CALCULUS I NOTES

Calculus I
Differential Calculus
Lecture Notes
Veselin Jungic & Jamie Mulholland
Department of Mathematics
Simon Fraser University
c Jungic/Mulholland, August 26, 2013
License is granted to print this
document for personal/educational use.
Contents
Contents i
Preface iii
Greek Alphabet v
1 Review: Functions and Models 1
1.1 Exponential Functions & Inverse Functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Limits and Derivatives 11
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 The Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 The Precise Denition of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Limits at Innity: Horizontal Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Derivatives and Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 The Derivative as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Differentiation Rules 59
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.9 Related rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10 Linear Approximation and Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Applications of the Derivative 113
4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.4 Indeterminate Forms and LHospitals Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.6 Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.7 Newtons Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.8 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 155
5.1 Curves Dened by Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.2 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.3 Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6 Review Material 185
6.1 Midterm 1 Review Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.2 Midterm 2 Review Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3 End of Term Review Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.4 Final Exam Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5 Final Exam Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Bibliography 221
Preface
This booklet contains our notes for courses Math 150/151 - Calculus I at Simon Fraser University. Stu-
dents are expected to use this booklet during each lecture by follow along with the instructor, lling in the
details in the blanks provided, during the lecture.
Denitions of terms are stated in orange boxes and theorems appear in blue boxes .
Next to some examples youll see [link to applet]. The link will take you to an online interactive applet to
accompany the example - just like the ones used by your instructor in the lecture. Clicking the link above
will take you to the following website containing all the applets:
http://www.sfu.ca/ jtmulhol/calculus-applets/html/appletsforcalculus.html
Try it now.
No project such as this can be free from errors and incompleteness. We will be grateful to everyone
who points out any typos, incorrect statements, or sends any other suggestion on how to improve this
manuscript.
Veselin Jungic
vjungic@sfu.ca
Jamie Mulholland
j mulholland@sfu.ca
August 26, 2013
iii
iv
Greek Alphabet
lower
case
capital name pronunciation lower
case
capital name pronunciation
A alpha (al-fah) N nu (new)
B beta (bay-tah) xi (zie)
gamma (gam-ah) o O omicron (om-e-cron)
delta (del-ta) pi (pie)
E epsilon (ep-si-lon) P rho (roe)
Z zeta (zay-tah) sigma (sig-mah)
H eta (ay-tah) T tau (taw)
theta (thay-tah) upsilon (up-si-lon)
I iota (eye-o-tah) phi (e)
K kappa (cap-pah) X chi (kie)
lambda (lamb-dah) psi (si)
M mu (mew) omega (oh-may-gah)
v
Part 1
Review: Functions and Models
1
PART 1: FUNCTIONS AND MODELS LECTURE 1.4 EXP, LOG, AND INVERSES 2
1.1 Exponential Functions & Inverse Functions and Logarithms
(This lecture corresponds to Sections 1.5 and 1.6 of Stewarts Calculus.)
1. Reminder. For all a (0, 1) (1, ) and all x, y R:
(a) a
x+y
= a
x
a
y
(b) a
xy
=
a
x
a
y
(c) (a
x
)
y
= a
xy
(d) (ab)
x
= a
x
b
x
2. Reminder. Sketch the graphs of the functions f(x) = 2
x
and g(x) = 3
x
.
3. Reminder. Sketch the graph of the function F(x) =
_
1
2
_
x
.
4. Reminder. Evaluate f(2), f(2), f(
1
2
) and f(
3
2
) if f(x) = 4
x
.
5. BIGQuestion. What is 4
2
?
6. Reminder. Napiers constant:
e 2.718281828459045235360287471352
(John Napier, 1550-1617)
7. Denition. A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same value twice;
that is
if x
1
,= x
2
then f(x
1
) ,= f(x
2
) .
8. Example. Which of the following functions are one-to-one?
(a) f(x) = x
2
(b) g(x) = x
3
(c) h(x) = e
x
(d) i(x) = sin x
(e) j(x) = sin x, x
_
2
,

2
9. Horizontal Line Test. A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.
10. Denition. Let f be one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its inverse function
has domain B and range A and is dened by
f
1
(y) = x f(x) = y
for any y B.
11. Example. Find a formula for the inverse of f(x) =
x
3x + 1
.
12. Logarithmic Function. The inverse function of the exponential function f(x) = a
x
is called the
logarithmic function with base a.
13. All You Need To Know. For any a > 0, a ,= 1, any x > 0, and any y R
log
a
x = y a
y
= x
14. Example. Determine log
2
(16), log
2
(
1
8
) and log
2
(1).
15. Example. Can you nd log
2
(32)?
16. Reminder. For all a (0, 1) (1, ) and any positive x and y:
(a) log
a
(xy) = log
a
x + log
a
y
(b) log
a
_
x
y
_
= log
a
x log
a
y
(c) log
a
(x
r
) = r log
a
x (r is a real number)
17. Notation.
log
10
x = log x
log
e
x = ln x
18. Reminder. Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x
19. Example. Solve the equation e
x
3
3
9 = 0 for x.
20. Inverse Trig Functions. Here we will limit our discussion to sin.
21. Denition. The inverse function of the sine function f(x) = sin x,
2
x

2
, is called arcsine
and is denoted by either sin
1
or arcsin.
22. All You Need To Know. For any 1 x 1, and any
2
y

2
sin
1
x = y sin y = x
23. Determine the following.
(a) sin
1
(
3
2
)
(b) sin(sin
1
(
1
3
))
(c) sin
1
(sin(
3
4
))
24. Additional Notes
Part 2
Limits and Derivatives
11
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.1 TANGENT AND VELOCITY PROBLEMS 12
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems
(This lecture corresponds to Section 2.1 of Stewarts Calculus.)
1. Quote. If I were again beginning my studies, I would follow the advice of Plato and start with math-
ematics.
Galileo Galilei, Italian philosopher and astronomer, 1564-1642.
2. The Tangent Problem. Find an equation of the tangent line to a curve with equation y = f(x) at
a given point P.
3. Three Questions.
(a) What is the tangent line to a curve with equation y = f(x) at a given point P?
(b) If a curve with equation y = f(x) and a point P on the curve are given, does the tangent
exist?
(c) If a curve with equation y = f(x) and a point P = (x
0
, f(x
0
)) are given and if the tangent line
exists then an equation of is given by
y f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
) .
How do we calculate the slope m?
4. Hint. Find the slopes of the secant lines to the parabola y = x
2
through the points (1, 1) and:
(a) (2, 4)
(b) (1.5, 1.5
2
)
(c) (1.1, 1.1
2
)
(d) (1.001, 1.001
2
)
5. BIGQuestion. What if the second point is VERY, VERYclose to the point (1, 1)?
6. Velocity Problem. By denition
avarage velocity =
distance traveled
time elapsed
What if the period of time elapsed is very small?
7. Example. The position of the car is given by the values in the table.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
s 0 10 32 70 119 178
where t is in seconds and s is in feet.
Find the average velocity for the time beginning when t = 2 and lasting
(a) 3 seconds
(b) 2 seconds
(c) 1 second
8. Question. What is the meaning of the number that we see on the car speedometer as we travel in
city trafc?
9. Answer. The number represents the instantaneous velocity.
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 16
2.2 The Limit of a Function
1. Quote. Black holes are where God divided by zero.
Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-
2. Problem. Let f(x) =
x
2
x 2
x 2
.
(a) Determine the domain of f.
(b) Complete the table
x f(x) x f(x)
1 3
1.9 2.1
1.99 2.01
1.999 2.001
1.9999 2.0001
3. Denition. We write
lim
xa
f(x) = L
and say
the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L
if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufciently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
4. Example. Guess the value of
lim
x0
sin x
x
.
5. Problem. What can we say about
lim
x0
[x[
x
?
6. Denition. We write
lim
xa
+
f(x) = L
and say
the right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L
if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufciently close to a and x greater than a.
7. Example. Sketch the graph of the function
f(x) =
_
_
x + 1 if x 1
x
2
if x (1, 0)
1 if x = 0
x
2
if x (0, 1]
x + 1 if x > 1
Find
(a) lim
x1
f(x)
(b) lim
x1
+
f(x)
(c) lim
x0
f(x)
(d) lim
x0
+
f(x)
(e) lim
x0
f(x)
8. Fact.
lim
xa
f(x) = L ( lim
xa
f(x) = L and lim

xa
+
f(x) = L)
9. Problem. Sketch the graph of f(x) =
1
(x + 1)
2
.
10. Denition. Let f be a function dened on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim
xa
f(x) =
means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking x
sufciently close to a, but not equal to a.
11. Examples. Sketch the graph of the following function.
g(x) =
x + 3
x 1
12. Read Example 10 in text regarding f(x) = tan (x)
13. Denition. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
lim
xa
f(x) = lim
xa
f(x) = lim
xa
+
f(x) =
lim
xa
f(x) = lim
xa
f(x) = lim
xa
+
f(x) =
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.3 CALCULATING LIMITS 21
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws
1. Quote. Laws are like sausages. Its better not to see them being made.
Otto von Bismarck , German statesman, 1815 - 1898)
2. Example. Guess the value of lim
t0
t + 9 3
t
.
3. Limit Laws. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim
xa
f(x) and lim
xa
g(x)
exist. Then
(a) lim
xa
(f(x) + g(x)) = lim
xa
f(x) + lim
xa
g(x)
(b) lim
xa
(f(x) g(x)) = lim
xa
f(x) lim
xa
g(x)
(c) lim
xa
(c f(x)) = c lim
xa
f(x)
(d) lim
xa
(f(x) g(x)) = lim
xa
f(x) lim
xa
g(x)
(e) lim
xa
f(x)
g(x)
=
lim
xa
f(x)
lim
xa
g(x)
if lim
xa
g(x) ,= 0.
(f) lim
xa
[f(x)]
p/q
= [ lim
xa
f(x)]
p/q
4. Two Special Limit Laws.
(a) lim
xa
c = c
(b) lim
xa
x = a
5. Example. Evaluate lim
x2
(x
3
+ 3x
2
4x + 5).
6. Direct Substitution Property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of
f, then
lim
xa
f(x) = f(a) .
7. Examples. Find the following limits.
(a) lim
x1
x + 1
x
3
+ 1
(b) lim
t0
t + 9 3
t
(c) lim
h0
f(x + h) f(x)
h
if f(x) = x
2
8. Example. Find lim
x0
x
2
[x[
Reminder.
lim
xa
f(x) = L ( lim
xa
f(x) = L and lim

xa
+
f(x) = L)
9. Theorem. If f(x) g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist
as x approaches a, then
lim
xa
f(x) lim
xa
g(x) .
10. Squeeze Theorem. If f(x) g(x) h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
lim
xa
f(x) = lim
xa
h(x) = L
then
lim
xa
g(x) = L .
11. Example. Show that
lim
x0
_
x
_
sin
1
x
+ cos
1
x
__
= 0 .
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.4 THE PRECISE DEFINITION OF LIMIT 26
2.4 The Precise Denition of Limit
1. Quote.
Theres a delta for every epsilon,
Its a fact that you can always count upon.
Theres a delta for every epsilon
And now and again,
Theres also an N.
(Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, satirist, pianist, and mathematician, 1928 - .)
2. The , Game. Consider the function f(x) = 3x 1 and the point x = 1. There are two players in
this game: Player A and Player B. The game is played as follows. Player A chooses a number, say .
The object of Player B is to nd a number so that all values in the interval (1 , 1 +) have image
in the interval (f(1) , f(1) + ). The winner is determined as follows:
1) If Player A can pick a number such that Player B cannot nd such a then Player A wins.
2) If Player B can nd a for any given by Player A then Player B wins.
Who wins Player A or Player B?
3. Denition. Let f be a function dened on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a iself. Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write
lim
xa
f(x) = L
if for every number > 0 there is a > 0 such that
[f(x) L[ < whenever 0 < [x a[ < .
[link to applet]
4. Example. Prove the statement using the , denition.
lim
x3
(2 5x) = 13
5. To Be Continued ... ... in Math 242.
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.5 CONTINUITY 30
2.5 Continuity
1. Quote. If I were asked to name, in one word, the pole star round which the mathematical rmament
revolves, the central idea which pervades the whole corpus of mathematical doctrine, I should point
to Continuity as contained in our notions of space, and say, it is this, it is this!
(JJ Sylvester, English mathematician, 1814-1897)
2. Example. What is the difference between the two graphs?
3. Denition. A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim
xa
f(x) = f(a) .
4. Note.
(a) a belongs to the domain of f
(b) lim
xa
f(x) exists
(c) lim
xa
f(x) = f(a)
5. Denition. If
(1) f is dened on an open interval containing a, except perhaps at a, and
(2) f is not continuous at a
we say that f is discontinuous at a.
6. Example. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
(a)
f(x) =
_
_
_
x
2
4
x 2
if x ,= 2
5 if x = 2
(b)
g(x) =
_
1
x 2
if x ,= 2
5 if x = 2
(c)
h(x) =
_
1 if x [1, 2)
2 if x [2, 3)
7. Denition. A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim
xa
+
f(x) = f(a)
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim
xa
f(x) = f(a) .
8. Deniton. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in that
interval. We understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous
from the left.
9. Example. Find the number c that makes f(x) continuous for every x.
f(x) =
_
_
x
4
1
x
3
1
if x ,= 1
c if x = 1
10. Fact. The following types of functions are continuous on their domains:
(a) polynomials
(b) rational functions
(c) root functions
(d) trigonometric functions
(e) inverse trigonometric functions
(f) exponential functions
(g) logarithmic functions
11. More Facts. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following functions are also
continuous at a:
f + g, f g, cf, fg,
f
g
if g(a) ,= 0 .
12. Example. For which a, b R is the function
f(x) =
_
1 x 1
ax
if x (0, 1]
1 if x = 0
bx
4
+ bx
x
2
+ x
if x (1, 0)
continuous on (1, 1]?
13. Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim
xa
g(x) = b then
lim
xa
f(g(x)) = f( lim
xa
g(x)) = f(b) .
14. Example. Evaluate
lim
x0
e
1x1
x
.
15. Theorem. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f g given
by (f g)(x) = f(g(x)) is continuous at a.
16. Intermediate Value Theorem. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N
be any number between f(a) and f(b), where f(a) ,= f(b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such
that f(c) = N.
17. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that
2 exists, i.e., prove that there is c R

such that c
2
= 2.
18. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the equation
e
x
= 2 x
has at least one real solution.
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.6 LIMITS AT INFINITY 38
2.6 Limits at Innity: Horizontal Asymptotes
1. Quote. Innity is a oorless room without walls or ceiling.
(Anonymous)
2. Problem. Sketch the graphs of the following functions
(a) f(x) =
1
x
(b) g(x) = e
x
(c) h(x) = tan
1
x
(d) i(x) =
1
1 + x
2
3. Denition. Let f be a function dened on some interval (a, ). Then
lim
x
f(x) = L
means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufciently large.
(a) lim
x
1
x
(b) lim
x
1
x
(c) lim
x
e
x
(d) lim
x
tan
1
x
(e) lim
x
tan
1
x
5. Denition. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if either
lim
x
f(x) = L or lim
x
f(x) = L .
6. Fact. If r > 0 is a rational number, then
lim
x
1
x
r
= 0 .
If r > 0 is a rational number such that x
r
is dened for all x then
lim
x
1
x
r
= 0 .
(a)
lim
x
3x
3
4x
2
1
6x
3
+ x + 2
(b)
lim
x
3x
2
5 1
2x + 5
(c)
lim
x
(
_
x
2
+ ax
_
x
2
+ bx)
8. Problem. Find the following limits.
(a) lim
x
x
2
(b) lim
x
x
2
+ 2x 1
x
3
+ 3
(c) lim
x
x
4
+ 5x
3
1
x
2
+ x + 1
(d) lim
x
e
x
(e) lim
x
e
x
x
2
9. Additional Notes
PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.7 DERIVATIVES AND RATES OF CHANGE 43
2.7 Derivatives and Rates of Change
1. Quote. The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.
(Marcel Proust, French author, 1871- 1922)
2. Denition. The tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at the point P(a, f(a)) is the line through P
with slope
m = lim
xa
f(x) f(a)
x a
provided that this limit exists.
3. Note. If lim
xa
f(x) f(a)
x a
exists then
lim
xa
f(x) f(a)
x a
= lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
4. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f(x) = x
3
at the point
i. x = 1
ii. x = 2
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at each of the points above.
5. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
y =
1
x
at the point where x = a.
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (1, 1).
6. The Most Important Denition in This Course.
Denition of Derivative. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f
(a), is
f
(a) = lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
if this limit exists.
7. Note. If lim
xa
f(x) f(a)
x a
exists then f
(a) = lim
xa
f(x) f(a)
x a
= lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
8. Example. Find the derivative of the function
y =
1
x 1
at the point where x = 3.
9. Example. The following limit represents the derivative of some function f at some number a. State
f and a.
lim
h0
2
h+3
8
h
10. Example. Let f(x) = [x[. Does f
(0) exist?
11. Must Know! An equation of the tangent line to y = f(x) at (a, f(a)) is given by
y f(a) = f
(a)(x a) .
12. Example. Find the equation of the tangent line to f(x) =
1
x 1
at the point where x = 3.
13. Compare the derivatives at each of the points on the graph.
14. Reminder. By denition
average velocity =
displacement
time
15. More Precisely... Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion
s = f(t), where s is the displacement of the object from the origin at time t.
The average velocity of the object in the time interval from t = a to t = a + h is given by
average velocity =
f(a + h) f(a)
h
.
16. BIGQuestion. What if h is small?
17. Denition. We dene the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = a as
v(a) = lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
.
18. Example. If an arrow is shot upward on the moon with a velocity of 58 m/s, its height (in meters)
after t seconds is given by
H = 58t 0.83t
2
.
(a) Find the velocity of the arrow when t = a.
(b) When will the arrow hit the moon?
(c) With what velocity will the arrow hit the moon?
19. Rates of Change. Let f be a function dened on an interval I and let x
1
, x
2
I. Then the incre-
ment of x is dened as
x = x
2
x
1
and the corresponding change in y is
y = f(x
2
) f(x
1
) .
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x
1
, x
2
] is dened as
y
x
=
f(x
2
) f(x
1
)
x
2
x
1
.
20. Must Know! The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x is dened as
lim
x0
y
x
= lim
x2x1
f(x
2
) f(x
1
)
x
2
x
1
.
21. Example. If a cylindrical tank holds 100,000 gallons of water, which can be drained from the bottom
of the tank in an hour, then Torricellis Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank after
t minutes as
V = 100, 000
_
1
t
60
_
2
0 t 60 .
Find the rate at which the water is owing out of the tank (the instantaneous rate of change of V
with respect to t) as a function of t. What are the units?
22. Example. The quantity (in pounds) of a gourmet ground coffee that is sold by a coffee company at a
price of p dollars per pound is Q = f(p).
(a) What is the meaning of the derivative f
(8)? What are the units?

(b) Is f
(8) positive or negative? Explain.

PART 2: LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES LECTURE 2.8 THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION 52
2.8 The Derivative as a Function
1. Quote. I turn away with fear and horror from this lamentable sore of continuous functions without
derivatives.
(Charles Hermite, French mathematician, 1822-1901.)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denote by f
(a), is
f
(a) = lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
3. Find the derivative of the function f(x) = x
2
at
(i) x = 0,
(ii) x = 1,
(iii) x = 2,
(iv) x = 10.
4. Problem. If a function f : I R is given, nd the set J I such that f
(x) exists for each x J.

If J ,= then this new function f
: J R is called the derivative of f .

5. Example. Let
f(x) = x
2
3
=
3
x
2
.
(i) Determine the domain of f.
(ii) Determine the formula for f
(x). What is the domain of f
?
(iii) Sketch graphs of f and f
.
6. The graph of f is given. Sketch the graph of f
.
7. Notation. For y = f(x) it is common to write:
f
(x) = y
=
dy
dx
=
df
dx
=
d
dx
f(x) = Df(x) = D
x
f(x)
Also,
f
(a) =
dy
dx
x=a
=
dy
dx
_
x=a
.
8. Denition. A function is differentiable at a if f
(a) exists. It is differentiable on an open

interval (a, b) [or (a, ) or (, a) or (, )] if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.
9. Two Questions.
(i) Is every continuous function differentiable?
(ii) Is every differentiable function continuous?
10. Three Cases. A function f is not differentiable at a number a from its domain if:
(i) The graph of f has a corner at the point (a, f(a));
(ii) f is not continuous at a;
(iii) The graph of f has a vertical tangent line when x = a.
11. Higher Derivatives. Suppose that f is a differentiable function. The second derivative of f is
the derivative of f
.
Notation.
(f
= f
(y
= y
d
dx
_
dy
dx
_
=
d
2
y
dx
2
12. Example. Find f
(x) if f(x) = x
2
.
13. Acceleration. The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the
acceleration of the object.
a(t) = v
(t) = s
(t).
14. Example. The gure shows the graphs of three functions. One is the position function of a particle,
one is its velocity, and one is its acceleration. Identify each curve.
Part 3
Differentiation Rules
59
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.1 DERIVATIVES: POLYNOMIALS AND EXP 60
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
1. Quote. Young man, in mathematics you dont understand things, you just get used to them. (John
von Neumann, Hungarian mathematician and polymath, 1903-1957)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f is the function f
dened by
f
(x) = lim
h0
f(x + h) f(x)
h
for all x for which this limit exists. Recall that we also use the notation
d
dx
(f(x)) = f
(x) for the

derivative.
3. Must Know!
(a) Derivative of a Constant.
d
dx
(c) = 0
(b) We have already seen that the following are true:
d
dx
(x) = 1,
d
dx
(x
2
) = 2x,
d
dx
(x
3
) = 3x
2
.
You may be able to see a pattern. In fact, we have the following rule.
The Power Rule. If n is any real number, then
d
dx
(x
n
) = nx
n1
(c) Constant Multiple Rule. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then
d
dx
(cf(x)) = c
d
dx
f(x)
(d) Sum Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d
dx
(f(x) + g(x)) =
d
dx
f(x) +
d
dx
g(x)
(e) The Derivative of a Polynomial. If
p(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ . . . + a
1
x + a
0
where n is a nonnegative integer and a
n
,= 0 then
p
(x) = na
n
x
n1
+ (n 1)a
n1
x
n2
+ . . . + a
1
.
4. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = 2x
3
7x
2
+ 3x + 4 at the point (1, 2).
5. Example. Find an equation for the straight line that passes through the point (1, 5) and it is tangent
to the curve y = x
3
.
6. Fact. If f(x) = a
x
, a > 0, a ,= 1, is an exponential function then
f
(0) = lim
h0
a
h
1
h
exists.
7. Fact It is straightforward to show that if f(x) = a
x
then
f
(x) = f
(0) a
x
.
8. Must Know! e is is the number such that
lim
h0
e
h
1
h
= 1 .
e 2.71828
9. Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function. If f(x) = e
x
is the natural exponential function
then
f
(x) = f(x) .
Thus
d
dx
(e
x
) = e
x
.
10. Example. Differentiate the function
f(x) = 2x
3
+ 3x
2
3
e
x+2
.
11. Example. At what point on the curve y = e
x
is the tangent line parallel to the line y = 2x?
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.2 THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES 66
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules
1. Quote. Five out of four people have trouble with fractions.
(Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-)
2. Problem. Suppose we have two functions f(x) =
3
x
2
and g(x) = e
x
and we want to compute the
derivative of their product
d
dx
(
3
x
2
e
x
).
How do we do this?
3. Product Rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
d
dx
[f(x)g(x)] = f(x)
d
dx
[g(x)] + g(x)
d
dx
[f(x)] .
In Newtons notation this is written as (fg)
= f g
+ g f
.
4. Examples.
(a) Differentiate f(x) =
3
x
2
e
x
.
(b) Differentiate g(x) = (x + 1)(2x
2
x + 1).
5. Quotient Rule. If f and g are differentiable, then
d
dx
_
f(x)
g(x)
_
=
g(x)
d
dx
[f(x)] f(x)
d
dx
[g(x)]
[g(x)]
2
.
In Newtons notation this is written as
_
f
g
_
=
g f
f g
g
2
.
6. Examples.
(a) Differentiate y =
2t
2
1
t
3
+ 1
.
(b) Differentiate f(x) = e
x
.
(c) If f(3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f
(3) = 6, and g
(3) = 5, nd the following numbers.

i. (f + g)
(3)
ii. (fg)
(3)
iii.
_
f
g
_
(3)
iv.
_
f
f g
_
(3)
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIG FUNCTIONS 70
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
1. Quote. Trigonometry is the mathematics of sound and music.
(Frank Wattenberg, American mathematician, 1952-)
2. Problem. What is the derivative of sin x?
3. Must Know!
(a)
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x
(b)
d
dx
(cos x) = sin x
(c)
d
dx
(tan x) = sec
2
x
(d)
d
dx
(sec x) = sec xtan x
(e)
d
dx
(csc x) = csc xcot x
(f)
d
dx
(cot x) = csc
2
x
4. Problem. Prove that
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x .
5. Trigonometric Limits. Above we used the very important results
lim
0
sin
= 1 and lim
0
cos 1
= 0.
We now prove these results.
6. Examples.
(a) Differentiate y =
1 + tan x
x cot x
.
(b) Find the points on the curve
y =
cos x
2 + sin x
at which the tangent is horizontal.
7. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. Let be the angle between the top of the ladder
and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. If the bottom of the
ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to when = /3?
8. Examples. Evaluate
(a) lim
x0
sin 2x
x
(b) lim
0
sin 2
cos 1
9. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.4 CHAIN RULE 75
3.4 Chain Rule
1. Puzzle. A duck before two ducks, a duck behind two ducks, and a duck in the middle. How many
ducks are there?
2. Reminder. The composition of the functions f and g is dened by
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) .
3. Example. Let f(u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x
2
. Find F = f g.
4. Chain Rule. If f and g are both differentiable and F = f g is the composite function dened b
F(x) = f(g(x)), then F is differentiable and F
is given by
F
(x) = f
(g(x)) g
(x) .
In Leibniz notation, if y = f(u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then
dy
dx
=
dy
du

du
dx
.
5. Examples.
(a) Let f(u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x
2
and let F = f g. Find the derivative of F.
(b) Find y
=
dy
dx
. if
i. y = (2 5x)
3
ii. y = (x + sin x)
5
(1 + e
x
)
2
iii. Express the derivative dy/dx in terms of x if
y = u
5
and u =
(4x 1)
2
x
.
6. Examples. Find f
.
(a)
f(x) =
_
2 + 5x
2
(b)
f(x) = (tan (x
2
))
3
(c)
f(x) = e
cos x
7. Must Know!
d
dx
(a
x
) = a
x
ln a .
8. Examples.
(a) A pebble droppped into a lake creates an expanding circular ripple. Suppose that the radius of
the circle is increasing at the rate of 2 in./s. At what rate is its area increasing when its radius
is 10 in.?
(b) Suppose that f(0) = 0 and f
(0) = 1. Calculate the derivative of f(f(f(x))) at x = 0.

(c) Under certain circumstances a rumor spreads according to the equation
p(t) =
1
1 + ae
kt
where p(t) is the proportion of the population that knows the rumor at time t and a and k are
positive constants.
i. Find lim
t
p(t).
ii. Find the rate of spread of the rumor.
9. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 80
3.5 Implicit Differentiation
1. Dictionary. implicit
adjective
Denition:
1. implied: not stated, but understood in what is expressed
Asking us when we would like to start was an implicit acceptance of our terms.
2. absolute: not affected by any doubt or uncertainty
implicit trust
3. contained: present as a necessary part of something
Condentiality is implicit in the relationship between doctor and patient.
2. Problem. The curve
x
3
+ y
3
= 3xy
is called the folium of Descartes. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point
_
3
2
,
3
2
_
.
3. Implicitly Dened Function. An equation in two variables x and y may have one or more solutions
for y in terms of x or for x in terms of y. These solutions are functions that are said to be implicitly
dened by the equation.
4. Example
(a) x
2
+ y
2
= 1
(b) x
3
+ y
3
= 3xy
5. Implicit Differentiation.
(a) Use the chain rule to differentiate both sides of the given equation, thinking of x as the indepen-
dent variable.
(b) Solve the resulting equation for
dy
dx
.
6. Example. The curve
x
3
+ y
3
= 3xy
is called the folium of Descartes. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point
_
3
2
,
3
2
_
.
7. Example. Suppose that water is being emptied from a spherical tank of radius 10 ft. If the depth of
water in the tank is 5 ft and is decreasing at the rate of 3 ft/sec, at what rate is the radius r of the top
surface of the water decreasing?
8. Differentiation of an Inverse Function. Suppose f is a one-to-one differentiable function and its
inverse function f
1
is also differentiable. Use implicit differentiation to show that
(f
1
)
(x) =
1
f
(f
1
(x))
provided that the denominator is not 0.
9. Must Know!
(a)
d
dx
(sin
1
(x)) =
1
1 x
2
(b)
d
dx
(cos
1
(x)) =
1
1 x
2
(c)
d
dx
(tan
1
(x)) =
1
1 + x
2
(d)
d
dx
(cot
1
(x)) =
1
1 + x
2
10. Example. Determine the points on the circle
(x 1)
2
+ (y 2)
2
= 4
where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
11. Example. For the curve
x
2
+ y
2
= 5
nd y
by implicit differentiation.
12. Orthogonal Trajectories.
(a) Two curves are called orthogonal if at each point of intersection their tangent lines are perpen-
dicular.
(b) Two families of curves are orthogonal trajectories of each other if every curve in one family
is orthogonal to every curve in the other family.
(c) Show that the given families of curves are orthogonal trajectories of each other:
x
2
+ y
2
= ax and x
2
+ y
2
= by .
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.6 DERIVATIVE: LOGARITHMS 86
3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
1. Quote. One real estate development company advertised that an investment with it would grow
logarithmically.
(From Ed Barbeaus column, Fallacies, Flaws, and Flimam, in College Math. Journal 36 (2005),
394-396.)
2. Must Know!
d
dx
(log
a
x) =
1
xln a
3. When a = e this becomes
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
.
4. Examples. Differentiate
(a) y = log
2
(3x
2
+ e
x
)
(b) y = ln(x +
x
2
1)
(c) y =
ln x
(d) y = ln
x
(e) y = ln
_
x
2
(x + 3)
4
_
5. More Examples. Differentiate
(a)
y =
4
x
3
5
x
3
+ 1
(2x + 1)
3
(b)
y = x
x
2
(c)
y = ln [x[
6. Must Know!
lim
x0
(1 + x)
1
x
= e
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.7 RATES OF CHANGE IN SCIENCE 90
3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences
1. Quote. If you want to see practical applied mathematics, read chemical engineering; if you want to
see theoretical applied mathematics, read electrical engineering.
And if you want to read pure math, read economics.
(Unknown blogger.)
2. Example (Physics). The equation of motion for a particle is given by
s = 2t
3
3t
2
12t, t 0
where s is in meters and t is in seconds.
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration as functions of t.
(b) The graph of s = s(t) is shown. Sketch the graphs of the velocity and acceleration functions for
0 t 4.
(c) When is the particle speeding up? Slowing down?
(d) What does the expression s
(t) = a
(t) represent?
[link to applet]
3. Exercise.
Let v(t) be a function which gives the velocity of a particle at time t. Consider the speed function
w(t) = [v(t)[.
(a) The particle is speeding up when w
(t) > 0. Show that is equivalent to the condition that v(t)

and a(t) have the same sign.
(b) Similarly, the particle is slowing down when w
(t) < 0. Show that is equivalent to the condition

that v(t) and a(t) have opposite signs.
[Hint: Remove the absolute value signs by writing w(t) as a piecewise dened function. Then differ-
entiate the piecewise function, paying careful attention to the conditions which dene each piece.]
4. Example (Chemistry). If one molecule C is formed from one molecule of the reactant A and one
molecule of the reactant B, and the initial concentrations of A and B have a common value [A] =
[B] = a moles/L then
[C] =
a
2
kt
akt + 1
where k is a constant.
(a) Find the rate of reaction at time t.
(b) Show that if x = [C], then
dx
dt
= k(a x)
2
(c) What happens to the concentration as t ?
(d) What happens to the rate of reaction as t ?
5. Example (Economics). Suppose that the cost (in dollars) for a company to produce x pairs of new
line of jeans is
C(x) = 2000 + 3x + 0.01x
2
+ 0.0002x
3
(a) Find the marginal cost function.
(b) Find C
(100) and explain its meaning. What does it predict?

(c) Compare C
(100) with the cost of manufacturing the 101st pair of jeans.

6. Example. The height of a certain cylinder is always twice its radius r. If its radius is changing, show
that the rate of change of its volume with respect to r is equal to its surface area.
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.8 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY 96
3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay
1. Quote. Its the whole issue with exponential growth, its very slow in the beginning but over the
long term it gets ridiculous.
(Drew Curtis, Founder and chief administrator of Fark.com, 1973 - )
2. Exponential Growth and Decay: A quantity q is said to be growing (or decaying) exponentially if
q = Ae
kt
where A and k are constants.
3. Natural Growth Equation. The solution of the initial-value problem
dy
dt
= ky, y(0) = y
0
is
y(t) = y
0
e
kt
.
4. Example. Calculopolis had a population of 25000 in 1980 and the population of 30000 in 1990.
What population can the Calculopolis planers expect in the year 2020 if the population grows at a
rate proportional its size?
5. Radioactive Decay. Radioactive material is known to decay at a rate proportional to the amount
present. This means, if N is the amount (mass) of radioactive material at time t then it must satisfy
the model:
dN
dt
= kN, k > 0.
6. Example. It takes 8 days for 20% of a particular radioactive material to decay. How long does it take
for 100 grams of material to decay to 50 grams? 40 grams? 0 grams?
7. Remark. Usually k is specied in terms of the half-life of the isotope
=
ln 2
k
.
This is the time required for half of any given quantity to decay.
8. Newtons Lawof Cooling and Heating. If a warm object is put in cooler surroundings its tempera-
ture will steadily decrease. A law of physics known as Newtons law of cooling says that the rate at
which the object cools is proportional to the difference between its temperature and the surrounding
temperature. This law is modeled by the differential equation:
dT
dt
= k(T M)
where
T(t) is the temperature of the object at time t
M is the temperature of the surroundings (ambient temperature - which is constant)
k a constant (called the cooling constant)
9. Example. When a cold drink is taken from a refrigerator, its temperature is 5
C. After 25 minutes
in a 20
C room its temperature has increased to 10
C.
(a) What is the temperature of the drink after 50 minutes?
(b) When will its temperature be 15
C?
10. Continuously Compound Interest. Suppose an amount A
0
is invested at an interest rate r. If
A(t) is the amount after t years then
A(t) = A
0
(1 + r)
t
.
If the interest is compound n times per year then after t years the investment is worth
A(t) = A
0
_
1 +
r
n
_
nt
.
The formula for continuous compounding is
A(t) = A
0
e
rt
.
Example: If $1000 is borrowed at 19% interest, nd the amounts due at the end of 2 years if the
interest is compounded
(a) annually
(b) quarterly
(c) monthly
(d) daily
(e) continuously
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.9 RELATED RATES 102
3.9 Related rates
1. Quote. If you want to increase your success rate, double your failure rate.
(Thomas John Watson, Sr., Founder of IBM, 1874 - 1956.)
2. A spherical balloon is being inated. The radius r of the balloon is increasing at the rate of 0.2 cm/s
when r = 5 cm. At what rate is the volume V of the balloon increasing at that moment?
3. The Method of Related Rates
When two variables are related by an equation and both are functions of a third variable (such as
time), we can nd a relation between their rates of change. In this case, we say the rates are related,
and we can compute one if we know the other.
We proceed as follows:
(a) Identify the independent variable (usually time) on which the other quantities depend and as-
sign it a symbol, such as t. Also, assign symbols to the variable quantities that depend on t.
(b) Find an equation that relates the dependent variables.
(c) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t (using the chain rule if necessary).
(d) Substitute the given information into the related rates equation and solve for the unknown rate.
4. A rocket is launched vertically and is tracked by a radar station located on the ground 5 km from the
launch pad. Suppose that the elevation angle of the line of sight to the rocket is increasing at 3
per
second when = 60
. What is the velocity of the rocket at that instant?

[link to applet]
5. A man 6 ft tall walks with a speed of 8 ft/s away from a street light that is atop an 18-ft pole. How
fast is the tip of his shadow moving along the ground when he is 100 ft from the light pole?
[link to applet]
6. A lighthouse is located on a small island 3 km away from the nearest point P on a straight shoreline
and its light makes four revolutions per minute. How fast is the beam of light moving along the
shoreline when it is 1 km from P?
[link to applet]
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: DIFFERENTIATION RULES LECTURE 3.10 LINEAR APPROX. AND DIFFERENTIALS 108
3.10 Linear Approximation and Differentials
1. Quote. It is the mark of an instructed mind to rest satised with the degree of precision to which
the nature of the subject admits and not to seek exactness when only an approximation of the truth
is possible.
(Aristotle, Greek philosopher, 384 BC - 322 BC.)
2. Problem. If f(1) = 4 and f
(1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f(x) at x = 1 to approximate

f(2).
3. Idea. Instead of evaluating f(x) evaluate L(x) where L is the tangent line to the graph of y = f(x)
at a known point (a, f(a)) that is close to the point (x, f(x)).
4. Linear Approximation. The linear function
L(x) = f(a) + f
(a)(x a)
is called the linearization of f at a.
For x close to a we have that
f(x) L(x) = f(a) + f
(a)(x a)
and this approximation is called the linear approximation of f at a.
5. Example. If f(1) = 4 and f
(1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f(x) at x = 1 to approximate

f(2).
6. Example. Use linear approximation to approximate

37. What is the accuracy of this approxima-
tion?
7. Differential. Let f be a function differentiable at x R. Let x = dx be a (small) given number.
The differential dy is dened as
dy = f
(x)x .
8. Important!
f(a + dx) L(a + dx)
f(a + dx) f(a) + f
(a)(a + dx a)
f(a + dx) f(a) + f
(a)dx = f(a) + dy
dy f (a +dx) f (a)
Small differential means good approximation.
9. Example. The equatorial radius of the earth is approximately 3960 mi. Suppose that a wire is
wrapped tightly around the earth at the equator. Approximately how much must this wire be length-
ened if it is to be strung all the way around the earth on poles 10 ft above the ground. (1 mi = 1760
yards = 1760 3 ft.)
Part 4
Applications of the Derivative
Image Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair.jpg
113
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.1 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES 114
4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values
1. Quote. I feel the need of attaining the maximum of intensity with the minimum of means. It is this
which has led me to give my painting a character of even greater bareness.
(Joan Miro, Catalan-Spanish artist, 1893 - 1983)
2. Denition. A function f has an absolute maximum at c if
f(c) f(x) for all x D, the domain of f .
The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D.
A function f has an absolute minimum at c if
f(c) f(x) for all x D, the domain of f .
The number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on D.
3. Denition. A function f has a local maximum at c if
f(c) f(x) for all x in an open interval, in the domain, containing c .
A function f has a local minimum at c if
f(c) f(x) for all x in an open interval, in the domain, containing c .
4. Extreme Value Theorem. If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute
maximum value f(c) and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some numbers c, d [a, b].
5. Fermats Theorem. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and f
(c) exists, then f
(c) = 0.
6. Examples. Find all local extrema of
(a) f(x) = 3x
4
16x
3
+ 18x
2
, 1 x 4
(b) f(x) = [x[, 1 < x < 1
7. Denition. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f
(c) = 0 or f
(c) does not exist.

8. Problem. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function
f(x) = x
2
+ 4x + 7, 3 x 0
9. Closed Interval Method. To nd the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous
function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
(a) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
(b) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
(c) The largest of the values from Step (a) and Step (b) is the absolute maximum value; the smallest
of these values is the absolute minimum value.
10. Examples. Find the maximum and minimum values of the given functions on the indicated closed
intervals.
(a) f(x) = x +
4
x
, x [1, 4]
(b) g(x) = 2
3
x, x [1, 8]
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 119
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
1. Quote. The Mean Value Theorem is the midwife of calculus - not very important or glamorous by
itself, but often helping to deliver other theorems that are of major signicance.
(Edwin Purcell and Dale Varberg, American mathematicians)
2. Rolles Theorem. (Michel Rolle, French mathematician, 1652-1719) Let f be a function that satises
the following three hypotheses:
(a) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(b) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(c) f(a) = f(b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f
(c) = 0.
3. Example. Check if the following functions satisfy the hypotheses of Rolles theorem.
(a) f(x) = x
1/2
x
3/2
on [0, 1].
(b) f(x) = 1 x
2/3
on [1, 1].
4. The Mean Value Theorem. Let f be a function that satises the following hypotheses:
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f
(c) =
f(b) f(a)
b a
or, equivalently,
f(b) f(a) = f
(c)(b a).
5. Example. A car is driving along a rural road where the speed limit is 70 km/h. At 3:00 pm its
odometer reads 18075 km. At 3:18 its reads 18100 km. Prove that the driver violated the speed limit
at some instant between 3:00 and 3:18 pm.
6. Show that the equation x
4
= x + 1 has exactly one solution in the interval [1, 2].
7. Must Know! If f
(x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).
8. Fact. If f
(x) = g
(x) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f g is constant on (a, b); that is,
f(x) = g(x) + c
where c is a constant.
9. Example. Prove the identity
arcsin
_
x 1
x + 1
_
= 2 arctan (
x)

2
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.3 SHAPE OF A GRAPH 124
4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph
1. Quote. The spread of civilization may be likened to a re; First, a feeble spark, next a ickering
ame, then a mighty blaze, ever increasing in speed and power.
(Nikola Tesla, American inventor and engineer, 1856 - 1943)
2. Increasing/Decreasing Test.
(a) If f
(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

(b) If f
(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

3. Example. Find the open intervals on the x-axis on which the function
f(x) = 3x
4
4x
3
12x
2
+ 5
is increasing and those on which is decreasing.
4. The First Derivative Test. Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f.
(a) If f
changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.

(b) If f
changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.

(c) If f
does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.

5. Example. Find all local extrema of the function
f(x) = 3x
4
4x
3
12x
2
+ 5
6. Examples. Find all local extrema of
f(x) = [x[
7. Denition. If the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines on an interval I, then it is called
concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called concave
downward on I.
8. Concavity Test.
(a) If f
(x) > 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.

(b) If f
(x) < 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.

9. Denition. A point P on a curve y = f(x) is called an inection point if f is continuous there and
the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave
upward at P.
10. The Second Derivative Test. Suppose f
is continuous near c.
(a) If f
(c) = 0 and f
(c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.

(b) If f
(c) = 0 and f
(c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.

11. Example. Sketch the graph of the function
f(x) = 3x
4
4x
3
12x
2
+ 5
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.4 LHOSPITALS RULE 130
4.4 Indeterminate Forms and LHospitals Rule
1. Proof. Let a = b.
a
2
= ab (Multiply both sides by a.)
a
2
+ a
2
2ab = ab + a
2
2ab (Add a
2
2ab to both sides.)
2(a
2
ab) = a
2
ab (Factor the left, and collect like terms on the right.)
2 = 1 (Divide both sides by a
2
ab.)
2. Indeterminate Forms.
(a) Indeterminate form of type
0
0
.
Example. Evaluate lim
x0
sin kx
x
for k R.
(b) Indeterminate form of type

.
Example. Evaluate lim
x
ax + 1
bx + 1
for a, b R.
3. LHospitals Rule. Suppose that f and g are differentiable and g
(x) ,= 0 near a (except possibly at

a.) Suppose that
lim
xa
f(x) = 0 and lim
xa
g(x) = 0
or that
lim
xa
f(x) = and lim
xa
g(x) =
Then
lim
xa
f(x)
g(x)
= lim
xa
f
(x)
g
(x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is or ).
4. Examples. Find
(a) lim
x0
e
x
1
sin 2x
(b) lim
x
e
x
x
2
+ x
(c) lim
x
ln x
x
5. Indeterminate Form 0 . Find lim
x
xln
_
x 1
x + 1
_
.
6. Indeterminate Form. Find lim
x0
_
1
x

1
sin x
_
.
7. Indeterminate Form 0
0
,
0
, 1
.
8. Examples. Find
(a) lim
x0
(cos x)
1/x
2
9. Additional Notes
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.5 SUMMARY OF CURVE SKETCHING 134
4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching
1. Puzzle. Connect the nine dots with four (only four) straight lines without ever lifting your pen or
pencil from the paper.
2. Guidlines
(a) Domain
(b) Intercepts: For the x-intercepts set y = 0 and solve for x. For the y-intercept calculate f(0).
(c) Symmetry:
i. Even function - symmetric about the y-axis.
ii. Odd function - symmetric about the origin.
iii. Periodic functions.
(d) Asymptotes:
i. Horizontal Asymptotes: y = L if lim
x
f(x) = L or if lim
x
f(x) = L.
ii. Vertical Asymptotes: x = a if at least one of the following is true
lim
xa
+
f(x) = lim
xa
f(x) =
lim
xa
+
f(x) = lim
xa
f(x) = .
iii. Slant Asymptotes: y = mx + b if
lim
x
(f(x) (mx + b)) = 0.
(e) Intervals of Increase and Decrease:
f
(x) > 0 on an interval I means f increasing on I.

f
(x) < 0 on an interval I means f decreasing on I.

(f) Local Maximum and Minimum Values:
- First Derivative Test
- Second Derivative Test
(g) Concavity and Points of Inection:
f
(x) > 0 on an interval I means f concave up ( on I.

f
(x) < 0 on an interval I means f concave down ) on I.

(h) Sketch the curve.
3. Examples. Sketch graphs of the following functions.
(a) f(x) =
2 + x x
2
(x 1)
2
(b) f(x) = x
2
e
x
4. In this example we will focus just on asymptotes in the guidelines outlined in (2).
Determine the asymptotes of the function f(x) =
x
2
+ x 1
x 1
.
5. Additional Notes
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS 139
4.6 Optimization Problems
1. Quote. There is no branch of mathematics, however abstract, which may not someday be applied to
the phenomena of the real world.
(Nikolai Lobachevski, Russian mathematician, 1792 - 1856)
2. Examples.
(a) Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder with greatest volume that can be inscribed in
a right circular cone of radius 8 cm and height 12 cm.
(b) A painting in an art gallery has height 3 m and is hung so that its lower edge is about 1 m above
the eye of an observer. How far from the wall should the observer stand to get the best view?
(i.e. the observer wants to maximize the angle subtended at the eye by the painting.)
[link to applet]
For an interesting paper connecting this problem to exponential functions click here. [2]
(c) The frame for a kite is to be made from six pieces of wood. The four exterior pieces have been
cut with the lengths indicated in the gure. To maximize the area of the kite, how long should
the diagonal pieces be?
(d) Maya is 2 km offshore on a boat and wishes to reach a coastal village which is 6 km down the
straight shoreline form the point on the shore nearest to the boat. She can row at 2 km/hour and
run 5 km/hour. Where she should land her boat to reach the village in the least amount of time?
[link to applet]
3. Additional Notes
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.7 NEWTONS METHOD 144
4.7 Newtons Method
1. Quote. Sometimes, close enough is good enough.
(Math Girl, Episode I - Differentials Attract)
2. Newtons Method.
(a) Problem. Find a solution, say x = r, to
f(x) = 0.
(b) Idea.
i. Let x
1
be a good estimate of r.
ii. Consider the tangent line L to the curve y = f(x) at the point (x
1
, f(x
1
)). Look at the x-
intercept of L, call it x
2
. If x
1
is close to r then x
2
seems to be even closer to r, and we use x
2
as a second approximation to r.
How do we nd x
2
in terms of x
1
and f?
iii. Repeat this procedure to get a third approximation x
3
from our second approximation x
2
:
If we keep repeating this process we obtain a sequence of approximations for r:
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . .
iv. If the numbers x
n
become closer and closer to r as n becomes large then we say that the
sequence converges to r and we write
lim
n
= r.
(c) Method.
i. Begin with an initial guess x
1
.
ii. Calculate
x
2
= x
1
f(x
1
)
f
(x
1
)
.
iii. If x
n
is known then
x
n+1
= x
n
f(x
n
)
f
(x
n
)
.
iv. If x
n
and x
n+1
agree to k decimal places then x
n
approximates the root r up to k decimal
places and f(x
n
) 0.
3. Example. Solve
5x + cos x = 5
for x [0, 1] correct to 6 decimal places.
4. Example. Use Newtons method to nd
2 accurate to eight decimal places.

5. Example. Use Newtons method to solve x
1/3
= 0 by taking x
0
= 1.
6. Example. Let f(x) = x
3
+ 3x + 1.
(a) Show that f has exactly one root in the interval (
1
2
, 0). Explain.
(b) Use Newtons method to approximate the root that lies in the interval (
1
2
, 0). Stop when the
next iteration agrees with the previous one at two decimal places.
7. Additional Notes
PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE LECTURE 4.8 ANTIDERIVATIVES 149
4.8 Antiderivatives
1. Quote. In school I had a friend named Cos Davis. We nicknamed him the Antiderivative of Sin
Davis. He actually liked it.
(Posted by SLD on May 14, 2004, 10:39 PM, at Stupid math or science jokes thread (again),
http://www.iidb.org/vbb/archive/index.php/t-85561&e=747
Wouldnt the antiderivative of Sin Davis be Negative Cos Davis?
(Posted by LVLLN on May 15, 2004, 03:30 PM)
2. Problem. For a given function f nd all functions F with the property that
F
= f .
3. Denition. A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval I if
F
(x) = f(x)
for all x I.
4. Example: Find an antiderivative of the following.
(a) f(x) = x
2
(b) f(x) =
1
x
5. Example. Show that all antiderivatives of f(x) = x
n
, n ,= 1, are given by
F(x) =
1
n + 1
x
n+1
+ C
where C is an arbitrary constant.
6. Theorem. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f
on I is
F(x) + C
where C is an arbitrary constant.
7. Table of Antiderivative Formulas.
(f = Function, F = Particular antiderivative)
f F f F
cg(x) cG(x) sin x cos x
g(x) + h(x) G(x) + H(x) sec
2
x tan x
x
n
, n = 1
1
n + 1
x
n+1
sec xtan x sec x
1/x ln |x|
1
1 x
2
sin
1
x
e
x
e
x
1
1 + x
2
tan
1
x
cos x sin x
8. Example. Find all antiderivatives of
f(x) = x
3
+ 3
x
4
x
2
9. Example.
(a) Find f if f
(t) = 2 cos (3t) + 5 sin (4t) + 3e

t
.
(b) Which of the functions in (a) satises f(0) = 0?
10. Example. Find f such that f
(x) = 2e
2x
+ 5, f(0) = 3/2 and f
(0) = 1.
11. Rectilinear Motion.
(a) Position function - s = f(t)
(b) Velocity function - v(t) = s
(t)
(c) Acceleration function - a(t) = v
(t)
12. Example. The skid marks made by an automobile indicate that its brakes are fully applied for a
distance of 160 ft before it came to a stop. Suppose that the car in question has a constant deceleration
of 20 ft/s
2
under the condition of the skid. How fast was the car traveling when its brakes were
applied?
PART 5: PARMETRIC EQNS, POLAR COORDS LECTURE 4.8 ANTIDERIVATIVES 154
Part 5
Parametric Equations and Polar
Coordinates
155
PART 5: PARMETRIC EQNS, POLAR COORDS LECTURE 5.1 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 156
5.1 Curves Dened by Parametric Equations
(This lecture corresponds to Sections 10.1 & 10.2 (Tangents part only) of Stewarts Calculus.)
1. Quote. When you get to the top of the mountain, keep climbing.
(Zen proverb)
2. Motivation: Particle moving in plane
3. Problem. In the xy-plane draw the set P = (t
2
, t) : t R.
4. Vocabulary. Let I be an interval and let f and g be continuous on I.
(a) The set of points C = (f(t), g(t)) : t I is called a parametric curve.
(b) The variable t is called a parameter.
(c) We say that the curve C is dened by parametric equations
x = f(t), y = g(t).
(d) We say that x = f(t), y = g(t) is a parametrization of C.
(e) If I = [a, b] then (f(a), g(a)) is called the initial point of C and (f(b), g(b)) is called the terminal
point of C.
5. Example. Find two parametrizations of the unit circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1 .
6. Example. Find parametric equations for the ellipse
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1 .
7. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve dened by parametric equations
x = sin t, y = sin
2
t, < t <
8. Some neat examples:
Lissajous Curve:
x = cos at, y = sin bt, t [0, 2]
Knotty Curve:
x = t + 2 sin 2t, y = t + 2 cos 5t, t [2, 2]
9. Cycloid. The curve traced by a point P on the edge of a rolling circle is called a cycloid. The circle
rolls along a straight line without slipping or stopping. Find parametric equations for the cycloid if
the line along which the circle rolls is the x-axis but always tangent to it, and the point P begins at
the origin.
10. Derivatives of Parametric Curves. The derivative to the parametric curve x = f(t), y = g(t) is
given by
dy
dx
=
dy
dt
dx
dt
=
g
(t)
f
(t)
.
11. Example. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve
x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 t 2.
at the point corresponding to t = /4.
12. Example. Determine the points on the cycloid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
PART 5: PARMETRIC EQNS, POLAR COORDS LECTURE 5.2 POLAR COORDINATES 161
5.2 Polar Coordinates
1. Ancient math joke:
Q: Whats a rectangular bear?
A: A polar bear after a coordinate transform.
2. Motivation: Given a point in the plane how can we describe its position?
3. Polar Coordinate System.
(a) Choose a point in the plane. Call it O, which we also call the pole.
(b) Choose a ray starting at O. Call it the polar axis. (Usually taken as positive x axis.)
(c) Take any point P, except O, in the plane. Measure the distance d(O, P) and call this distance r.
(d) Measure the angle between the polar axis and the ray starting at O and passing through P going
from x in counterclockwise direction. Let be this measure in radians.
(e) There is a bijection between the plane and the set
R
+
[0, 2) = (r, ) : r R
+
and [0, 2)
This means that each point in the plane is uniquely determined by a pair (r, ) R
+
[0, 2).
(f) r and are called polar coordinates of P.
4. Example. Plot the points whose polar coordinates (r, ) are given.
(a) (1, /4) (b) (2, 5/4) (c) (2, /3) (d) (1, 5/6)
5. Example. Plot the three points whose polar coordinates are (1, /2), (1, 5/2), and (1, 3/2).
6. Example. Plot the point given by the polar coordinates (3, /3). Then nd two other pairs of polar
coordinates of this point, one with r > 0 and one with r < 0.
7. Example. Find the connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates.
8. Example. Convert the point (2, /6) from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
9. Example. Plot the point whose polar coordinates are (2
2, 3/4). Find the Cartesian coordinates of

this point.
10. Example. Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates (1, 1) in terms of polar coordinates.
11. Example. The cartesian coordinates of a point are (2
3, 2). Find polar coordinates (r, ) of this

point, where r > 0 and 0 < 2).
12. Example. Sketch the region in the plane consisting of points whose polar coordinates satisfy:
1 r < 2,

4
<
3
4
.
13. Polar Curves: The graph of a polar equation r = f() consists of all points P that have at least one
polar representation (r, ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
Some examples of polar curves are:
14. Example. What curve is represented by the polar equation r = 3?
15. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve r = 2 sin .
16. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve r = 2 cos 3.
17. Derivatives of Polar Curves. Suppose that r = f() is a differentiable function of . Then from
the parametric equations
x = r cos y = r sin
it follows that
dy
dx
=
dy
d
dx
d
=
dr
d
sin + r cos
dr
d
cos r sin
18. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve r = 2 cos 3 when = 2/3.
19. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve r = 1 + cos if = /6.
20. Consider the curve given by the polar equation
r = 1 + 2 sin .
Find the point(s) on the curve which are furthest from the x-axis.
PART 5: PARMETRIC EQNS, POLAR COORDS LECTURE 5.3 CONIC SECTIONS 170
5.3 Conic Sections
1. Quote. If I am given a formula, and I am ignorant of its meaning, it cannot teach me anything, but
if I already know it what does the formula teach me?
(St. Augustine)
2. Objective:
We are going to give geometric descriptions of parabolas, el-
lipses and hyperbolas and derive their equations in Cartesian
coordinates. These types of curves are called conic sections,
or just conics, because they arise from intersecting a cone and
a plane.
3. Reminder.
The distance d between two points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) is given by
d =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
.
The midpoint M between two points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) is given by
M =
_
x
1
+ x
2
2
,
y
1
+ y
2
2
_
.
4. Geometric Denition of a Parabola.
A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a xed point F and a xed line.
5. Terminology:
The point F is called the focus and the line is called the directrix.
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola.
The intersection of the parabola and the axis is called the vertex. (Note: The vertex is halfway
between the focus and the directrix.)
6. Deriving the Equation for a Parabola:
We get a simple equation for a parabola in Cartesian coordinates, if we start by making the axis of
the parabola the y-axis.
Then we place the vertex of the parabola at the origin O, and the x-axis parallel to the directrix.
With the focus at (0, p), the equation of the directrix is .
7. Theorem. An equation of the parabola with focus (0, p) and directrix y = p is
y = ax
2
where a =
1
4p
.
When p > 0 the parabola opens upward, and when p < 0 it opens downward.
8. If we interchange the x and y in the equation x
2
= 4py, we obtain y
2
= 4px which is the equation of a
parabola opening to the right if p > 0, or to the left if p < 0. (Interchanging x and y means reecting
about the line y = x.)
All four cases for the parabola and the equation are shown below.
9. Example. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola and sketch its graph.
2y
2
= 5x
10. Example. Find an equation of the parabola. Then nd the focus and directrix.
11. Geometric Denition of an Ellipse.
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane the sum of whose distances from two xed points F
1
and F
2
is a constant. (F
1
and F
2
are called foci.)
12. Deriving the Equation for an Ellipse:
To get a simple equation for an ellipse, let the foci be at (c, 0) and (c, 0).
This means the origin is halfway between the foci.
Let the sum of the distances from a point on the ellipse to both foci be the constant 2a > 0.
x
2
1
F (!c, 0)
P (x, y)
y
F (c, 0)
13. Theorem. The ellipse
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1, a b > 0
has foci (c, 0), where c
2
= a
2
b
2
, and vertices (a, 0).
14. Terminology:
The points (a, 0) and (a, 0) are both on the ellipse, and are called vertices.
The line segment joining the vertices is called the major axis. The length is 2a.
The line segment joining the center to one of the vertices is called the semimajor axis. The
length of the semimajor axis is a which is also called the long radius of the ellipse.
15. If we interchange x and y then the equation for the ellipse becomes
x
2
b
2
+
y
2
a
2
= 1, where a b > 0.
The foci are (0, c), and the vertices are (0, a).
(Remember, interchanging x and y is the same as reecting in the diagonal line y = x.)
x
!"# %&
!"# '&
!!(# "& !(# "&
!"# !'&
y
!"# !%&
16. Example. Find the vertices and the foci of the ellipse and sketch its graph.
100x
2
+ 36y
2
= 225
17. Geometric Denition of a Hyperbola.
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane the difference of whose distances from two xed points F
1
and F
2
is a constant. (F
1
and F
2
are called foci.)
P
1
2
F (c, 0)
(!c, 0) F
Notice the similarity to the denition of the ellipse. The only change here is that the sum of distances
has become a difference.
18. This similarity to the ellipse means that the method of construction of an equation for the hyperbola
is very similar to that of the ellipse.
If we let the foci lie on the x-axis at (c, 0), and the distance difference be 2a then the equation of the
hyperbola is:
x
2
b
2

y
2
a
2
= 1,
where c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
.
The x-intercepts (a, 0) are called the vertices and the lines y = (b/a)x are the asymptotes.
!!"# %&
!'# %& !!'# %&
!"# %&
19. If the foci of the hyperbola are on the y-axis, then we switch x and y to get the equation
y
2
a
2

x
2
b
2
= 1,
with foci (0, c) where c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
and vertices (0, a) and asymptotes y = (a/b)x.
!"# !%&
!"# '&
!"# !'&
!"# %&
20. Conics That Are Shifted: So far, we have been constructing formulas for the conics by placing the
origin at the simplest possible location. What happens if we shift the conics?
In general, we replace x and y by x h and y k , for constants h and k.
21. Example. Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (2, 2) and (4, 2), and with vertices (1, 2) and
(5, 2).
PART 5: PARMETRIC EQNS, POLAR COORDS LECTURE 5.4 CONIC IN POLAR COORDS. 180
5.4 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates
1. Math Joke.
Q: Why do pirates work in polar coordinates?
A: So their work involves lots or AARRR!!!!
2. Objective: Were going to look at parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas again, but this time in polar
form. To begin with, we can give a more unied description of all three types of conic sections in
terms of a focus and directrix. This will allow us to see that conic sections can be easily described in
polar coordinates.
3. Denition.
Let F be a xed point, called the focus, and l be a xed line, called the directrix. Suppose e is a
xed positive number, called the eccentricity.
The set of all points P in the plane such that
[PF[
[Pl[
= e is a conic section.
If e < 1 the conic is an ellipse.
If e = 1 the conic is a parabola.
If e > 1 the conic is a hyperbola.
This denition of the conic sections is equivalent to the geometric denitions given earlier. The proof
of this is in the text, and involves some algebra.
Notice that when e = 1, we have [PF[ = [Pl[ for the denition of the parabola, as before.
4. Using the denition for conic sections given above nd equations in polar coordinates which describe
the curves.
P
x = d
F
x
y
d
5. If the directrix is chosen to be on the left of the focus, at x = d, then the conic section is
r =
ed
1 e cos
.
See the rst gure below.
! # !$
! F
%
% # !$ directrix
! F
%
% # $ directrix
%
F !
directrix
6. If the directrix is chosen parallel to the x-axis then the conic section is as shown in the second two
gures of the diagram above.
7. Theorem. A polar equation of the form
r =
ed
1 e cos
or r =
ed
1 e cos
represents a conic section with eccentricity e. The conic is an ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e = 1, or a
hyperbola if e > 1.
8. Example. Find a polar equation for an ellipse, with eccentricity
1
2
, that has its focus at the origin
and whose directrix is the line y = 4.
9. Example. A conic is given by the polar equation
r =
3
2 + 2 cos
.
Find the eccentricity, identify the conic, locate the directrix, and sketch the conic.
10. Example.
PART 6: REVIEW MATERIAL CONIC IN POLAR COORDS. 184
Part 6
Review Material
185
PART 6: REVIEW MATERIAL MIDTERM 1 REVIEW PACKAGE 186
6.1 Midterm 1 Review Package
1. Make sure you know the denitions of the terms: function, one-to-one, inverse of a function, compo-
sition, even function, odd function, limit of a function, continuous function, asymptote, squeeze law,
intermediate value property, derivative, etc.
2. Write sin
2
(e
x
2
x
) as a composition of (elementary) functions.
3. Compute the following limits.
(a) lim
x2
(x
2
1)
3
(b) lim
x0
e
x
2
1
+ sin x
x + 1
(c) lim
x3
x
2
9
[x 3[
(d) lim
x0
1
1 x
2
x
(e) lim
h0
f(4 + h) f(4)
h
where f(x) =
1
x
(f) lim
x
ln
_
2 3x
3
x
3
+ 5x 4
_
4. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f(s) = f(t) then s = t.
(b) If f is an odd function and f(3) = 6 then f(3) = 6.
(c) If x
1
< x
2
and g is a decreasing function then g(x
1
) > g(x
2
).
(d) If f and g are functions then f g = g f.
(e) lim
x4
_
2x
x 4

8
x 4
_
= lim
x4
_
2x
x 4
_
lim
x4
_
8
x 4
_
.
(f) If lim
x5
f(x) = 2 and lim
x5
g(x) = 0, then lim
x5
f(x)
g(x)
does not exist.
(g) If lim
x5
f(x) = 0 and lim
x5
g(x) = 0, then lim
x5
f(x)
g(x)
does not exist.
(h) If g(1) = 1 and g(2) = 5 then there exists a number c between 1 and 2 such that g(c) = 0.
(i) If 1 f(x) x
2
+ 2x + 2 for all x near 1, then lim
x1
f(x) = 1.
(j) If the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of y = f(x), then f is not dened at 1 .
(k) The equation x + ln (x + 1) = x
4
1 has a root in the interval (0, 2).
(l) If f is continuous on [1, 5] such that f(2) = 8 and the only solutions of the equation f(x) = 6 are
x = 1 and x = 4 then f(3) > 6.
(m) If f
(r) exists, then lim

xr
f(x) = f(r).
5. Determine the constant c that makes f continuous on (, ).
f(x) =
_
c
2
+ sin (x) if x < 2
cx
2
4 if x 2
.
6. Is there a number b such that
lim
x2
3x
2
+ bx + b + 3
x
2
+ x 2
exists? If so, nd the value of b and the value of the limit.
7. Evaluate lim
x2
6 x 2
3 x 1
8. Let f(x) =
1
x
2
x
. Calculate f
(x) directly from the denition of derivative. Find the tangent line to
the curve y = f(x) at the point (2, f(2)).
9. For what value of x does the graph of f(x) = e
x
2x have a horizontal tangent?
10. Where does the normal line to the parabola y = x x
2
at the point (1, 0) intersect the parabola a
second time? Illustrate with a sketch.
Answers:
Only answers are provided here. You are expected to provide fully worked out solutions. If you need help
with solving any of these problems please visit the Calculus Workshop.
1. Know the precise statements of denitions and theorems as found in the textbook and the notes.
2. f g h k where f(x) = x
2
, g(x) = sin x, h(x) = e
x
, h(x) = x
2
x.
3. (a) 27
(b) e
1
=
1
e
(c) 6
(d) 0
(e)
1
16
(f) ln 3
4. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) F (f) T (g) F (h) F (i) T (j) F (k) T (l) T (j) T.
5. c = 2
6. b = 15; limit is 1
7.
1
2
8. (a) 3/4 (b) y = (3/4)x + 2
9. x = ln 2
10. (1, 2)
6.2 Midterm 2 Review Package
1. Compute the following derivatives. You do not need to simplify your answers.
(a) f
(x) if f(x) = (2x

6
4x + 3)
4
.
(b) g
(x) if g(x) =
sec x
xe
x
.
(c) h
(x) if h(x) =
3 + 2 sin x
x
3
+ 1
(d) y
if y = x
2
log
3
(x
2/3
)
(e)
ds
dt
if s = 2
t
2
(f) h
(51)
(t) if h(t) = ln (t
2
). (Compute the rst few derivatives to nd a pattern.)
(g)
dy
dx
x=0
if 2
_
x
y
_
ln (x + y) = 0
(h) y
if y = x
cos x
.
2. Suppose f is a differentiable such that f(g(x)) = x and f
(x) = 1 + [f(x)]
2
. Show that g
(x) =
1
1 + x
2
.
3. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f and g are differentiable then the derivative of f(x)g(x) is f
(x)g
(x).
(b) The function f(x) = [x[ is differentiable for all real numbers.
(c) If f is differentiable, then
d
dx
_
f(x) =
f
(x)
2
x
.
(d)
d
dx
(10
x
) = x10
x1
.
4. The graph of f is given below. Sketch the graph of f
and f
(x) on coordinate axes below. You do NOT

need to justify your answers.
5. If a hemispherical bowl of radius 10 in. is lled with water to a depth of x inches, the volume of water
is given by V = (10
x
3
)x
2
. Find the rate of increase of volume per inch increase in depth.
6. Use logarithmic differentiation to nd the derivative y
of the following function (you do not need to

simplify your answer)
y =
x
2
+ 1 (3 4x)
5
2(3x 1)
1/4
(x 2)
4
7. Consider the curve dened by y
2
= x
3
+ 5x
2
. The graph of the curve is shown below.
(a) Show that the point (1, 2) is on the curve.
(b) Use implicit differentiation to nd
dy
dx
.
(c) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point (1, 2).
8. The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given by the function
s(t) = t
3
15
4
t
2
+ 3t + 2, t 0
(a) What is the particles starting position?
(b) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? When is it stopped?
(c) Find the total distance the particle travels in the time interval 0 t 4.
9. The position at time t 0 of a particle moving along a coordinate line is
s(t) = 10 cos (t + /4).
(a) What is the particles starting position (t = 0)?
(b) What are the points farthest to the left and right of the origin reached by the particle.
(c) Find the particles velocity and acceleration at the points in (b).
(d) When does the particle rst reach the origin? What are its velocity and acceleration at this
point?
10. At 12:00 an apple pie is removed from the oven and placed on a table to cool. The temperature of the
room is 24
C. At 12:20 the temperature of the pie is 36
C and is decreasing at a rate of 2
/min. What
was the temperature of the pie when it was brought out of the oven?
11. The designer of a 30-ft-diameter spherical hot-air balloon wishes to suspend the gondola 8 ft below
the bottom of the balloon with suspension cables tangent to the surface of the balloon. Two of the
cables are shown running from the top edges of the gondola to their points of tangency, (12, 9) and
(12, 9). How wide must the gondola be?
12. A girl facing North is standing next to a river which ows East. She tosses a stick into the water
exactly 4 meters North of where she stands. The river carries the stick East at the constant rate of 3
m/s. How fast is the stick moving away from the girl after 2 seconds?
13. A cup of coffee, cooling off in a room at temperature 20
C, has cooling constant k = 0.09min

1
.
(a) How fast is the coffee cooling (in degrees per minute) when its temperature is T = 80
C?
(b) Use linear approximation to estimate the change in temperature over the next 6 seconds when
T = 80
C.
(c) The coffee is served at a temperature of 90
. How long should you wait before drinking it if the

optimal temperature is 65
C? Note: You may leave your answers in the exact form, i.e.,
as an expression that contains powers of e and/or logarithms.
Answers:
Only answers are provided here. You are expected to provide fully worked out solutions. If you need help
with solving any of these problems please visit the Calculus Workshop.
1. (a) f
(x) = 4(2x
6
4x + 3)
3
(12x
5
4)
(b) g
(x) =
_
sec x
x
2
e
x
_
(xtan x x 1)
(c) h
(x) =
2(x
3
+ 1) cos x (3x
2
)(3 + 2 sin x)
(x
3
+ 1)
2
(d) y
= 2xlog
3
(x
2/3
) +
_
2
3 ln 3
_
x =
_
2x
3 ln 3
_
(2 ln x + 1)
(e)
ds
dt
= 2 ln (2)t2
t
2
(f) h
(51)
(t) = 2 (50!)t
51
(g)
dy
dx
x=0
= 1
(h) x
cos x
_
cos x
x
ln (x) sin x
_
2. Use implicit differentiation on f(g(x)) = x and solve for g(x).
3. (a) False (b) False (c) False (d) False
5.
dV
dx
= x(20 x)
6. y
x
2
+ 1 (3 4x)
5
2(3x 1)
1/4
(x 2)
4
_
x
x
2
+ 1

20
3 4x

3
4(3x 1)

4
x 2
_
7. (b) y
=
x(3x + 10)
2y
(c) y =
7
4
x +
1
4
8. (a) 2
(b) stopped at t = 1/2 and 2. Speeding up when
1
2
< t <
5
4
or 2 < t. Slowing down when 0 < t <
1
2
or
5
4
< t < 2.
(c) 155/8
9. (a) 10/
2
(b) Point furthest to the left are s = 10 and these occur when t = (2n + 1)

4
, where n Z. Point
furthest to the right are s = 10 and these occur when t = 2n

4
, where n Z.
(c) For leftmost points v = 0 and a = 10. For rightmost points v = 0 and a = 10. (d) t = /4.
v(/4) = 10 and a(/4) = 0.
10. 12e
10/3
+ 24 degrees.
11. 3 feet
12.
9
13
2.5 m/s
13. (a) 5.4
C/min (b) 0.54
C (c) t =
1
0.09
ln
_
45
70
_
PART 6: REVIEW MATERIAL END OF TERM REVIEW NOTES 205
6.3 End of Term Review Notes
1. Special Limits:
lim
x0
sin x
x
= 1 lim
x0
(1 + x)
1/x
= e lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
= e
2. Denition of Derivative: The derivative of a function f at a number a, denote by f
(a), is
f
(a) = lim
h0
f(a + h) f(a)
h
3. Differentiation Rules: (Part 3)
(a) General Formulas:
d
dx
(c) = 0
d
dx
[cf(x)] = cf
(x)
d
dx
[x
n
] = nx
n1 d
dx
[f(x) g(x)] = f
(x) g
(x)
d
dx
[f(x)g(x)] = f(x)g
(x) + f
(x)g(x) (product rule)

d
dx
_
f(x)
g(x)
_
=
f
(x)g(x)f(x)g
(x)
[g(x)]
2
(quotient rule)
d
dx
[f(g(x))] = f
(g(x))g
(x) (chain rule)

(b) Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:
d
dx
(e
x
) = e
x d
dx
(a
x
) = a
x
ln a
d
dx
(ln [x[) =
1
x
d
dx
(log
a
x) =
1
x ln a
(c) Trigonometric functions:
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x
d
dx
(cos x) = sin x
d
dx
(tan x) = sec
2
x
(d) Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
d
dx
(sin
1
x) =
1
1x
2
d
dx
(cos
1
x) =
1
1x
2
d
dx
(tan
1
x) =
1
1+x
2
(e) Hyperbolic Functions:
d
dx
(sinh x) = cosh x
d
dx
(cosh x) = sinh x
d
dx
(tanhx) = sech
2
x
(f) Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:
d
dx
(sinh
1
x) =
1
1+x
2
d
dx
(cosh
1
x) =
1
x
2
1
d
dx
(tanh
1
x) =
1
1x
2
4. Natural Growth Equation: (Lecture 3.8) The solution of the initial-value problem
dy
dt
= ky, y(0) = y
0
is
y(t) = y
0
e
kt
.
Radioactive Decay problems: Usually k is specied in terms of the half-life of the isotope
=
ln 2
k
.
This is the time required for half of any given quantity to decay.
Newtons Law of Cooling/Heating problems: The temperature T of an object is modeled by:
dT
dt
= k(T M) T(t) = Ae
kt
+ M
where
M is the temperature of the surroundings (ambient temperature - which is constant)
k a constant (called the heating/cooling constant)
5. Linear Approximation and Differentials: (Lecture 3.10) The linear function
L(x) = f(a) + f
(a)(x a)
is called the linearization of f at a.
For x close to a we have that
f(x) L(x) = f(a) + f
(a)(x a)
and this approximation is called the linear approximation of f at a.
The differential dy is dened as
dy = f
(x)x = f
(x)dx .
6. LHospitals Rule: (Lecture 4.4) Suppose that f and g are differentiable and g
(x) ,= 0 near a
(except possibly at a.) Suppose that
lim
xa
f(x) = 0 and lim
xa
g(x) = 0
or that
lim
xa
f(x) = and lim
xa
g(x) =
Then
lim
xa
f(x)
g(x)
= lim
xa
f
(x)
g
(x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is or ).
7. Example. Compute the following limit:
lim
x0
(ln x)
2
x
8. Newtons Method for approximating solutions to f(x) = 0: (Lecture 4.8)
i. Begin with an initial guess x
1
.
ii. Calculate
x
2
= x
1
f(x
1
)
f
(x
1
)
.
iii. If x
n
is known then
x
n+1
= x
n
f(x
n
)
f
(x
n
)
.
iv. If x
n
and x
n
+1 agree to k decimal places then x
n
approximates the root r up to k decimal places
and f(x
n
) 0.
9. Example. (a) Show that the equation e
x
= 5x has exactly two solutions.
(b) Use Newtons Method to nd the two solutions to the equation in (a) to three decimal places.
10. Increasing/Decreasing Test.
(a) If f
(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

(b) If f
(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

11. Denition. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f
(c) = 0 or f
(c) does not exist.

12. The First Derivative Test. Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f.
(a) If f
changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.

(b) If f
changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.

(c) If f
does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.

13. Concavity Test.
(a) If f(x) > 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave upward ( on I.
(b) If f(x) < 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave downward ) on I.
14. Denition. A point P on a curve y = f(x) is called an inection point if f is continuous there
the curve changes from concave upward ( to concave downward ) or from concave downward ) to
concave upward ( at P.
15. The Second Derivative Test. Suppose f is continuous near c.
(a) If f
(c) = 0 and f(c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.

(b) If f
(c) = 0 and f(c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.

16. The Mean Value Theorem. (Lecture 4.2) ) Let f be a function that satises the following hypothe-
ses:
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f
(c) =
f(b) f(a)
b a
or, equivalently,
f(b) f(a) = f
(c)(b a).
17. Closed Interval Method for nding Absolute Extrema: To nd the absolute maximum and
minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
(a) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
(b) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
(c) The largest of the values from Step 1 and Step 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of
these values is the absolute minimum value.
18. Example. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f(x) = e
x
e
2x
on the
interval [0, 1].
19. Derivatives of Parametric Curves: (Lecture 5.1) The derivative to the parametric curve x = f(t),
y = g(t) is given by
dy
dx
=
_
dy
dt
_
_
dx
dt
_ =
g
(t)
f
(t)
.
The second derivative is given by
d
2
y
dx
2
=
d
dx
_
dy
dx
_
=
d
dt
_
dy
dx
_
dx
dt
.
20. Derivative of Polar Curves: (Lecture 5.2) Suppose that r = f() is a differentiable function of .
Then from the parametric equations
x = r cos y = r sin
it follows that
dy
dx
=
dy
d
dx
d
=
dr
d
sin + r cos
dr
d
cos r sin
21. Example. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a then f(x) is continuous at x = a.
(b) If f
(c) = 0 then f has a local max/min at c.

(c) If f
(x) < 0 for 1 < x < 6, then f is decreasing on (1, 6).

(d) If f
(2) = 0 then (2, f(2)) is an inection point of f.

(e) If f
(x) = g
(x) for 0 < x < 1, then f(x) = g(x) for 0 < x < 1.
(f) There exists a function f such that f(x) > 0, f
(x) < 0, and f
(x) > 0 for all x.

(g) If f is periodic then f
is periodic.
(h) If f is even then f
is even.
(i) If the parametric curve x = f(t), y = g(t) satises g
(1) = 0, then it has a horizontal tangent line

when t = 1.
(j) The equations
r = 2,
x
2
+ y
2
= 4
and
x = 2 sin (3t), y = 2 cos (3t) (0 t
2
3
)
all have the same graph.
(Answers: 7 0 21 (a) T (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) F (f) T (g) T (h) F (i) F (j) T )
PART 6: REVIEW MATERIAL FINAL EXAM CHECKLIST 211
6.4 Final Exam Checklist
(Page numbers refer to Stewarts Calculus [4].)
Denitions
Chapter 2:
1. Limit (page 87)
2. Left-hand (right-hand) limit (page 92)
3. Innite limit (pages 93 and 94)
4. Vertical asymptote (page 94)
5. Function continuous at a number (page 118)
6. Function continuous from the right (left) at a number (page 120)
7. Function continuous on an interval(page 120)
8. Limit at innity (page 131)
9. Horizontal asymptote (page 131)
10. Tangent line (page 143)
11. The derivative of a function at a number (page 146)
12. Function differentiable on a set (page 157)
13. Vertical tangent line (page 159)
Chapter 3:
14. The number e (page 179)
15. Linear approximation (page 251)
16. Differential (page 253)
17. Hyperbolic functions (page 257)
Chapter 4:
18. Absolute maximum/minimum (page 274)
19. Local maximum/minimum (page 274)
20. Critical number (page 277)
21. Function concave upward/downward (page 293)
22. Inection point (page 294)
23. Antiderivative of a function (page 344)
Chapter 10:
24. Parameter, parametric equations, parametric curve (page 636)
25. Initial and terminal points (page 637)
26. The Cycloid (page 639)
27. Polar coordinate system, pole, polar axis, polar coordinates (page 654)
Theorems/ Formulas/ Procedures
Chapter 2:
1. lim
xa
f(x) = L if and only if lim
xa
f(x) = L and lim

xa+
f(x) = L (page 92, page 104)
2. Limit Laws (Page 99-106)
3. Direct Substitute Property (page 101)
4. Theorem about the monotonicity and limits. (page 105)
5. The Squeeze Theorem (page 105)
6. Continuity and combinations of functions (page 121)
7. Continuity of polynomials and rational functions (page 122)
8. Continuity and the combination of functions (page 123)
9. Continuity and the composition of functions (page 124, 125)
10. The Intermediate Value Theorem (page 125)
11. Limits at innity of the power functions with negative rational exponents (page 133)
12. Relationship between differentiable and continuous functions (page 158)
Chapter 3:
13. Derivative of a constant function (page 174)
14. Power rule (pages 175 and 176)
15. The Constant Multiple Rule (page 177)
16. The Sum Rule (page 177)
17. The Difference Rule (page 178)
18. Derivative of the natural exponential function (page 180)
19. The Product Rule (page 185)
20. The Quotient Rule (page 187)
21. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions (pages 193 and 194)
22. The Chain Rule (page 199)
23. Derivative the exponential function f(x) = a
x
(page 203)
24. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions (page 214)
25. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (page 218 and 220)
26. e as a limit (page 222)
27. The solution of the initial-value problem (page 237)
28. Hyperbolic Identities (page 258)
29. Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions (page 259)
30. Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions (page 261)
Chapter 4:
31. The Extreme Value Theorem (page 275)
32. Fermats Theorem (page 276)
33. The Closed Interval Method (page 278)
34. Rolles Theorem (page 284)
35. The Mean Value Theorem (page 285)
36. The relationship between two functions implied by the equality of their derivatives (pages 288)
37. Increasing/Decreasing test (page 290)
38. The First Derivative Test (page 291)
39. Concavity Test (page 293)
40. The Second Derivative Test (page 295)
41. LHospitals Rule (page 302)
42. Newtons Method (page 339)
43. The relationship among antiderivatives of a function (page 344)
Examples
Chapter 2:
1. Function with neither left-hand nor right-hand limits at the given point (page 90)
2. Function with the left-hand and right hand limits that are not equal (page 91)
3. Function with innite left-hand and right hand limits (page 93)
4. Function with an innite number of vertical asymptotes (page 95)
5. Function F = f g so that the limits of F and f at a exist and the limit of g at a does not exist. (page
106)
6. Function F = f + g so that the limit of F at a exists and the limits of f and g at a do not exist.
7. Function F = fg so that the limit of F at a exists and the limits of f and g at a do not exist.
8. Function with a removable (innite, jump) discontinuity. (page 119-120)
9. Function with the graph that intersects its horizontal asymptote (page 131)
10. Function with two horizontal asymptotes (page 132)
11. Function that is continuous but not differentiable (page 157)
12. Function with a vertical tangent line (page 159)
13. Function with a corner (page 159)
Chapter 3:
14. Function that is the same as its derivative (page 180) [Can you nd THREE different functions
with this property?]
Chapter 4:
15. Function f with no minimum, no maximum but such that f
(a) = 0 for some a. (page 275)

16. Function with a local minimum that is not the global minimum. (page 275)
17. Function(s) that does not satised the hypothesis of the Extreme Value Theorem. (page 275-276)
18. Function with a critical number but no maximum or minimum. (page 277)
19. Sketch the graph of a function that is increasing for x < 0, decreasing for 0 < x < 1, and increas-
ing for x > 1. Also, suppose this function has a horizontal asymptote when x and a slant
asymptote when x .
20. Function that is concave upward (concave downward) (page 293)
21. Function with an inection point at which the rst derivative equals 0.
22. Function with a local minimum at which the second derivative equals 0.
Limits
Are you able to do most of the following:
1. Exercises 2.3: 1-32, 37-50
2. Exercises 2.6: 1-57
3. Exercises 3.3: 39-48
Differentiation
Are you able to do most of the following:
2. Exercises 2.8: 21-32, 37-40, 43-46, 50-57
3. Exercises 3.2: 3-35, 41-50
4. Exercises 3.3: 1-34, 49-51
5. Exercises 3.4: 1-54, 59-78
6. Exercises 3.5: 1-30, 35-40, 42-60, 73-80
7. Exercises 3.6: 1-34, 37-50
8. Exercises 3.11: 30-47
Applications
1. Tangent lines (throughout the text)
2. Velocity (throughout text)
3. The Intermediate Value Theorem (Section 2.5: Exercises 48-54)
4. Rates of change (Section 2.7: Exercises 41-48, Section 3.7: Exercises 7-26)
5. Exponential growth and decay (Section 3.8: all exercises 1-20)
6. Related rates (Section 3.9: all exercises)
7. Linear Approximation and Differentials (Section 3.10: Exercises 11-22, 33-40)
8. Maximum and minimum values (Section 4.1: Exercises 47-62, 69-71)
9. Mean Value Theorem (Section 4.2: Exercises 15-31)
10. Graphs of functions (Section 4.3 and Section 4.5)
11. Optimization (Section 4.7)
12. Newtons method (Section 4.8: Exercises 5-8, 11-22)
13. Antiderivative (Section 4.9: Exercises 25-48, 65-69)
Miscellaneous
1. Section 10.1: Exercises 1-28
2. Section 10.2: Exercises 1-30
3. Section 10.3: Exercises 15-46, 55-64 (page 648-649)
PART 6: REVIEW MATERIAL FINAL EXAM PRACTICE QUESTIONS 216
6.5 Final Exam Practice Questions
Please refer to the nal exam checklist (section 6.4) for an indication of what you will need to know for
the nal exam (in short, the material from any section we covered this term will be on the exam, with the
exception of lectures 2.4, 5.3 and 5.4).
To prepare for the exam you should: (i) read all sections of the textbook again; (ii) go through all the
homework questions again and make sure you can do every single one of them, (iii) work through more
problems from the textbook; (iv) work through the nal exam checklist (this can be done in conjunction
with (i) through (iii)). Only once you have done all this should you attempt the following questions.
The following is a list of practice exam questions. This will give you an idea of the types of questions you
will be asked on the exam.
Instructions: No calculators, books, papers, or electronic devices shall be allowed within the reach of a
student during the examination. Leave answers in calculator ready expressions: such as 3 + ln 7 or e
2
.
Questions 1-3 are on the statements of denitions and theorems and on your ability to give ex-
amples of functions with specied properties..
1. Dene the following terms.
(a) Limit
(b) Function continuous at a number
(c) Function continuous on an interval
(d) Tangent line
(e) The derivative of a function at a number
(f) Function differentiable a on a set
(g) The number e
(h) Differential
(i) Absolute maximum and absolute minimum
(j) Local maximum and local minimus
(k) Critical number
(l) Function concave upward and concave downward
(m) Inection point
(n) Antiderivative of a function
2. State the following theorems.
(a) The Squeeze Theorem
(b) The Intermediate Value Theorem
(c) Fermats Theorem
(d) Extreme Value Theorem
(e) Rolles Theorem
(f) The Mean Value Theorem
(g) LHospitals Rule
3. Give an example for each of the following.
(a) Function with an innite number of vertical asymptotes.
(b) Function F = f g so that the limits of F and f at a exist and the limit of g at a does not exist.
(c) Function with a removable discontinuity.
(d) The most general form of a function with the property that its second derivative is the zero
function.
(e) Function that is continuous but not differentiable at a point.
(f) Function with a critical number but no maximum or minimum.
(g) Function with a local minimum at which the second derivative equals 0.
Questions 4-16 are short answer questions. The questions are given in no particular order.
4. Find the derivative y
=
dy
dx
of each of the following:
(a) y = cos
1
(x
2
) ln (1 + x
3
) [Note: Another notation for cos
1
is arccos.]
(b) y = x
sin(x)
.
(c) arctan
_
y
x
_
=
1
2
ln (x
2
+ y
2
).
5. Let f(x) = tan x. Find f
(x), the second derivative of f.

6. Find the tangent line to the curve y + xln y 2x = 0 at the point (1/2, 1).
7. Evaluate lim
x
2x
3
+ 3x 1
1 2x
2
+ 5x
3
.
8. Evaluate lim
x1
x
2
1
x
2
3x + 2
.
9. Let f(x) =
2x
x
2
+ 3
.
(a) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = f(x) at x = 1.
(b) Use linear approximation to give an approximate value for f(1.2).
10. A particle moves along the x-axis so that its position at time t is given by x = t
3
4t
2
+ 1.
(a) At t = 2, what is the particles speed?
(b) At t = 2, in what direction is the particle moving?
(c) At t = 2, is the particles speed increasing or decreasing?
11. The curve y = xe
x
has one inection point. Find the x-coordinate of this point.
12. Find an equation of the slant asymptote to the curve y =
x
3
+ 2x
2
x
2
+ 3x + 2
.
13. Find a number x
0
between 0 and such that the tangent line to the curve y = sin x at x = x
0
is
parallel to the line y = x/2.
14. Evaluate lim
x0
xsin
1
x
.
15. Evaluate lim
x0
e
x
1 x
x
2
.
16. Evaluate lim
x0
x
sin x
.
Questions 17-33 are full-solution problems. Justify your answers and show all your work. The
questions are given in no particular order.
17. Let f(x) =
5
3x 1
. Calculate f
(2) directly from the denition of derivative.

18. A water-trough is 10m long and has a cross-section which is the shape of an isosceles trapezoid that
is 30cm wide at the bottom, 80cm wide at the top, and has height 50cm. If the trough is being lled
with water at the rate of 0.2 m
3
/min, how fast is the water level rising when the water is 30cm deep?
[Recall: The area of an isosceles trapezoid as shown in the diagram is A =
1
2
(a + b)h.]
19. Use differentials to estimate the amount of paint needed to apply a coat of paint 0.05cm thick to a
hemispherical dome with diameter 50m.
20. At 2:00 p.m.a cars speedometer reads 30 mi/h. At 2:10 p.m. it reads 50 mi/h. Show that at some time
between 2:00 and 2:10 the acceleration is exactly 120 mi/h
2
.
21. A piece of wire 10m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into a square and the other is bent
into an circle. How should the wire be cut so that the total area enclosed is minimum.
22. A turkey is put into an oven that has a constant temperature of 200
C. A thermometer embedded in
the turkey registers its temperature. When the turkey is put into the oven, the thermometer reads
20
C, and 30 minutes later it reads 30
C. The turkey will be ready to eat when the thermometer reads

80
C. How many minutes after being put into the oven will the turkey be ready to eat? Assume that
the turkeys temperature satises Newtons law of cooling/heating.
23. Sketch the graph of the function
f(x) =
2x
2
+ 5x 1
2x 1
.
24. Let f(x) = 2x
3
6x
2
+ 3x + 1.
(a) First show that f has at least one zero in the interval [2, 3] and then use the rst derivative of f
to show that there is exactly one root of f between 2 and 3.
(b) Use Newtons method to approximate the root of f in the interval [2, 3] by starting with x
1
= 5/2
and nding x
2
.
25. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed inside a semicircular region of
radius 5 such that one side of the rectangle is parallel to the base of the semicircular region.
26. (a) A metal storage tank with xed volume V is to be constructed in the shape of a right circular
cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere. What dimensions will require the least amount of metal?
(b) Suppose the metal for the hemisphere costs twice as much as the metal for the lateral sides. What
are the dimensions for the tank that minimizes cost?
(Recall: The volume of a sphere of radius r is
4
3
r
3
and the surface area is 4r
2
.)
27. (a) Show that Newtons Method applied to the equation x
2
a = 0 yields the iterative formula
x
n+1
=
1
2
_
x
n
+
a
x
n
_
and thus provides a method for approximating the square root
a which uses only addition and

multiplication.
(b) Approximate
3 by taking x
1
= 3/2 and calculating x
2
.
28. Find f if f
(x) = 2 + cos x, f
(0) = 1 and f(/2) = 0.

29. Sketch the curve which is given by the parametric equations
x = cos (t), y = sin (t), 1 t 2.
Clearly label the initial and terminal points and describe the motion of the point (x(t), y(t)) as t varies
in the given interval (i.e. indicate the direction the point is traveling).
30. A curve called the folium of Descartes is dened by the parametric equations
x =
3t
2
(t + 1)
3t
2
+ 3t + 1
, y =
3t(t + 1)
2
3t
2
+ 3t + 1
, < t < .
(a) Show that a Cartesian equation of this curve is x
3
+ y
3
= 3xy.
(b) Find the point on the curve corresponding to t = 1/2.
(c) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point corresponding to t = 1/2.
(d) Find the values of the parameter t which correspond to the point (0, 0) on the curve.
(e) Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve at the point (0, 0).
31. Consider the curve given by the parametric equations
x = 2 sin t, y = 4 + cos t, 0 t 2.
Determine the points on the curve which are closest to the origin and those which are furthest away.
32. Sketch the curve with the polar equation r = 2 cos 4.
33. Consider the curve given by the polar equation
r = 1 + 2 sin (3), 0 2.
(a) Determine the points on the curve which are furthest from the origin.
(b) Find the slope of the tangent line to each of the points found in part (a).
Answers:
4. (a) y
=
2x
1 x
4
3x
2
1 + x
3
(b) y
= x
sin x
(
sin x
x
+ ln x cos x) (c) y
=
x + y
x y
5. f
(x) = 2 sec
2
(x) tan (x)
6. y =
4
3
x +
1
3
7. 2/5
8. 2
9. (a) y =
1
4
x +
1
4
(b) f(1.2)
1
4
(1.2) +
1
4
=
11
20
= 0.55
10. (a) 4 (b) to the left (c) speed is decreasing
11. x = 2
12. y = x 1
13. 2/3
14. 0 (Hint: use Squeeze Theorem since sin(1/x) is bounded)
15. 1/2
16. 1
17. 3/5
18.
1
30
m/min =
10
3
cm/min
19.
5
8
2 m
3
20. Hint: use Mean Value Theorem
21. The length of wire used to make the square should be
40
+4
22. t =
ln (2/3)
2 ln (17/18)
3.55 hours 3 hours 33 minutes
24. (b) x2 = 16/7 2.285714286
25. base is 5
2 and height is
5
2
26. (a) hemisphere (b) r =
1
2
3
3V/ and h =
3
3V/.
27. (b)
7
4
28. f(x) = cos x + x
2
x + /2(1 /2)
29. Consists of points on the unit semicircle in quadrants 3 and 4. Points are moving counterclockwise along curve
with initial point (1, 0) and terminal point (1, 0).
30. (b) (3/2, 3/2) (c) y = x + 3 (d) t = 1, 0 (e) There are two lines: the rst is when t = 1 and the tangent is
the horizontal line y = 0, the second occurs when t = 0 and is the vertical line x = 0.
31. closest point is (0, 3), furthest point is (0, 5)
33. (a) The three points are (r, ) = (3,

6
), (3,
5
6
), (3,
3
2
). (b) slopes of tangents at these points are
3,
3, and 0,
respectively.
Bibliography
[1] C. Adams, A. Thompson, and J. Hass. How to Ace Calculus: The Streetwise Guide. W.H. Freeman and Company,
1998.
[2] B.

Curgus. An exceptional exponential function. The College Mathematics Journal, 37(5):344354, 2006.
http://myweb.facstaff.wwu.edu/curgus/Papers/ExcExpFinal.pdf.
[3] D. Ebersole, D. Schattschneider, A. Sevilla, and K. Somers. A Companion to Calculus. Brooks/Cole Sengage
Learning, 2nd edition, 2005.
[4] J. Stewart. Calculus: Early Transcendentals. Brooks/Cole Sengage Learning, 7th edition, 2011.
221

CALCULUS I NOTES

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CALCULUS I NOTES

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Calculus I

f(x) = L and lim

f(x) = L and lim

2 exists, i.e., prove that there is c R

(8)? What are the units?

(8) positive or negative? Explain.

(x) exists for each x J.

: J R is called the derivative of f .

(x). What is the domain of f

(a) exists. It is differentiable on an open

(x) for the

(3) = 5, nd the following numbers.

(0) = 1. Calculate the derivative of f(f(f(x))) at x = 0.

(t) > 0. Show that is equivalent to the condition that v(t)

(t) < 0. Show that is equivalent to the condition

(100) and explain its meaning. What does it predict?

(100) with the cost of manufacturing the 101st pair of jeans.

C room its temperature has increased to 10

. What is the velocity of the rocket at that instant?

(1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f(x) at x = 1 to approximate

(1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f(x) at x = 1 to approximate

(c) exists, then f

(c) does not exist.

(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.

changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.

does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.

(x) > 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.

(x) < 0 for all x I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.

(c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.

(c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.

(x) ,= 0 near a (except possibly at

(x) > 0 on an interval I means f increasing on I.

(x) < 0 on an interval I means f decreasing on I.

(x) > 0 on an interval I means f concave up ( on I.

(x) < 0 on an interval I means f concave down ) on I.

2 accurate to eight decimal places.

(t) = 2 cos (3t) + 5 sin (4t) + 3e

2, 3/4). Find the Cartesian coordinates of

3, 2). Find polar coordinates (r, ) of this

(r) exists, then lim

(x) if f(x) = (2x

(x) on coordinate axes below. You do NOT

of the following function (you do not need to

C. At 12:20 the temperature of the pie is 36

C and is decreasing at a rate of 2

C, has cooling constant k = 0.09min

. How long should you wait before drinking it if the

C/min (b) 0.54

(x)g(x) (product rule)

(x) (chain rule)

(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

(c) does not exist.

changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.

changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.

does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.

(c) = 0 and f(c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.

(c) = 0 and f(c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.

(c) = 0 then f has a local max/min at c.

(x) < 0 for 1 < x < 6, then f is decreasing on (1, 6).