CHAPTER 7

THIN AIRFOIL AND FINITE WING THEORY

Type of thin airfoil:
Symmetric mean camber line

chord line
Cambered camber is very small
7.1 STARTING VORTEX
Let us consider a thin airfoil in inviscid, irrotational flow. Assuming velocity

v
and
!
v
on upper
and lower surface as shown in diagram.
"e #now circulation along a close path is
. u dl

r
r

$%&.'
As the thic#ness of the airfoil is tending to (ero, so we can appro)imately write circulation as,
( )
!
v v c

$%&.!'
*ue to airfoil characteristic, the velocity
!
v v >
, hence there will be cloc#wise circulation
generated over the airfoil but from +elvin theorem as the circulation will be constant. Therefore
this cloc#wise circulation over the airfoil should be balanced by anticloc#wise circulation for the
upstream fluid particle having (ero circulation. This balancing anticloc#wise circulation at the
downstream of the airfoil is called as Starting ,orte).
-
d
dt

$%&..'
167
7.2 KUTTAS CONDITION
According to the +utta/s condition, the circulation about trailing edge is always (ero.
( ) . - T E
always
$%&.0'
To show that, lets consider a case of finite angle at trailing edge
At, T.1., 2ressure is same
3ence,
A B
P P
4sing 5ernoulli/s e6uation, we get magnitude of the velocities are same, but as velocity is a
vector and we can/t have ! directions of velocity at a particular point at any particular instant of
time, hence
-
A B
v v
4sing e6uation %&.', we get
( ) ( ) , . -
A B
T E v v c
$%&.7'
8or cups airfoil:9
168
:n this case, 4sing 5ernoulli/s e6uation, we get magnitude of the velocities are same, even the
direction is also same because of upper and lower surfaces are having same direction. 3ence,
( ) .
A B
u dl v v c

, -
$%&.;'
7.3 THIN AIRFOIL THEORY
Lets considering thin airfoil which is having very less camber. As airfoil produces some
#ind of cloc#wise circulation, hence we can model any positive camber airfoil by placing
circulation over its camber line.
5ecause of the very less thic#ness, we can assumed the circulation from camber line% thin airfoil'
to chord line and satisfy the normal boundary condition at the camber surface %i.e.' the net
velocity across the surface is (ero on thin airfoil.
Therefore the velocity induced at any point on the camber line due to small element of
circulation ( ) d
placed on chord line will be
"here,

strength per unit length
( ) !
d
dV
x

Integrating the above equation, from LE to TE !e get
169
( )
-
!
c
d
V
x

$%&.&'
At the normal surface,
,elocity induced by free stream < velocity induced by irrotational vortices -
, Q
there !ill be no normal velocit"
( )
( )
,
-
sin -
!
c
n
d
d#
V V
dx x


_



,

$%&.='
For symmetrical airfoil, -, -,
d#
camber
dx
for small angle of attac# ( ) sin
( )
( )
-
sin
!
c
d
V V
x

$%&.>'
say, ( ) cos
!
c
when
-, 0
( )
-
cos
!
c
x -,
sin
!
c
d d
( )
( ) ( )
-
-
sin
!
! cos cos
!
c
d
V
c

1
]

( )
[ ]
- -
sin
! cos cos
d
V

$%&.-'
16uation %&.-' will be satisfied for,
( )
( ) ! cos
sin
V

$%&.'
As a chec#ing purpose, using e6uation %&.' into %&.-', we get
( )
[ ]
- -
! cos
sin
sin ! cos cos
V
d
V

$%&.!'
( )
[ ]
- -
cos

cos cos
d

$%&..'
8rom, the definition of
( )
-
-
- -
sin cos
, weget
cos cos sin
n n
d

[ ] [ ]
- - -
cos

cos cos cos cos

d

170
[ ]

- +

hence proved
?ow, we have to find the total circulation generated by the thin symmetric airfoil. therefore
-
c
d

( )
( )
-
-
! cos
sin
sin !
! cos
!
V
c
d
c
V d

+ _

,
+

[ ]
[ ]
-
-
! sin
!
! sin
!
c
V V
c
V
c V

+ 2
+

$%&.0'
"e #now,
L $
!
L V c

:f span is given as b, then for rectangular wing,
L $ b
And
! !

!


L
L V c% b v c b
!
L
%
$%&.7'
Also, differentiating e6uation %&.7', we get !
L
d%
d

$%&.;'
-
-
-
Additional 5o)
! slopeof thin airfoil orinfinite wing.
8or finite wing, ! !

L
a
d%
a
d
a
a solpeof finite !ing
a
eA&

< <

_
+

,
Moment about leading edge:
As we #now, the differential lift produced by small circulation element as,
dL V d V d


171
Therefore moment about L.1 from this differential lift can be calculated as,
. .
- -
c c
L E
' dL V d

Also from,
( ) ( )
( ) ! cos
cos , sin
! ! sin
V
c c
d d and

+

( )
( )
- -
! cos
cos sin
! sin !
L
V
c c
dL V d

( )
!
!
- -
cos
!
L
c
dL V V d

!
!
- -
cos !

! !
L
c
dL V d

+
_


,

!
!
- - -
sin !
! ! !
L
c
dL V

1

1
]

!
!
-
sin !
! ! !
L
c
dL V

1

1
]

! !
. .
0
L E
V c
'

moment about Leading edge $%&.&'

Now Moment about Aerodynamic Center:
172
! !
.
. . @0
! ! ! ! ! !
! !
! !
@ 0
0
0

! ! !
@ 0

! !
!
@ 0
-

!
@ 0 - -
L E
L E c
mc
V c
'
c
L
' '
V c V c V c
'c
v c
'c
v c
'c %

$%&.='
AAerodynamic centre

Boment about a.c. is always independent of

.
:t is a fi)ed point on
airfoil.
A Centre of Pressure

Boment about c.p. is always (ero and it is not fi)ed point on airfoil.
Thin Cambered Airfoil:
8rom thin airfoil theory,
( )
( )
,
-
sin -
!
c
n
d
d#
V V
dx x


_



,

( )
( )
-
!
c
d
d#
V
dx x

_



,

$%&.>'
Say, ( ) cos
!
c
when
-, - -
( ) cos
!
c
x
-,
sin
!
c
d d
4sing 8ourier series, general function for ( )
-

cos
! sin
sin
n
n
V A A n

+ _
_
+

, ,

"here the fourier constant ,

-
-
d#
A d
dx

And,
-
!
cos
n
d#
A n d
dx

$%&.!-'
Total circulation for cambered airfoil:
173
( )
-
sin
!
c
d

( )
-

- -
cos sin sin
n
n
V c A d A n d

+ +

$%&.!'
"e #now that, ( )
-
cos d

and,
-

sin sin
!
-
for n
n d
for n

'

:t can be e)panded as:

!
- - -
sin sin sin ! sin sin. sin ... ... ... ... A d A d A d

+ + +

-
- - ...
! !
!
V c A A

+ + +
1
+
1
]
!
-
!

1
+
1
]
L V V c A A
-
!
!

1
+
1
]
L
% A A
$%&.!!a'
( )
- -
-

! cos
L
d#
% d
dx

1
+
1

!
L
d%
d

$%&.!!.b'
Cero lifting angle for cambered airfoil
( )
( )

-
- - -
-
!
-
-
!

cos
L L
L
L
L
d% %
d
A
A
d#
d
dx

1
+
1
]

Moment about leading edge:

174
. .
-

c
L E
' V d
( )
.
-

c
L '
' V d
$%&.!0'
say, ( ) cos
!
c
when
-, 0
( )
-
cos
!
c
x -,
sin
!
c
d d
( ) ( )
. .
-
cos sin
! !
L '
c c
' V d

( ) ( )
!
. .
-
cos sin
0
L '
c
' V d

( )
!
. . -

-
cos
! sin cos sin
0 sin
L ' n
n
c
' V V A A n d

1 + _ _
+
1
, , ]

( ) ( ) ( )
!
! !
. . - !
-
! cos sin cos sin ! sin cos
0
L E
c
' V V A d A A d

+ +

( )
! !
! ! !
. -
-
sin sin sin cos
!
L '
c V
' A d A d

! !
. . -
! ! !
L E
c V
' A A

1
+
1
]
$%&.!7'
Question 7.1: An airfoil generates a lift of =- ? when operating in a free stream flow of ;-
m@sec. if the ambient pressure and temperature are -- #2a and !>- +
respectively %specific gas constant is !=& D@#g9+', the circulation on the airfoil
in
!
@ sec m
is.
Solution: The density of the flow is
175
7
-
=.!.!-
P
&T

.
.!-0 @ (g m
Also, we #now that,
L $
=- .!-0 ;-
!
.-> @ sec T m
Question 7.2: :t is seen that the drag polar of a certain airfoil is symmetric about the
d
%
a)is. This drag polar could be refer to:
EaF ?ACA --!
EbF ?ACA 007
EcF ?ACA !.-!
EdF ?one of these
Solution: EaF 8or an airfoil
!
- d d l
% % (% +
, Q
8or drag polar to be symmetric about
d
%
a)is, the e)tremum of drag polar
should lie on
d
%
a)is. That can only happens for symmetric airfoil.
8rom the given option, NACA 12 is symmetric airfoil.
Question 7.!: The aerodynamic centre of a supersonic airfoil, with chord c, is located at:
EaF The leading edge
EbF -.!7 c
EcF -.7 c
EdF -.&7 c
Solution: EcF 8or a supersonic airfoil, aerodynamic centre is located at -.7 c.
Question 7.": "inglets are used to minimi(e:
EaF S#in friction drag
EbF 2rofile drag
EcF "ave drag
EdF :nduced drag
Solution: EdF "inglets are used to minimi(e the induced drag.
Question 7.#: Consider an ?ACA -- airfoil. The mean camber line for this airfoil is
given by
.
! -.! - -..
# x x x
for
c c c c

1
_ _
1

, ,
1
]
And
-.->0
# x
c c
_


,
-.. .-
x
for
c

176
Calculate %a' the angle of attac# at (ero lift, %b' the lift coefficient when
& ,
Solution:
!
! . -.! - -..
d# x x
for
dx c c
1
_
+ 1

,
1
]
And -.->0
d#
dx
-.. .-
x
for
c

Transforming from x to !here ( ) ) cos
!
c

( )
!
.
! !cos cos -.!
0
d#
dx

1
+ +
1
]

- .>= rad
and, -.->0
d#
dx
.>=
%a' ( )
-
-

cos
L
d#
d
dx

( )
( )
.>=
!
-
-
.
! !cos cos -.! cos
0
L
d

1
+ +
1
]

( )
.>=

-.->0 cos d

3ence,
or,
-
!.;
L

EbF
& -.-;>= rad
"e #now that,
( ) ( )
-
! ! -.!! -.-07 .-7
l L
c

+
7.4 PRANDTLS FINITE WING THEORY
According to this theory, we replace finite wing with a bound vorte) e)tending from
@ ! @ ! " b to " b
.
8rom 3elmholt( postulates a vorte) filament cannot end in the fluid, hence vorte) filament
continues as trailing vortices downstream from wing tip to infinity.
177
:nduced velocity at point
-
G G "
due to trailing vortices are,

- -
0 0
! !
V
b b
" "

+
_ _
+

, ,
r

!
!
-
0
0
v
b
"

,
r
$%&.!;'
8or
-
,
!
b
" v
r
which is singularity and not possible.
,
in a modification 2randtl added
multiple horse shoe vortices along the wing. According to this model.
:nduced velocity at point
-
G G "
due to these trailing vortices are,
( )
( )
( )
!
-
!
0
b
b
"
d"
"
f "
" "

1
1

r
$%&.!&'
8rom the given diagram we get, tan
,
i
v

r
"here
i

is induced angle of attac# due to downwash.

178

tan
i
V

_


,
r
( )
( )
!
-
!

0
b
i
b
"
d"
"
V " "

1
1

$%&.!='
8rom thin airfoil theory:
( )
-
, -
!
l " eff L
%


- - - -
!
,

!
" " l " "
L $ % V c

$%&.!>'
( )
( )
-
-
-
, -
!
!
l " e f f L
"
"
%
c v

( )
-
-
- e f f L
"
"
c v

+
$%&..-'
And also, from the given diagram interpretation,
e f f i

$%&..'
8rom above e6uation %&..', we get:9
Heometric Angle of Attac#, ( )
( )
( )
!
-
!
-

0
b
L
b
"
"
d"
" "
c v v " "

1
1

]
+ +

$%&..!'
7.5 SPECIAL CASE: ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION OVER
FINITE WING
4sing 16uation of ellipse:
179
! !
! !
-

!
"
b

+

_

,
!
-
!
0

"
b

$%&...'
( )
-
!
!
!

=
!
0

"
"
" b
"
b

1

1

( )
-
!
!
!

=
!
0

"
"
d"
" b
"
b

_
1


1

]
,

( )
!
!
-
!
!
!
0
0

b
b
"
" b
d" d"
"
"
b

$%&..0'
Also,
( )
!
-
!
! !
-
!
0

b
b
"
d"
b
"
" "
b

r
$%&..7'
Ta#ing,
!
!
!
0 !
cos cos
" "
b b

cos
!
b
"
sin
!
b
d" d
now,
r
becomes:
-
-
-
cos
! cos cos
d
b

r
Ir,
-
-
-
cos
! cos cos
n
d
b

r
$%&..;'
Also,
-
- -
-
sin cos
cos cos sin
n n
d

3ere, n . Therefore, we get:

180
-
-
cos
cos cos
n
d

So, the e6uation %&..-' becomes:

-
!b

r
$%&..&'
?ow, we #now that induced angle of attac# is:
-
!
i
V V b

r
$%&..='
:nduced angle of attac# can be computed as,

! !
!
-
!
!
0

b
b
"
L v d"
b

_


,

$%&..>'
Assuming, cos
!
b
" , e6uation %&..>' can be written as:
!
- -
-
sin
! 0
b b
L V d v

$%&.0-'
8rom e6uation %&.0-', we get:
-
0L
V b


$%&.0'
Also,
!

!
L
L v )%

. Therefore:
-
!
L
V )%
b

$%&.0!'
Substituting e6uation %&.0!' in e6uation %&..=', we get:
!
!
L
i
V )%
b V b

!
L
i
)%
b

$%&.0.'
Jepresenting the above e6uation in the form of Aspect Jatio %AJ' where:9
!
b
A&
)

3ence, e6uation %&.0.' becomes:

L
i
%
A&

$%&.00'
?ow, ( ) ( )
!
,
!
!
b
i
* i i b
)
*
% " " d"
q V )

181
! - -
,
-
!
sin
! !
i i
* i
b b b
% d
v ) v )

$%&.07'
Substituting e6uation %&.0!' and %&.00' in e6uation %&.07', we get:9
,
!
!
L L
* i
% V )% b
%
V ) A& b

,
!
,
L
* i
%
%
A&
$%&.0;'
*Note: 8or generali(ed lift distribution,
!
,
L L
i * i
% %
and %
e A& e A&

$%&.0&'
"here
e
oswald/s efficiency factor
, e
for elliptical !ing distribution
7.6 EFFECT OF ASPECT RATIO
"e #now that induced drag coefficient is inversely proportional to the Aspect ratio, so more will
be the Aspect ratio less will be the induced drag.
Typical value of AJ varies from ; to !! for subsonic airplanes which has much stronger effect on
, * i
%
.
Asir needs to elaborate it more.
Question 7.$: 8or a wing of Aspect ratio AJ, having an elliptical lift distribution, the
induced drag coefficient is %where
L
%
is the lift coefficient'
EaF
L
%
A&
EbF
!
L
%
A&
EcF
!
L
%
A&
EdF
!
!
L
%
A&
Solution: :nduced drag coefficient is:9
!
i
L
*
%
%
e A&

"here e is the oswald/s efficiency and is for elliptical wing.

Question 7.7: :n the conte)t of 2randtl/s lifting line theory for a finite wing, which of the
following combination of statement is true:9
182
P The bound vortex is responsible for the lift force
+ The trailing vortices are responsible for the induced drag
& The bound vortex is responsible for the induced drag
) The trailing vortices are responsible for the lift force
EaF 2, K
EbF K, J
EcF J, S
EdF 2, S
Solution: EaF :n 2randtl/s lifting line finite wing theory, the flow over finite wing is
replaced by a combination of bound vorte) and two trailing vortices.
The bound vorte) is responsible for the lift force and trailing vortices are
responsible for induced drag.
Question 7.%: 2randtl/s lifting line e6uation for a general wing is given by:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
!
-
- - -
- -
!
@

0
b
L
b
d d" "
" " d"
$ c " $ " "

+ +

"here,
$

is the free stream velocity,

- L

is the angle of attac#,
-
"
is the
spanwise location, ( )
- - L
"

gives the spanwise variation of circulation. The
rate of change of circulation with angle of attac#

is:
EaF :nversely proportional to

EbF :ndependent of

EcF A linear function of

EdF A 6uadratic function of

Solution: EbF
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
!
-
- - -
- -
!
@

0
b
L
b
d d" "
" " d"
$ c " $ " "

+ +

As ) and y variable are independent to each other hence:9

( ) ( )

- -
, ,
" "
" "
d
f x " d" f x " d"
dx x

differentiating given e6uation with respect to
,
( )
( )
( )
!
- -
!
@

-
0
b
b
d d"
d
d"
$ c " $ d " "

+ +

183
Assuming ,

we get,
( )
( )
( )
!
- -
!
@

0
b
b
d d"
d"
$ c " $ " "

8rom the above e)pression doesn/t depends on

. 3ence

is not a
function of

.
Question 7.&: 2randtl/s lifting line e6uation for a general wing is given by:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
!
-
- - -
- -
!
@

0
b
L
b
d d" "
" " d"
$ c " $ " "

+ +

"here,
$

is the free stream velocity,

- L

is the angle of attac#,
-
"
is the
spanwise location, ( )
- - L
"

gives the spanwise variation of circulation.
Hiven that ( )
!
!
b
L b
% " d"

, the corresponding lift curve slope

L
%
is

EaF :nversely proportional to

EbF :ndependent of

EcF A linear function of

EdF A 6uadratic function of

Solution: EbF ( )
!
!
b
L b
% " d"

( )
!
!
b
L b
% ( " d"

"here, + L constant.
So, ( )
!
!
b
L
b
%
( " d"





, Q
8rom previous 6uestion, we get

is independent of

. So,
L
%

will
also be independent of

.
Question 7.1: Consider flow over a finite wing with elliptical circulation distribution:9
( )
!
!
!
-- @ sec
0
"
" m
_


,
:f the free stream velocity is -- m@sec with total wing span 0m, then the
induced angle of attac# will beM
184
EaF -.!7 rad
EbF 9-.!7 rad
EcF -.!7
!

!
_

,
rad
EdF 9-.!7
!

!
_

,
rad
Solution: EaF
( )
!
!
!
-- @ sec
0
"
" m
_


,
3ere,
-
--, 0 b
-
!
i
bv

%as the distribution is elliptical'

:nduced angle of attac#,
--
-.!7
! 0 --
i
rad

7.7 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
At the time of landing and ta#e off, we need high value of lift coefficient in order to maintain
flight at desired %relatively low' speed.
As,
!

!
L
L v )%

3igh lift can be achieved by:

:ncreasing area %S'
:ncreasing
L
%
*elaying the flow separation by controlling the behaviour of the boundary layer on "ing
:ncreasing free stream velocity.
'ne can increase
L
%
B" increasing the camber of airfoil
8or e)ample, ny using the airfoil with more camber i.e. using ?ACA =07 instead
of ?ACA 007, but increasing in camber not only increases lift even drag also
increases and stall angle decreases.
185
,ith the help of using trailing edge device ie -laps
8laps are the trailing edge devices used to increase
L
%
. There are different type of
flaps i.e:
1. (lain )la*:
"ith the help of plane flap, lift increases at the time of landing and ta#e off.
Stall angle decreases.
2. S*lit )la*:
186
:n case of split flap, lift is higher as compared to plain flap.
:n this case, stalling angle is higher than the corresponding value of plain flap.
!. )owler )la*:
:n case of fowler flap, lift is higher as compared to plain, split, slot flaps.
This provides effective increase in wing area.
:n this case, stalling angle is higher than the corresponding value.
". Slot )la*:
:n case of slot flap, flow gets energi(ed and results into delay in boundary layer
separation hence hereby increasing the stall angle
187
As deflection is there, effective area increases hereby
L
% increases.
,ith the help of using leading edge devices ie
1. +eading ,dge Slat:
This helps in re energising the flow over upper surface hereby delaying flow
separation and increasing angle of attac#.
As deflection is there, effective area increases hereby
L
% increases.
2. +eading ,dge )la*:
As deflection is there, effective area increases hereby
L
% increases.
Stall angle also increases.
CHAPTER 8
188
LINEARIZED THEORY
As we #now that the navior sto#es e6uation don/t have analytical solutions. :f we #eep on
simplifying these e6uation for different different flow regimes then we get some nice analytical
e6uation, which gives us the solution in that flow regimes directly. 8or e)ample euler e6uation,
potential flows, etc. Similarly lineari(ed theory is also based on the analytical e6uation we obtain
by assuming !9*, steady, irrotational, isentropic flow regime with very very small disturbance.
Considering !9*, steady, irrotational, isentropic flow, a velocity potential can be defined as
( ) , x "
such that:9
V
$%=.'
"hereas,
u
x
v
"

?ow, we have to obtain e6uation for

which represents a combination of the continuity,

momentum, and energy e6uations.
The continuity e6uation for the steady, !9* flow is:9
( ) ( )
-
u v
x d"

+

-
u v
u v
x x " "



+ + +

$%=.!'
Substituting the value of u and v, we get:9
! !
! !
-
x x " " x "



+ + +

189
! !
! !
-
x x " " x "

_

+ + +


,
$%=..'
The momentum e6uation in terms of euler/s e6uation is:
dp V dV
$%=.0'
This e6uation is valid for steady, compressible, inviscid flow. Also, the above e6uation can be
written as:
( )
( )
!
! !
!
!
dp d V
dp d u v

+
!
!
!
dp d
x "

1
_ _
1 +


, 1
,
]
$%=.7'
"e are considering flow to be isentropic, then
s
dp p
d
_

,
$%=.;'
Also, we #now that,
!
dp a d $%=.&'
Substituting the value of dp in e6uation %=.7', we get:
!
!
!
!
a d d
x "

1
_ _
1 +


, 1
,
]
$%=.='
Considering change in x direction, we get:
! !
!
! x x x " " x " a

1

+
1

]
$%=.>'
Similarly, by considering change in " direction, we get:
! !
!
! " x x " " x " a

1

+
1

]
$%=.-'
Substituting the value of
x

and
"

in continuity e6uation, we get:9

! ! ! !
! ! !
! x x x " " x " x " a

1
_ 1

+ +
1 1

1
, ]
]
! !
!
-
! " x x " " x " a

1
1

+
1
1

1
]
]
$%=.'
190
!
!
! ! !
! ! ! ! !
!
-
x " x " x " a x a " a

1
1
_ _ _ _
1 + 1

, , 1
, , 1
]
]
$%=.!'
The above e6uation %=.!' #nown as velocity potential e6uation.
?ow, speed of sound in terms of velocity potential can be e)pressed as:9
8rom energy e6uation,
( )
! ! !
-
! ! ! !
-

!
a a V
a a u v

+
!
!
! !
-

!
a a
x "

1
_ _
1 +


, 1
,
]
$%=..'
8.1 LINEARIZED VELOCITY POTENTIAL EQUAETION
Considering !9*, irrotaional, isentropic and uniform flow with velocity
V

over the thin airfoil.

*ue to thin airfoil, the uniform free stream flow will be disturbed and perturbation velocities gets
generated. The net velocities in x and " direction can be written as,
N
N
u V u
v v

+

where, N u and N v are the perturbation velocities. :t is not mandatory that perturbation velocities
are small indeed they can be large as well in the stagnation region in front of blunt nose of the
body. "e #now that,
V
, similarly we can define a perturbation velocity potential
N
such
that
N
V x

+ $%=.0'
"here,
N
N u
x

and
N
"

Therefore,
191
N N
V x
x x " "

+

! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! !
N N N
x " x " x x " "



$%=.7'
Let us limit our consideration to small perturbations and also considering that the body is a
slender body at small angle of attac#. Therefore, we have:9
! !
! !
N N N N
, ,
u v u v
V V V V

<< << <<
Applying the above appro)imation, we get velocity potential as:9
( )
! ! !
!
! ! !
N N N
- '
x x "

+ +

$%=.;'
8.2 LINEARIZED PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
"e #now that,
p
p p
%
q

$%=.&'
And
!
! ! ! !
!

! ! ! !
v p
q V V p V p p '
p p a

_



,
Substituting the value of
q

in
p
%
, we get:
!
!

p
p
%
p '

_


,
$%=.='
Also, from energy e6uation:
! !
! !
P p
V V
T T
% %

+ +
$%=.>'
Also,
,

p
&
%

?ow substituting the value of

p
%
in above energy e6uation, we get:
! !
!

V V
T T
&

,
$%=.!-'
"here ,, on airfoil is
( )
!
!
N N V V u v

+ +
( )
! !
!

N N N !
!
T
uV u v
T a

+ +
$%=.!'
As the flow is isentropic,

,
p T
p T

,
then the above e6uation becomes:
192
! !

!
!
N N N !

!
p u u v
'
p V V

1
_
+
+
1
1
,
]
$%=.!!'
"e have considered that perturbations are small,
! !
! !
N N N
, ,
u u v
v v v

<< << << << <<
, therefore
e6uation %=.!!' becomes:
( )

p
p

$%=.!.'
"here

is small. 8rom binomial e)pression, neglecting higher order terms, above e6uation
becomes:
...

p
p

$%=.!0'
Comparing the above e6uation with %=.!!', e6uation %=.!!' can be e)pressed as:
! !
!
!
N N N !
...
!
p u u v
'
p V V

_
+
+ +

,
$%=.!7'
Similarly,
p
%
from e6uation %=.=' can be e)pressed as:
! !
!
! !
N N N ! !
...
!
P
u u v
% '
V ' V

1
_
+
+ +
1
1
,
]
! !
!
N N N !
p
u u v
%
V V

+

$%=.!;'
Since,
! !
! !
N N
, ,
u v
V V

<< << << <<
then the above e6uation becomes:
N !
p
u
%
V

$%=.!&'
Above e6uation is the lineari(ed form for the pressure coefficient which is valid only for small
perturbations.
?ow considering the flow at infinity, where
N
constant O that is, N N - u v and at the body flow
tangency condition occurs. Assuming be the angle between the tangent to the surface and the
freestream. Then:
N
tan
N
v v
u V u

+
$%=.!='
As perturbation is small,
N tan v V

N
tan V
"

$%=.!>'
193
8.3 PRANDTLGLAUERT COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION
This method is based on the lineari(ed perturbation velocity potential e6uation. This is applicable
to thin airfoils at small angle of attac#. Consider the subsonic, compressible, inviscid flow, then
the velocity potential e6uation can be written as: 9
! !
!
! !
N N
-
x "

+

$%=..-'
"here ( )
! !
'


?ow, transforming x and " into new space coordinates
and
, such that:
, x "
Considering a new velocity potential
N
such that
( ) ( )
N N
, , x "
The above e6uation after differentiating with respect to
G G, x
we get
N N N
x x x



+

$%=..'
Similarly,
N N N
" " "



+

$%=..!'
?ow from transformations,
- -
x " x "

Also, from our assumption:
N N N

x





N N N
"





$%=...'
*ifferentiating the above e6uations wrt x and " respectively, we get:9
! !
! !
N N

! !
! !
N N
"

$%=..0'
Substituting these values in %=..-', we get:
! !
!
! !

-




+

194
! !
! !
-



+

As we #now,
N
N ! ! !
p
u
%
V V x V






As is the perturbation velocity potential for an incompressible flow in a transformed space.
Therefore,
u

"here u is the perturbation velocity for the incompressible flow in the transformed space, hence
p
%
can be written as:
!
p
u
%
V


$%=..7'
where,
!
, '

we have:
,-
!

p
p
%
%
'

$%=..;'
The above e6uation is called as 2randtl Hlauert e6uationO it states that if we #now the
incompressible pressure distribution over the airfoil, then the compressible pressure distribution
over that airfoil can be obtained by above e6uation.
Similarly, lift and moment coefficients can also be written as:
,-

%
%
'

,-
!

m
m
%
%
'

$%=..&'
Question %.1: At a given point on the surface of the airfoil, the pressure coefficient is -..
at very low speeds. :f the freestream Bach number is -.=, calculate
p
%
at this
point.
Solution:
( )
,-
! !
-..
-.7

-.=
p
p
%
%
'

Question %.2: The theoretical lift coefficient for a thin, symmetric airfoil in an
incompressible flow is
!
l
%
. :f the freestream Bach number is -.;,
calculate the lift coefficient,
l
%
over an airfoilM
195
Solution:
( )
,-
! !
!
&.=7

-.;
l
%
%
'

8.4 SUBSONIC FLOW OVER A WAVY WALL
Considering uniform flow in Px/ direction having velocity
$

over a sinusoidal wall.

!
sin
b
x
"

,
$%=..='
"here

is the wae amplitude and is the wave length of the wall. Considering the small
perturbation theoryO so we must assume that
<<
. Solving the partial differential e6uation:9
( )
! !
!
! !
- '
x "

+

$%=..>'
SubQect to the boundary conditions at
-, "
is i.e.:
( )
! !
, - cos
b
b
d" x
v x $ $
dx

_ _


, ,
$%=.0-'
and the condition is that ( ) , -
b
v x
and ( ) , -
b
u x
are finite.
Assuming ( ) ( ) . x / "
and applying method of variable seperable and substitute into
( )
! !
! !
!

x "
'

$%=.0'
"e get:
( )
! !
! !
!

d . d /
. / dx d"
'

$%=.0!'
3ere, ) and y are independent variables i.e here left side of the above e6uation is dependent on x
alone and the right hand side is dependent on " alone, and as x and " are independent to each
other, therefore it follows that both sides must be e6ual to some constant. Selecting constant to
be 9
!
(
to mimic physical nature of flow, we get:
196
!
!
!
-
d .
( .
dx
+ $%=.0.'
( )
!
! !
!
-
d /
' ( /
d"

$%=.00'
The solution to e6uation %=.0.' is:
( ) ( ) cos sin . A (x B (x +
$%=.07'
The solution to e6uation %=.00' is:
( ) ( )
! !
' (" ' ("
/ %e *e

+
+
$%=.0;'
Bultiplying these solutions, we get:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
! !

cos sin
' (" ' ("
A (x B (x %e *e

_
+ +

,
$%=.0&'
Constants A, 5, C, * are determined from the boundary conditions.
At the wall,
( ) ( ) ( )
,
! !
, - , - cos
b b b b
x
v x " v x x $
"

,
also, at infinity
and
x "


must be finite or (ero.
8rom the condition at infinity, it is clear that
-, %
therefore, from the condition at wall, we
have:9
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
!
! !
, - cos sin cos
b
x
x A (x B (x * ' ( $
"

_
+

,
Comparing the terms above, we get:
- B
Therefore,
( ) ( )
( )
!
! !
cos cos
x
A (c * ' ( $

_


,
8rom comparison we analy(e that,
!
(

. Also,
!
! !
A* ' $

_


,
$%=.0='
So,
!

$
A*
'

Therefore,
!
!

!
!
cos

' "
$ x
e
'

_


,

$%=.0>'
197
8.5 LINEARIZED SUPERSONIC PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
8or the case of supersonic flow, let us consider:
! !
!
! !
N N
-
x "

$%=.7-'
"here
!
'

, Let/s assume solution to this e6uation is:
( )
N
f x " $%=.7'
Substituting this solution in above e6uation, we get:
( )
( )
N
G G
x "
f x " f
x x

Also,
!
!
N
GG f
x

Similarly,
( )
( )
N
G
d x "
f x "
" "

Also, ( )
N
G f
"

*ifferentiating above e6uation, we get:

!
!
!
N
R f
"

$%=.7'
Substituting the value of
!
!
N
x

and
!
!
N
"

in supersonic flow e6uation %=.7-', we found its

satisfying the e6uation. 3ence e6uation %=.7' is the solution of e6uation %=.7-'.
! !
R R - f f $%=.7!'
Also, we #now that
N
constant along the lines of
x "
constant, the slope of these lines is
obtained as:
x "
constant
Therefore,
!

d"
dx
'

$%=.7.'
Also, we #now that relation between Bach angle,

and Bach number is:9

!

tan
'

$%=.70'
Comparing the above two e6uations, we see that a line along which
N
is constant is a Bach line.
This result is shown in figure below, which shows supersonic flow over a surface with a small
hump in the middle, where is the angle of the surface relative to the surface relative to the
hori(ontal.
198
?ow, considering small perturbations i.e.:
N
N G u f
x

Also,
N
N G v f
"

1liminating f0 from the above two e6uations, we gets:

N
N
v
u

$%=.77'
Jecalling the lineari(ed theory, we get:
N
N tan v V
"

$%=.7;'
As is small, therefore, tan
N v V

$%=.7&'
Substituting the value of N v in e6uation %=.77', we get:
N
V
u

$%=.7='
Also,
N !
p
%
V

Substituting the value of
N
in
p
%
, we get:
!
p
V
%
V

!
!

p
%
'

$%=.7>'
The above e6uation %=.7>' is the lineari(ed supersonic pressure coefficient and it states that
p
%
is
directly proportional to the local surface inclination with respect to free stream.
199
1)amining the above e6uation, we note that
( )
@ !
!

p
% '

. Therefore, for supersonic flow,

p
%
decreases as
'

increases. This is in direct contrast with the subsonic flow, where

( )
@ !
!

p
% '

, hence for subsonic flow,

p
%
increases as
'

increases. As
'

then
p
%
.
A**lication to Su*ersonic Airfoils:
Considering a flat plate as shown in figure below in which, flow is coming at a small angle of
attac#

.
Therefore,
,
!
!

p l
%
'

$%=.;-'
And at the top surface there is an e)pansion fan because surface is inclined at an angle

away
from the freestream. Therefore
,
!
!

p u
c
'

$%=.;'
The normal force coefficient for the flat plate is obtained as:
( )
, ,
-

c
n p l p u
c % % dx
c

Substituting the value of

, ,
and
p l p u
% %
in above e6uation, we get:
!
0

n
c
'

$%=.;!'
The a)ial force coefficient is given as:
( )
, ,

TE
p u p l
LE
c % % d"
c

200
3owever, the flat plate has theoretically (ero thic#ness. 3ence, here in above e6uation
-, d"
therefore,
- c

Also, we #now that
cos sin
sin cos
l n a
d n a
c c c
c c c



+
As

is small, therefore,
cos and sin
So above e6uations becomes:9
l n a
d n a
c c c
c c c

+
Also, above we proved that
-.
a
c
Therefore,
!
0

l
c
'

$%=.;.'
!
!
0

d
c
'

$%=.;0'
Question %.!: 4sing lineari(ed theory, calculate the lift and drag coefficients for a flat plate
at a = angle of attac# at Bach 0 flow.
Solution: here,
= -..> rad
( )
( )
( )
! !
!
!
! !
0 0 -..>
-.0.

0
0 -..>
0
-.->>

0
l
d
.
c
'
.
c
'

8.6 LINEARIZED PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FROM OBLIQUE
SHOCK RELATION
201
8or obli6ue shoc# wave, we #now that:
( )
! !
!
!cot sin
tan
cos ! !
'
'

+ +
$%=.;7'
( )
( )
! ! !

sin tan tan tan tan

!
' '

+
+ $%=.;;'
Since, is small, therefore, tan and
!

tan tan ,
'

then:
( )
!
tan tan
'

+ +

$%=.;&'
Accordingly, we have
( )
! ! !
!

sin
!

' '
'

$%=.;='
?ow considering the static pressure difference across obli6ue shoc# wave, we get:
( )
!
! ! !
! !
! !
sin
!

p p '
' '
p
' '

_
+


+ +

,
$%=.;>'
Then,
!

!
p
p p
%
$

!
!
! !

! !
p
p p '
%
p
'
' '

_ _
_
_




,

,
, ,
!
!

p
%
'

$%=.&-'
As, tan
d"
dx

202
!
!

p
d"
%
dx
'

$%=.&'
CHAPTER 9
203
WIND TUNNEL TESTING
9.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
2ressure is generally of two type i.e.:
Static pressure
*ynamic pressure
The pressure indicated by the device which is moving with flow velocity is called static
pressure. The device or instrument is placed such that it does not disturb or change the flow
velocity. Bethod of measuring the static pressure of a flow along a wall is to drill a small hole
normal to the surface and connect this hole to manometer, pressure gauge, or other similar
device, this device is also called as static pitot tube. The hole should be small in comparison to
boundary layer thic#ness and must be free from roughness and burrs that might disturb the flow.
Since there is no pressure change %constant pressure' through boundary layer in normal direction
to the wall, the indicated pressure on the device is a real measure of the free stream static
pressure
P

.
Characteristic and alignment of the static probe:
2robe should be very thin.
:t should be aligned with flow direction, to avoid disturbance in the flow.
The front of the probe may be round, wedge, or conical shape %the body of the probe is shown is
above figure. The tap is located - to !- diameters of the probe in the downstream direction.
This location completely depends on type of flow as mentioned below:9
8or subsonic operation, it varies in range of 7 to - probe diameters.
8or supersonic operation, it varies in range of - to 7 probe diameters.
204
The pressure device is located at this downstream range so that the surface pressure recovers to
the free stream static pressure,
P

.
8or supersonic flow, there will be an attached shoc# at the nose in case of narrow wedge
or conical shaped probe, as shown in figure above. The points where the nose Qoins
cylindrical part of the probe at S will have e)pansion waves as the initial angles of flow increases
at those points. :n such case, the change in flow conditions by wea# attached shoc# is neutrali(e
by the generation of e)pansion wave at S. 3ence, the pressure measurement at the tap at A, will
be close to the free stream static pressure,
P

.
Alignment of probe is very sensitive to flow. 1)periments show that, more the
misalignment of the probe more will be the disturbance introduced into the flow.
"e have a supersonic flow field in which there occurs a normal shoc#, as shown in figure
%a'. As pressure increases across the choc#, pressure values should be high from point + to L in
comparison to pressure values from point : to D, as shown in figure %b'. Actually, however, there
is formation of boundary layer on the probe, so the actual velocity at the fi)ed probe surface is
(ero. *ue to presence of boundary layer, there is subsonic flow inside boundary layer %flow
velocity are very small in boundary layer regions', hence no shoc#s in boundary layer region.
*ue to this, the effect of the pressure change occurring outside the boundary layer can be SfeltT
upstream. :n other words, in the presence of a shoc#, the pressure change that occur in the
boundary layer are not the same as the pressure change that occurs across the shoc# outside the
boundary layer. Thus the pressure probe will indicate more gradual or slow pressure rise instead
of a sudden pressure rise, as shown in figure%c' above. Conse6uently, even after the presence of a
shoc# in supersonic flow, the static pressure indicated by the probe gives true reading only when
the probe is either far upstream or downstream of the shoc# or the shoc# is very wea#.
9.1.1 PITOT TUBE
2itot tube is a device or instrument that measures Total or stagnation pressure by bringing the
flow isentropically to rest.
The 2itot tube consists of three components:
205
%' Tip,
%!' The body, which includes hardware to hold the instrument to the wall,
%.' The measuring device %4 tube Banometer'.
The combination of static pressure probe %measure static pressure' and 2itot tube
%measures stagnation pressure', form the 2itot9static9tube, which is s#etched in figure. The inner
tube measures the stagnation pressure, while the outer tube measures the static pressure %shown
in diagram'.
There are various types of shapes and body of 2itot9static tube, few are shown in 8igure above.
8rom the measured values, a pressure ratio of stagnation pressure to static pressure is
given by:

! -

!
P
'
P

_
+

,
$%>.'
After rearranging e6uation %>.':
@
! -
!

P
'
P

1
_
1

,
1
]
$%>.!'
As we #now Bach number and the static pressure, we can calculate dynamic pressure as below:
( )
@
! !
! ! -
!

! ! @ ! !
P v v
v P P ' P P
P P a

1
_
1

,
1
]
$%>..'
"hen B U or the flow is supersonic, there will be a detached shoc# in front of the
probe since the 2itot static tube is essentially a blunt nosed body.
The total or stagnation pressure given by the manometer or gauge connected to the tube
will be the stagnation pressure normal to the flow direction on the downstream portion of the
shoc#. Assuming a large enough Jeynolds number, we may write
( )
-! !
-!
!
measured
P P
pressure P P
P P
_ _


, ,
$%>.0'
"here

P
is the free stream static pressure
P

on the upstream side of the shoc#. ?ow the

stagnation to static pressure ration on the downstream side of the shoc# is:
206

! -!
!
!

!
P
'
P

_
+

,
$%>.7'

-!
!
!

!
!

'
P
P
'

1
_
+
1
_
1 +

, 1

,
]
$%>.;'
Also, the static pressure ration across a normal shoc#:
! !

!

P
'
P

+ +
$%>.&'
Combining e6uation %>.0', %>.7', %>.;' and %>.&', we get Jayleigh92itot formula:

! -!

!
!
!


'
P
'
P
'

_
+

_

+ +
,

+ +
,
( )
( )

!
!
! -!

! 0 !
' P
'
P '

1
+
+
1

1
]
$%>.='
Question &.1: The Bach number of a compressible flow is to be determined from pressure
measurements made by a pitot static tube. :f the static probe indicates
EaF .7 #2a and
EbF !7 #2a
"hereas the 2itot tube/s stagnation pressure is 7- #2a, determine the flow
Bach number. Assume that the
.0
Solution: The first step in this problem is to compute the critical pressure ration that
is, at B L and
.0
:9

-
critical

.=>!>.
!
P
P

+ _ _


, ,
:f the actual pressure ratio
-! -
@ or @ P P P P
is below the critical value, a
subsonic Bach number is computed from e6uation
@
! -
!

P
'
P

1
_
1

,
1
]
As,
-
.7 and 7- P (Pa P (Pa
, we get:9
207
-.0
.0
!
! 7-

-.0 .7
-.7.;
'
'
1
_
1


1
,
1
]

As,
-
!7 and 7- P (Pa P (Pa
, we get:
-.0
.0
!
! 7-

-.0 !7
.-0;
'
'
1
_
1


1
,
1
]

"hereas if the pressure ration is above the critical value, we must e)tract the supersonic Bach
number from the Jayleigh92itot formula. To accomplish this, we now develop a method that uses
the ?ewton Japhson Bethod procedure and is easily incorporated to solve given e6uation
here.
( )
( )

!
!
! -!

! 0 !
'
P
'
P '

1
+
+
1

1
]
The above e6uation is implicit e6uation and can be solved using numerical method.
9.2 FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
8low rate measurement fall into two categories:
Bass flow rate and
,olume flow rate.
There are numerous devices and techni6ues available for flow rate measurement.
1ach fluid flow measurement device consists of two main parts: the primar" element and
the secondar" element. The primary element is in contact with fluid and interacts with the fluid
to produce a measurable signal. The associated secondary part converts the signal produced by
the primary part into a 6uantity that is observable by the user.
2rimary elements are:
Irifice plate and
Turbine rotors
Secondary 1lements are:
Banometers and
1lectromagnetic devices.
The electromagnetic device senses the number of rotations of the turbine blades within a specific
period of time %e.g. rpm' and can then easily convert this value to a flow rate.
208
5ecause of their widespread application, simplicity, low cost, and limited maintenance
re6uirements, two differential pressure meters will be considered here: the ,enturi meter and the
Irifice meter.
9.2.1 VENTURI METER
The -enture tube is regarded one of the oldest type of differential flow rate measurement
devices.
A ,enturi meter is a converging diverging no((le. The volume flow rate ( ) @ m VA &
can be simply determined from the flow velocity in a cross section has a single value. A 2itot
static tube can be used for this purpose.
To develop an e)pression for the mass flow rate, begin by applying the law of
conservation of mass to the control volume shown in figure.
th th th
m Av A v &
$%>.>'
8or steady, one dimensional flow, the momentum e6uation can be written as:9
.
dP
V dv

$%>.-'
Applying 5ernoulli/s e6uations at sections and !, we get
! !
! !
!
! !
p v P v
# #
g g g g
+ + + +
As pipe is hori(ontal ! # #
! !
! !
!
P P v v
g g


! !
!
!
v v
h
g

$%>.'
3ere
! !
!
,
!
v v
h
g

difference of pressure heads at sections and !.

8rom the continuity e6uation at sections and !, we obtain
209
( )
! !
! !

! ! !
! !
!

!
!
! !
!
!
A v
Av A v v
A
v A A
h
g A
A
v gh
A A

_

*ischarge,
! !
+ Av A v
( )
!
!
! !
!
A A
+ gh
A A

$%>.!'
?ote that the above e)pression is for ideal condition and is #nown as theoretical discharge.
Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge:
( )
!
!
! !
!
actual d
A A
+ % gh
A A

$%>..'
d
%
is the coefficient of venturimeter and its value is always less then .
9.2.2 ORIFICE METER
:t is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe. :t is a cheaper
device as compared to venturimeter. This also wor# on the same principle as that of venturimeter.
:t consists of flat circular plate which has a circular hole, in concentric with the pipe. This is
called orifice. The diameter of orifice is generally -.7 times the diameter of the pipe %*',
although it may vary from -.0 to -.= times the pipe diameter.
Applying 5ernoulli/s e6uations at sections and !, we get
! !
! !
!
! !
P v P v
# #
g g g g
+ + + +
As pipe is hori(ontal ! # #
210
! !
! !
! !
!
!
!
P P v v
g g
v v
h
g

!
! v v gh + $%>.0'
"here h is the differential head. Let
-
A
is the area of the orifice.
Coefficient of contraction,
!
-
c
A
c
A

5y continuity e6uation, we have

! !
Av A v
-
!

c
A %
v v
A

3ence,
!
-
! !

!
c
A %
v v gh
A
_
+

,
!
!
! -
!

c
gh
v
A
%
A

$%>.7'
Thus discharge,
! !
arg , *isch e + Av A v
-
! ! - !
!
! -
!

c
c
c
A % gh
+ A v A v %
A
%
A

:f
d
%
is the co9efficient of discharge for orifice meter, which is defined as
!
-
!

!
! -
!

d c
c
A
A
% %
A
%
A

!
! -
!

!
-
!

c
c d
A
%
A
% %
A
A

211
3ence,
-
! !
-
!
d
A A gh
+ %
A A

$%>.;'
The coefficient of discharge of the orifice meter is much smaller than that of a venturimeter.
9.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
There is no method for the direct measurement of the static temperature of a moving gas. :t is
also not possible to measure temperature as done in measurement of pressure.
:n order to obtain temperature measurement, we have to view a compressible flow boundary
layer. :t depends on the fact that the gas is moving slowly or rapidly over the surface, as well as
on the conditions that are imposed at the wall. Two broad classes of wall conditions are generally
considered:9
%' Ine in which the wall temperature
!
T
is specified, and
%!' Ine in which the wall heat flu)
!
q
is specified.
Considering the surface is insulated and there is no heat flows into or out of the wall that is,
-
!
q
. The boundary condition at the wall ( ) - "
is
@ - T "
. The surface temperature for
this case shown is called the adiabatic wall temperature
a!
T
. As the Bach number is very small,
the free stream static and stagnation temperatures are same. 1ven the free stream temperature
and the wall temperature are also same. The static temperature distribution if the temperature
gradient at the wall is negative Ei.e. heat flows from the wall to the gas %the hot wall case'F and
the, distribution if the temperature gradient is positive Ei.e. heat flows from the gas to the wall
%the cold wall case'F.
There will be a heat flow in the " direction, due to conduction as the fluid near the wall is
at a higher temperature than the fluid near the outer edge of the boundary layer. 8or this case,
there is also appreciable, frictional heating of the fluid. The temperature difference
a!
T T

is a
measure of the rate of this dissipation. ?ote that this difference is increased as the wall is
approaches.
212
The viscous dissipation terms for two dimensional flow in the %x, "' plane are given by:
! !
!
!
u v u v
x " x "

1
_ _ _
1 + + +


, 1
, ,
]
$%>.&'
where

is called the dissipation function. :n the boundary layer, changes in the streamwise x
direction are smaller than changes in the transverse " direction. Also, the velocity component in
the " direction, v. 5y performing an order of magnitude analysis, we find that the largest
viscous dissipation term in the foregoing e6uation is
!
u
"

,
.
The heat conduction terms for two dimensional flow are
.
T T
q ( (
x x / "
_ _
+


,
,
r
$%>.='
Ta#ing the ratio of the viscous dissipation and the heat conduction across a boundary layer of
thic#ness , we obtain the following:
( ) ( )
!
!
!
! !
!
! !
-
2r
p p
! p
p
u v v
u
c " c
" v v
Ec
T T c T T ( T
(
c " "

_ _ _


_
,
, _
,



_ ,
,

,
: $%>.>'
"hen ( ) ( ) 2r , Ec >>
it can be neglected.
8rom the above figures it may be observed that,
when
, -
! a! !
T T q
%the insulated wall case'
when
, -
! a! !
T T q > >
%the hot wall case'
when
, -
! a! !
T T q < <
%the cold wall case'
According to ?ewton/s law of cooling, used in convection heat transfer and generally written as
( )
! !
q h T T

, is more appropriately written as ( )
! ! a!
q h T T
. :n low Bach number
cases %i.e incompressible flows',
a!
T T

.
213
Considering the static temperature at the wall fully recovers the freestream stagnation
temperature that is,
- -
or
! a! a!
T T T T T T T


. This limiting situation is then used
as a metric for the adiabatic wall temperature by defining a recovery factor r as follows:9
-
a!
T T
r
T T

Since
!
!
-

! !
p
v
T T T ' T
c

+ +
!
-

!
T T '

_
+

,
$%>.!-'
:t follows that
!
!

!
!
a! a!
p
T T T T
r
v
' T
c

or
!

!
a!
T T r '

_
+

,
$%>.!'
Also,
( ) ( )
!
!

2r 2r
! !
a!
p
v
T T f T f '
c


1
+ +
1
]
$%>.!!'
3ence, we see that the recovery factor depends only upon the 2randtl number.
8or a laminar compressible boundary layer, over the range of 2randtl numbers between
-.7 and -, the recovery factor may be appro)imated by
2r r
8or a turbulent boundary layer, the recovery factor may be appro)imated by
.
2r r
.
.Note: that
, , pr r
so
- a!
T T

.
Although a direct measurement of free stream static temperature is not possible, the
foregoing analysis suggests that an indirect method is possible measuring,
-
and P P

by using
the methods of previous section and then to determine
'

by using

! -

!
P
'
P

_
+

,
, if the pressure ratio is below the critical pressure ration.
( )
( )

!
!
! -!

! 0 !
'
P
'
P '

1
+
+
1

1
]
, if the pressure ration is above the critical pressure ratio.
A measurement of the adiabatic wall temperature
a!
T
and a value of the 2randtl number %and
214
therefore the recovery factor r as well' are then sufficient to permit the calculation of both
-
and T T

.
A stagnation temperature probe can be used to determine
-
T

. The measurement of
-
T

is unaffected by the presence of the detached shoc# in front of the probe, since shoc# flow is
adiabatic. :t is necessary that the flow be slowed down to (ero velocity at the thermocouple, with
no gain or loss of heat. Shields are provided to prevent radiation heat loss from the thermocouple
lead wires must be made as thin as possible so as to minimi(e heat flow by conduction bac#
along the wires. ?everthless, it is appropriate to define a correction factor + such that
-,
-
indicated
T T
1
T T

$%>.!.'
where,
-, indicated
T
is the temperature indicated by the probe. 5y suitable design, + can be
made very close to unity for air, in any case such a probe must be calibrated to define 1 as a
function of Jeynolds number, 2randtl number and Bach number.
Question &.2: A total temperature found to have -.> 1 over a wide range of operating
conditions. A pitot tube inserted into a supersonic flow indicates a 2ressure of
!7- +2aO a static probe indicates 7- +2a. :f the indicated temperature of the
total temperature probe is ;7- + when inserted in to the same supersonic flow,
determine

T
.
Solution: 8or
-
7-
-.!
!7-
P P , we solve
( )
( )

!
!
! -!
!

! 0 !
' P
'
P '

1
+
+
1

1
]
to find
that

.=&-7;. ' '

8rom isentropic flow relations, at
.=&-7;, '

-
-.7==.-, T T


so we have
-,
-
-
, ;7-
-.>
-.;>>=
-.7==.
T indicated T
T indicated T T
1
T
T T T
T

Solving, we obtain
.>=.==+ T

9.4 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
The velocity of a moving gas is measured by using mechanical or laser@ optical probes. Some of
the velocity measurement techni6ues are:
215
%' /ot wire Anemometry: They are used to preform detailed, high fre6uency or
high resolution flow9 field velocity measurements. Also, they are used to measure the variable
that occurs in turbulent flows such as mean and fluctuating velocity components, mean and
fluctuating temperature and vorticity.
%!' +aser 0o**ler 1elocimetry: The fre6uency shift of a laser beam that is traversed
by a moving obQect helps in the determination of velocity by using L*,s.
%.' (article image 1elocimetry: :t is a photographic techni6ue that measures the
velocity by determining the displacement of the seeded particles over time. TI accomplish this,
the particles are illuminated with a plannar %or !*' light or laser sheet and the flow field is
photographed at short time intervals with high definition cameras.
%0' *ot Batri): This is a mechanical method of velocity measurement in which the
body is wrapped with a paper over which in# droplets are there. As the flow comes, the in#
droplets move with the flow forming a line. And this line is measured with the reference line
which tells us about the velocity and direction of the flow.
9.4.1 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETRY
:t consists of a small probe containing a thin electrically heated wire located within fluid
stream. Convective heat transfer from the heated wire depends upon the fluid velocity and
temperature of heated wire. The convective heat loss and the temperature of heate)change
surface is monitored in the transduces through electronic circuitry.
The temperature law of the resistivity V serves as the base for fundamental e6uation of a
hot wire anemometer for the hot wire materials. "e #now,
( )

! ref ! ref
. . T T
1
+
]
$%>.!0'
"here

is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Therefore, the resistance of a wire of length

L and cross9sectional area A at a mean temperature
!
T
is
( )

!
! ref ! ref
. L
& & T T
A
1
+
]
$%>.!7'
"e get, ( )
J
! ref ! ref ref
& & & T T
$%>.!;'
A wheat stone bridge connection is made in which hot wire probe is connected. At stage
reference conditions, the bridge is balanced, so the output voltage is (ero. As the fluid flows over
the heated wire of the probe, the convection process ta#es place and heat e)change changes the
resistance of the hot wire. The bridge becomes unbalanced and generates an output voltage that
is proportional to the resistance variation which is given by,
e & : $%>.!&'
As we #now, heat generated by the battery is:
generated convected to fluid
+ +
216
That is,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
!
! ! f ! f ! f
I & hA T T h L d T T L( T T 2u
$%>.!='
"here : is the current through probe, d is the diameter of the wire, # the thermal conductivity of
the fluid, ( ) @ 2u hd (
the ?usselt number, and
!
T
and
f
T
the wire and fluid temperatures,
respectively. Ta#ing the reference temperature to be the same as the fluid temperature
f
T
we
have
! f
! ref ! f
f
& &
T T T T
&

$%>.!>'
"here ?usselt/s number,
hd
2u
1
$%>..-'
And 2randtl/s number is 2r
p
c
1

$%>..'
!
-.!;
-...
-.0! 2r
Je
-.7& 2r
2u .
.
_

,
$%>..!'
Question &.!: A 2ot wire anemometer is *laced in an airstream at atmos*2eric *ressure
and a tem*erature of 2#3C. T2e electric current in t2e wire is # mA4 and
t2e tem*erature of t2e wire is 1%#3C.T2e diameter of t2e wired is
3m
4
and t2e lengt2 is 1.# mm.
0etermine t2e -elocity of t2e air flow. )or air at t2e mean film
tem*erature4 ta5e
3
= 0!"#$%& ' m ,
(
c = )0)3 *+ ' %& *,% = 003)", ' m *
and
-#
= .)$ /)0 %& ' ms T2e
resisti-ity of t2e wire is .22
34m
Solution: The resistance of the wise is
( ) ( )
( )
; .
! !
; 0
-.!! - . .7 -
0&.->
. -
0
!
. m . m
. L
&
d
.

_ 1

1
]
,
The heat loss from the wire is computed as
( ) ( )
!
! 0
-.--0 0&.-> &.7.&7 - q I & A . ,

The heat transfer coefficient is determined as follows:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0
. ;
&.7.&7 -
. .7 - . . - . =7 !7
! !
q q .
h
A T T dL T T . m . m 1

!
....!.-;;! . h , m 1
The ?usselt number is
217
( ) ( )
! ;
....!.-;;! . . -
-.-.=.
-.-.0 .
, m 1 . m
hd
2u
1 , m 1

The 2randtl number is
( ) ( )
7 .
!.= - . .-. - .
-.&-..
-.-.0 @ .
p
. (g m s . 5 (g 1
c
Pr 6
1 , m(

"ith the ?usselt and 2randtl numbers, we can determine the Jeynolds
number from
! !
!
- !; - !;
- .. - ..
- 0! - -.=. - 0! - &-.. - .700
- 7& - 7& - &-.. - .!-.0
!-.


2u . Pr .
&e
. Pr

_ _
_



,
, ,

3aving the Jeynolds number, we can computer the velocity of the airflow as
( ) ( )
7
. ;
!-. ! = -
> !0!&7
- >07= . -
&e . .
V m sec
d (g m . m

9.4.2 LASER DOPPLER VELOCIMETRY

The particle scatters waves from the light source by two monocromatic beam. The
fre6uencies of these scattered waves in the scattering direction,
d
i
r
are:
( )

-
d
V i i
v v

+

r r r
$%>...'
The heterodyne mi)ing produces the fre6uency difference

( )
!
! - -!
V i i
v v v v

+

r r r
$%>..0'
Thus the difference between the *oppler shifts,
( )
!
!
*
V i i
V1
v

+

r r r
r r
$%>..7'
is independent of the direction
d
r
r
3ere,
( )
!
! i i
1

r r
r
$%>..;'
is the wave vector in the direction ( )
!
i i
r r
.:f ,%t' is the component of the velocity in
( )
!
i i
r r
direction , then

( )
!
!
1V t
v

r
$%>..&'
where
218

0 sin(
1 1

r
$%>..='
The difference
*
v
between the two *oppler shifts is a measure of the velocity component ,,
which lies in the plane of the beams and is perpendicular to their bisector.
The space between fringes is

!
f
d
sin(

$%>..>'
"hen a very small particle intersects the fringes, it will generate a scattered light flu)
which oscillates sinusoidally. The fre6uency for the particle to traverse one fringe is
f
V d
:
!
*
f
V sin(
v
d

$%>.0-'
Question &.": A dual beam L*, uses a laser with a wavelength of &--- Angstroms
( )
-)0
)A= )0 m
The angle between the intersecting beams is -W. 2articles
cross the fringes with scatter light flu) that oscillates sinusoidally with a
fre6uency of .- B3(. "hat is the velocity of the fluid particlesM
Solution: The space between the fringes is
-
;
&--- -
0 -7&> -
! ! 7
f
. m
d . m
sin( sin

The velocity of the flow %i.e. the velocity of the particle' is

( ) ( )
; ;
0 -7&> - .- - !- 0&
f
V d v . m . sec m 7 sec


9.4.3 PARTICLE IMAGE VELOCIMETRY
Se6uence of photographs of a seeded and illuminated flow field are used for the calculation of
velocity, this is the fundamental principle of 2:, techni6ue. This method has been used in a wide
variety of flows to calculate the velocity i.e.
"ind tunnel flows,
supersonic Qet e)pansions,
flows inside a combustion cylinder of an engine,
flames,
two phases flows,
waves and rotating and turbulent flows.
A laser sheet is created by focusing double pulsed light beam onto an optical device, such as
cylindrical lens. Then seeded flow field is illuminated by sheet of light, which is photographed as
show in figure. The plane of the photograph is parallel to the light sheet.
Series of photographs are ta#en at short term interval t and recorded. The images are
overlapped and then analysed and the displacements x of the particles are computed. Since the
219
time interval between the series of consecutive images is #nown, and by overlapping we can
calculate the distance travelled by any illuminated particle, hence the velocity can be computed
from u x t
0
9.5 DENSITY MEASUREMENT
The optical methods used to measure density are:
Schlieren
Shadowgraph and
:nterferometer
According to the basic optics, the speed of light in a medium is dependent on the density of that
medium. The inde) of refraction, n, relates then speed of light in vacuum, ( )
=
-
. - sec c . m
, to
the speed of light in a medium, c:
-
c
n
c
$%>.0'
"here n is refractive inde) which varies with the density. 8or values of n near unity, an
appro)imate linear relationship. According to the relation given by Hladstone *ale e6uation, we
get:
n 1

+
$%>.0!'
"here + is a constant %Hladstone *ale constant'
"e also #now that across a different medium, the light ray get deflected from the direction in
which it is travelling, and that can be written using Snell/s law as
( )
( )
sin
sin
air air
!ater !ater
i c t c
r c t c

$%>.0.'
4sing e6uation %>.0' we can say that,
( )
( )
sin
sin
air !ater
!ater air
i c
r c

$%>.00'
220
Since
, , !ater air !ater air
> >
Consider a flow in the P(/ direction with a density gradient in the y direction. As may be
seen from the figure, light is passed in the P)/ direction. 8or this flow, it is assumed that the
density gradually decreases with y, and since the inde) of refraction,

%and therefore the density

', is inversely related to c, the local velocity of light for Jay is slightly smaller than that of
Jay !.
They density variation causes a turning of the wave front,
!
,
which is an
e)tremely small angleO hence, we may use the appro)imation ( ) ( )
! !
sin
.
As rays are normal to the local wave front, the rays are also turned by this amount. The
local velocity of light for Jay ! is
! - !
@ , c c
and the local velocity of light for ray is
-
. c c
The angular deflection of the wave front that is, the small angle through which
the light rays are turned is
( )
( ) ( )
-
! ! -
!
!

!
sin
c t
c c t t c
" " "
_



,


$%>.07'
"here t is the time interval re6uired for the light rays to pass through the distance x . ?ow,
from the geometry of figure, we have
( )
-
!

cos
c
x c t c t t

$%>.07'
Thus,


x c t
$%>.0;'
Combining this e)pression with e6uation %>.07' yields,
( )
!
!

x
"



$%>.0&'
5y allowing
and x "
to approach (ero, the e6uation %>.0=' becomes
221
d d
dx d"

8inally, use of Hladstone *ale e6uation,

n 1 + ,
produces
d 1 d
dx d"

The above e)pression gives us a relation between angular change and density in differential
from. 8urther integration of this e6uation will give us the angle through which the light rays will
be turned due to the density gradient in the transverse %in this case, y' direction:
d
1 dx
d"

$%>.0>'
As the value if inde) of refraction is almost unity in gases, so we can omit the value of
SnT the integrand of above e6uation. The above e6uation shows that the angular deflection of the
light rays is dependent on the first derivative of the gas density in the direction normal to the
light ray.
8ew important point to be noted from this e)periments are:
%' :f the density

in uniform in the test section, an entering light rays will not be deflected
by angular change. 3ence we observe as

%!' :f the gradient of the density,
,
d
d"

is uniform across the height of the test section, all rays

passing through the section will be deflected through the same angle.
222

%.' :f the second derivative of density,
!
!
,
d
d"

is uniform across the height of the test section,

entering rays passing through the test section will diverge or converge uniformly.

%0' :f
!
!
d
d"

is non uniform, across the height of the test section, entering rays passing
through the last section will interfere with each other.

9.5.1 SCHLIEREN METHOD
223
This system is used in supersonic@ hypersonic flows. :t is especially effective in
visuali(ing shoc#s and e)pansion waves that does not have large gradients in density. Another
application is in subsonic flow, where this can be used to visuali(e natural convection
phenomena. :n natural convection, the changes in the density are due to the temperature
gradients. The flow field details provided by the photographs from Schileren system.
The techni6ue of this system can be understood in the . ways, moving from a point light
source to e)tended light source simpler to typical. These are:
%' 5asic Schileren system with a point light source.
%!' Schileren system with an 1)tended light source.
%.' A Schileren System with mirrors.
617 8asic Sc2ileren system wit2 a *oint lig2t source
As shown in figure, a point source of light is placed at the focus of lens

L
. This lens
provides parallel light beams through the test section, agter passing through test section the rays
are refocused by lens
!
L
. A screen is placed at the focal point of this second Lens, it would
contain the image of the light source. After passing through
!
L
the light is then proQected onto the
screen or camera, providing an inverted image of the test section.
?ow place the edge of a #nife %an ordinary ra(or blade', identified as +, in the focal
plane of
!
L
. The #nife edge is such that it can be vertically raised or lowered. :f the #nife is
raised too far in vertical direction it will obstruct all the light, and the screen will be dar#.Let us
consider that + obstructs all the light rays coming from
!
L
. :n this case, the image of the test
section on the screen will disappear.
?ow, gas is passed through the test section which consists of density disturbance or
density is varying in that rectangular bo). Light rays passing through rectangular bo) will bent
from their original paths as test section have transverse density gradients, however the lens
!
L
focuses the rays from each point in the test section to a corresponding point on the screen. Two
224
rays are shown in dashed lines in figure. Some light rays becomes visible on a screen by
converting angular difference, caused by the density gradient in the test section.
627 Sc2ileren system wit2 an ,9tended lig2t source
A point source of light in the last figure is replaced by the e)tended source of light SabT %light
from a rectangular slit or from a filament' as shown in the figure below.
The pattern of light rays is little complicated in this case in comparison to last one. Light from
the source, labelled ab, is collimated by lens

L
providing a parallel light beam through the test
section. Two e)treme light rays from a and b are shown in figure, rays from each point passing
parallel to each other through the test section. After passing, the rays are focused by lens
!
L
at
a/b/, which is inverted image of the light source. The light is then focused onto the screen or
photographic plate by lens
.
L
providing a uniformly illuminated, but inverted, image of the test
section. 5y placing a #nife edge + in the
!
L
focal plane and letting the #nife edge obstruct the
light, Let there be a transverse density gradient in the test section. :n this case, the rays from r
will be deflected from their original path, ?ow, as seen previously, this ray is bloc#ed by the
#nife edge and we get the ne)t position of #nife compare with the reference condition, this
involves the visuali(ation of density gradients %in this case, d d" 'in a flow.
8igure shows images of the e)tended light source at the #nife edge. Two views are
shown:
8irst one in which there is no disturbance in the test section %the basic image' and in Second
view, in which a disturbance causes some of the light to be deflected %the displaced image'. Light
rays in the latter case are shifted vertically and hori(ontally because of the density gradients in
those directions.
The relative displacement h h can be e6uated to the relative change in light intensity,
I I , or contrast
225
h I
h I

$%>.7-'
Since the #nife is located at the focal point of
!
L
, this distance %between + and L!' is labelled f
!
.
The e)pression for the displacement for the displacement of a light beam at the #nife edge is
! !
tan .
x x
h f f
3ence from the e6uation,

,
d
1 d"
d"

dx, yields:
! !

x
f f h I d
1 dx
h I h h d"

$%>.7'
Since the inde) of refraction for gases is very nearly unity, the foregoing e6uation becomes

!
f I d
1 dx
I h d"

$%>.7!'
So, we see that the :ntensity of light at the screen for the schlieren system depends upon the first
derivative of the density in the direction normal to the path of the light ray.
9.5.2 SHADOWGRAPH TECHNIQUE
This method is highly applicable in flows where density changes are large and sudden, such
strong shoc#waves. The shadowgraph is the simplest among there. The basic shadowgraph
instrument is presented in the figure. 2arallel light beams pass through these the test section and
illuminate the screen. "hen there is no flow in the test section, the light rays are uniformly
illuminated. As we introduce flow in the test section, then the light rays will be deflected because
of the density gradient, and therefore dar# and light spots will appear on the screen, creating
shadow patterns.
Lets ta#e two parallel light rays separated by a distance
"
, as shown. "ithout flow, the
light rays are straight along ) direction, and the illumination on the screen is uniform. :f there is
226
flow in the test section, which has density gradient in the y direction, the two light rays are
refracted at very small angles
and +
. Then the ratio of intensity at the screen,
,
scr
l
to the
intensity because of the disturbance, l
ts
is given as flows:
scr
ts scr
I "
I "

$%>.7.'
?ote that the larger the value of
scr
"
the smaller is the value of the intensity at the screen.
8rom the above e6uation, we get,

scr ts
ts ts scr
I I I "
I I "

$%>.70'
8orm figure, it is seen that ( )
!
.
scr
" " " " +
and for small angles, ( )

tan
scr
" x +

( )
scr
x +
. Thus, e6uation %>.70' becomes

scr
scr
ts scr scr scr
scr
x
x I " " "
I " " x " x
x
"

+ +
+

scr
x
"

$%>.77'
Ta#ing the limit as
"
- and using e6uation
d
1 dx
d"

produces
!
! scr
ts
I d
1x dx
I d"

$%>.7;'
The above relation shows that screen illumination is related to the second derivative of the
density. 8ew important point to be noted:
%' :f there is a uniform density gradient inside the test section, all light rays will be deflected
with the same angle, and therefore the screen will be uniformly illuminated.
%!' The shadowgraph, indicating the second derivative of density, is more suitable for use in
flows having sudden changes in density, such as strong shoc#waves. 8or flows with
smoothly varying density, the Schileren system is a better.
Through shadowgraph techni6ue, a shoc#wave can be seen on a screen as a dar# region
flowed by a bright region.
Alternative shadowgraph instruments, based on the same principle are:
' one that uses a point light source without any lens or mirrors, and
!' another with a concave mirror to create a parallel beam of light.
9.5.3 THE INTERFEROMENTER
227
:t operates by splitting a light beam into two more parts, which then travel along different
paths%one from reference section and another path from the test section under analysis' until they
combine and form fringe pattern.
Main uses: :t has been widely used to study the flows in wind tunnels, shoc# tubes and in study
of natural convection heat transfer.
Construction: The instrument consists of two adQustable mirrors B

and B
!
and two splitter
plates S2

and S2
!
, usually positional in corners of cuboid.
(rinci*le: The splitter plates %half silvered mirrors' reflect about one half the incident light and
transmit the rest.
:or5ing:
%' Alight beam, from monochromatic %single fre6uency' is arranged such that it will pass
through two different path.
%!' 8irst path is passing through the air and second path of light rays is passing through the
test section of which we want to calculate the density.
%.' :n the first path, mirror B

reflects light beam, which causes a phase change of one half a

wavelength. And the beam is then reflected again by splitter plate S2
!
, which causes a
phase change of one half of a wavelength.
%0' The second path, which passes through the test section, Along this path, the light beam is
first reelected by splitter plate S2

e)periences a phase change of one half of a wavelength
and then by the second mirror, B
!
, the light ray is transmitted without phase change
through splitter plate S2! and reaches to screen.
Two types of interference can ta#e place:
Constructive interference destructive interference
Light wave on each path Light wave are one half of a
Arrive at the screen in phase wavelength out of phase
they will reinforce one another they will cancel one another
brighten the screen screen will be dar#
"hen there is flow through test section and density changes, the speed of the light rays passing
through the test section also gets change, and distorted fringe pattern emerges. 5y increasing the
228
density of the test section, the effective optical path of the test section beam is increased, and
therefore the time for the light beam to traverse the path through the test section is increased by
an amount.
( )
-
f nf
f nf
L L L
t
c c c

$%>.7&'
"here L is the width of the test section and
-
,
nf f
c c and c
are the respective velocities of light
through the test section with no flow, with flow, and through a vacuum.
Lets say this change in length can be written as the number of fringe pattern obtain with the
wavelength of the light we age using hence
( )
f nf
2 L L
$%>.7='
"here is the wavelength of the light. Combining the Hladstone *ale e6uation,
n 1 +
with ( )
f nf
L L
2



yields an e)pression for the density of flow within the test section:
f nf
2
L1

+ $%>.7>'
Com*arison of t2e s2adowgra*24 t2e Sc2ileren and t2e interferometer
Shadowgraph Schileren :nterferometer
A Beasures
! !
d d" / A Beasures
d d" /
A Beasures

A 1asy to operate A 1asy to operate A :s difficult to set

A *isplays shadow A *isplays a focused image A *isplays sharp image
A :s precise A 3as good precision A most precise system
A 8low with large, A :s suitable for use in flow A for use in flows
8low with large, with change in density%shoc#s in wind tunnels, mi)ing
Sudden changes in or e)pansion waves' or to regions, and boundary
*ensity %strong visuali(e convection layers
Shoc#waves' phenomena

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE
229
. The ratio of area in divergent part of no((le to the throat area for Bach number . and
specific heat ratio .; is. XXXXXXXXXXX
A. ;.0-0
5. ..!0
C. .;-&
*. !.=-&
!. "hat is the downstream mach number across the normal shoc# having specific heat ratio as
.7 and upstream mach number as 0.!. XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .070.
5. .;70.
C. .7;
*. .!-..
.. Common data 6uestion:
The upstream mach number before !- degree turn angle is given as 7 and specific heat ratio
as .0.
K. "hat is the shoc# angle XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .0.& degree
5. !>.= radian
C. !>.= degree
*. .0.& radian
0. Common data 6uestion:
The upstream mach number before !- degree turn angle is given as 7 and specific heat ratio
as .0.
K. "hat is the total pressure ratio across the shoc# XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .7-7
5. -.7-7
C. -.-7-7
*. !.7-7
7. Common data 6uestion:
The fluid having specific heat ratio as .0 is flowing in a long frictionless pipe in non
adiabatic environment with mach number ..
230
K. "hat is the ratio of the velocity of the fluid to the sonic velocity of the fluid
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .7==
5. !.7==
C. ..7==
*. !.&==
;. Common data 6uestion:
The fluid having specific heat ratio as .0 is flowing in a long frictionless pipe is non
adiabatic environment with mach number ..
K. "hat is the ratio of the pressure to the pressure and sonic conditionM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .!&;0
5. ..;0
C. .&;0
*. .-;0
&. Common data 6uestion:
The fluid having specific heat ratio as .0 is flowing in a long frictionless pipe in non
adiabatic environment with mach number ..
K. :f gas constant for that fluid is assumed to be . Then what is the difference in the
entropy of the fluid sonic condition to the current flowing conditionM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. !.&&
5. 0.!.0
C. !.&&
*. 0.!.0
=. "hat is the mach angle for the flow having mach number e6ual to . and specific heat ratio
as .;&. XXXXXXXXXXX
A. ;.7
5. &.7
C. =.7
*. >.7
>. "hat is the prandtl meyer angle for the flow having mach number 0 and specific heat ratio
as .;& XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 0-
5. 7-
C. ;-
231
*. &-
-. Lin#ed Kuestions:
Has approaches a convergent divergent no((le at a pressure of 7 bar and a temperature of
7-- degree celcius but with negligible velocity. The area of throat is -- s6uare meter.
8low between in let and throat may be assumed isentropic but the overall no((le isentropic
efficiency is -.>7. The no((le discharge at a pressure of bar %ta#e
+
.0, p .-0+D @ +g
'
K. The gas velocity at the throat is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 77= m@s
5. 0=> m@s
C. 7== m@s
*. 7= m@s
. Lin#ed Kuestions:
Has approaches a convergent divergent no((le at a pressure of 7 bar and a temperature of
7-- degree celcius but with negligible velocity. The area of throat is -- s6uare meter.
8low between in let and throat may be assumed isentropic but the overall no((le isentropic
efficiency is -.>7. The no((le discharge at a pressure of bar %ta#e
+
.0, p .-0+D @ +g
'
K The gas velocity at e)it is %in m@s' XXXXXXXXXXX
A. &7
5. ;7
C. ;!
*. &!
!. The speed of sound can vary fromM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. (ero to infinity
5. minus infinity to plus infinity
C. !-- m@s to 0-- m@s
*. .-- m@s to .7- m@s
.. The speed of sound in the incomplessible fluid isM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. (ero
5. infinity
C. .0- m@s
*. cant say
232
0. "hen the right running shoc# wave having .- degree shoc# angle hit the another right
running shoc# wave having 0- degree angle, the interaction generates in the open fluid
domainM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. Ine strong shoc# wave and one slip line
5. Ine strong shoc# wave, one wea# shoc# wave and one slip line
C. Two strong shoc# wave and one slip line
*. ?ullify the effect and only one slip line
7. "hen the right running shoc# wave having .- degree shoc# angle hit the another left
running shoc# wave having 0- degree angle in the open fluid domain generatesM
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. Ine strong shoc# and one slip line
5. Ine strong shoc# and two slip line
C. Two strong shoc# and one slip line
*. Two strong shoc# and two slip line
;. Lin#ed 6uestion:
A space engine eQects mass at a rate of .- +g.s with an e)haust velocity of .,-- m@s. the
pressure at the no((le e)it is 7+pa and the e)it area is -.& s6uare meter
K. "hat is the thrust of the engine in a vacuumM XXXXXXXXXXX
A. --.7 +?
5. ==.7 +?
C. >;.7 +?
*. &=.7 +?
&. Lin#ed 6uestion:
A space engine eQects mass at a rate of .- +g.s with an e)haust velocity of .,-- m@s. the
pressure at the no((le e)it is 7+pa and the e)it area is -.&
!
m
K. :f the space craft has an initial mass of .-,--- +g then, what is the change in velocity
if the spacecraft burns its engine for one minuteM %in m@s' XXXXXXXXXXX
A. =-
5. &!
C. 7-
*. >!
=. Subsonic and supersonic diffuser have the following geometry XXXXXXXXXXX
A. *ivergent and convergent respectively
5. 5oth divergent
C. 5oth convergent
*. Convergent and divergent respectively
>. An irrotational and inviscid flow can become rotational on passing through a XXXXXXXXXXX
233
A. ?ormal shoc# wave
5. Ibili6ue shoc# wave
C. Curved shoc# wave
*. Bach wave
!-. An aerospace system shown in the following figure is designed in such a way that the
e)pansion generated at A is completely absorbed by wall 5 for
d
2 2
, "here
d
2
corresponds to the design condition XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 8or
d
2 2 <
, the e)pansion fan from A gets reflected from 5 as a compression wave
5. 8or
d
2 2 >
, the e)pansion fan from A gets reflected from 5 as an e)pansion wave
C. 8or
d
2 2 <
, the e)pansion fan from A gets reflected from 5 as an e)pansion wave
*. 8or
d
2 2 >
, 5 an always seen an e)pansion
!. Consider steady, inviscid flow in convergent divergent %C*' no((le, with a normal shoc#
in the divergent portion. The static pressure along the no((le downstream of the normal
shoc# XXXXXXXXXXX
A. Jemains constant
5. :ncreases :sentropically to the static pressure at the no((le e)it
C. *ecreases isentropically to the static pressure at the no((le e)it
*. Can increases or decrease depending on the magnitude of the static pressure at the
no((le e)it
!!. A two dimensional flow field has velocities along the ) and y directions given by u ).).t
and
v !)yt
respectively, where t is time. The e6uation of streamlines is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. ).y L constant@)
5. )y L constant@y
C. )y L constant
*. ?ot possible to determine
!.. A bullet shaped toy roc#et has a pressuri(ed tan# of volume ,- and partly filled with water
and partly with air. Assume no water losses during start and also assume that the ambient
air pressure is constant for all altitudes by this toy roc#et then what type of no((le is best
for this application XXXXXXXXXXX
A. Converging no((le.
234
5. Converging diverging no((le
C. *iverging no((le
*. *iverging Converging no((le
!0. :n supersonic wind tunnel, a two dimensional wedge of half angle as - degree is inserted
into the air flow and the attached shoc# wave angle is observed to be
!-
. Then the
mach number %B' of the flow in the wind tunnel is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 0.>..
5. 0.!..
C. 0.;!0
*. 0.&!
!7. Common *ata Kuestion: %!7 Y !;'
In a certain day the barometric pressure is found to be &7- mm of mercury. A 49tube,
filled with alcohol of relative density -.=! has one limb connected to a point on a model
wing a wind tunnel and the other limb is open to atmosphere. The li6uid level in the first
limb is !7mm higher than that is second limb
K. The pressure difference between the point on the model and atmosphere is %:n 2ascal'
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 7-
5. --
C. 0-!
*. !-
!; The absolute pressure at that point is %in pascal' XXXXXXXXXXX
A. >>=7-
5. --7-
C. &==7-
*. ?one of these
!&. Lin#ed type 6uestion: %!& Y !='
An un9isulated air conditioning duct of rectangular cross section m -.7m. Carrying air at
!- degree celcius with a velocity of -m@s, is e)posed to an ambient of .- degree celcius.
?eglect the effect of duet construction material for air in the range of !-9.- degree celcius,
data are a follows:
235
Thermal conductivity L-.-!7"@ m.#
,iscosity
=e ;pa
2randtl number -.&.
*ensity
.!#g @ m.
The laminar flow ?usselt number is ..0 for constant wall temperature
conditions end, for turbulent flow,
( )
-.=
-...
Je
r
?u -.-!. A2
K. The Jeynolds number for the flow is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 000
5. =>-
C. 0.00e7
*. 7...e7
!=. The heat transfer per meter length of the duet, is watt is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. ..=
5. 7..
C. =>
*. &;>
!>. Streamline, 2ath line and Strea# line are identical when XXXXXXXXXXX
A. The flow is uniform
5. The flow is steady
C. The flow velocity do not change steadily with time
*. The flow is neither steady nor uniform
.-. :n the flow of air after a normal shoc# the entropy is increased by !=& D@+g@+. then the
total pressure after the shoc# is %where %e' is e)ponent' XXXXXXXXXXX
A.
-
2 e
5. ( )
-
2 e
C.
!
-
2 e
*. ( )
!
-
2 e
.. "hich of the following functions represents possible irrotational flowM
%' stream function
)y
%!' stream function ( ) ( ) A ) y ) y +
%.' potential function L 4r cos%theta' < %4@r' cos%theta' XXXXXXXXXXX
A. alone
236
5. and !
C. ! and .
*. , ! and .
.!. The velocity 2otential function for a flow is given by
! !
) y then the stream function
for the flow is XXXXXXXXXXX
A.
!)y c +
5.
0)y c +
C.
! !
!) y c +
*.
! !
0) y c +
... Source Sin# pair %*oublet 8low' streamline e6uation
+ sin
! r

, "here %+ is
strength of the doublet is applicable for XXXXXXXXXXX
A. The points very close to doublet in the order of (ero
5. The point very close to doublet in the order of -/s
C. The point far away from doublet
*. statement %A' and %5'
.0. Consider isentropic flow though ?o((le if the test section condition are given by
2 atm, T !.-+, B !,
then the reservoir temperature and pressure XXXXXXXXXXX
A. &.=!0 atm, 00+
5. &.=!0 atm, =!= +
C. 7.;0= atm, 00 +
*. 7.;0= atm, 00 +
.7. The pressure distribution over a supersonic airfoil can be calculated e)actly from
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 1)act shoc# e)pansion theory
5. Thin airfoil theory
C. ,orte) panel method
*. ?one of these
.;. Changes across an obli6ue shoc# wave are determined by XXXXXXXXXXX
A. The normal component of velocity ahead of the wave
5. The total velocity ahead of the wave
C. Tangential Component of velocity ahead of the wave
*. ?one of these
237
.& :n subsonic airfoil drag component due to static pressure distribution is called
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. form drag
5. s#in friction drag
C. trailing vorte) drag
*. wave drag
.=. The cases given in the no((le are . undere)pansion !. over e)pansion and .. *esigned
condition. :f we have same reservoir condition and neglecting the thrust product by the
pressure difference. Then the magnitude of the thrust produced will be in the order of:
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. . ! < <
5. ! . < <
C. ! . < <
*. ! .
.>. A correctly designed convergent divergent no((le wor#ing at a designed load is
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. always isentropic
5. always choc#ed
C. never isentropic
*. never choc#ed
0-. A particle starts from rest with a constant acceleration
!
m@ sec and after some time it
decelerates at a uniform rate of %beta'
!
m@ sec
till it comes to rest. :f the total time ta#en
between two positions is t, then ma)imum velocity ac6uired by the particle would be
XXXXXXXXXXX
A.
t
!
+ _

,
5.
t
!
_

,
C.
t
_

+
,
*.
t
_ +

,
0. Consider the lifting flow ones a circular cylinder with given radius and circulation. :f
,

is
doubted #eeping the circulation same then the shape of the streamline XXXXXXXXXXX
A. will remain same
238
5. will change in upper half
C. will change in lower half
*. will change in both portion
0!. 8or a supersonic wind tunnel of Bach no. L ! the normal shoc# wave is at the entrance of
diffuser. The ratio of the diffuser throat area to the no((le throat area is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. ..=&
5. !.&&0
C. !.0!=
*. ?one of these
0.. Common data 6uestion:
A supersonic flow at

B .7= and 2 atm
e)pands around a sharp corner. :f the
pressure is -..-; atm. %assume specific heat ratio as : .0'
K. the down stream mach no. is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. .0
5. !.>
C. ..=
*. ..0
00. The deflection angle of the corner is XXXXXXXXXXX
A. !.7= degree
5. 0..;0 degree
C. ...7! degree
*. !0.&= degree
07. The relationship between the shear stess

and the rate of shear strain

du
dy
is e)pressed as
n
du
# ,
dy
_


,
the fluid with the e)ponent n < is #nown as XXXXXXXXXXX
A. 2seudoplastic
5. 5ingham
C. *ilatents
*. ?ewtonian plastic
0;. The one dimensional heat conduction partial differential e6uation
!
!
T T
t )

is
XXXXXXXXXXX
A. elliptic
5. hyperbolic
239
C. parabolic
*. none of these
0&. A certain gas has
2
C .>;=#D @ #g#
and
v
C .7-& #D @ #g#
.
"hat will be the molecular weight of the gas %in #g@#gmole' XXXXXXXXXXX
A. =
5. !-
C. !!
*. !0
0=. :t is observed that tube of cycle tyre burst in summer season. This phenomenon can be
e)plained by XXXXXXXXXXX
A. first law of thermodynamics
5. second law
C. third law
*. gas e6uation
0>. Smo#e is coming out from the chimney of the chemical factory in the air at altitude of
--m, then the smo#e line represents XXXXXXXXXXX
A. stream line
5. strea# line
C. path line
*. none of these
7-. The differential e6uation for the stream line in 2olar coordinates is XXXXXXXXXXX
A.
r
u dr
r d u

5.
!
r
u dr
r d u

,
C.
.
r
u dr
r d r

,
*. none of these
240