9.1 to 4.9.8, present summarised
indings or the study.
4.9.J Management

Only two buildings studied had sta assigned with the task o energy management o all
building systems ,including lVAC,. 1his implied that een i the management were
aware o energy eiciency or conseration they were yet to get their act in order. In
summary, it appeared that energy consumption planning was lacking at the acilities
isited. Concerning budgeting, only one building had a cost-based energy consumption
budget, reealing once more poor energy consumption planning and by extension, poor
understanding o the urgent need or energy eiciency in buildings.

It is worth noting that een this building did not hae a speciic budget allocated to the
energy consumption o lVAC systems. It should be noted that all goernment
buildings studied as opposed to those owned by the research institutions did not hae
energy conseration programs in place. 1his could hae been due to general lethargy
associated with implementation policies by the goernment.
113

4.9.2 Design

Len though the 1DV method is touted as most iable, there is persistent presence o
the conentional,mixing method, possibly because o unamiliarity with the ormer.

1here was predominant use o room conditioning in acilities isited. 1his could be
attributed to their economical use o space and ease o installation and operations,
especially where lVAC system planning was not originally part o the building or where
the main system has ailed. 1his was demonstrated by its use in acilities at \illiam
Cullen ,\its Uniersity, and Reigerspark, Zonkizizwe, Spruitiew, Vosloorus, Ldenpark,
1hokoza, Katlehong and Isaac Mokoena ,Lkurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality,.

4.9.3 Operations

It was reealed that een though the occupancy leels luctuated in all instances, the
operation o the lVAC systems were neer sequenced to optimally operate with
occupancy leels. 1his ensured the lVAC systems were always operated at peak capacity
een when the unction was not demanded.

4.9.4 Controls


Most control systems used in the lVAC systems in the acilities isited perormed only
the basic purpose o isolating them rom electricity supply. 1his led to a situation
whereby energy eiciency was not integrated into the lVAC control system.

4.9.S Maintenance

Continuous monitoring and measurement o energy consumption and other
perormance based attributes o lVAC systems was generally lacking. \here aailable
114

the systems were let unattended as was the case o the meters installed in acilities at the
Uniersity o the \itwatersrand. 1his denied the lacility Managers the opportunity to
ine-tune systems or continuous improement in energy eiciency.

1he maintenance system was generally reactie and unplanned, leading to a situation
whereby lVAC systems could operate ineiciently and consume additional energy
unnecessarily. In addition, the response time taken to repair aults or malunctions in
goernment acilities took longer in comparison with research institutions ones.

1his again betrayed possible waste o energy while this equipment continued operation.
It was also reealed that oer 50 o the research institutions buildings operated lVAC
systems which were oer 5 years old ,close to 30 o these were oer 10 years old,. 1his
gae eidence o reduced energy eiciency in them, taken that the liespan o lVAC
systems is conentionally assumed to be 15 years.


4.9.6 Installation and Commissioning

Improper installation was noticed in isolated acilities
15
with regards to the positioning o
lVAC equipment. In total twele acilities had cases o improper commissioning.










15
1hese were at John Moat and Reigerspark buildings
113

1able 4.9 Rating or optimisation o energy
\eighted Means or Lnergy Liciency Attributes` Category

Site,Building



MG1

DSN

OPN

CON M1N

I&C 1otal

Leandale 0 0 0 0.50
0.50
1
2
Vosloorus 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0.50
1.6
Ldenpark 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
1
2.1
1hokoza 0 0 0 0
0.6
0.50
1.1
Spruitiew 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0
1.1
Llsburg 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0.50
1.6
Boksburg 0 0 0 0.50
0.50
1
2
Germiston 0 0 0 0
0.6
1
1.6
Dinwiddie 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0.50
1.6
Katlehong 0 0 0 0
0.6
0.50
1.1
Isaac Mokena 0 0 0 0
0.6
0
0.6
Zonkizizwe 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0
1.1
Reigerpark 0 0 0 0.50
0.6
0
1.1
Brackenhurst 0.40 0 0 0.50
0.6
1
2.5
Alberton 0 0 0 0
0.50
1
1.50
Palm Ridge 0 0 0 0
0.6
0.50
1.1
CSIR Building 2 1.20 0 2 1
1.50
2
.0
\illiam Cullen 0.60 0 1 0.50
1.50
1
4.60
\artenweiller 0.80 0 1 0.50
1.6
1
4.9
John Moat 0.40 0 1 0.50
1.50
0
3.40
Ldu-Com 0.40 0 1 0.50
1.6
1
4.5
Donald Gordon 0.40 0 1 0.50
1.6
1
4.5

Key
MG1: Management
DSN: Design
OPN: Operation
CON: Controls
M1N: Maintenance
I&C: Installation and Commissioning


Source: lield Results, 2008
116

4.9.7 Optimisation for Lnergy

Only lVAC system in one acility managed to surpass the base energy eiciency leel
,this was CSIR Building 2 which managed a weighted mean o .0 points out o a
maximum o 12 points,. 1he acility haing the least energy eiciency rating was Isaac
Mokoena at 0.6 weighted mean total ollowed by 1hokoza, Spruitiew, Katlehong,
Zonkizizwe, and Palmridge at 1.1 point. None o the studied acilities could be rated as
haing achieed the base eiciency requirement. Details o these appear in 1able 4.9
,ratings are or optimisation o energy,.

1able 4.9 b: Percentiles
Percentile Smallest Measure Largest Measure
1 0.6 0.6
5 1.1 1.1
10 1.1 1.1
25 1.1 1.1
50 1.6 -
5 3.40 4.5
90 4.60 4.60
95 4.9 4.9
99 .0 .0


1able 4.9c: Measures o ariability
Description Measure
Mean 2.4
Standard Deiation 1.6
Variance 3.11
Skewness 1.4
Kurtosis 4.54



1able 4.9b and 4.9c gie the percentiles o the distribution and the measures o
ariability respectiely.
117

ligure 4.8: Box Plot or the distribution
0
2
4
6
8
t
o
t
a
l


ligure 4.9: listogram plot
0
.
1
.
2
.
3
.
4
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
0 2 4 6 8
total


ligures 4.8 and 4.9 gie illustratie plots o box distribution and histogram or the
weighted totals in study.

118

CHAP1LR S: ANALYSIS

S.J IN1RODUC1ION

1his chapter discusses the indings o the study. 1he sections are thematically structured
under the headings management, design, operations, controls, maintenance, installation
and commissioning.

Dierent types o lVAC systems aailable in the studied acilities and respectie current
states are described, ollowed by an analytical look at their optimisation or energy
purposes. In general, this chapter explains the reason behind the low energy-eiciency o
lVAC systems reealed in chapter 4, while also oering prescriptie insights on
emerging themes.

S.2 MANAGLMLN1

1he main issues explored included ownership o buildings, use o buildings, and
accountability or energy management, budgeting or energy consumption and
conseration programmes. Details appear in the sections below.
S.2.J Ownership of buildings

Larlier, literature showed that property owners and tenants play a key role in the
implementation o energy eiciency measures as that they are the ones who pay utility
bills and hae the onus to decide on project inestments ,\ilkinson and Reed, 2006,. In
this regard, the goernment agencies and research institutions, as owners o the
buildings, need to streamline their acilities management systems to ensure that energy
eiciency issues are handled in a simpliied and aster manner. 1his may be diicult
considering that optimisation in lVAC systems could inole retroits or equipment
upgrades, hence high capital inputs. 1he standard procedure would be procurement and
hence a long procurement process which is aected by initial cost o the bids,
119

airmatie action and possible in-competence in energy-eiciency or projected saings
presented in the bids ,\orld Lnergy Council, 2008, \iel, 1991,. 1he concept o energy
perormance contracting ,and hence selected bidding to prequaliied companies, with
emphasis on lie-cycle costs and energy saings as suggested by \orld Lnergy Council
,2008, and Sardianou ,2008, may mean ery high capital costs. loweer the siler lining
is in the energy saings oer the total lie cycle o the building.

S.2.2 Use of Building

1aken that buildings, like any other engineered products, are purpose-made to it the
client`s requirements, it automatically ollows that those allowing public access or which
are subjected to heay usage must hae lVAC systems that can cope with use and
abuse. 1he goernment owned buildings studied had occupants who were illiterate and
uninormed on lVAC systems operations. In addition, they had no idea on how to
report system malunctions. 1his is contrary to the best practice or energy eiciency
that enisages clearly isible placards explaining the details o operations and giing
contact details o the sta to report malunctioning o the lVAC systems to
,\ulingho,1999,.

S.2.3 Accountability for energy management

Lack o planning or energy management was eident in the buildings isited taking into
account that only two o the buildings studied had operators held accountable or energy
management. 1he optimisation o lVAC systems needs det management o human
behaiour and general administration o the programme. 1his serice may either be
outsourced or perormed in-house as suggested by Bream ,1986,. \hicheer method
chosen, somebody must be appointed to be responsible or energy management. 1he
key issue would be to ormulate and implement an energy management programme. In
the cases studied, the best option or the goernment-owned buildings may be to train
the existing Building Operators ,Custodian Librarians and Janitors and Parking
120

Attendants, to manage the buildings. lor the Research Institution buildings studied it
may be prudent to expand the scope o acilities management superisors to include
energy management.
S.2.4 Lnergy Consumption Budget

Bream ,1986, is categorical that inance is the backbone o the successul
implementation o an energy saing programme. As such, a irm budget or energy
consumption is a sure way towards optimisation o lVAC systems. 1his is based on the
premise that it allows or benchmarking the actual consumption. 1he act that only one
building had a ague budget in place eectiely implies that the lacilities Managers in
both research institutions and goernment-owned buildings are ill-inormed and ill-
prepared to tackle the issue o energy eiciency. Olosson et at. ,2004, underline the
importance o budgeting, by assertion that whether negotiated, statistical-based or lie-
cycle based, the energy consumption budget orms a key role in the assessment o
energy-eiciency perormance o buildings. 1he cases studied would best be budgeted
or by reaching a budget based on statistical comparisons with preious energy billings.

S.2.S Lnergy conservation

Only six out o twenty two buildings had energy conseration measures in place ,all the
six buildings were those managed by research institutions,. 1his trend is worrying,
considering the electricity supply situation in South Arica. 1his could be due to the act
that goernment procedures are highly bureaucratic and innoatie` ideas in
management take long to hatch into reality.

A typical energy conseration actiity would inole capital inestment, improements
in operation o the plant equipment, improement in general housekeeping and an
eectie management o inormation ,1albot, 1986,. In this study, all the elements o
energy conseration actiity were generally lacking in goernment buildings. It should be
taken into account that energy conseration programmes may be a low-capital or high-
121

capital enture. 1he ormer is howeer the most alluring or both research institutions
owned and goernment buildings. Low-capital inestment energy-conseration measures
entail readjusting the operating conditions like space air-temperature, air-supply elocity,
chilled-water temperatures among others, and the resetting o operating conditions to
match seasonal changes and peak or o-peak situations and a reduction in operation
time ,long et at., 2003,. It is conceieable that conseration practices may be best
achieed by training and motiation o the building occupants and operators ,Librarians
and Attendants,.

S.3 DLSIGN

1he realm o energy-eiciency o existing buildings lVAC system design is important as
it aects the method o analysis,design philosophy and type o equipment used. 1hese
aspects are discussed below.
S.3.J Design Philosophy & methods of load analysis

All the buildings studied employed conentional,mixing technique in their lVAC
systems design. 1his could be attributed to the a number o actors including: fir.t the
buildings were designed and built when the 1DV technique was still in its inancy, .ecova
een buildings which were reurbished or retroitted in recent years did not use 1DV
technique because o the grey areas in modelling load capacity, and lastly engineering
standards do not accommodate the 1DV method ,Lunneburg, 2003,.

1he non usage o 1DV denies an opportunity to rake in an energy saings potential in
the range o 22 to 45, depending on the climate and type o equipment operated
,Roth et at., 2002, Lunneburg, 2003 and Massachusetts Institute o 1echnology, 1999,.
Considering that the 1DV is not integrated in the design manuals and standards o the
lVAC system, it is important that more reined studies be undertaken to ensure that the
beneit o its use is harnessed.
122

S.3.2 1ypes of Lquipment/Lquipment selection

Room conditioning units

Room conditioning units are easy to install and operate where the building initially did
not allow or mechanical entilation, heating and air conditioning, so they were a natural
choice or the most o the goernment buildings studied. Another reason explaining the
use o room conditioning system was the act that they tended to be easier to replace
where aged equipment ,mostly air handling system, had ailed. In addition, room
conditioning units oer personalised control systems and thereore are a natural choice
or spaces like oices and reading rooms ,\ulingho, 1999,.

It should be urther noted that the building occupancy rate is ery low and that as the
design oers seeral clusters o reading rooms per acility, the lacility Manager could
implement a system whereby the ew isitors are hosted in particular rooms at ull
capacity while the lVAC system in the unused spaces is shut down. 1his would go a
long way to ensuring that the lVAC systems are optimally operated by minimising on
use,hours o operation.

Radiators

1he method o space heating is disadantaged by the act that it is open to abuse as the
personal manual thermostat allows the occupant to oerheat the room, leading to
unnecessary high energy consumption. 1his method encourages wastage o electricity
and thereore non-optimal use o energy. Certain rooms in acilities may be heated with
open windows, leading to continuous escape o heated air as the cold resh air supply
moes in. In addition, the poor maintenance track obsered in the acilities isited goes
contrary to the suggested best practices or energy eiciency adanced by \ulingho
,1999, who holds that annual oerhauls o the thermostatic controls and heat trapping
against the exterior walls or curtains must be aoided.


123

Under-floor Heaters

Lin et at. ,2005, qualiies the eiciency o under-loor heating systems in comparison to
space heating system by the simple act that it saes liing and working space. 1his is
because it is integrated into the building enelope. Unlike space heating it is not
dependant on the mean eectie temperature which is a unction o the ambient air and
the radiant surace temperature ,Lin et at., 2005,. 1his makes under-loor heating systems
achiee comortable conditions with a cooler air temperature by a large loor-heating
surace. In addition it minimises indoor air pollution by the simple act that it eliminates
orced air moement. 1he main limitation o under-loor heaters was the act that the
installations were aged and the technology used was old wth some oer 20 years old.
1his is with regards to the concerns raised by Adnot et at. ,2005, on the unreliability o
equipment oer 20 years taking into account that most technicians are unamiliar with
them.

Centralised HVAC systems- Chiller Plants and Air handlers

1he main issue arising rom the lVAC systems studied is that they were all using
constant speed motors which were oer 10 years old. I we are to take into account the
study by Xu ,2005,, a reduction in the air change rate by 10 may result in a power
reduction o approximately 2. 1hus, adoption o ariable speed motors would oer a
window o opportunity towards great energy saings in these lVAC systems. Indeed
\endes ,1994, asserts that Adjustable speed dries could lead to up to 50 energy
saings.

1he use o ans is the central element in the operation o air handlers. 1hus the an
energy use proides the key to energy eiciency in these systems. 1he twin issues o the
power transmission systems and the use o motor thus become highly important in
pursuing o energy eiciency in air handlers. 1he use o V-belts in power transmission
or air handlers predominates, at the expense o synchronous belts in the acilities
124

isited. 1his denies them a chance to sae 5 to 10 in energy consumption that could
be achieed i sot-start motor systems were retroitted as obsered by Oman ,2006,.

Rooftop units

1he Air-Conditioning System Design Manual attributes the preerence or roo top units
to their relatiely low cost, ease in installation and economy o loor space ,ASlRAL
Press, 200,. By eliminating the plant room requirement and the possibility is opened up
or seeral tenants owning and operating without inoling the landlord in purchasing
and paying or the system. It is howeer conceeded that these systems hae a relatiely
lower Coeicient o Operation ,ASlRAL Press, 200,.

S.4 OPLRA1IONS

lor optimal energy eiciency, it is oten important to ensure that lVAC systems are not
operational when they are not needed. Most importantly, the operational capacity o the
lVAC system must be matched to the leel o occupancy or the number o occupants
in the room. It must thereore be ensured that proper operational schedules and
occupancy capacity and schedules are well known to ensure energy-eicient operations
management o lVAC systems. 1his is what is described by \ulingho, ,1999, as
minimised duty time` lVAC systems. It is oten accepted as being among best
practices or energy-eicient lVAC systems as it reduces the use o energy through
unnecessary conditioning, reheat losses and an,pump operations. 1his is the reason
behind assignment o the responsibility or unit switching on and o to space
administrators and use o placards, automated controls and timers or buildings with
regular schedule o operations. 1he buildings isited were in this category hence the use
o the methods adised. loweer the use o placards was not as popular. Additionally
the automated controls were not as adanced. 1his led to a situation where ull energy
saings potential was not achieed.

123

A key inding, worth commenting on was the act that the operational capacities o the
lVAC systems were not matched to the leel o occupancy or the number o occupants
in the room. 1his led to the operation o the lVAC systems at peak capacity, yet the
situation demanded otherwise. In this regard, it would seem prudent to use people
sensors to actiate switches on entry into rooms, use o controls connected with lighting
systems to ensure operation only when lights were on and use o timed turn-o switches
to limit conditioning tot selected periods o time or a combination o these
,\ulingho, 1999,. 1his would work best where there are multiple zones in the lVAC
system or where room conditioning units and sel contained lVAC systems are used.
1he underlying objectie o optimal eiciency in this context would be matching the
leel o occupancy with required operation.
S.S CON1ROLS

1ype 4 control components ,which were only used in one scenario, exempliy the best
lexibility to accommodate luctuations in occupancy leels. 1his interaces with the
aboe opinion which articulates the matching o occupancy leels with operation. Little
eidence o the use o type 4 control components may be speculated as being associated
with the inesse and high costs that go with it against the background o cheap electricity
at the time o construction o the buildings ,Venter, 2006, Lnergy Research Institute,
2006,.

It should howeer be noted that the idea o an energy-eicient control system is now
more adanced as eidenced by the use o uzzy control systems which allows or an
aerage o 5 energy saing in lVAC systems ,Roth et at., 2002,. 1his technology was
howeer totally absent rom the isited sites, probably because o its recent nature.

In all buildings isited, the occupants were not ully conersant with the operations o
the control systems yet andalism o the control knobs was not an obsered issue ,reer
to ligure 4.5c,. 1his lies in the ace o \ulingho`s assertion that non-amiliarity with
controls oten lead to andalism ,\ulingho, 1999,. In this case no andalism o the
126

control knobs was reported in the buildings studied. Neertheless, it would be greatly
adantageous i operators were gien inormation on the operation o the control
systems ia the use o placards or oice bulletins.
S.6 MAIN1LNANCL

Only 2 o the total buildings studied achieed a mean score warranting classiication
o the base energy eiciency. At the same time none o the goernment-owned buildings
attained a rating o the base eiciency. 1his denied the acilities opportunities or cost
control, taken in to account that good maintenance practices may lead up to 30 energy
saings. Discussion on maintenance is presented in sections 5.6.1 to 5.6.3.
S.6.J Measurement and Monitoring

Lnergy eiciency practices or lacility Managers and Lngineers demands measurement
o the amount o energy consumed by the building equipment ,Van Gorp, 2004,. It is
only ater measurement o the actual consumption that a benchmark and a reasonable
budget can be established to allow or a ocussed energy-eiciency programme. Contrary
to this, the study ound that the only buildings with energy-measurement systems in
place were those managed by research institutions. None o the goernment-owned
buildings had any measurement and monitoring system in place. It was also obsered
that a portion o the buildings with measurement and monitoring systems in place did
not hae their readings uploaded or analysis, leading to the deduction that the
installation o the meters was a knee-jack reaction to the electricity supply crisis or that
when the energy measurement system was in place, the beneits o the programme were
not clearly understood by the sta inoled in the implementation as it was a
prescriptie measure designed by top management.
S.6.2 Maintenance Planning

1he key objecties o energy-eicient maintenance is sustainable, continuous, trouble-
ree, cost-eectie and unctional operation o the physical assets ,Price, 2006, Lam,
127

200,. loweer, trouble-ree operations are challenging where there are only little or
inadequate unds earmarked or maintenance. 1his would imply eentual collapse o the
systems or a marked reduction in its unctional eiciency. 1he research reealed that
there were no planned maintenance serices or lVAC systems in any building except
one. 1his goes against the grain o the energy eiciency principle that all lVAC systems
must hae an Lnergy Master Plan ,LMP, that has clearly articulated goals aimed at
minimal energy use, optimum occupancy, optimum comort and optimum maintenance
oer its lie cycle ,Maisely and Beerly, 200,.

1he lVAC systems in the buildings were only repaired when they became aulty or less
eicient. 1his is what 1sang ,1999, succinctly reers to as reactie maintenance` and
describes it as ollowing in the traditional perception o maintenance`s role as ixing
broken items. 1sang ,1999, and later Reees ,2008, are proed right on the assertion
that most managers would rather adocate or reduced maintenance expenditure because
the eects are long-term and may not be noticeable during their management term. 1his
is because the primary reason or non-allocation o maintenance unds is the need to
operate on minimum budget cuts oer a whole range o items.

Reactie maintenance leads to energy ineicient operations. An example is the act that
the most common power transmission drie in centralised air systems in the study was
the V-belt and pulley connection. According to Oman ,2006, this means that regular belt
adjustment and maintenance is mandatory as during operations their eiciency o
transmission reduces by approximately 5 to 10.

Regarding the allocation o unds or maintenance, the inadequacy is explained by the
act that the exercise is general or the whole building and non-speciic neither or the
building equipment nor or any particular building element. 1hus, only a limited amount
is allocated to repair and maintenance und. In most cases this only caters or ciil works
,including painting and re-plastering,, electrical maintenances as well as equipment
repair.
128

lurther eidence o worrying maintenance tendencies lie in the act that in all the
centralised system installations, no duct cleaning had been undertaken since installation
o the systems. 80 o the centralised lVAC systems had duct works with possible
leakage, this urther underlined the preailing poor maintenance practices in public
buildings.

1he case or maintenance management is worsened by the act that the goernment
buildings tend to hae unreasonably long response times to correct deects in the
systems ,oer 4 weeks, and that such correction depends on the aailability o unds and
was not automatic ,reer to ligures 4.6c and 4.6d,. 1his led to a danger that malunction
or maladjustment in lVAC systems could take unnecessarily long to correct, leading to
possible waste o energy in unproductie operation. 1he use o placards to urge users to
report any malunctions at the research institutions acilities was successul in ensuring
the reliable eedback mechanism or successul maintenance. 1his was instrumental in
ensuring unctional eiciency, and by extension, optimisation or energy purposes.

Len though the system o outsourcing or reactie maintenance appeared cheap when
considered on short-term basis, it is only suited or use in small and non-critical
equipment. Indeed, on a long-term basis, it is most expensie due to the potential or
secondary damage to other components and associated increased energy usage or
components such as line ans ,Reees, 2008,. loweer this is contradicted by the
situation in the research institution buildings which achieed ratings aboe base
eiciency, yet they were ully reliant on this policy. As a result lacilities Managers must
not oer-emphasize it while planning or maintenance.
S.6.3 Age of systems


lVAC systems in 3 buildings studied used equipment which were slightly oer 20 years
old, orcing lacilities Managers to rely on the serices o personnel who worked on
them during the installation period. 1his may proe expensie and unreliable on a long-
term basis. In the words o Maisely and Beerly ,200, and Reees ,2008,, optimisation
129

o maintenance or energy purposes must ensure that the maintenance requirement is
reduced through the elimination o aged components among other things. loweer it is
encouraging to note that most goernment-owned buildings were operating newly itted
or retroitted lVAC systems ,less than 5 years,. 1his contributes highly to energy
eiciency leels.

S.7 INS1ALLA1ION AND COMMISSIONING

1he study reealed that the lVAC systems in a substantial number o buildings studied
were not duly commissioned. Building that were not duly commissioned were 10
Goernment Buildings and 2 Research Buildings. Due commissioning processes were
those with proper documentation, maintenance manuals and hand-oer notes aailable
to the building operators beore the initial operation. Successul commissioning oten
leads to unctional eiciency hence energy eiciency.

It is thus not surprising that while emphasising the importance o the commissioning
process CIBSL ,1998, acknowledge that it is crucial i unctionality o equipment is to be
ensured. It is in this light that improperly commissioned lVAC systems in buildings
should be re-commissioned or retro-commissioned in order to enjoy improed indoor
enironmental quality and comort, improed control and zoning, reduced operation
costs, maintenance costs and optimised energy saings ,Piette and Nordman, 1996,
Portland energy Conseration, 200,.

S.7 CONCLUSION

1his chapter successully highlighted key considerations in the optimisation o lVAC
systems or energy. 1he main issues that came out strongly are that the energy eiciency
leels in research institutions could be increased rom eiciency rating o 3.40 points to
4.9 points out o a maximum o 12. On the other hand, the goernment-owned
buildings had a much lower eiciency rating o 0.6 points to 2.5 points out o a
130

maximum o 12 points. 1his explains the skewness to the let ,reer to ligure 4.9,. A lot
o eort is needed in all areas. loweer, energy eiciency could be improed to the base
leel ,6 points rating, largely by low-capital eorts. 1hese ratings are below the base
eiciency but could be improed by laying more emphasis particularly in the adoption o
new technologies in design and control or energy eiciency ,1DV and uzzy logic
controls,, training o occupants, re-commissioning and use o placards or
communications. Speciic recommendations are aailable in the next chapter.
131

CHAP1LR 6: CONCLUSIONS AND
RLCOMMLNDA1IONS
6.J IN1RODUC1ION

1his research was undertaken against the backdrop o two main issues o electricity
supply deicit and the high carbon intense nature o electricity in South Arica. 1he main
motiation or the study was the postulate that energy eiciency increases access to
electricity through demand reduction. 1he eentual results would be a reduction in
carbon dioxide emission as a result o diminished electricity generation actiities. 1he
building sector was chosen due to estimates that it consumes 30-40 o the world`s
energy ,UNLP, 200,. In addition, the study was narrowed down to lVAC systems in
recognition that in South Arica oer 65 o energy is used by lVAC systems in the
commercial sector ,Buys, 2002,.

1he main objectie o the study was to inestigate the extents and possible eects o
optimisation o lVAC systems or energy-eiciency in selected, existing public
buildings in Greater Johannesburg. 1o realise this objectie, the research was guided by
the main question:

1o what extents are the lVAC systems in selected, existing public buildings in
Greater Johannesburg currently optimised or energy eiciency and what are the
eects o their optimisation`

1o answer this question, emerging themes in the optimisation o lVAC systems or
energy eiciency in buildings were categorised as management, design, operation,
control, maintenance, and installation and commissioning. 1hese are discussed in section
6.2. 1he sections below gie the conclusions reached and recommendations proposed.

132

6.2 CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that the public buildings studied were largely energy-ineicient and need
eorts to minimally achiee base eiciency. 1his is explained by the skewed nature o
the distribution cure ,skewness o 1.4,. Details appear below.
6.2.J Management

1he single agency ownership o the buildings studied eliminates the diiculty posed in
implementing high capital improements associated with energy eiciency programmes
in lVAC systems. 1his is howeer a challenge to goernment-owned acilities due to
the long and highly bureaucratic procurement processes. As a result, energy perormance
contracting seems a highly iable option or energy eiciency improement.

1he use o placards showing operational details o controls and key personnel contacts
or reporting aults placed at strategic positions may go a long way to ensuring minimal
energy is used in lVAC systems in public buildings. 1his could lead to optimal
operations and hence increased eiciency. In addition, the assignment o sta or
management o energy programmes could help strengthen the human interention
required or improement o energy eiciency leels.

Close on the heels is the idea o energy budgeting, which when implemented, could
enhance energy eiciency o lVAC systems. It is recognised that a low-capital enture
type o energy conseration measure
16
should be encouraged or the selected public
buildings as aailability o inance may handicap programmes.
6.2.2 Design

It is particularly disturbing to note that the use o 1DV to design buildings has not
caught on in South Arica, despite the proen success in reducing energy consumption

16
1he low capital energy conseration measures identiied by long et at.,2003, are readjustments o
operating conditions like space air-temperature, air-supply elocity, chilled-water temperatures among
others to match peak conditions or seasonal changes.
133

no existing public building using it in retroits. Additionally, most buildings used
constant olume systems, while it is common knowledge that greater energy eiciency
leels could be achieed in ariable olumes systems.
6.2.3 Operations

1he main issue arising in operations is the lack o tracking with occupancy leels. lence
most systems operate at peak capacity while occupancy remains low.
6.2.4 Controls

Control systems are generally at the base eiciency leels. loweer, improements to
attain optimal eiciency could be easily achieed by upgrades.
6.2.S Maintenance

Maintenance is generally poor, unplanned and a high contributor to energy ineiciency
in lVAC systems in goernment-operated public buildings. loweer, this is not the
case or lVAC systems in the research institution buildings. 1his is attested by the
ratings o 0.5 to 0.6 points gained by goernment buildings and 1.50 to 1.6 or
research institution buildings.
6.2.6 Re-commissioning and Retro-commissioning

Close to ity ie percent o the buildings needed re-commissioning, haing ailed to
achiee a duly commissioned status. On the other hand, cases o poor installation were
comparatiely ew.

6.3 RLCOMMLNDA1IONS

Recommendations or this study are categorised as either low-capital inestment eorts
or high-capital inestment eorts or uture research. 1hese recommendations ollow.
134

6.3.J Low capital investment efforts

Low capital inestment eorts are relatiely lost cost remedies proposed to ensure
beneits resulting rom the optimisation o the lVAC systems or energy eiciency in
the buildings.

Management

1o address the lack o energy eiciency planning that peraded the buildings, it is
proposed that an Lnergy Master Plan` ,LMP, be drawn up or the lVAC systems. 1he
concept o an LMP as articulated by Maisely and Beerly ,200,, when applied to the
research context, would fir.t mean determination o the energy consumption o the
lVAC systems and hence the installation o energy measuring meters. 1his would set
the initial benchmark needed to pioneer the planning actiities. ecova, an energy
consumption budget would be put in place or the lVAC systems. Lnergy consumption
leels would then be analysed periodically against the set budget or the lVAC systems.

1o successully implement the LMP concept it is necessary to assign sta to be in
charge o the energy management actiities in each building. It is this sta that Bream
,1986, reers to as the Lnergy Manager. It is emphasised that Lnergy Managers or all
the goernment-owned buildings be appointed rom the pool o aailable Centre
Librarians or Janitors. 1his would ensure that there is continuity in the programmes
initiated as they would be supported within the established management structure. 1he
appointed Lnergy Managers would hae to undergo basic training in energy issues. 1his
would ensure that the Lnergy Manager dealt with behaiourally related issues that aect
the energy use o the lVAC systems. Behaioural issues include attitude to energy
conseration measures, appropriate dressing as demanded by weather conditions, the act
o switching o` lVAC systems when conditioned or heated spaces are not in use and
dissemination o periodic inormation concerning energy eiciency.

133

1he use o placards in buildings should be particularly emphasised as one o the low
capital inestment dries. Placards and memos can be used irst to adise building
operators to close doors and windows to conditioned spaces on account o the weather
or when the lVAC systems are operational, and second to ask occupants to dress
appropriately to the weather patterns.

Controls

Placards, memos and letters may be used to irst clearly deine spaces coered by the
controls o the lVAC systems. Second, placards could be used to inorm building
occupants where automatic controls are used. Because lVAC systems are used or
improement o thermal comort and general indoor air quality, perceied lack o these
could lead to andalism o controls. Consequently the lVAC systems would not operate
optimally. 1he use o placards is particularly encouraged in the goernment-owned
buildings as none o the buildings isited had them.

Operations

It is adised that to match occupancy with the operation o equipment, rooms should
only be opened one at a time, according to instantaneous capacity demand o the
occupants. 1his would ensure that equipment is operated in response to demand.

6.3.2 High capital investment efforts

ligh capital inestment eorts inole high capital expenditures and are generally
considered high cost with longer payback periods. Details o mitigated actions are
discussed below.

136

Management

1he use o an Lnergy Management System` is recommended or buildings in cluster
units. 1his would allow better interaction between dierent room conditions and
atmospheric condition like humidity, air temperature and air elocity. 1he required set
optimal conditions would then be used to trigger the operation o lVAC systems.

Design

1he use o 1DV in design o lVAC systems needs reining in addition to integration
with existing standards or manuals o design. 1his would make it be possible to enjoy
the energy saings potentials associated with this method ,Lunnenburg, 2003,
Massachusetts, 1999 and Roth et at., 2002,.

Installation o room conditioning units should continue to be encouraged in smaller
libraries with seeral rooms that are used or reading. 1his would ensure multiple zones
and ease in control. In addition, occupancy can be matched with operation schedule by
using only one room at a time until it is ully occupied, beore opening up other spaces
or occupation.

Seeral measures are adised or dierent lVAC units. 1hese are annual oerhauls or
thermostats in Radiators and element heaters in the control to improe eiciency,
disposal o units which are old and obsolete and use o ariable speed dries in
centralised systems and the application o synchronous belts or sot-start motors
,Oman, 2006, Xu, 2005, Adnot et at., 2005, and \ulingho, 1999,.

Operation and Controls

lor isolated buildings with centralised lVAC systems, automatic control systems are
adised. Automatic control systems would be in the orm o demand controlled
entilation system that would be operated by carbon dioxide sensors or moement
137

sensors that trigger the operation o the lVAC systems. 1his would ensure that multi-
zone VAV systems are operated in accordance with demanded entilation or thermal
comort in addition to switching o systems when sections o the buildings are not in
use.

Another proposal would be to adopt uzzy control strategies to suit ariable use o
existing lVAC systems in buildings. Roth et at. ,2002, acknowledge that the use o this
method may incorporate adjustment o controls to relect parameters like weather
prediction or desired operation patterns and in the process lead to energy saings pegged
at 5 potential. It is noted that centralised systems including roo top units would be
ideal or implementation o uzzy control strategies.

Maintenance

All the lVAC systems should be metered to determine consumption leels and create
load proiles ,Van Gorp, 2004,. 1his would enable easy energy audits and target setting
in energy eiciency. Planned maintenance is recommended as it not only ensures energy
eiciency operation but also trouble-ree operation. 1he use o old equipment must not
be encouraged as up to 50 energy dierence may be experienced through use o
technology oer 10 years old and that no guarantee can be made on continued use o old
machines as the equipment may be unamiliar to technicians ,Adnot et at., 2006,.

Re-commissioning and retro-commissioning

Systematic retro-commissioning and re-commissioning o all buildings would ensure the
aailability o lVAC system details like operational notes, maintenance logs, as-built
speciications, drawings and maintenance manuals. In addition, lVAC systems would
get retested and due recommendations would be made or redress where necessary. 1his
would eentually lead to regular energy audits and the principal o continuous
commissioning.

138

6.3.3 Iuture Research

It is recommended that uture research to use obsered characteristics and the actual
practice o lVAC systems should integrate data on costs and actual energy
consumptions. 1his would entail the use o meters throughout the year and should end
up proiding key data needed or simulation studies.
139

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147

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148

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149

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.

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131

APPLNDICLS
132

APPLNDIX A: RA1INGS AND 1YPLS OI HVAC SYS1LMS
1able 4.2: lVAC systems used in buildings
















Source: lield data, 2008
Site Details

Lquipment 1ype

No. of
units
Lquipment Power
Rating in kW
Leandale lacility Propeller ans 10 0.0
Propeller ans 14 0.0
Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 5 5
Vosloorus
lacility
Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 6 4.1
Propeller ans 14 0.0
Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 5 3.3
Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 3 5
Ldenpark



Room Conditioning Unit -,1lan 1ype, 1 4.1
1hokoza Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 8 5
Roo top unit 1 6.6
Room Conditioning Unit -2 lan 1ype, 2 3.3
Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 5 1.65
Spruitiew



10` Lxtractor an 1 0.05

133

1able 4.2: lVAC systems used in buildings-Continued

















Source: lield data, 2008
Site Details

Lquipment 1ype

No. of
units
Lquipment Power
Rating in kW
Propeller ans 0.0
Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 6 3.3
Llsburg

Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 1 1.65
Centralised A,C lVAC Unit -Air landler-2 lan
capacity
1 .8
Centralised A,C lVAC Unit -Air landler-,3 lan
1ype,
3 3.5
Chiller pumps 2 19
Chiller pumps 2 2.5

Boksburg



Under-loor heaters 1 23
Centralised A,C lVAC Unit -AlU 1 Germiston

Chiller pumps 4 19
Propeller ans
Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 6 1.65
Dinwiddie

Underloor leater 5

134

1able 4.2: lVAC systems used in buildings-Continued
Site Details

Lquipment 1ype

No. of
units
Lquipment Power
Rating in kW
Propeller ans 10 0.0 Katlehong

Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 8 1.65
Roo top unit 1 6.6 Isaac Mokena

Room Conditioning Unit - ,2 lan 1ype, 6 3.3
Rootop unit 1 6.6
Room Conditioning Unit -,2 lan 1ype, 6 3.3
Room Conditioning Unit -,1 lan 1ype, 1 1.65
Propeller lan 2
0.0
Zonkizizwe





Lxtractor lan 2
0.05
leaters 3 6.6
Propeller an 12 0.0
Room Conditioning Unit-,2 lan 1ype, 8 9.5
Reigerpark



Room Conditioning Unit-,1 lan 1ype, 1 1.65
Source: lield data, 2008





133

1able 4.2: lVAC systems used in buildings-Continued
Site Details

Lquipment 1ype

No. of
units
Lquipment Power
Rating in kW
Brackenhurst
Room Conditioning Unit - ,2 lan
1ype,
9
3.3

leaters
2
5
Alberton
Centralised A,C Unit-AlU with
chiller
1
CSIR Building 2A, 2B &
2C
Room Conditioning Unit-1 lan
320 1.65
Central A,C system: AlU 1 13.5
Room Conditioning Unit-1lan 3 1.65
Room Conditioning Unit-2 an 2 3.3
\illiam Cullen



Under-loor leaters 18 8.5
Central A,C system: AlU with
Chiller Plant
1 285.6
Under-loor leaters 9 11.4
\artenweiller
Under-loor leaters 3 2.5
Source: lield data, 2008
136

1able 4.2: lVAC systems used in buildings -Continued
Site Details

Lquipment 1ype

No. of
units
Lquipment Power
Rating in kW
Roo 1op Units, 4 an
1
22.5
Roo 1op Units, 4 an
1
34.
Roo 1op Units, 1 an
1
6.45
Roo 1op Units, 2 an
1
2.3
Roo 1op Units, 2 an
1
12.9
Room Conditioning Unit-,1 lan 1ype, 1 1.65

Ldu-Com






Room Conditioning Unit - ,2 lan 1ype,
1 3.3
Donald
Gordon Roo 1op Unit 1

82
Central A,C system: AlU with Chiller Plant 1 5
Under-loor leaters 9 11.4
Under-loor leaters 3 2.5
John Moat







Conector , Radiator Llement leaters 40 1.5
Source: lield data, 2008
137

APPLNDIX B: LNLRGY LIIICILNCY INDICA1ORS
1able 3.6, Lnergy Liciency Indicators or lVAC systems

Source: Author`s construction
Indicators of Lnergy Lfficiency Levels Description of Indicator
Lack of Lnergy Lfficiency Minimum Requirement
(Base Lnergy Lfficiency)
Best Practice Requirement
(Optimised Lnergy Lfficiency)
Public conersance with lVAC
operation
Less than 50 o public
conersant with lVAC operation
50 o public conersant with
the operation with lVAC
operation
More than 50 conersant with
lVAC operation
Aailability o placard No placards aailable Placards aailable but not
clearly isible nor articulate
Clearly isible and articulate
placards aailable
Responsibility assignment,accountability
or energy management
No sta assigned to be
responsible or energy
management
Sta is assigned to be
responsible or energy
management
\ell trained sta assigned to be
responsible or energy
management
Lnergy Consumption Budget No energy consumption budget Basic energy consumption
budget is aailable
Detailed Lnergy Consumption
Budget Aailable
Lnergy conseration program Lack o energy conseration
program in place
Basic Lnergy conseration
program in place
Detailed Lnergy conseration
program in place
Design philosophy ,1DV or
Conentional mixing,
Conentional Mixing used Conentional Mixing used 1DV used
Schedule o operation Discordant operations o lVAC
systems without regards to
occupancy. Unregulated
operations schedule
Minimised and regulated
operational schedule time or
lVAC systems
Minimised and regulated
operational schedule time &
ability to synchronise lVAC
schedule o operation and
controls with occupancy


138

1able 3.6 Lnergy Liciency Indicators or lVAC systems ,continued,
Source: Author`s construction
Indicators of Lnergy Lfficiency Levels Description of Indicator
Lack of Lnergy Lfficiency Minimum Requirement
(Base Lnergy Lfficiency)
Best Practice Requirement
(Optimised Lnergy Lfficiency)
Control 1ype laulty operation o controls.
Isolator as the only control mode
Aailability o Isolator, timer,
and thermostat ,i.e. type 1 and
type 2, type 3 controls,, Good
working condition or controls
Aailability o Isolator, timer, an
speed control ia remote control and
thermostat ,i.e. type 4,, Use o luzzy-
Logic controls, Good working
condition or controls
Occupants conersance with lVAC
controls
Less than 50 public conersant
with lVAC controls
50 o public conersant with
the operation with lVAC
controls
More than 50 conersant with
lVAC controls
Lnergy Measurements,monitoring
systems
Lack o energy consumption
measurement or monitoring
system
Basic energy consumption
measurement system allowing
or oerall consumption
tracking
Llaborate energy measurement and
monitoring system complete with
ability to gie eedback and prompt
or correctie measures
Maintenance planning Reactie maintenance Budget restricted regular
maintenance
Perormance based regular,planned
maintenance
Response time in correcting aults Oer 28 days to 28 days Less than days




139

1able 3.6 Lnergy Liciency Indicators or lVAC systems ,continued,
Source: Author`s construction
Indicators of Lnergy Lfficiency Levels Description of Indicator
Lack of Lnergy Lfficiency Minimum Requirement
(Base Lnergy Lfficiency)
Best Practice Requirement
(Optimised Lnergy Lfficiency)
Contact Details or reporting aults Lack o established protocol in
reporting aults
Lstablished protocol in
reporting aults with contact
details aailable at a desk,oice
Lstablished protocol in reporting
aults with isible contact details
aailable in placard
Maintenance Responsibility Sta assigned to be responsible or
maintenance
Sta assigned to be responsible
or maintenance
\ell trained sta or contractor is
assigned to be responsible or
maintenance
Age o equipment,retroits Lquipment oer 15 years in age with
no recent retroit
Lquipment,Retroits rom 5
years to 15 years in age
Lquipment,Retroits less than 5 years
in age
Installation Improper installation practices Installation aeragely done Installation according to best norms
o practice
Commissioning No documentation nor handoer
notes aailable
Documentation aailable, no
handoer notes are aailable
All documentation details are
aailable, handoer notes are aailable

160

APPLNDIX C: DA1A COLLLC1ION SHLL1

RLSLARCH 1OPIC: OP1IMISA1ION OI HVAC SYS1LMS IOR LNLRGY LIIICILNCY
IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS

DA1A SHLL1 IOR BUILDING AUDI1

a. Date o surey......................................................................................................................
b. Site Liaison
c. Details..............................................................................................................
d. Sample No...........................................................................................................................
e. Physical & Postal Addresses
...............................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................

i. \ho owns the building
a. Goernment ,Central or local,
b. Commercial Priate
c. Public 1rust ,uniersity, colleges, public societies, goernment trusts,
d. Priate Indiidual & 1rust

ii. \hat is the building currently used or

Ref. Current Building use Marking
a Lntertainment & Assembly lall


b Lodging lacility


c Library
d Storage & \arehouse


e Oice & Banking


Public Order & Security,Detention centre




161

iii. \hen was the building constructed or last reurbished with regards to lVAC systems

0-5 years 5-10 years 10-15 years Oer 15 years


i. \hat was the building originally used or designed or ,mark in the box,

Ref. Original Building use Marking
a Lntertainment & Assembly lall


b Lodging lacility


c Library
d Storage & \arehouse


e Oice & Banking


Public Order & Security,Detention centre




. Are the architectural blueprints aailable

\es No


i. Are operational logs including repair, maintenance summary aailable

\es No


ii. Are lVAC Manuals aailable
\es No






162



iii. low many days is the building used per week ,mark in the box,

Ref. No. of days in a week Marking
a Daily
b 6 Days
c 5 Days
d 4 Days
e 3 Days
Less than 3 days


ix. low long is the building used on any single day o operation,mark in the box,

Ref. No. hours of use Marking
a 24
b 12-24
c 8-12
d 0-8


x. Are electricity bills or the building aailable
I yes, a copy must be made or details noted

xi. \hat is the loor area and olume o the space requiring lVAC use
..............................................................................................................................................
xii. Does the building hae a speciic sta assigned to management o energy or plant operation
\es No


163


xiii. \hat type o lVAC system is in use the building
Centralised air systems

Room Conditioning Units,packaged lVAC equipment

xi. I ,a, in ,ix, aboe what categories below urther accommodate the type o lVAC system in the
building
a- Single zone system b- Multi-zone system

c- Constant Volume system d- Variable Volume system


e- Single Duct with reheat system - Single Duct system

g- Dual Duct system h-Induction system


x. I ,b, in ,ix, aboe what categories below

a- Radiators,Conectors b- Roo 1op Units

c- c-Sel Contained Air Conditioners & 1hro` wall leat pumps

d-Remotely Cooled Contained Air Conditioners & leat pumps

e- leat Pump Loop Systems - Direct lired leating Units


xi. \ho is responsible or energy management in the building

a-Building Operator b-Maintenance Contractor c-Nobody

xii. Is there an energy consumption budget
\es No Not sure

xiii. \hat raction o ,xiii, is constituted by lVAC System consumption
Less than ' ' to ' ' to Oer
164

xix. Does the building management reiew or carry out analysis o energy consumption
\es No Not sure

xx. I yes aboe ,x, at what time interals are the energy consumption reiews carried out
0 to 6 months 6 to 12 months 12 to 18 months oer 18 months

xxi. Is there planned maintenance or lVAC systems in the building

\es No Not sure

xxii. \hat are the schedules or planned maintenance

0 to 6 months 6 to 12 months 12 to 18 months oer 18 months


xxiii. \ho is in charge o lVAC system serice maintenance in the building


a-Building Operator b-Maintenance Contractor c-Nobody


xxi. I ,b, in ,xix, is there is a maintenance or serice contract


\es No Not sure

xx. I yes briely tick rom choices below the elements coered by the maintenance or serice
contract

a-Serice or maintenance duration b-lilter Replacement or clean up

c-Duct Clean up d- Replacement o aulty units,parts

e-Rerigerant recharge,change -Purging o system

g-Reiew o lVAC system perormance and operational,energy eiciencies

xxi. Is there an energy saing program in operation or under reiew
a- \es No Not sure

xxii. I yes in ,xxii, what are the ocuses o the energy saing program with regards to lVAC system
a-Demand reduction by minimum operation o system

b-Introduction o an energy management system

c-Demand scheduling


163


d-lVAC system retroit

e-Lnergy eicient maintenance program

-Duct cleaning

xxiii. 1ick the control types,strategies used or lVAC systems operation in the building
On,O Isolator
Automatic thermostat based control
Automatic thermostat based control with manual oer-ride
Variable lan speed adjuster
Air intake control
Carbon dioxide sensors
Variable motor speed adjuster
1imers
Zone base control systems
xxix. Are the controls in good working conditions
\es No
xxx. I ,a, in aboe what are the obserable aults
Control settings are ery low Control Knobs are broken
Control settings are higher than desired Control sensors aulty
Adjusters are aulty
xxxi. On percentage basis ,100 being ull capacity occupancy, rate the occupancy leel
.................................
xxxii. Are the occupants conersant with or inormed on operations o controls
\es No

xxxiii. Are there contact,s, gien or persons to get in touch with in case the lVAC system is aulty
\es No
166

xxxi. low long does it take the management to act on the reports o aulty items
3 days 3days to 1 week 1 to 4 weeks 4 weeks
xxx. Are there signs o andalism o the control knobs and switches
\es No
xxxi. Are the occupants inormed about the importance o energy conseration and speciic
implications o to lVAC systems
\es No
xxxii. Is there a Building Management Systems
\es No
xxxiii. Is there an occupant assigned to monitor the operation o xxi aboe
\es No
xxxix. Are the occupants dressed appropriately or the weather
Majority are not Majority are
None are All are

Components, equipments & measure values

xl. \hat is the age o the lVAC system
0 to 1 years 1 to 2 years 2 to 3 years
3 to 5 years 5 to 10 years Oer 10 years
xli. \hat is the power rating o the equipment & associated components
....................................................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
xlii. \hat are the model types o the equipment and components
....................................................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
xliii. \hat is the year o manuacture o the equipment
.....................................................................................................................................................
xli. \hat is the stated air change rate o the lVAC system
167

.....................................................................................................................................................
xl. \hen is the lVAC system operated
,1ick in the box,
Ref. Operation schedule for HVAC system Marking
a All the time,24 hrs,
b As long as the building is occupied
c Only when conditions warrant use
d \hen the sensor switches on
e \hen thermostat trips on
\hen occupants eel like it

xli. low oten is the duct cleaned
,1ick in the box,
Ref. Irequency of duct clean up Marking
a Lery 0-6 months
b Lery 6-12 months
c Lery 12-18 months
d Lery 18-24 months
e Irregularly,Unplanned
Neer

xlii. Is there any isible leakage in the duct work
\es No
168

APPLNDIX D: IN1LRVILW GUIDLLINL WI1H LIASON OIIICLRS

Preliminary details

1. \hat is your name
2. \hat is your occupation
3. In what capacity are you in the organisation
4. low long hae you been with the organisation
5. \hat are your duties

Site details

1. \hat is the brie history o the building
2. \hen was the lVAC system retroitted or installed
3. \hat are the common maintenance problems experienced by the lVAC
systems
4. \ho is in charge o lVAC system maintenance
5. Are energy eiciency issues taken into consideration
6. \hat are the obstacles to implementing energy eiciency in buildings
. Is there any documentation aailable or operation o lVAC systems, as-built
speciications and drawings, maintenance logs, maintenance manuals and
commissioning details

169

APPLNDIX L: QULS1IONNAIRL

1his questionnaire is administered as part of a research entitled optimisation of Heating,
Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems for energy efficiency in buildings in
Johannesburg. It is the researcher's hope that this work will contribute to increase energy and
overall cost savings in the use of buildings in South Africa.

Particulars
Name:


1elephone No.


Address:



Instruction: \ou are requested to kindly mark against your answer.

1 Are you conersant with lVAC system operations

\es
No


2 \hat greatly dictates your dressing mode

\eather patterns,in response to weather,
I do not know
lashion


3 Are you aware o energy eiciency,energy conseration or energy saings and
importance


\es
No
170

4 Is there any sta speciically tasked with energy management or the building
equipment ,Ignore or public building users, only applicable to building
operators,

\es
No


5 Does this building hae an energy budget ,Ignore or public building users, only
applicable to building operators,

\es
No


6 Are there any energy conseration programs in place or this building
,Ignore or public building users, only applicable to building operators,

\es
No


Are you amiliar with the operation procedure o the lVAC system installed in
this building

\es
No


8 lae you come across any placard explaining operations or any other issues
concerning the lVAC systems in this building


\es
No

171


9 low is the maintenance o this building organised

\heneer there is aulty operation
On regular basis
\heneer unds allow


10 \hat is the waiting period taken to repair reported aults in this building

Less than 3 days
3 days to 1 week
1 week to 2 weeks
2 weeks to 3 weeks
4 weeks
Oer 4 weeks


11 \ho undertakes maintenance in this building

Outsourced Serice proider,contractor
Building Operator