SERIES  ARTICLE
Snippets of Physics
T Padmanabhan works at
IUCAA, Pune and is
interested in all areas
of theoretical physics,
especially those which
have something to do with
gravity.
Keywords
Classical mechanics, oscillation.
998
11. Isochronous Potentials
T Padmanabhan
O sc illa to r y m o tio n o f a p a rtic le in a o n e d im e n -
sio n a l p o te n tia l b e lo n g s to a c la ss o f e x a c tly so lv -
a b le p ro b le m s in c la ssic a l m e c h a n ic s. In th is in -
sta llm e n t, w e e x a m in e so m e le sse r k n o w n a sp e c ts
o f th e o sc illa tio n s in so m e p o te n tia ls .
T h e m o tio n o f a p a rticle o f m ass m in o n e d im en sio n u n -
d er th e a ctio n o f a p o ten tia l V (x ) is th e sim p lest p ro b lem
w h ich o n e stu d ies in cla ssica l m ech a n ics. In fa ct, a fo r-
m a list w ill co n sid er th is a s a so lv ed p ro b lem , in th e sen se
th a t th e d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n g ov ern in g th e m o tio n ca n
b e red u ced to a q u a d ra tu re; ie., th e tra jecto ry o f th e
p a rticle ca n b e ex p ressed a s a n in d e¯ n ite in teg ra l. In
sp ite o f th is a p p a ren t triv ia lity o f th e p ro b lem th ere a re
so m e in terestin g su rp rises o n e en co u n ters in th eir stu d y.
U sin g th e co n sta n cy o f th e to ta l en erg y, E = (1 = 2 )m x_2 +
V (x ), o n e ca n w rite d ow n th e eq u a tio n d eterm in g th e
tra jecto ry o f th e p a rticle x (t) in th e fo rm o f th e in teg ra l
r Zx
m dx
t(x ) = p : (1 )
2 E ¡ V (x )
T h is d eterm in es th e in v erse fu n ctio n t(x ) fo r a g iv en
V (x ) a n d th e p ro b lem is co m p letely so lv ed . In th is in -
sta llm en t, w e a re in terested in th e ca se o f b o u n d ed o s-
cilla tio n s o f a p a rticle in a p o ten tia l w ell V (x ) w h ich
h a s th e g en era l sh a p e sh ow n in F igu re 1 . T h e p o ten tia l
h a s a sin g le m in im u m a n d in crea ses w ith o u t b o u n d a s
jx j ! 1 . F o r a g iv en va lu e o f en erg y E , th e p a rticle
w ill o scilla te b etw een th e tw o tu rn in g p o in ts x 1 (E ) a n d
x 2 (E ) w h ich a re th e ro o ts o f th e eq u a tio n V (x ) = E .
T h e p erio d o f o scilla tio n ca n b e im m ed ia tely w ritten
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 SERIES  ARTICLE

Figure 1. A one-dimen-
sional potential with a
single minimum which
supports oscillations.

d ow n u sin g eq u a tio n (1 ). W e g et
r Z x 2 (E )
m dx
T (E ) = p : (2 )
2 x 1 (E ) E ¡ V (x )

F o r a g en era l p o ten tia l V (x ), th e resu lt o f in teg ra tio n

o n th e rig h t h a n d sid e w ill d ep en d o n th e va lu e o f th e
en erg y E . In o th er w o rd s, th e p erio d o f o scilla tio n w ill
d ep en d o n th e en erg y o f th e p a rticle; eq u iva len tly, if o n e
im a g in es relea sin g th e p a rticle fro m th e lo ca tio n x =
x 1 , say, o n e m ig h t say th a t th e p erio d d ep en d s o n th e
a m p litu d e o f o scilla tio n .
F o r a sim p le cla ss o f p o ten tia ls, it is q u ite ea sy to d e-
term in e th e sca lin g o f th e p erio d T w ith th e en erg y E .
C o n sid er, fo r ex a m p le, a cla ss o f p o ten tia ls o f th e fo rm
V (x ) = k x 2 n w h ere n is a n in teg er. T h ese p o ten tia ls a re
sy m m etric in th e x -a x is a n d h av e a m in im u m a t x = 0
w ith th e m in im u m va lu e b ein g V m in = 0 . In th is ca se, b y
in tro d u cin g a va ria b le q su ch th a t q = (k = E )1 = 2 n x , th e
en erg y d ep en d en ce o f th e in teg ra l in (2 ) ca n b e ea sily
id en ti¯ ed to g iv e
Z1
1 dq 1 1¡ n We find that, for all
T (E ) / p E 1=2n
p / E 2 ( n ) : (3 )
E 0 1¡ q 2 n values of n other
than n = 1, the period
W e ¯ n d th a t, fo r a ll va lu es o f n o th er th a n n = 1 , th e T has a non-trivial
p erio d T h a s a n o n -triv ia l d ep en d en ce o n th e en erg y. dependence on the
W h en n = 1 , w h ich co rresp o n d s to th e h a rm o n ic o s- energy.
cilla to r p o ten tia l, V (x ) = k x 2 , w e ¯ n d th a t th e p erio d

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is in d ep en d en t o f th e en erg y. T h is, o f co u rse, is th e w ell-

k n ow n resu lt th a t th e p erio d o f a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r
d o es n o t d ep en d o n th e a m p litu d e o f th e o scilla to r. T h e
a b ov e a n a ly sis a lso sh ow s th a t a m o n g st a ll th e sym m et-
ric p o ten tia ls o f th e fo rm V (x ) / x 2 n , o n ly th e h a rm o n ic
o scilla to r h a s th is p ro p erty.
L et u s n ow co n sid er th e in v erse p ro b lem . S u p p o se w e
a re g iv en th e fu n ctio n T (E ). Is it th en p o ssib le fo r u s
to d eterm in e th e p o ten tia l V (x )? F o r ex a m p le, if w e a re
to ld th a t th e p erio d is in d ep en d en t o f th e a m p litu d e,
w h a t ca n o n e say a b o u t th e form o f th e p o ten tia l V (x )?
S h o u ld it n ecessa rily b e a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l
o r ca n it b e m o re g en era l?
B efo re la u n ch in g in to a m a th em a tica l a n a ly sis, let m e
d escrib e a sim p le ex a m p le w h ich d eserv es to b e b etter
k n ow n th a n it is. C o n sid er a p o ten tia l o f th e fo rm
b
V (x ) = a x 2 + (4 )
x2
in th e reg io n x > 0 . In th is reg io n , th is p o ten tia l h a s a
d istin ct m in im u m a t x m in = (b=pa )1 = 4 w ith th e m in im u m
va lu e o f th e p o ten tia l b ein g 2 a b. (B ein g sy m m etric
in x , th e p o ten tia l h a s tw o m in im a in th e fu ll ra n g e
¡ 1 < x < 1 , b u t w e sh a ll co n ¯ n e o u r a tten tio n to
It turns out that the th e ra n g e x > 0 . B y sh iftin g th e o rig in su ita b ly w e ca n
period of oscillation m a k e th e p o ten tia l in th is ra n g e to lo o k lik e th e o n e in
in this potential is F igu re 1 ). F o r a n y ¯ n ite en ergy, a p a rticle w ill ex ecu te
independent of the p erio d ic o scilla tio n s in th is p o ten tia l. It tu rn s o u t th a t
amplitude just as th e p erio d o f o scilla tio n in th is p o ten tia l is in d ep en d en t
in the case of a o f th e a m p litu d e ju st a s in th e ca se o f a h a rm o n ic o s-
harmonic oscillator
cilla to r p o ten tia l! S o clea rly h a rm o n ic o scilla to r is n o t
potential! So
u n iq u e in h av in g th is p ro p erty.
clearly harmonic T h ere a re sev era l w ay s to p rove th is resu lt, th e h a rd est
oscillator is not ro u te b ein g to eva lu a te th e in teg ra l in (2 ) w ith V (x )
unique in having g iv en b y (4 ); th e cu test p ro ced u re is p ro b a b ly th e fo l-
this property. low in g . C o n sid er a p a rticle m ov in g n o t in o n e d im en sio n

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b u t in tw o (say in th e x y p la n e) u n d er th e a ctio n o f th e
tw o -d im en sio n a l h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l
1
V (x ;y ) = m ! 2 (x 2 + y 2 ): (5 )
2
C lea rly, su ch a p a rticle w ill o scilla te w ith a p erio d w h ich
is in d ep en d en t o f its en erg y. N ow co n sid er th e sa m e
p ro b lem in p o la r co o rd in a tes in stea d o f C a rtesia n co o r-
d in a tes. T h e co n serva tio n o f en erg y n ow b eco m es
1 1
E = m (x_2 + y_2 ) + m ! 2 (x 2 + y 2 )
2 2
1 2 _2 1
= m (r_ + r µ ) + m ! 2 r 2 :
2
(6 )
2 2
U sin g th e fa ct th a t fo r su ch a m o tio n { u n d er th e cen tra l
fo rce V (r ) / r 2 { th e a n g u la r m o m en tu m J = m r 2 µ_ is
co n serv ed , th e en erg y ca n b e ex p ressed in th e fo rm
1 1 1 J2 1 B
E = m r_2 + m ! 2 r 2 + 2
= m r_2 + A r 2 + 2
2 2 2m r 2 r
(7 )
w ith A = (1 = 2 )m ! 2 ;B = J 2 = 2 m . W e n ow see th a t,
m a th em a tica lly, th is is id en tical to th e p ro b lem o f a p a r-
ticle m ov in g in o n e d im en sio n u n d er th e a ctio n o f a p o -
ten tia l o f th e fo rm in (4 ). B u t w e k n ow b y co n stru ctio n
th a t th e p erio d o f o scilla tio n d o es n o t d ep en d o n th e
co n serv ed en erg y E in th e case o f (7 ). It fo llow s th a t
th e p o ten tia l in (4 ) m u st h av e th is p ro p erty. T h e a ctu a l Potentials like that
freq u en cy o f o scilla tio n is ! 0 = (8 a = m )1 = 2 w h ich is m o st of the harmonic
ea sily fo u n d b y u sin g th e fa ct th a t th e freq u en cy m u st oscillator or the
b e th e sa m e a s th a t fo r v ery sm a ll o scilla tio n s n ea r th e one in equation (4)
m in im u m . O n e m ay th in k th at sin ce ! 0 is in d ep en d en t are called
o f b, it m u st b e (2 a = m )1 = 2 fo r b = 0 . T h is is, h ow ev er, ‘isochronous
n o t tru e b eca u se h ow ev er sm a ll b m ay b e, th e p o ten - potentials’, the
tia l d o es rise to in ¯ n ity a t x = 0 th ereb y d o u b lin g th e term referring to
freq u en cy. the property that
the period is
P o ten tia ls lik e th a t o f th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r o r th e o n e
independent of the
in (4 ) a re ca lled `iso ch ro n o u s p o ten tia ls', th e term refer-
rin g to th e p ro p erty th a t th e p erio d is in d ep en d en t o f amplitude.

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In fact, for every th e a m p litu d e. It is n o t d i± cu lt to see th a t th ere a re

function T(E), one a ctu a lly a n in ¯ n ite n u m b er o f su ch p o ten tia ls. In fa ct,
can construct an fo r ev ery fu n ctio n T (E ), o n e ca n co n stru ct a n in ¯ n ite
infinite number of n u m b er o f p o ten tia ls V (x ) su ch th a t eq u a tio n (4 ) h o ld s.
potentials V(x) T h ere is a n elem en ta ry w ay b y w h ich o n e ca n co n stru ct
such that th em w h ich w e w ill n ow d escrib e [1 ].
equation (4) holds. N o te th a t th e p erio d T (E ) is d eterm in ed b y th e in te-
g ra l in (2 ) w h ich is essen tia lly th e a rea u n d er th e cu rv e
(E ¡ V (x ))¡ 1 = 2 . S u p p o se w e a re g iv en a p o ten tia l V 1 (x )
fo r w h ich th e en erg y d ep en d en ce o f th e p erio d is g iv en
b y a fu n ctio n T (E ). L et u s n ow co n stru ct a n o th er p o -
ten tia l V 2 (x ) b y `sh ea rin g ' th e o rig in a l p o ten tia l V 1 (x )
p a ra llel to th e x -a x is. T h is is d o n e b y sh iftin g th e p o -
ten tia l cu rv e h o rizo n ta lly b y a n a m o u n t ¢ (V ) a t ev ery
va lu e o f V u sin g so m e a rb itra ry fu n ctio n ¢ (V ). T h e
o n ly restrictio n o n th e fu n ctio n ¢ (V ) is th a t th e re-
su ltin g p o ten tia l sh o u ld b e sin g le va lu ed ev ery w h ere. A
m o m en t o f th o u g h t sh ow s th a t su ch a sh ift leav es th e
a rea u n d er th e cu rv e in va ria n t a n d h en ce T (E ) d o es n o t
ch a n g e. In o th er w o rd s, g iv en a n y p o ten tia l V (x ), th ere
a re a n in ¯ n ite n u m b er o f o th er p o ten tia ls fo r w h ich w e
w ill g et th e sa m e p erio d { en erg y d ep en d en ce T (E ); ea ch
o f th ese p o ten tia ls is d eterm in ed b y th e fo rm o f th e fu n c-
tio n ¢ (V ).
In th e ca se o f th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l, th e d is-
ta n ce h (V p) b etw een th e tw o tu rn in g p o in ts (`w id th ')
va ries a s V w h en th e p o ten tia l is m ea su red fro m its
m in im a . S in ce (4 ) h a s th e iso ch ro n o u s p ro p erty, w e
w o u ld su sp ect th a t it is o b ta in ed fro m th e h a rm o n ic o s-
cilla to r p o ten tia l b y a sh ea rin g m o tio n k eep in g th e w id th
h (V ) va ry in g a s (V ¡ V m in )1 = 2 . T h is is in d eed tru e a n d
ca n b e d em o n stra ted a s fo llow s. F ro m (4 ), w e ca n d eter-
m in e th e in v erse, d o u b le-va lu ed fu n ctio n x (V ) th ro u g h
th e eq u a tio n
a x 4 + b ¡ V x 2 = 0: (8 )
If th e ro o ts o f th is eq u a tio n a re x 21 a n d x 22 , w e im m ed i-

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a tely h av e x 21 + x 22 = V = a a n d x 21 x 22 = b= a . E lem en ta ry For those of you

a lg eb ra n ow g iv es who do not like such
r
V b a geometric
h (V )2 = (x 1 ¡ x 2 )2 = ¡ 2 : (9 ) argument, here is a
a a
more algebraic
O r, eq u iva len tly,
derivation of the
1 same result.
h (V ) = p (V ¡ V m in )1 = 2 : (1 0 )
a
T h is sh ow s th a t th e p o ten tia l in (4 ) is in d eed o b ta in ed
b y a sh ea rin g o f th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l.
F o r th o se o f y o u w h o d o n o t lik e su ch a g eo m etric a r-
g u m en t, h ere is a m o re a lg eb ra ic d eriv a tio n o f th e sa m e
resu lt [2 ]. L et u s su p p o se th a t w e a re g iv en th e fu n c-
tio n T (E ) a n d a re a sk ed to d eterm in e th e p o ten tia l V (x )
w h ich is a ssu m ed to h av e a sin g le m in im u m a n d a sh a p e
ro u g h ly lik e th e o n e in F igu re 1 . W e ca n a lw ay s a rra n g e
th e co o rd in a tes su ch th a t th e m in im u m o f th e p o ten tia l
lies a t th e o rig in o f th e co o rd in a te sy stem . T h e sh a p e o f
th e cu rv e in th e reg io n s x > 0 a n d x < 0 w ill, o f co u rse,
b e d i® eren t. In o rd er to m a in ta in sin g le va lu ed n ess o f
th e in v erse fu n ctio n x (V ), w e w ill d en o te th e fu n ctio n a s
x 1 (V ) in th e reg io n x < 0 a n d x 2 (V ) in th e reg io n x > 0 .
O n ce th is is d o n e, w e ca n rep la ce d x in th e in teg ra l in
(2 ) b y (d x = d V )d V . T h is a llow s u s to w rite
p ZE · ¸
dx2 dx1 dV
T (E ) = 2m ¡ p : (1 1 )
0 dV dV E ¡ V
T h is is a n in teg ra l eq u a tio n w h ich , fo rtu n a tely, ca n b e
in v erted b y a sta n d a rd trick . W e d iv id e b o th sid es o f
th e eq u a tio n b y (z ¡ E )1 = 2 , w h ere z is a p a ra m eter a n d
in teg ra te w ith resp ect to E fro m 0 to z . T h is g iv es
Zz
T (E ) d E
p =
0 z¡ E

p Zz ZE · ¸
dx2 dx1 dV dE
2m ¡ p : (1 2 )
0 0 dV dV [(z ¡ E )(E ¡ V )]

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The family of In th e rig h t h a n d sid e w e ca n ch a n g e th e o rd er o f in te-

curves which has g ra tio n a n d u se th e fa ct th a t th e in teg ra l ov er E ju st
the same width will g iv es ¼ . T h e rest is triv ia l a n d w e o b ta in
give rise to the
Zz p
T (E ) d E
same T(E) and p = ¼ 2 m [x 2 (z ) ¡ x 1 (z )]: (1 3 )
0 z¡ E
vice versa.
T h is is a n im p licit eq u a tio n va lid fo r a n y z . C a llin g th e
va ria b le z a s V , g iv es th e fu n ctio n a l fo rm o f x 2 (V ) ¡
x 1 (V ). W e g et th e ¯ n a l resu lt
ZV
1 T (E ) d E
x 2 (V ) ¡ x 1 (V ) = p p : (1 4 )
¼ 2m 0 V ¡ E
T h is resu lt sh ow s ex p licitly th a t th e fu n ctio n T (E ) ca n
o n ly d eterm in e fo r u s th e `w id th ' o f th e cu rv e x 2 (V ) ¡
x 1 (V ). T h e fa m ily o f cu rv es w h ich h a s th e sa m e w id th
w ill g iv e rise to th e sa m e T (E ) a n d v ice v ersa . T h e
sh ea rin g m o tio n b y w h ich w e tra n sfo rm o n e p o ten tia l to
a n o th er p reserv es th is w id th a n d h en ce th e fu n ctio n a l
fo rm o f T (E ).
O n e ca n a lso o b ta in so m e in terestin g rela tio n s in q u a n -
tu m m ech a n ics fo r th e co rresp o n d in g sy stem s. In q u a n -
tu m th eo ry, th e p o ten tia ls lik e th e o n e in F igu re 1 w ill
h av e a set o f d iscrete en erg y lev els E n . F o rm a lly in -
v ertin g th e fu n ctio n E (n ) { w h ich is o rig in a lly d e¯ n ed
o n ly fo r in teg ra l va lu es o f n { o n e ca n o b ta in th e in v erse
fu n ctio n n (E ) fo r th is sy stem . T h is fu n ctio n essen tia lly
p lay s th e ro le a n a lo g o u s to T (E ) in th e ca se o f q u a n tu m
th eo ry. W e ca n n ow a sk w h eth er o n e ca n d eterm in e th e
p o ten tia l V (x ) g iv en th e en erg y lev els E n o r, eq u iva -
len tly, th e fu n ctio n n (E ). It tu rn s o u t th a t o n e ca n d o
th is fa irly ea sily in th e sem i-cla ssica l lim it co rresp o n d -
in g to la rg e n . T o see th is, reca ll th a t th e en erg y E n o f
th e n -th lev el o f a q u a n tu m m ech a n ica l sy stem is g iv en
b y th e B o h r q u a n tiza tio n co n d itio n
Z r Z x2 p
1 x2 2m
n (E ) ' pdx = E ¡ V d x : (1 5 )
~ x1 ~2 x 1

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T rea tin g x a s a fu n ctio n o f V , w e ca n tra n sfo rm th is

rela tio n to g iv e
r Z x2
2m p
n (E ) ' E ¡ V dx
~2 x 1
r ZE p
2m dx
= E ¡ V dV
~ 2 dV
r ZE
m
= (E ¡ V )¡ 1 = 2 x (V ) d V . (1 6 )
2 ~2
H ere w e h av e d o n e a n in teg ra tio n b y p a rts a n d h av e
trea ted th e in teg ra l a s a fu n ctio n o f th e u p p er lim it.
T h is in teg ra l eq u a tio n ca n a g a in b e so lv ed b y ex a ctly
th e sa m e trick w h ich w e u sed in th e ca se o f (1 1 ). T h is
w ill lea d to th e resu lt
r Z
2 ~2 n (V ) dn
x (V ) = p : (1 7 )
m V ¡ E (n )

w h ich d eterm in es th e fo rm o f th e p o ten tia l V (x ) { in

term s o f th e in v erse fu n ctio n x (V ) { su ch th a t in th e
sem i-cla ssica l lim it it w ill h av e th e en erg y lev els g iv en
b y th e fu n ctio n E (n ).
E v en th o u g h w e w o rk ed it o u t fo r a o n e-d im en sio n a l
m o tio n w ith a C a rtesia n x -a x is, it is o b v io u s th a t th e
sa m e fo rm u la sh o u ld b e a p p lica b le fo r en erg y lev els in a
sp h erica lly sy m m etric p o ten tia l V (r) p rov id ed w e o n ly
co n sid er th e zero a n g u la r m o m en tu m q u a n tu m sta tes. The formula given in
A s a cu rio sity, co n sid er th e p o ten tia l w h ich w ill rep ro - equation (17) should
d u ce th e en erg y lev els (w h ich w e k n ow is th e o n e a risin g be applicable for
in th e ca se o f th e C o u lo m b p ro b lem ) g iv en b y energy levels in a
spherically symmetric
4 2
m e Z potential V(r)
E n = ¡ : (1 8 )
2 ~2 n 2 provided we only
consider the zero
T h is g iv es n (V ) = (¡ 2 ~2 V = m e 4 Z 2 )¡1 = 2 so th a t a n ele-
angular momentum
m en ta ry in teg ra tio n u sin g (1 7 ) w ith a su ita b le ch o ice fo r
quantum states.

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 SERIES  ARTICLE

th e co n sta n t o f in teg ra tio n g ives

r Z · µ 4 2 ¶¸¡ 1 = 2
2 ~2 n (V ) m e Z Z e2
r= V + d n = ¡
m 2 ~2 n 2 V
(1 9 )

th ereb y lea d in g to V (r ) = ¡ Z e 2 = r w h ich , o f co u rse, w e

k n ow is ex a ct. (T h is is o n e o f th e m a n y cu rio sities in
th e C o u lo m b p ro b lem w h ich w e w ill tu rn to in a fu tu re
in sta llm en t.)
W e w ill n ow d escrib e a n o th er in terestin g fea tu re in q u a n -
tu m th eo ry rela ted to iso ch ro n o u s p o ten tia ls. It is w ell
k n ow n th a t w h en w e m ov e fro m cla ssica l to q u a n tu m
m ech a n ics, th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l lea d s to
eq u id ista n t en erg y lev els. C u rio u sly en o u g h , a ll th e iso ch -
ro n o u s p o ten tia ls h av e th is p ro p erty in the sem i-classical
lim it. T h is is m o st ea sily seen b y d i® eren tia tin g (1 5 )
w ith resp ect to E a n d u sin g (2 ) so a s to o b ta in
r Z x2
dn m dx T (E )
= p = : (2 0 )
dE 2~ x 1
2
E ¡ V ~

In o th er w o rd s, th e q u a n tu m n u m b ers a re g iv en b y th e
eq u iva len t fo rm u la
Z
1
n (E ) ' T (E )d E (2 1 )
~

In the case of the

w h ich n icely co m p lem en ts th e ¯ rst eq u a tio n in (1 5 ). If
potential in
th e p o ten tia l is iso ch ro n o u s, th en T (E ) = T 0 is a co n -
sta n t in d ep en d en t o f E a n d th e in teg ra l im m ed ia tely
equation (4),
g iv es th e lin ea r rela tio n b etw een E a n d n o f th e fo rm
something more
E = ® n + ¯ , w h ere ® = (~= T 0 ). C lea rly, th ese en erg y
surprising happens:
lev els a re eq u a lly sp a ced ju st as in th e ca se o f h a rm o n ic
The exact solution
o scilla to rs.
to the Schrödinger
equation itself has In th e ca se o f th e p o ten tia l in (4 ), so m eth in g m o re su r-
equally spaced p risin g h a p p en s: T h e ex a ct so lu tio n to th e S ch rÄo d in g er
energy levels! eq u a tio n itself h a s eq u a lly sp a ced en erg y lev els! I w ill

1006 RESONANCE  November 2008

 SERIES  ARTICLE

in d ica te b rie° y h ow th is a n a ly sis p ro ceed s leav in g th e

d eta ils fo r y o u to w o rk o u t. (Y o u ca n n o t rea ch th is
co n clu sio n b y th e tw o -d im en sio n a l trick u sed ea rlier in
cla ssica l p h y sics.) T o b eg in w ith , w e ca n red e¯ n e th e
p o ten tia l to th e fo rm
· ¸2
B
V (x ) = A x ¡ ; A 2 ´ a; B 2 ´ b (2 2 )
x

b y a d d in g a co n sta n t so th a t th e m in im u m va lu e o f th e
p o ten tia l is zero a t x = (B =A )1 = 2 . T h e freq u en cy o f
o scilla tio n s in th is p o ten tia l is ! 0 = (8 a = m )1 = 2 . T o
stu d y th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n fo r th e p o ten tia l in (2 2 ),
it is co n v en ien t to in tro d u ce th e u su a l d im en sio n less
va ria b les » = (m ! 0 = ~)1 = 2 x ; ² = 2 E = (~! 0 ) a n d ¯ =
B (2 m )1 = 2 = ~, in term s o f w h ich th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n
ta k es th e fo rm :
" µ ¶2 #
1 ¯
à 00+ ² ¡ »¡ à = 0: (2 3 )
2 »

A s » ! 1 , th e ¯ = » term b eco m es n eg lig ib le a n d { a s

in th e ca se o f th e sta n d a rd h a rm o n ic o scilla to r { th e
w av efu n ctio n s w ill d ie a s ex p [¡ (1 = 4 )» 2 ]. N ea r th e o ri-
g in , th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n ca n b e a p p rox im a ted a s
» 2 à 00 ¼ ¯ 2 à w h ich h a s so lu tio n s o f th e fo rm à / » s w ith
s b ein g th e p o sitiv e ro o t o f s(s ¡ 1 ) = ¯ 2 . W e n ow fo l-
low th e sta n d a rd p ro ced u re a n d w rite th e w av efu n ctio n
in th e fo rm à = Á (» )[» s ex p (¡ (1 = 4 )» 2 )] a n d lo o k fo r a
p ow er-law ex p a n sio n fo r Á o f th e fo rm
X1
Á (» ) = cn » n : (2 4 )
n= 0

S u b stitu tin g th is fo rm in to th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n w ill

lea d , a fter so m e a lg eb ra , to th e recu rren ce rela tio n

cn + 2 n + s ¡ ² ¡ ¯ + (1 = 2 )
= : (2 5 )
cn (n + 2 )(n + 2 s + 1 )

RESONANCE  November 2008 1007

 SERIES  ARTICLE

Do all isochronous A sy m p to tica lly, th is w ill lea d to th e b eh av io u r c n + 2 = c n '

potentials lead to
(1 = n ) so th a t Á (» ) ' ex p [(1 = 2 )» 2 ] m a k in g à d iv erg e
evenly spaced
u n less th e series term in a tes. S o , ² m u st b e so ch o sen
th a t th e n u m era to r o f (2 5 ) va n ish es fo r so m e va lu e o f n .
energy levels as
C lea rly, o n ly ev en p ow ers o f » a p p ea r in Á (» ) a llow in g
exact solutions to
u s to w rite n = 2 k , w h ere k is a n in teg er. P u ttin g ev ery -
Schrödinger
th in g b a ck , th e en erg y o f th e k -th lev el ca n b e w ritten
equation rather
in th e fo rm
than only in the " µ ¶1 = 2 #
asymptotic limit? 1 1
E k = (k + C )~! 0 ; C = 1 ¡ ¯ + ¯2 +
2 4
(2 6 )

sh ow in g th a t th e en erg y lev els a re eq u a lly sp a ced w ith

th e w id th ~! 0 b u t w ith C rep la cin g (1 = 2 ) in th e ca se o f
th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r. Y o u ca n co n v in ce y o u rself th a t
a ll th e lim itin g b eh av io u r is co rrectly rep ro d u ced .
D o a ll iso ch ro n o u s p o ten tia ls lea d to ev en ly sp a ced en -
erg y lev els a s ex a ct so lu tio n s to S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n
ra th er th a n o n ly in th e a sy m p to tic lim it? T h e a n sw er
is \ n o " . T h e sim p le co u n ter-ex a m p le is p rov id ed b y tw o
p a ra b o lic w ells co n n ected to g eth er sm o o th ly a t th e m in -
im a w ith V (x ) = (1 = 2 )m ! R2 x 2 fo r x ¸ 0 a n d V (x ) =
(1 = 2 )m ! L2 x 2 fo r x · 0 . It is o b v io u s th a t th is p o ten -
tia l is iso ch ro n o u s cla ssica lly. S o lv in g th e S ch rÄo d in g er
eq u a tio n req u ires a b it o f e® o rt b eca u se y o u n eed to en -
su re co n tin u ity o f à a n d à 0 a t th e o rig in . T h is lea d s
to a set o f en erg y lev els w h ich n eed to b e so lv ed fo r
n u m erica lly. O n e ¯ n d s th a t th e en erg y lev els a re n o t
Address for Correspondence
eq u a lly sp a ced b u t th e d ep a rtu re fro m ev en sp a cin g is
T Padmanabhan su rp risin g ly sm a ll. T o th e ex ten t I k n ow , th ere is n o sim -
IUCAA, Post Bag 4 p le ch a ra cteriza tio n o f p o ten tia ls w h ich lea d to ev en ly
Pune University Campus sp a ced en erg y lev els in q u a n tu m th eo ry.
Ganeshkhind
Pune 411 007, India. Suggested Reading
Email:
paddy@iucaa.ernet.in [1] A B Pippard, The Physics of Vibration, Omnibus Edition, Cambridge
nabhan@iucaa.ernet.in University Press, p.15, 1989.
[2] L D Landau and E M Lifshitz, Mechanics, Pergammon Press, 1960.

1008 RESONANCE  November 2008