Lecture 10

Gravitational Field
Gravitational force is one of the four fundamental forces in
nature (with others being electromagnetic force, strong
force, and weak force)
Motivation for incorporating the law of gravitational field into a
theory of relativity, as for the laws of electromagnetic field into the
theory of special relativity
Similarity between gravitational force and electrostatic
force
Newtons law of gravitational vs. Coulombs law
Gravitational field vs. electric field
Mass (one type) vs. electric charge (two types)
A gravitomagnetic field?
Lecture 10
Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass
Newtons second law:
a m F
i
!
!
=
, where m
i
is inertial mass.
Newtons law of gravitation:
g
g
m
r
GM
F
2
=
, where M
g
and m
g
are gravitational masses
For instance, on (or near) the surface of the earth, the acceleration
of a freely falling object is
i
g
i
g
E
E
m
m
g
m
m
R
GM
a ! =
2
Lecture 10
Modern Experiments
i
g
m
m
! "
Define the ratio of gravitational mass to inertial mass for a given
material:

9
10 0 . 1 1 ) ( ) (
!
" < ! Pb wood # # Eotvos (1922)

11
10 0 . 1 1 ) ( ) (
!
" < ! Al Au # #
Dicke-Roll-Krotkov (1964)

12
10 0 . 1 1 ) ( ) (
!
" < ! Al Pt # #
Braginsky-Parov (1974)
Lecture 10
Principle of Equivalence
A homogeneous gravitational field is completely
equivalent to a uniformly accelerated reference frame.
It is impossible for us to speak of the absolute acceleration of
the system of reference, just as the theory of special relativity
forbids us from talking of the absolute velocity of a system.
g i
m m =
Lecture 10
Local Inertial Frame of Reference
A local inertial frame of reference is defined as a frame
of reference in which one is weightless.
It can only be define locally.
It is Lorenzian.
The laws of special relativity hold in such a frame of
reference
Physics is simple in a local inertial frame!
Lecture 10
Trajectory of Light
In an inertial frame:
In the uniformly accelerating frame:
Lecture 10
Curvature in Spacetime
Spacetime around a massive object is curved.
Spacetime around a spinning object is dragged around by
the object around the same axis along the same direction,
a.k.a. frame dragging.
Gravitational interaction is a manifestation of curvature in
spacetime
Space tells matter how to move; matter tells space how to curve.
Lecture 10
Deflection of Light in a Gravitational Field
Sun
Earth
s
R c
s
GM
2
4
= !
2 2
2
) (
2
2 2 2
) (
2
!
"
" d r
r
dr
dt c r ds # # =
Spacetime geometry in the presence of a mass:
2 1
)
2
2 1 ( ) ( r c GM r ! = "
where
Light follows geodesic, as defined by ds = 0,
which gives
Lecture 10
Gravitational Lensing
A valuable tool to probe
both the amount and
distribution of dark matter,
which makes up more than
90% of total matter in the
universe.
Abell 2218
Lecture 10
Gravitational Redshift
g
h
Light source
Detector
Einsteins elevator
The principle of equivalence requires
that the results of any experiments
conducted on the earth are the same in
as those in an Einsteins elevator.
In the elevator, the time it takes for the
emitted light to reach the detector is
t = h/c. During this time, the detector
achieves a velocity v = gt = gh/c.
Therefore, the detected light is Doppler
red-shifted, and the new frequency is
)
2
/ 1 (
)
2
/ 1 ( ) 1 (
c f
c gh f c v f f
! " + =
# = # =
$
Lecture 10
Perihelion Precession of Mercury
The perihelion of a planets (elliptical) orbit is the point
of closest approach to the Sun
The observed procession rate for the perihelion of
Mercury is 574 seconds of arc per century, 92.5% of
which can be accounted for by the gravitational
influences of other planets
The remaining amount, 43 seconds of arc per century, is
precisely predicted by Einsteins general relativity, due
to the distortion of spacetime by the Sun (or, to the
deviation from Newtonian inverse square law of
gravitational interaction).
Lecture 10
Orbits in General Relativity
There is a limit to how close a test particle can move
around an object in a circular orbit, due to the curvature in
spacetime around the object. The closest circular orbit is
known as the last stable orbit.
If the plane of a circular orbit is tilted with respect to the
equatorial plane of a spinning object, it will walk (or
more precisely, precess) around the spin axis of the object,
due to frame dragging.
The eccentric orbit of a test particle will precess around a
massive object.
Lecture 10
Gravitational Radiation
Accelerating masses produce gravitational radiation (i.e.,
disturbance of spacetime), in analogy to the
electromagnetic radiation produced by accelerating
charges.
Periodic acceleration leads to gravitational waves, like
electromagnetic waves.
The effects of gravitational radiation have been observed
in binary pulsars which contain two neutron stars
orbiting each other.
The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory
(LIGO) was built to detect directly gravitational waves
from such violent events as merging of two neutron stars.
Lecture 10
Black Holes
An object, around which the spacetime is so curved that it
closes on itself and cuts off communication between the
object to the outside world.
A black hole is consisted of a singularity hidden inside
an event horizon.
An object, the gravitational pull of which is so strong that
nothing, not even light, can escape from it.
An object, near which the gravitational redshift is so large
that the wavelength of escaping light is stretched to
infinity.
Black holes are relatively simple objects. The properties of
a black hole are completely specified by its mass, spin, and
charge, the famous no hair theorem.