STUDIES IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN SLOVENIA Editors: SMILJANA KOMAR and URO MOZETI Slovensko drutvo za angleke tudije Slovene Association For Te Study Of English ISSN 1581-8918 nglish anguage verseas erspectives and nquiries ii1 ELOPE English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries: STUDIES IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN SLOVENIA Volume I/1-2 Editors Smiljana Komar Uro Mozeti Editorial Board Duan Gabrovek Meta Grosman Darja Hribar Victor Kennedy Milena Milojevi Sheppard Janez Skela Rastislav utari Editorial Secretary Gaper Ilc Proofreading Jason Blake Editorial Policy ELOPE. English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries is a journal devoted to the research and academic discussion of linguistic and literary issues from theoretical and applied perspectives regardless of school of thought or methodology. Its aim is to promote original enquiry into linguistics, literary and translation studies, language and literature teaching with the main focus on English. ELOPE will publish two issues per year. Publishers address Slovensko drutvo za angleke tudije, Akereva 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana Design Gaper Mrak Cover Marjan Poganik, Zimsko cvetje, 1994 7,6 x 10,0 cm; colour etching, deep relief Owner: National gallery, Ljubljana Photo: Bojan Salaj, National gallery, Ljubljana Printed by Birograka Bori, Ljubljana Number of copies 300 Ljubljana, 2004 ISSN 1581-8918 il JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 0re Mete||c U.|.e.s||, c| |,.||,+.+ |+c.||, c| A.|s. |.||s| |e(+.|e.| Na||al|ve le|specl|ve aaa |cca||sal|ca |a J|aas|al|a ||cl|caa| Na||al|ves Summary Te main objective of this paper is to present the complex processes of the shifting of narrative perspective (point-of-view) and focus in translating English prose texts into Slovene. For that purpose, a narratological discourse analysis of James Joyces story Eveline (Dubliners) is introduced, drawing on K. M. van Leuven-Zwarts comparative and descriptive model. Te model, which has been expanded by three additional categories narrative mode, narrative perspective, and focalisation , brings to the forefront the cause-and-eect relationship between the micro- and macrostructural shifts on the one hand, and the shifts in narrative perspective and focalisation on the other. Te results obtained show that the model is empirically veriable and repeatable. Tis means that it can also be used with other integral translations, particularly if translation shifts are subtle enough and/or consistent with the translators dominant strategy and norm. l||pcveaac |ea|sceaje |a a||sceaje p|| p|evajaaja p|c/a|| cesea|| Povzetek Razprava prinaa nekaj novih pogledov na problem gledienja in arienja pri prevajanju proznih besedil. Za opisovanje in vrednotenje tovrstnih premikov smo se oprli na primerjalni in opisni model K. M. van Leuven-Zwart, ki smo ga razirili s tremi naratolokimi kategorijami, in sicer s pripovednim nainom, gledi(enj)em in ari(enj)em. Na ta nain smo skuali pojasniti vzrono in posledino razmerje med mikro- in makrosktrukturnimi spremembami ter premiki v raziskovanih kategorijah. Tako prirejen model, ki smo ga preizkusili na primeru Joyceove zgodbe Evelina (Ljudje iz Dublina), se je izkazal kot empirino zanesljiv in preverljiv, kar pomeni, da je uporaben tudi pri drugih celostnih (integralnih) prevodnih besedilih. Njegova zanesljivost pa je odvisna od stopnje pretanjenosti in/ali doslednosti prevodnih premikov v skladu s prevajalevo prevladujoo strategijo in normo. iJ U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ J|e 8||ll|a cl Na||al|ve le|specl|ve aaa |cca||sal|ca |a J|aas|al|a ||cl|caa| Jexls J. |a|rt1at||ta Among the many unresolved issues in the eld of translation studies is also the one pertaining to the question of who sees/speaks in the source and in the target text. Any tackling of the problem of narrative perspective and voice in translation process inevitably brings into play a long list of complementary disciplines such as narratology, literary stylistics, text linguistics, and a few other, somewhat more circumstantially related critical practices like literary pragmatics, to name but one. Ever since the publication of the pioneer research into narrative perspective and voice in translation conducted by Levenston and Sonnenschein in 1986, translation studies have seemed to be neglecting this problem, at the same time giving priority to (cross/ inter) cultural studies and literary comparative enquiry as well as various forms of political discourse. Te (original) text per se has thus, at least in the eye of a translatologist, acquired the status of an entity inseparable from its wider determining context, with its linguistic and stylistic constituency pushed to the background of investigation. However irrefutable such positioning of the text may be, the fact remains that without thorough examination of individual textual components by themselves and in relation to each other within the framework of the same text, it is virtually impossible to make the text play along with what literary pragmatists pursue, namely the (in)communicability of the text with(in/out) proper contextualization. 1
Our principal objective will be to prove that there is, after all, such a thing as immanent communicability of the text, dependent solely on its internal structuration and vital drawing on the given textual premises, but which, if observed from a distance and in relation to a wider context, may congure in a way which is essentially dierent and also more productive since the aim of exploring literature should not simply be in terms of how literature can aect our lives but rather the other way round (somewhat along the lines of Wallace Stevens dictum expressed in his Adagia, namely that life is a reection of literature). To this eect, I intend to go, rstly, into the original text of James Joyces Dubliners 2 , in order to extrapolate the prevailing narrative strategies with respect to narrative perspective and focalisation and their rendering in the Slovene translation. Secondly, the results obtained 1 '|[||e.+., (.++||cs |+'es |c. .+.|ec ||+| .c +ccc..| c| cc..|c+||c. |. e.e.+| .||| |e cc(|e|e .|||c.| +. +ccc..| c| |||e.+|..e +.c ||s cc.|e|.+||+||c.. +.c ||+| .c +ccc..| c| |||e.+|..e .||| |e cc(|e|e .|||c.| +. +c cc..| c| ||s .se c| ||e cc..|c+||.e .esc..ces e.e.+||, +.+||+||e' Se|| 1991. |.,. 2 |e +|. .e+sc. |c. se|ec||. |||s |e| .+s c||.+|ec |, ||e |+c| ||+|. |. 0.//e. !c,ce cc||.es ||e c|+.+c |e.|s||c |e+|..es c| |c|| |.+c|||c.+| .e+||s|, +.c cce..|s| cces c| ..|||.. .||c| +'es (css|||e ||e c|se..+.ce c| ||e s|||||. c| .+..+||.e (e.s(ec||.e +.c |cc+||s+||c. +c.css + .|ce .+.e c| .+..+||.e |ec|.|c.es .sec |, ||e +.||c. |c +.|(.|+|e ||e .+..+|c. +.c ||e c|+.+c|e.. |e |.|||. |e|s +.e c||e. .e+.cec +s + s(ec|+| |,(e c| .e+||s| cce..|s| s|c.| s|c.,. |.e+'|. .||| - ,e| +| ||e s+e ||e es|+|||s||. - + cc(|e|e|, .e. .e|+||c.s||( .||| ||e cc..e.||c.+| cce c| .+..+||. c|. |+..|.ce. 1990. 41,. U.||'e !c,ce's |+|e. ..|||.s. .c|+||, '/,e +.c /e- w-/e. .|e.e ||e .+..+|c.'s/+.c|c.|+| .c|ce (.c(||, .|||c.+.s |. c.ce. |c |e+.e ||e s|+e c.e c. |ess e.||.e|, |c iJJ JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 from the comparative analysis of the selected segments from both the source and target texts on the micro-structural level will be compared with the eects that take place on the macro- structural level. I expect that the employment of the comparativedescriptive method for analysing shifts in narrative perspective and focalisation will provide adequate insight into those textual conditions that signicantly govern the realisation of these two categories in the original as well as translated narrative. Te Levenston and Sonnenschein study appears to be more signicant in its breaking new ground and drawing attention to transformations of specic narrative aspects which occur during a translation process than in its resolving the problems dealt with. Te conclusions drawn by the authors are to a large extent hindered by a failure in the methodology employed: rst, the question of who speaks and who sees in a ctional narrative is too easily dismissed by a general attribution of speech activity to the narrator except in the case of direct speech, where the speaking is performed by the character (1986, 49). Second, there is a bit of confusion in the taxonomy for observation of shifts in narrative perspective as proposed by the authors (ibid., 534): the four categories register-restricted vocabulary items, collocations and clichs, word order, and free indirect speech do not in fact operate on the same level, in that the rst three fall within the domain of the fourth one, which in turn cannot possibly serve as a criterion for studying narrative perspective and focalisation because it is the product rather than the source of special linguistic and stylistic devices dictated by a given perceptive, psychological, or ideological activity on the part of the narrator/character. Te fact that the identity of the speaker/seer in a stretch of narrative is an intriguingly complex matter is supported by the long history of narratological endeavours 3 to adequately explain what, or better still, who is behind it all when we come across, for instance, the following situation (Joyce 1967, 200): (1) Besides they were dreadfully afraid that Freddie Malins might turn up screwed. Tey would not wish for worlds that any of Mary Janes pupils should see him under the inuence. /Underlined by U. M., as in all subsequent quotes./ because it seems virtually impossible to determine the exact proportion of auctorial/character presence in a text which resorts to such unpredictable shifts in register as exemplied above. What is at stake here, of course, concerns as much the teller as it does the observer. Whether these two can be identied as one person or two is the point under discussion. Te excerpt from Te Dead is presented entirely in the so-called free indirect speech, which is in itself so 3 |s(ec|+||, s|.ce ||e (.|||c+||c. c| 0. 0e.e||e's se|.+| .c.'. /--/.e 0...e 1980. .||c| |c.+||, |.|.cc.cec ||e c|||e.e.||+||c. |e|.ee. ||e |e||e. +.c ||e c|se..e. +s .e|| +s |e|.ee. (c|.| c| .|e. +.c |cc+||s+||c.. sc|c|+.s |+.e (e.(e|.+||, cc.ce..ec ||ese|.es .||| |e|.+| c|.c.s|+.ces .||c| e.e.+|e .+.|c.s ce.ees c. |e.e|s c| s(eec|/.|e. (.ese.|+||c. |. + .+..+||.e |e| c|.. |c. e+(|e. S. ||+|+.'s c|c|c|cc.s .+..+||.e cce| cc(.|s |. (e.ce(|.+| .s. cc.ce(|.+| (c|.| c| .|e. 198. |. b+|'s cc.ce(| c| ||.s|. secc.c e|c. ce.ee c| |cc+||s+||c. 1983. iJi U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ complicated a mode of narrative presentation, particularly in terms of narrative perspective and focalisation, that it needs to be dealt with at some length. i. (ttt| ta1 ||ta|| (rttta|t||ta tt ttat|||a||tt t|tmta|t t| atrrt||tt (trt(tt||tt ta1 |ttt||tt||ta Free indirect speech has its own remarkable terminological history, which is but another proof of its complexity. L. Brinton (1980, 363), for example, enumerates no less than eight dierent English denominations for it: independent form of indirect discourse (Curme 1905), free indirect style (Kalepky 1913), represented speech (Jespersen 1924), substitutionary narration (Fehr 1938), quasidirect discourse (Voloinov 1973), represented discourse (Doleel 1973), and represented speech and thought (Baneld 1973). Te list may be updated by M. Toolans combined discourse and the more and more widely used free indirect discourse (McHale 1978; Fludernik 1993; Hawthorn 1994; Quirk et al. 1994, etc.). Since narrative perspective is brought about by the use of a specic narrative speech/thought mode, it would be worthwhile to rely on the cline of speech and thought presentation as proposed by M. Short (Leech and Short 1992, 31851): Notwithstanding some undeniable dierences between the way(s) a certain speech or thought act(ivity) is presented in a narrative text (most notably the dierence in the so-called norm of presentation), I have chosen to replace Shorts modes of speech and thought presentation by the common term discourse. Such economisation proves especially useful and ecient in exploring the shifting of narrative perspective and focalisation because neither of them is signicantly aected by whether a given stretch of language is presented in, for instance, free indirect speech or free indirect thought. Te distinction between speech and thought presentation may further be seen as irrelevant, given the fact that any literary discourse is a closed communication system, and thus, by denition, cannot create the same conditions for interlocution as an ordinary open communication system does. 4
Narrator apparently in total control of report Narrator apparently in partial control of report Narrator apparently not in control of report at all
NRA (Narrative report of action) NRSA (Narrative report of speech acts) IS (Indirect speech) FIS (Free indirect speech) DS (Direct speech) FDS (Free direct speech) n NORM
NRA (Narrative report of action) NRTA (Narrative report of thought acts) IT (Indirect thought) FIT (Free indirect thought) DT (Direct thought) FDT (Free direct thought) n NORM 4 J.. ||e.c|. c| ||e c|s||.c||c. |e|.ee. s(eec| +.c ||c.|| cc.|e|s +,. +c|||ec|,. |e +| .+.|+.ce .||| ||e ccc. +((.c|+||c. c| ||e S|c.| cce|. (+.||c.|+.|, .||| ||e c.e +c.cc+|ec |, |. ||.ce..|'. .|c ||.cs ||e |c. +| sc+|e +s ce||.ec |, ||e +.||c. +|| ||e c.e .+|.+||e (.ec|se|, |c. ||e c|s||.c||c. e.||c.ec. '|eec|/S|c.| +.e |c |e (+.||c.|+.|, .ecce.cec |c. ||e|. c..c|+| c|scc.e., +.||c|(+|ec |. |||e.+., c.|||c|s |, |c|. 198, ||+| ||e |.-/ sc+|e. +|||c.| ec.+||, +((||c+||e |c s(eec| +.c ||c.|| cc.|e|s. cc..e|+|es .||| e.||.e|, c|||e.e.| (.c(c. ||c.s. .+|es c| ccc...e.ce +.c +.'|. c|s|.||.||c.s |. ||e .e+| c| cc.sc|c.s.ess +s cc(+.ec |c ||e c|s|.||.||c. iJl JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 Although Shorts model is highly instrumental in setting formal criteria for pursuing discourse analysis of any ctional narrative, it does not answer all the questions related to narrative perspective and focalisation, especially the one concerning the function of teller/observer in the case of free indirect discourse. Te many conicting aspects and functions of free indirect discourse have, therefore, been on the agenda ever since its rst occurrence as a separate issue in theoretical discourse. Even today, one would sooner fall into the intricate web of inadequate or disparate theories about free indirect discourse than come across a simple, albeit simplifying and lucid extrapolation of its concrete eectuality. One only has to refer to the most comprehensive English grammar, the chapter on Reporting the language of others: Free indirect speech is used extensively to report speech or (particularly in ction) the stream of thought Free direct speech is also used in ction writing to represent a persons stream of thought (Quirk et al. 1994, 102033). However, there have been a few attempts in the past decade at clarifying the terminological confusion regarding various forms of representing the mental processing of characters taking place in the ctional narrative, notably the one made by K. Wales: ... and I shall therefore here take interior monologue as the blanket term for what is essentially free direct thought and for dierent kinds of thought processes. Stream of consciousness, as with Humphrey (1954) is therefore reserved for the general representation of thought-processes by a variety of means, including (free) direct thought, (free) indirect thought, narrative report, etc (Wales 1992, 75). An overlapping of stream of consciousness and interior monologue can thus be found with Fowler (1989b, 12746), where both categories are treated as techniques of realising the same point of view. Such treatment may be disputed on the grounds that stream of consciousness and interior monologue should, strictly speaking, be seen more as psychological categories, literarily contextualised, than as linguistic-stylistic techniques. Tey are, after all, the eect of certain textual procedures, rather than their cause. Moreover, their psychological nature is manifested in their representing a concrete mental state/activity of a ctional character. Te representation of the psychological dynamics within characters is no doubt crucially dependent on the way(s) of representing the characters speech/thought activity. However, I believe that a translators adequate rendering of the relationships between individual protagonists in the ctional world has to, rst and foremost, take account of the medium of conveying narrative information. Here I am referring to the so-called lter, as dened by S. Chatman (1990) and extensively commented upon by T. Sasaki 5 , along with the other two central categories replacing the traditional concept of narrative perspective, i.e. slant and 5 ''S|+.|' .e|e.s |c ||e .+..+|c.'s +||||.ces +.c c||e. e.|+| ..+.ces +((.c(.|+|e |c ||e .e(c.| |..c||c. c| c|scc..se e.. ||e.e |s +. |.c.|c 's|+.|' |e.e,. '||||e.' ce.c|es ||e e.|+| +c||.||, e(e.|e.cec |, c|+.+c|e.s |. ||e s|c., .c.|c. |+..+||.e |.|c.+||c. +, |e '||||e.ec' ||.c.| c. +.c .|e. ||e |..e. .c.|c c| ||s |.c |s cesc.||ec |e |e cces ||e '||||e.'. c. |e |s '|.||||.+|ec'., '|.|e.es||cc.s' |s .e|+|ec |c ||e c|+.+c|e. |. .|cse |.|e.es| ||e .e+ce. |s |..||ec |c .e+c ||e .+..+||.e...' S+s+'| 1994. 1?o,. |e +.||c. ||.cs + ..|e. c| ||ec.|es e.. 0. 0e.e||e's cc.ce(| c| |..-/ -/.. 1983. |. b+|'s ce.e|c(e.| c| ||e .c||c.s |..-/e +.c |..-/e! 1983. |. |c.|e.'s |.|(+.|||e cce| c| (c|.| c| .|e. 1989. ce.|.ec |.c b. Us(e.s', 193, |.+cec.+|e |. |e.s c| |+|||. |c |.cc.(c.+|e ||e /ee/|... +s ||e iJ1 U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ interest-focus. Te latter, interestingly, resembles Hallidays interpersonal function of language (1973) since in both cases the locutor/narrators interfering with the speech act is motivated by their endeavour to establish a link between the sender and the receiver of the message. Te interpersonal function, moreover, signicantly ties in with the distance between the reader and the narrated characters, in which case it may still be justiable to maintain the distinction between free indirect speech and free indirect thought, which is in accordance with the Short model discussed above: with the former, the distance between the reader and the character tends to shorten, whereas with the latter, insisting on the readers more active engagement in the mental activity of the character, the eect seems to be the opposite (cf. also note 3). Every translator of a ctional text, before embarking on the translation of their text, has to consider all the relevant discourse parameters, i.e. general linguistic and stylistic features as well as idiosyncratic peculiarities which make possible the realisation of the textual potentiality as to who sees and who speaks in the narrative. Our research, drawn on the theoretical and practical results of the contrastive analysis of the selected English prose texts and their corresponding Slovene translations, has revealed signicant deviations especially on the axis narrator narratee. Tis is largely due to the translators inaccurate determination of the narrative mode(s) used, resulting in the displacement of the roles of the seer/speaker designated by the author of the original text. We can observe the greatest number of shifts in translation in those instances where the text either develops simultaneously on dierent narrative levels or where there is a comparatively weak signalling of shifting from one level to another, sometimes even within a single sentence or clause. Such narrative manipulation enables the author to introduce a variety of perspectives on the same issue and juxtapose two sets of values, to imply a critique of the characters views without the direct judgement which an external perspective would produce (Fowler 1989b, 138). What ensues from the interplay of two or more dierent views might be called a kind of hybrid perspective, the realisation of which is left entirely to the reader. Te case of bringing together the authors (objective) and the characters (subjective) perspective, which happens to be the most frequent situation produced by free indirect discourse, gives rise to the emergence of the so-called double voice, within which one set of values, beliefs, etc. is involved in implicit dialogue with another (ibid., 140.) Te concept of double voice seems to be a plausible suggestion as to who really speaks in free indirect discourse, even though it signicantly departs from the traditional notion, conceived already by Genette (1972), according to which the narrator is always the speaker, except in direct speech, where the speaking is performed by the characters. What Genettes theory fails to take into account is that, particularly in free indirect discourse, the author attempts to imitate the speech of the character by using the kind of lexis, grammar, and other structural and stylistic peculiarities pertaining to the typical speech and emotive behaviour of that character, but presented in the auctorial past tense and third person singular (cf. Brinton 1980, 363). Te interaction between the voice of the author/narrator and that of the character can best be illustrated by iJ JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 quoting a passage from one of the Dubliners stories, Clay (Joyce 1967, 1123), in which Marias own description of her self-perception in the mirror is juxtaposed with that of the author/narrator: (2) She changed her blouse too and, as she stood before the mirror, she thought of how she used to dress on Sunday morning when she was a young girl; and she looked with quaint aection at the diminutive body which she had so often adorned. In spite of its years she found it a nice tidy little body. Te contrast between the part underlined (the exact words that Maria would use in the rst- person singular discourse) and the preceding description is striking enough to create the so- called narrative irony and thus maintain the distance between the author/narrator and the character (cf. Short 1991, 712). Te problem which also ties in with the immanent features of free indirect discourse is double imagery. In his study of Joyces Ulysses, S. Benstock, in contrast to the traditional identication of narrative participants in terms of speakers, chooses to juxtapose contextual subjects and their idiosyncratic mental patterning, personal tone, attitude, modulation, etc. which he sees as concomitant with their respective verbal manifestations (1980, 2667). Te critics attempt to go behind the working of free indirect discourse ultimately brings him to the correlation between double voice and double perspective, when, on the basis of his close analysis of the opening sentence in the novel, he realises that there have to be two dierent observers of Buck Mulligan since the adjectives stately and plump are not only incompatible in the denotative and connotative sense, but also mutually exclusive (Joyce 1987, 3): (3) Stately, plump Buck Mulligan came from the stairhead Te example is at the same time perfectly illustrative of M. Bakhtins notion of heteroglossia, that is anothers speech in anothers language. 6 Tis can be said of any discourse which has a twofold direction it is directed both toward the referential object of speech, as in ordinary discourse, and toward anothers discourse, toward someone elses speech (Bakhtin in Fludernik 1993, 325). What is of particular interest here is that it is possible to come across double-voiced discourse in a very limited stretch of language, sometimes even within a single phrase, which must inevitably present a special diculty for a translator of any text structured according to the principle of the polyphony of voices and perspectives. 6 b+'|||. +|.|+|.s ||+| !..//e...e! !...e 'se..es |.c s(e+'e.s +| ||e s+e ||e +.c e(.esses s|.||+.e c.s|, |.c c|||e.e.| |.|e.||c.s. ||e c|.ec| |.|e.||c. c| ||e c|+.+c|e. .|c |s s(e+'|.. +.c ||e .e|.+c|ec |.|e.||c. c| ||e +.||c.. |. s.c| c|scc..se ||e.e +.e |.c .c|ces. |.c e+.|.s +.c |.c e(.ess|c.s. A.c +|| ||e .|||e ||ese |.c .c|ces +.e c|+|c|c+||, |.|e..e|+|ec. ||e, - +s || .e.e - '.c. +|c.| e+c| c||e. ,.s| +s |.c ec|+.es |. + c|+|c.e '.c. c| e+c| c||e. +.c +.e s|..c|..ec |. |||s .|.+| '.c.|ece c| e+c| c||e.,. || |s +s || ||e, +c|.+||, |c|c + cc. iJ U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ Te postulation of double-voiced discourse logically entails the existence of something which I would like to term double-viewed discourse. As the excerpt (2) demonstrates, the free indirect discourse mode depends for its eect on the simultaneous speaking as well as seeing on the part of the narrator and character involved. Consequently, two distinctive perspectives and their verbal manifestations can be emphasised to the point of presenting the reader with a set of values, beliefs, and worldviews, which are contrasting enough to motivate him/her to form an idiosyncratic opinion of the ctional world. Notwithstanding the seemingly even polarisation of the control of the speech/view activity between the narrator and character in the case of free indirect discourse, as suggested by the Short cline and many other exponents, there is reason to believe that the narrator, in spite of all, has a decisive advantage over the character in that s/he not only sees what the character sees, but s/he also sees the character himself. On this score, I tend to side with van Leuven-Zwarts contention that the narrator is always a focalizor, i.e. telling a story implies seeing the events, actions and characters which are its constituent parts Although it is not possible to tell a story without focalizing, it is possible to focalize without telling a story: a character may very well focalize without reporting what he sees (1989, 176). Accordingly, the narrators and the characters respective focalisation, when the latters does not involve narrating, actually occur on separate levels, and should therefore be understood in hierarchical order. As this calls for a more dierentiated and precise denomination of their functions, it seems appropriate to dene focalisation as the process in which the point of view of the character is realised on the level of story. Te term narrative perspective, however, ought to be reserved for that position on the level of discourse from which the narrator observes, comments on and qualies the narrative. Te main purpose of such delineation of perspective and focalisation is to provide some clarication, however arbitrary or even simplifying, of the perpetual issue concerning free indirect discourse, especially in terms of its perplexing nature of double-voicedness and double-viewedness, as discussed above. In the following narratological discourse analysis of a selected segment of the Dublin story Eveline the function of narrative perspective and focalisation have been attributed with respect to a given narrative mode: in the case of narrative report of action (NRA), narrative perspective (NP) and focalisation (FO) have been granted entirely to the narrator (NR). In narrative report of discourse act (NRDA) 7 and indirect discourse (ID), NP goes to NR, whereas FO remains in the domain of the character (CH). In the case of free indirect discourse (FID), NP becomes shared by NR and CH indicated as (:), with FO being entirely on the part of CH. In direct discourse (DD) and free direct discourse (FDD), both NP and FO have been allocated to CH. In the attempt to create a solid and veriable system for observing and measuring individual shifts in narrative perspective and focalisation in translation against the original propositional content, van Leuven-Zwarts comparative and descriptive model (1989, 15181; 1990, 6995) 7 J.. cc.ce(| c| |||A cc.e.s .c| c.|, ||e .+..+||.e .e(c.| c| s(eec| +c|s +s ce||.ec |, |eec| +.c S|c.| 199?. 3?3-33, +.c ||e .+..+||.e .e(c.| c| ||c.|| +c|s |||c.. 33-41,. |.| +|sc .+.|c.s |c.s c| ||e .e(.ese.|+||c. c| (e.ce(||c. b.|.|c. 1980. 3o3,. |e(.ese.|ec (e.ce(||c.. |c.e.e.. c.e |c ||s (.c|||, |c ||e .++||c+| +.c |e||c (cs|||c. |e|.ee. |.c|.ec| +.c c|.ec| c|scc..se. cces |. ||e cc+|. c| |.ee |.c|.ec| c|scc..se. iJI JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 has seemed particularly appropriate as it examines every translation on two levels: rst on the microstructural and then on the macrostructural level. Te microstructural level comprises shifts within the realm of sentence, clause, and phrase. Consequently, this type of shift has been assigned to one of the following categories: semantic (SEM), stylistic (STY), syntactic-semantic (SYN-SEM), syntactic-stylistic (SYN-STY), and syntactic-pragmatic (SYN-PRAG). All those segments which do not display a sucient amount of comparability with the original on the basis of any of the above categories have been assigned to a special category called mutation (MUT). As the term itself suggests, mutation comprises shifts resulting from deletion, addition or radical changes of meaning of the source-text items. All the relevant microstructural shifts have further been analysed and described on the macrostructural level in view of the three functions of language: ideational (IDEAT), textual (TEXT), and interpersonal (INTERP) (Halliday 1973). Every change on the macrostructural level, caused by a certain microstructural shift, has been observed both, rst on the story and then on the discourse level, whereby the latter has been regarded as superior to the former. However, it has to be pointed out that those microstructural shifts which have little or absolutely no bearing on the macrostructural level have not been taken into consideration since they do not contribute to the understanding of the translators interpretive strategies and methods. Te overall taxonomy of the pertinent shifts in translation have been achieved with the appropriation of the van Leuven-Zwart model, expanded by three additional categories: narrative mode (NM), narrative perspective (NP), and focalisation (FO). Te newly designed model has thus brought to the forefront the cause-and-eect relationship between the micro- and macrostructural changes on the one hand, and the changes in narrative perspective and focalisation on the other. Its application to the narratological discourse analysis of the Dublin story Eveline has shown that the model is empirically veriable and repeatable. Tis means that it can also be used with other integral translations. l. trrt|t|t|tt| 1|tttartt tat|t|t t| '|tt||at' |ttttr(|, 1ttt JlI, lI-|. A SOURCE TEXT B TARGET TEXT
MICROSTRUCTURAL SHIFTS MACROSTRUCTURAL SHIFTS NM
NP FO DISCOURSE STORY 1A 8|e sal al l|e W|aacW f Walc||a l|e evea|a |avaae l|e aveaae (1).
10 8eae|a je ca c|aa f |a cpa/cva|a vece|, || je va||a| v a||cc (1).
(1) 8|M (eae|a||sal|ca)
(1) l0|AJ, lNJ|Rl l0|AJ, lNJ|Rl NRA f NR0A
NRA f NR0A NR
NR NRf0H
NRf0H 2A He| |eaa Was |eaaea (1) aa|asl l|e W|aacW ca|la|as f aaa |a |e| acsl|||s Was (2) l|e caca| (3) cl aasl, c|elcaae.
20 0|avc je p||s|ca||a (1) | /avesa f |a v acsa|ca| j| je a|| (2) vcaj (3) p|asaea ||elcaa.
0H ii U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ 3.1 0|scass|ca. For reasons of economy, the above presents only a short segment of the analysis of the whole of the Eveline story which has been carried out. Te comparison between the English and the Slovene Eveline has revealed some fairly crucial dierences as regards narrative perspective and focalisation: Te greatest number of shifts on the microstructural level are of a stylistic nature, specically shifts in register (23 segments), syntagmatics (8), and in the temporally-marked lexical items (7). Special emphasis has to be paid to the rst and the third type of shifts since they have a direct bearing on the interpersonal function of language on the macrostructural level in the sense of conveying information on the social and temporal distance between the narrator and reader on the discourse level, and between the characters on the story level. Needless to say, the presence of these register and temporal markers manifests itself also in the manner and type of narrative perspective and focalisation. Te translation also demonstrates a growing tendency towards the neutralisation of the informal or colloquial diction of the original, which is a clear marker of the use of free indirect discourse. Tese segments are thus, as a rule, rendered into Slovene either through narrative report of discourse act(ivity) or narrative report of act(ivity). Te consequence of such improper rendering is a greater objectivisation of narrative report and the shifting of perspective and focalisation away from the character towards the (omniscient) narrator. Unlike the reader of the original who is inclined to assume a somewhat distant and sceptical position regarding the narrative information which s/he receives from the (unreliable) character, the reader of the Slovene text is more likely to trust the seemingly objective report of the author/narrator. In this respect, the former reader is confronted with a far less traditional text in that s/he cannot rely any longer on whatever information s/he gets from the character(s) but has instead to realise the interpretive potential of the text entirely on his/her own. 24A Aaa ,el aa||a a|| l|cse (1) ,ea|s s|e |aa aeve| lcaaa cal (2) l|e aae cl l|e p||esl W|cse ,e||cW|a (3) p|clc|ap| |aa ca l|e Wa|| aacve l|e a|c|ea |a|ca|a aes|ae l|e cc|ca|ea p||als cl l|e p|c|ses aae lc 0|essea Ma|a|el Ma|, A|accae.
240 la veaaa| v vse| le| (1) |el|| a||aa| a| |/veae|a (2), |a|c se p|se aa|cva||, c|a| pc|aeae|a (3) lclc |al|ja je v|se|a aa slea| aaa pc|c|jea| |a|ca| je /|avea aa|vaea l|s|a / cael|, aaa|| a|aea| Ma|a|el| Ma||j| A|a|c|.
0H iiJ JHAN8|AJl0N 8JU0l|8 Te archaisation of the target language causes a reversed process, which means that now it is the character who has taken control of narrative report. It has to be pointed out that such shifting on the microstructural level always gravely aects all the three functions of language on the macrostructural level, most of all the interpersonal function. Terefore the reader of the translation is encouraged to attribute to the character Eveline features such as conventionalism, rigidity, sentimentality, and the like, contributing to the overall cultural and emotional paralysis which dominates the Dublin story. 8 Although such attribution is not contrary to the truth, the crucial dierence between the original and the translation resides in the fact that the former relativises it whereas the latter tends to make it altogether objective or absolute. Te third important shifting on the macrostructural level is of a syntagmatic nature, and concerns the use of iteration. By and large, lexical iteration happens to be a highly characteristic rhetorical device in all the Dublin stories. Its pragmatic function is directly associated with the problem of narrative perspective and focalisation in the sense that every occurrence of iteration in a short stretch of text may be seen as a marker of the minimum control of report on the part of the author/narrator. Te translated text consistently ignores this gure of speech, preferring as it does to replace it with synonyms, thus relocating the focus from the character to the author/narrator. Since most of the textual segments which contain iteration apply to past time (from the point of view of the time at which the story is told), the shifting in focus is all the more crucial in that the reader does not receive information directly from the character reliving her past, but rather from the author/ narrator. In this way the reader is deprived of the insight into Evelines fatally sentimental attachment to her past, her transcription of the past into the present, which is bound to determine her imminent decision to give up the prospects of a new life. A good deal of transformation has also been observed on the syntactic-pragmatic level. Te inadequate choice of a deictic element has caused the shifting from the auctorial and objective to the more subjective report. Changes in thematisation have brought about a similar eect to that mentioned before. Changes in speech act on, account of the use of dierent illocution, have led to a reversed eect, as a result of the shifting from free indirect discourse to either indirect discourse or narrative report of act(ivity). Te syntactic standardisation of the non-standard word order, inuenced by Gaelic (cf. Hedberg 1981) in the original, realised by the substitution of indirect discourse for free indirect discourse, has contributed to a greater objectivisation of the narrative, whereby narrative perspective has been brought under the control of the author/narrator, and focalisation under that of the character. And, nally, on account of the introduction of dierent elements of cohesion, eected by the substitution of narrative report of act(ivity) for free indirect discourse, both narrative perspective and focalisation have been moved to the realm of author/narrator. 8 w|||e cesc.|||. ||e c.e.+|| +|cs(|e.e c| ||e |.|||. s|c.|es. ||e c.|||cs |e.c |c .e|e. |c ||e .c.c /--/, +.c ||e s,.|+ 0.//. //e /--/,e! ./, c|. |.c+|| 19b9. ?1. b..ess 193. ?30. Sc|c|es 198/9. 8. |+c|+|e 198. iii U.cs |ce||c I/e S/|/ .| /--/.e /e/e./.e -! /..-/-/. I-/-/ /./.-/ Ie\/ 1. |tat|at|ta Our study of narrative perspective and focalisation in translating ctional texts, based on the appropriation of the van Leuven-Zwart comparative and descriptive model, shows that the results thus obtained depend for their reliability largely on the degree of the subtlety of the shifts observed. In other words, the more subtle and consistent with the translators strategy a certain shift in narrative mode the better the results, in the sense of complying with the parameters which have a direct bearing on the model. Te most problematic translation instances have proved to be those which display a conicting tendency towards modulating the original structure on the microstructural level, thus failing to aect narrative perspective and/or focalisation where at least some alteration would be expected. For example, a translator may quite inadvertently subscribe the characters discourse to unwarranted archaisation and simultaneously introduce linguistic markers typical of informal style in accordance with the original. Such incongruity may indeed be detrimental to the impression of the characters overall linguistic competence, however, it is not likely to aect the given narrative mode, leaving as it does both narrative perspective and focalisation unaltered. Te main reason for this must be sought in the readers capacity to concurrently make amends for conspicuous mistranslation. ||||trt(| 0a||l|a, M. M. 198. !|e 0|+|c|c |m+|/+||c/ |co/ /ss+,s. |a. M. Hc|a|sl. J|aas. 0. |e|sca aaa M. Hc|a|sl. Aasl|a. Ua|ve|s|l, cl Jexas l|ess. 0a|, M. 1983. J|e Na||al|a aaa l|e |cca||/|a. A J|ec|, cl l|e Aeals |a Na||al|ve. S|,|e 11. 2349. 0easlcc|, 8. 1980. w|c K|||ea 0cc| Hcc|a' J|e 8ca|ces cl ||ee laa||ecl 8l,|e |a J|,sses. S|,|e 14. 25913. 0||alca, |. 1980. 'Hep|esealea le|cepl|ca'. 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