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FILOLOGIJA 2010 (15) ISSN 1392-561X
UNDERSTANDING SLANG IN TRANSLATION
JOLANTA LGAUDAIT
Vytauto Didiojo Universitetas
j.legaudaite@hmf.vdu.lt
Keywords: slang phenomenon, softening, stylistic compensation, direct trans-
fers.
My interest in the topic was particularly stimulated by the fact that the transla-
tion of slang causes problems for the translator because this phenomenon can not
be translated word by word but the equivalent in meaning should be provided in the
target language. So what is slang ? Due to the painful experience in the past, which
could have led to the loss of the language, Lithuanian linguists and linguistic asso-
ciations are very worried about the purity of the language. Thus, linguists prefer dis-
cussing how people should use language to describing how they use it in everyday
life. Every non-traditional variety of the language has been criticised and regarded
as tarnished speech, deviating from the language standards (Knikta 1994, 5). Con-
sequently, slang has been considered as something taken from the dump of language
(Pikilingis 1975). Nevertheless, some Lithuanian scholars do have positive views
on the use of slang. Jakaitien (1980, 76) and Vosilyt (1991, 24), for instance, desc-
ribe slang as emotive, expressive and colourful, though different from the standard
language, and Pikilingis (1975, 143) states that using slang is showing preference
for the words that express distinctive information and subjective evaluation. Thus,
to understand slang and its origins I will refer to English scholars. The word slang
is of uncertain origin. As far as the etymology is concerned, its rst occurrence is
dated 1756 in The Oxford English Dictionary, where it is dened as the special vo-
cabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of
a low and vulgar type, but its ultimate source remains unknown (1989, VOL. X,
651). The meaning of slang was much clearer in the old times, when it was used by
British criminals to refer to their own special language (Andersson & Trudgill 1990,
77). Later, slang gradually acquired the features of sub-cultural speech (Allen 1998).
Today, there is no clear denition of slang to be detected either in the dictionaries or
the literature. Every effort to dene slang as a kind of vocabulary has failed. Dictiona-
ries describe slang by its informality, metaphors, playfulness, and unconventionality.
Slang is a place for cheeky new words and phrases. Slang words may enter standard
usage, e. g. English movies, fridge, crazy, maths, or remain slang for years, e. g Lit-
huanian ul school, klifa supervisor, fuksas rst year student, moka teacher
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kabakas cafe and English super, dago, lag, lam. Some of these words just circu-
late for a while, and when they are found redundant, go back to their sub-cultural
origins, while others disappear.
It is evident that slang terms exist on a continuum and that one persons slang
may be another persons colloquial lexical item. Thus, the intersperse between slang
and colloquial words is very close. Eble describes slang as an ever changing set of
colloquial words and phrases (1996, 11), but though colloquial terms tend to share
informality with slang, they are not associated with group identity. Normally, slang
items are short-lived, particularly the ones associated with peer groups. It is that
portion of the vocabulary which changes most freely (Gleason 1961, 6). They lose
their connotations of slanginess if they have been in use for some time, while others
vanish entirely. Other slang words show no signs of fading. As a result, they enter
the lexical stock of mainstream English and put pressure on sub-group members to
invent a new code. According to the characteristics presented above slang is a non-
standard variety with the power to strengthen the feeling of togetherness between
speakers.
The discussion so far shows that slang is a variety of language which is used for
social and psychological purposes to oppose, play or gently tease proper society
and its standard linguistic forms. However, there is no standard test that will decide
what slang is and what it is not, and Spears goes as far as saying that expressions
that are identied as slang are sometimes little more than entertaining wordplay, and
much slang is little more than an entertaining, alternative way of saying something
(1991, iii). Most people recognise slang when they hear it or see it written, but the
denition of slang and which terms should or should not be included continues to be
the subject of debate. As we have seen, part of the problem with dening slang is that
the term is based on a set of characteristics. Andersson & Trudgill (1990) characteri-
se slang as a relative concept which moves from slang into neutral and even formal
language. This enables slang to change and vary not only from place to place but
from dialect to dialect. As slang is typical of informal situations, which are not xed
and change through time and place, it is typical of spoken language. Slang is a highly
informal register of speech, which differs from standard usage and shares boundaries
with other informal levels of vocabulary. Slang is a style category within the langua-
ge, which occupies an extreme position on the spectrum of formality (Thorne 1997,
2). But it is an extremely slippery concept, and the idea of popular speech offered
by Allen (1993) via a broader concept that includes slang, is preferred by many lin-
guists (1993, 6). Popular speech is to be understood as words and phrases that are
below the level of standard and formal speech, related to street speech. Allen points
out that slang is part of the life of modern cities, or more correctly today, of modern
society in general (1993, 6). This emphasises that slang is social rather than a linguis-
tic term and is used to mark social and cultural differences.
Since slang is a psychosocial and cultural phenomenon, the main problems of
slang translation arise because of the differences in language systems and cultures.
What is more, the translation of slang is inuenced by such factors as the difference
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in the writing traditions of cultures and the role of censorship. According to Nida
(2001) the translation might be determined by the linguistic and cultural distance
that occurs because of the difference in the way the message is expressed. When cul-
tures and languages are closely related, the translator faces minor problems during
the translation process. However, when cultures are parallel but languages diverge,
the translation process becomes sufciently complicated. Thus, when the differences
between languages and cultures are extremely great, the translator should be ready to
perform various shifts during the process of translation as well as to choose the right
translation strategy. I would like to admit that the choice of a translation strategy also
shows the kind of the society the translator belongs to. Nida states that differences
between languages cause many more severe complications for the translator than do
differences in language structure (2001, 130). The translator should be aware that
his/her translation corresponds to certain culture, readership and conveys the proper
meaning. The great attention should be also paid to the translation of sensitive texts
since it is culture that determines if a text is sensitive. Thus, the text which is accep-
table by a source audience when translated into another language may be unacceptab-
le to the target language reader because of different cultural norms, different social
reality and different language. Sapir claimed that the network of cultural patterns of
civilization is indexed in the language which expresses that civilization. Language
is a guide to social reality (Sapir in Lung 2003, 257). In accordance with Lung
translators should be conscious about the cultural values encompassed in language
cultures. However, John Schmitz believes that translators have no right to improve
the original and they should be faithful to the vulgarity and crudity of the original
(Schmitz in Lung 2003, 255).
The correctness of the language usage both spoken and written is strictly control-
led by censorship. According to Allan, the main purpose of the language censoring is
to protect the reader from the moral harm as well as to preserve the language purity.
The censorship of slang is not so strict and the use of slang on some occasions is
treated as a stylistic device of the language. Crisafulli states that the informal kind
of language, such as slang words, may have both a propositional meaning (relating
to the message conveyed) and an expressive one (which reveals the attitude of the
speaker/writer) (1997, 248). There are several opinions about the use of slang in lite-
rature: some linguists view slang as an inappropriate kind of language that should be
avoided because of its negative effect, others describe slang words as a stylistic devi-
ce which helps to create the atmosphere of the text making the tone of the text more
specic, expressive and even lively. However, we should admit that the meaning of
slang words is often slightly different in the language and it is hard to nd the equi-
valent of it in the target language (TL), nevertheless slang should be translated into
the TL directly or other appropriate linguistic item should be chosen to preserve the
style of the source text (ST). Thus, the translator must have a good perception of the
language in which she translates the text and be acquainted with cultural peculiarities
that are related to the text. The appropriate translation methods often chosen to solve
the problems that arise when translating slang are softening, stylistic compensation
and direct transfers.
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Method of softening is closely related to dynamic equivalence and is focused on
the perception of the target text (TT) reader, how s/he would understand the transfer-
red message. In other words, the language of the TT should be formulated in such a
way that it would sound natural for the reader. Special attention must be paid to the
translation of slang words at the semantic level, where problems are caused by such
a phenomenon as slang. Apart from this, the use of slang in the text might not full
the expectations of the TT readers and could sound unnatural or rude to them. The
omission of slang words is necessary in a certain type of discourse, but if the degree
of omitted or softened slang is too high in the TT, the style of the text is distorted.
Thus, the translator should be aware of the fact that the stylistic standards for various
types of texts differ across the languages. The purpose of softening effect is to soften
the rudeness and vulgarity of slang when it carries negative connotations or its usage
is inappropriate in the translation, for this reason the other word with the proper me-
aning is chosen. Such method is a fairly typical attempt to accommodate slang to
vary literary language which may allow native origin slang units (Zauberga 1994,
142). The examples to illustrate slang translation from English into Lithuanian are
taken from Tony Parson Man and Wife (2005) translated by D. Zaikauskien; Irvine
Welsh Trainspotting (1993) translated by D. Staiokas and Melvin Burgess Junk
(1997) translated by A. Patiomkinas. Consider the following examples:
Source Text Target Text
[1] And dont start telling my bloke hes messing
around with my best friend, okay, Mister Man?
[2] After a bit the pigs got bored, or they decided
wed legged it.
[3] The last thing this copper wanted was to turn
up at the station with a kind on a charge of nic-
king from skips.
[4] Always trying to make sure Jerry eats his veg-
gies.
[5] I like to breathe in a little smack.
[6] Id had a little dab out of my packet earlier.
[7] Im coming down, Im doing cold turkey.
[8] I took a swig of my drink and I thought, Shit
[9] Ive been a little prossie for a half an hour.
[10] Whit the fuck happened...
11] Better gear, usually.
[12] I know that with things they are between us,
sooner or later youre going to meet some little
fuck buddy.
[[13] Youre going to get butt-fucked by fate.
[14] You cant make an omelette by keeping your
dick in your trousers.
[1] Ir nepradkit paistyti, jog mano vaikinas ka-
k idarinja su mano geriausia drauge, suta-
riam, pone mogau?
[2] Po kurio laiko farams atsibodo. O gal jie nu-
sprend, kad pasprukom.
[3] Policininkas tikrai neturjo didelio noro vestis
nuovad vaikzo, apkalatinto vagyste i iukli
konteinerio.
[4] Ji visada tikrina, ar Deris valgo daroves.
[5] Mgstu kvptelti heroino.
[6] Kiek anksiau truput pamiau i savojo pa-
kelio.
[7] Man bloga, nebegaliu itverti.
[8] Sribteljau i stiklins. das, pagalvojau.
[9] Pusvaland buvau smulkia prostitute.
[10] Po galais, kas atsitiko...
[11] Paprastai dl geresns preks kokybs.
[12] inau, kad kai ms tokie santukiai, anks-
iau ar vliau susirasi koki mergul.
[13] Sukurtas taip, kad likimas tave sulamdyt.
[14] Tu nenulaikai savo gaidiuko kelnse net om-
let kepdamas.
The examples above clearly demonstrate that the softening effect was employed
to neutralize slang words and expressions in the ST for the reason to conform with
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the rules of writing in the TT. This translation strategy is particularly useful in the
translation of dirty slang words, denoting sex and swearing, since they are especially
censored in the translations of the TL. Furthermore, slang items were replaced by
appropriate standard words with the purpose to avoid the over usage of slang in the
language and keep to the literary norms of the TL. The translation of slang is great-
ly inuenced by the common view held by many linguists in Lithuania that slang
should be avoided in the literary text and only in very few cases slangy expressions
may appear in the text as stylistic devices.
According to Harvey Stylistic compensation is a translation method that is de-
ned as a technique which involves making up or the loss of a source text effect by
recreating a similar effect in the target text through the means that are specic to the
target language and/or text (Harvey 2001, 37). By the use of stylistic compensation
method, it is possible to use slang in the TT and achieve similar effect to the ST, but if
it is not possible to do, the translator can choose other options that are offered by this
translation strategy. Usually this technique is used to solve the problem of the tran-
slation loss and try to achieve the effect of the target text that is similar to the source
text. Stylistic compensation method helps to solve the language and culture specic
problems that occur in the translation of slang, but the translator should decide whet-
her it is worth to translate a certain linguistic item and s/he should try to keep to the
proper style of the text as much as possible. The examples of stylistic compensation
are exhibited in the table below.
Source Text Target Text
[15] It just goes to show what this countrys come
to if the villains go and tell the police what theyre
doing, so they can be left alone to get on with it.
[16] No one ever used to think of stealing whole
houses... and without even having to move them,
either.
[17] If you have money, theyll ne you.
[18] You have to do these things bit by bit.
[19] Great.
[20] I couldnt believe it.
[21]...Someone you can have uncomplicated sex
with.
[15] tai puikiausias pavyzdys, kuo virsta ita a-
lis, jeigu tie niekai paprao faraon neturkdyti
jiems dirbti savo darbeli.
[16] Ar kas kada nors svajojo nudiauti vis na-
m, ir netgi... nepajudindamas jo i vietos.
[17] Tursi lamani pripaiys baud.
[18] Nulipti nuo adatos gali tik ingsnelis po
ingsnelio.
[19] aks
[20] A apakau.
[21] ...Koki nors, su kuria galtum tiesiog pasi-
dulkinti.
Stylistic compensation was applied to the translation of the analyzed examples
for the purpose to compensate the linguistic loss that occurred because of the diffe-
rences in cultures. This method enabled the translators to use more slang words in
the TT and establish the suitable style and tone of the text. The displaced compen-
sation type is the most common in the translation of slang words from English into
Lithuanian as the translators try to translate the ST by the use of slangy expressions
in the TT in those places of the text where the TL has the expression with very simi-
lar or the same meaning. In addition, this method of translation helps to preserve the
specic style of language that is used in the ST as well as to convey almost the same
effect of the TT on its readers as the ST does.
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Direct or literal translation method refers to the action when words of the ST
are translated straightforward into the TT. According to Vinay and Darbelnet (2000,
86) literal translation is the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idio-
matically appropriate TL text in which the translators task is limited to observing
the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL. Fawcett referring to the literal
translation method indicates that it is the rare but always welcome case when a text
can go from one language into another with no changes other than those required
by the target-language grammar (1997, 36). We should admit that it is appropriate
to translate words literally whenever it is possible to nd the equivalents in the TL.
However, the direct or literal translation is commonly used in translations if the
ST and the TT languages belong to the same family or they share the same or very
similar cultures. Furthermore, this method of translation may be appropriate in the
translation among the European languages some of which share the concepts of the
culture and the civilization, have certain kind of similarities in the way of thinking or
structuring the language patterns. The use of this method of translation is becoming
more widely used in the case of slang translation. Slang can be translated into the TT,
if only its equivalent is available. Therefore, the style of the TT has to be kept close
to the ST as much as it is possible and if it is not, the other translation strategy should
be chosen. Consider the examples below:
Source Text Target Text
[22] Superglue for bigger bucks.
[23] Fag?
[24] I still had that hundred quid I thieved from
dads cash card.
[25] Theyd paid for all the food. Vonny and Jerry
had even been keeping me in ciggies
[26] ...and ah fear nothing (except not scoring)
[27]but ah need tae be pittin ma skates oan.
[28] Ye goat the gear thair?
[29] Arent you gonna be a junkie with us?
[22] Klijai u daugiau baks.
[23] Nori cizo?
[24] Tebeturjau i tio sskaitos nuvilpt im-
tin.
[25] ... jie aprpindavo, Von ir Deris mane netgi
vaiindavo cizais.
[26] ...ir a nebijau nieko (tik grsms nepagauti
kaifo)
[27] ... bet man reikia usidti savo paias.
[28] Ar turi ia kokio produkto?
[29] Tu nenori bti narkaas kaip mes?
The examples of slang demonstrate how the items were translated directly into
the TT. Although the meaning of some words is slightly different in the TT due to
the cultural and linguistic differences, the ST messages were revealed properly in
the TT. The translation method of direct transfers can be evaluated positively with
respect to slang usage as a stylistic device which makes the language more specic,
expressive and lively. Moreover, slang serves as means to reveal the attitude of the
speaker or the writer as well as to create the specic atmosphere and the style of the
text.
The translation of slang is a difcult task for every translator since this language
phenomenon is closely knit with the culture and society of the source language. The
three methods discussed in the translation of slang help much to perform the action
of translation, however, the translator should achieve such translation which is lin-
guistically correct and acceptable to the reader of the target language.
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References
Allen Irving Lewis. The city in slang: New York life and popular speech. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1993.
Allen Irving Lewis. 1998. Slang: Sociology. In: J. Mey & R. Asher (eds). Concise Encyclope-
dia of Pragmatics. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1998. P. 878883.
Andersson Lars & Peter Trudgill. Bad Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1990.
Crisafulli, Edoardo. Taboo Language in Translation. In: Perspectives: Studies in Translatolo-
gy (Vol. 5:2). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1997.
Eble Connie. Slang and Sociability: In group language among college students. London: Uni-
versity of North Cardina Press, 1996.
Fawcett Peter. Translation and Language. Linguistic Theories Explained. Manchester: St.
Jerome Publishing, 1997.
Gleason H. A. An introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wins-
ton, 1961.
Harvey, Keith. Compensation. In: M. Baker (ed.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Stu-
dies. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
Jakaitien Evalda. Lietuvi kalbos leksikologija. Vilnius: Vaga, 1980.
Knikta Pranas. Apie nukrypimus nuo kalb norm. Kalbos kultra. Vilnius: Mokslo ir
enciklopedij leidykla, 1994.
Lung Rachel. Translating Sensitive Texts. In: Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.
(Vol. 11:4) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003.
Nida Eugene. Principles of Correspondence. In: L. Venuti (ed.) The Translation Studies Rea-
der. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
Pikilingis Juozas. Lietuvi kalbos stilistika. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1975.
Spears Richard S. Contemporary American slang. Illinois: NTC Publishing Group, 1991.
Thorne Barrie. Gender-play: girls and boys in school. New Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press.
The Oxford English Dictionary. 1989. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet. A Methodology for Translation. In: L. Venuti (ed.) The
Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
Vosilyt Klementina. Paukt painsi i balso. eima, 9, 1991.
Zauberga Ieva. Pragmatic Aspects of the Translation of Slang and Four-letter Words. In: Per-
spectives: Studies in Translatology. Vol. 2:2. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing
Company, 1994.
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Jolanta Lgaudait
SLENGO SUPRATIMAS IR VERTIMAS
Santrauka
Pagrindiniai odiai: slengo fenomenas, suvelninimas, stilistin kompensacija, tiesio-
ginis vertimas.
Lingvistai ne visada sutaria dl raomosios ir nekamosios kalbos skirtum. Slengas,
kaip nebendrins kalbos elementas, prisideda prie nekamosios kalbos painumo. Ilgainiui
skirtumai tarp bendrins ir nebendrins kalbos rykja priklausomai nuo raomosios kalbos
stabilumo. Lietuvi kalbotyroje daug dmesio skiriama taisyklingam kalbos vartojimui, jos
grynumui, ir nors slengas yra laikomas argonu ir nukrypimu nuo bendrins kalbos norm,
labai svarbu analizuoti ir vertinti, kaip slengas yra veriamas i angl lietuvi kalb, pa-
lyginti slengo vartojimo kokyb ir jo dan originaliame ir iverstame tekste. Slengas yra
vartojamas vairiose pasaulio alyse, kuri kalbos ir kultros skiriasi, nes slengo fenomenas
apibdina socialines grupes ir j vertybes, todl rasti tinkamos reikms od veriant tekst
yra sudtinga. Vertimo metodai, kurie galt padti isprsti vertimo problemas, veriant
sleng i angl lietuvi kalb ir padaryt tekst lingvistikai tinkam, taip pat ir priimtin
skaitytojams, ilaikant originalo kalbos kultr, yra suvelninimas, stilistin kompensacija ir
tiesioginis vertimas.
Jolanta Lgaudait
UNDERSTANDING SLANG IN TRANSLATION
Summary
Keywords: slang phenomenon, softening, stylistic compensation, direct transfers.
In Lithuanian linguistics, there has been a tendency to study the most salient aspects of
language use. Over time, the differences between standard and non-standard varieties may
become quite considerable due to the conservatism of the written form. Lithuanian linguists
and linguistic associations are very worried about the purity of the language and though slang
phenomenon has been criticized and regarded as tarnished speech, deviating from the langua-
ge standards, it is very important to nd out and analyze how slang is translated from English
into Lithuanian, identify its effect on the language and compare its quality and its frequency
in the target text. Slang items are used all over the world in different societies and characteri-
ze social groups and their values, thus, it is not always possible to nd the exact equivalent
of slang and render it into the target language due to the differences in cultures between the
languages. The translation methods that are mainly used in the translation of slang are softe-
ning, stylistic compensation and direct transfers.