Viktor Shklovsky

THEORY OF PROSE
Translated by Benjamin Sher with
an Introd!tion by "erald #$ Brans
UWE,
%alkey &r!hive Press
En'lish translation
e
())* Benjamin Sher
Introd!tion + ())* "erald #$ Brns
#ibrary o, -on'ress -atalo'in' in Pbli!ation %ata
Shklovskii$ Viktor Borisovi!h. (/)01()/2
3O teorii 4ro5y$ En'lish6
Theory o, 4rose 7 Viktor Shklovsky8 introd!tion by "erald #$ Brns8 translated
with an introd!tion by Benjamin Sher$
Translation o,9 O teorii 4ro5y. :d ed$ ;<os!ow. ():)=$
In!ldes biblio'ra4hi!al re,eren!es$
($ Prose literatre>History and !riti!ism$ :$ Prose literatre>Te!hni?e$
I$ Sher. Benjamin$ II$ Title$
P@02AB$S2)(0 ())*
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ISB@9 *1)(CA/01C210 ;4a4er=
First 4a4erba!k edition. Febrary ())(
Se!ond 4rintin' ;with !orre!tions=. Se4tember ())(
Partially funded by 'rants ,rom The @ational Endowment ,or the Arts and The
Illinois Arts Council.
%alkey &r!hive Press
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Printed on permanent/durable acid-free paper and bound in the United States of
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-ontents
Pre,a!e
Introd!tion
TranslatorEs Introd!tion
(9 &rt as %evi!e
:9 The Relationshi4 between %evi!es o, Plot
-onstr!tion and "eneral %evi!es o, Style
09 The Str!tre o, Fi!tion 29 The <akin' o,
Don Quixote A9 Sherlo!k Holmes and the
<ystery Story C9 %i!kens and the <ystery
@ovel B9 The @ovel as Parody9
SterneEs Tristram Shandy /9 Bely
and Ornamental Prose )9 #iteratre
withot a Plot9 Ro5anov (*9 Essay and
&ne!dote
Forks -ited
IndeG
Pre,a!e
It is 4er,e!tly !lear that lan'a'e is in,len!ed by so!ioe!onomi! !on1
ditions$
There is an essay by "leb Ds4ensky in whi!h he shows how a ,ishin'
!rew !reates its own reality by inventin' names ,or a !onstellation o, stars
whi!h 'ides them in their ni'htly Hsear!h ,or the white salmon$H
In the lan'a'e o, !attle breeders yo will ,ind nmeros words desi'natin'
s!h 4e!liarities as the !oat !olors o, !ows and blls$ These do not lend
themselves easily to translation$ @evertheless. the word is not a shadow$
The word is a thin'$ It !han'es in a!!ordan!e with the lin'isti! laws that
'overn the 4hysiolo'y o, s4ee!h and so on$
I, in some lan'a'e the name o, a breast4late be!omes the name o, the
breast o, a hman bein'. then. o, !orse. this !an be nderstood histori!ally$
Bt the !han'es o, words do not ne!essarily !orres4ond to the !han'es in
the ,orm o, the breast4late. and. besides. the word may srvive the 4he1
nomenon that had 'iven rise to it in the ,irst 4la!e$
&s a literary !riti!. IEve been en'a'ed in the stdy o, the internal laws that
'overn literatre$ I, I may brin' 4 the analo'y o, a ,a!tory. then I wold say
that neither the !rrent state o, the world !otton market nor the 4oliti!s o,
!otton trsts interests me$ One thin' alone !on!erns me9 the nmber o,
strands that make 4 the !otton 4lant and the di,,erent ways o, weavin'
them$ For that reason. this book is devoted in its entirety to a stdy o, the
!han'es in literary ,orm$
VIITOR SHI#OVSIY
Introduction
Toward a Random Theory o, Prose
"erald #$ Brns
I have a taste ,or readin' even torn 4a4ers
lyin' in the streets$
>%on JiGote
<odernity be'ins with the re!o'nition that the obje!t be,ore me is not a si'n
bt a random 4arti!le$ &nd it is all there is8 nothin' is behind or beyond it.
nor is anythin' nderneath$ It is o4a?e and irred!ible. one sin'larity
amon' others mlti4lied eG!essively in every dire!tion$ The niverse is
made o, s!h thin's$ The histori! task o, modernity. startin' in the seven1
teenth !entry and !ontinin' to this day. has been to develo4 a theory o,
rationality ade?ate to a niverse o, randomness>and not only a theory
bt a 4ro'ram o, strate'i! o4erations !a4able o, enterin' into the hetero1
'eneity o, thin's and brin'in' it nder !ontrol$ One !old say that with
modernity the task o, reason was no lon'er to inter4ret the world bt rather
to over!ome it>to red!e it !on!e4tally. to 'ras4 and !ontain it within an
order o, 'eneral laws and te!hnolo'i!al systems. ,inally to intervene in its
o4erations and to trn it to 4rod!tive a!!ont$ To make sense o, the world.
we mst 4enetrate its in!oherent sr,a!e and lay bare its dee4 str!tres8 we
mst 'ras4 not its hidden meanin's bt its inner workin's$ "rammar is
mastery$ &nd with this idea !omes the invention o, 4oliti!s. whose task is to
4rod!e a !ltral system ,ree ,rom internal !ontradi!tion. so!ial ,ra'1
mentation. and endless !rises o, le'itima!y$
&nother way to 4t this mi'ht be to say that modernity be'ins with the
dis!overy that the book o, the world is written in 4rose$ & 4oeti! niverse
is. 4hiloso4hi!ally s4eakin'. a niverse o, !orres4onden!es$ In a 4oeti!
niverse. every ,ra'ment is a lminos detail$ It resonates with the s4er1
sensos$ It is in 4er4etal trans4ort ,rom the everydayness o, its material
a44earan!e to the s4here o, the trans!endental where it is really lo!ated.
and its im4a!t 4on !ons!iosness !onstittes a moment o, vision or the
sense o, embra!in' the totality o, all that is$ There are overar!hin's every1
where$ Bt a 4rose niverse is jst one damn thin' a,ter another. like an atti!
or jnkyard or side o, the road$ Shklovsky says that -ervantes be'an his
'reat book by or'ani5in' it as a dinner table. bt almost at on!e thin's 'ot
x Theory of Prose
away ,rom him$ Don Quixote as Shklovsky em4hasi5es. is a narrative
whose 4arts are ot o, 4la!e8 and so is the world it mirrors. in whi!h ;in
Orte'a y "assetEs 4hrase= the 4oeti! has !olla4sed. leavin' only le,tovers
like the books %on JiGote reads$ The 4rose world is a 4la!e o, violent
interr4tion8 it is the nonlinear re'ion o, 4re histori!ality that !an only be
des!ribed by means o, !haos theories and models o, !atastro4he. or 4erha4s
not so m!h !atastro4he as the slow breakin' down o, entities 4ie!e by
4ie!e$ It is an n4redi!table and dan'eros world in whi!h everyone is
someoneEs vi!tim$ Fe are liable to a beatin' at every interse!tion. be!ase
is needed to take s to him8 he is always at or blind side. the rovin' bandit
or lrkin' street th'. bt o, !orse he mi'ht jst as easily be the lo!al inn1
kee4er or a member o, the ,amily$ The world o, 4rose is bor'eois all the
way down$
The task o, reason in the world o, 4rose is to brin' thin's nder !ontrol1
not. however. by 4oeti!i5in' them. not by alle'ori5in' events into semanti!
s4erstr!tres ;theories o, !hivalry. ,or eGam4le. or o, !ltre=. bt rather
by the !onstr!tion o, 4lots. that is. by means o, dee4 synta!ti! str!tres
whose o4erations do not so m!h abolish randomness as jsti,y it. rather the
way lin'isti!s tries to jsti,y the arbitrariness o, words by a44eals to
internal ne!essity$ SyntaG. so to s4eak. re4la!es semanti!s$ The e,,e!t o,
sti,i!ation wold not be to trans,orm the sin'lar 4arti!le into some
4 er4reted as an element in a
symboli! order that sbsmes it and renders it trans4arent8 the 4arti!le
remains re,ra!tory and dense. nothin' in itsel, bt only a !ombinatory
4otential$ En!losed in a 4rely relational environment o, !odes. networks.
and total systems. the 4arti!le 'ains in 4ower what it loses in meanin'8 or
rather its meanin' is now its relationality as s!h rather than its !orres4on1
den!e to somethin' eGternal to itsel,$ So %on JiGote is always ot o,
4la!e8 he is not a !hara!ter in a roman!e bt at best a !hara!ter eGiled ,rom
roman!e. a !hara!ter trned to 4rose. wanderin' in a world that takes him
a4art 4ie!e by 4ie!e and s4reads him alon' a 4lane o, random interse!tions$
The task o, reason is to !onne!t him 4 with San!ho Pan5a$ Here is a
random en!onter with binary !onse?en!es. the be'innin's o, a new
system ;!all it the novel. or the dis!orse o, everyday li,e=$ The di,,eren!e
between San!ho and %on JiGote has a 4oint to it ;it ins!ribes everyday1
ness as the !olla4se o, the 4oeti!=$ San!ho meanwhile. like the !omi! ,i'res
Shakes4eare is a 4rose !hara!ter who nderstands that the world is best
Introduction
reason in the world o, 4rose is to arti!late this ethi!al ,ramework. whi!h
does not seek to endow the ordinary with any trans!endental sblimity bt
sim4ly seeks to 4reserve it as the ntrans!endable hori5on o, the sin'lar$
ShklovskyEs way o, 4ttin' this is to say that the task o, art is to make the
stone stony. that is. to kee4 s ,rom eG4erien!in' an obje!t as somethin'
other than it is8 as i, the task o, art were to ,ree s ,rom alle'ory or the
semanti! trans4aren!y o, 4arti!lars$
It is obvios at on!e. however. that the world o, 4rose is irred!ible even
to a str!tralist 4oeti!s$ Prose is by natre nstable and sel,1inter,erin'8 it
is re,ra!tory and n!ontainable$ Prose does not so m!h ,low as over,low$
San!ho Pan5aEs storytellin' in !ha4ter :* o, 4art ($ whi!h is more like
!ontin' than re!ontin'. 4reserves eGa!tly the nonlinear. sel,1interr4tin'
eG!essiveness o, the 4rose world$
#
ETell it !onse?entially. like an intelli'ent
man.H says the bewildered JiGote. bt San!ho is already ,ollowin'
Tristram ShandyEs 4hiloso4hy o, !om4osition. whi!h is to let the world
s4eak. let every sin'larity have its say. withot res4e!t to rles o, reason or
4ro4ositional order$ Indeed. one !old say that the natral in!lination o,
4rose is to or'ani5e itsel, into lists rather than into stories and 4ro4ositions$
-old a historio'ra4her drive on his history. as a mleteer drives on his mle.>>
strai'ht ,orward $ $ $ he mi'ht ventre to ,oretell yo to an hor when he shold 'et to
his jorneyEs end811111bl the thin' is. morally s4eakin'. im4ossible9 For. i, he is a
man o, the least s4irit he will have ,i,ty deviations ,rom a strai'ht line to make with
this or that 4arty as he 'oes alon'. whi!h he !an no ways avoid$ He will have views
and 4ros4e!ts to himsel, 4er4etally soli!itin' his eye$ whi!h he !an no more hel4
standin' still to look at than he !an ,ly8 he will moreover have varios
&!!onts to re!on!ile9
&ne!dotes to 4i!k 49
Ins!ri4tions to make ot9
Stories to weave in9
Traditions to si,t9
Persona'es to !all 4on9
Pane'yri!ks to 4aste 4 at this door8
Pas?inades at that811111&ll o, whi!h both the man and his mle are ?ite eGem4t
,rom$ !Tristram Shandy ($(2=
The world o, 4rose only !omes into its own with the invention o, the 4rintin'
4ress. whi!h eman!i4ates dis!orse ,rom the trans!endental bonda'e o,
narrative and the hi'her ,orms o, !onse!tive reasonin'$ Prose do!ments
its environment ,rom the inside ot. not ,rom above. and so it !onts thin's
one by one instead o, or'ani5in' them systemati!ally into a!!onts that.
amon' other !oherent thin's. be'in and end and 4oint a moral$ Prose is by
its natre realisti! in its n4redi!table !on!ern with the density o, what is
sin'lar and re,ra!tory to !ate'ories$ Prose is the n,inished dis!orse o,
inhabitants ;who themselves never stay in 4la!e bt$ i, they have the least
s4irit. wander maddenin'ly in every dire!tion. 4i!kin' 4 odds and ends.
losin' bits and 4ie!es9 one thinks here o, Be!kettEs <alloy=$ So the ,'itive
xii Theory of Prose
essay. the de!re4it billboard. the meanderin' joke. entries in an abandoned
diary. the mddled ?otation. the jotted note. the news4a4er 4a'e to wra4
yor !4s in. dirty words in the 4bli! toilet. mens in Fren!h. 4ointless
ane!dotes. the !rm4led sho44in' list. the broken1o,, !onversation. 4oli!e
re4orts. the missent letter. the ad in the window. si'ns at a rally. 'ossi4 or
hearsay. a stdentEs answer. the weak radio si'nal. brea!rati! memos$
translations ,rom Ka4anese. shotin' in the street. ma'a5ines in the 'ara'e$
or words to that e,,e!t9 these are some o, the basi! 'enres in the 4rose o,
4rose$
Shklovsky$ o, !orse. is thinkin' ;mostly= o, artisti! 4rose. or 4rose that
in some ,ashion redeems itsel, ,rom itsel,. raises itsel, by its bootstra4s into
some ty4e o, ,ormal !oheren!e$ Bt he re!o'ni5es that there is always a
histori!al tension between 4rose and ,orm. and it is this tension that he seeks
to stdy in the book that ,ollows. whi!h 'ives s the theory o, 4rose. not as a
semioti!ian or a narratolo'ist mi'ht. bt thro'h the mediation o, histori!al
;one mi'ht jst as well say random= detail$ Rssian Formalism is not Str!1
tralism$ Its method is histori!al resear!h rather than the analyti!al !on1
str!tion o, models$ Str!tralism raises itsel, on an o44osition between
system and history. str!tre and event8 Rssian Formalism de,ines itsel,
not a'ainst history bt a'ainst 4sy!holo'y$ The di,,eren!e between Formal1
ism and Str!tralism lies in the way the sin'lar is 4reserved in the one bt
erased by the other$ Str!tralism is a method o, sbsm4tive thinkin'$
Fhat matters is the totality o, the system$ Bt ShklovskyEs ,ormalism is
distribted alon' a dia!hroni! 4lane$ His theory o, 4rose is a prose theory o,
4rose. not the systemati! !onstr!tion o, a model indi,,erent to its eGam4les
bt hetero'eneos. internally !on,li!tin' des!ri4tions o, teGts strewn
irred!ibly thro'hot the history o, writin'$ ShklovskyEs model is not the
lin'isti!s o, Sassre bt histori!al lin'isti!s and !om4arative 4hilolo'y$
He is !loser to &erba!h than to Todorov$ He is interested in the histori1
!ality o, ,orms rather than in the rles o, how ,ormal obje!ts work$ So his
theory has the ri!hness o, 4ra!ti!al !riti!ism as well as the l!idity o,
theoreti!al re,le!tion. as in his s''estion that an ane!dote that is not
random ;not to say 4ointless= is not an ane!dote$
@ot a'ainst history bt a'ainst 4sy!holo'y9 the idea here is to ,ore'rond
the individal teGt in its ,ormal intelli'ibility rather than to re!onstr!t what
lies behind the teGt in the ,orm o, an ori'inatin' eG4ression or rle$ The task
o, Rssian Formalism was to eman!i4ate the work o, art ,rom the theory o,
eG4ression. whi!h was Romanti!ismEs way o, !o4in' with the world o,
4rose$ FhatEs the 4oetEs 4la!e in a world o, 4roseL This was essentially
FordsworthEs ?estion in his 4re,a!e to the "yrical #allads. The idea was
to inte'rate eGtraordinary events o, the mind into the everyday and so to
redeem the everyday ,rom its banality$ The 4oetEs task is to mediate
between the banal and the trans!endental>tem4orality redeemed by its
s4ots$ That the 4oet mi'ht !ome ot o, this mediation a bit 4rosy>lookin'
entirely nremarkable. in "eo,,rey HartmanEs 4hrase>is ,air eG!han'e.
Introduction xiu
sin!e the world !omes ot lookin' 4oeti!. even inhabitable and serene.
whereas withot the 4oetEs intervention it wold be a 4lane o, sllen obje!ts
im4edin' movement or es!a4e$ Falla!e Stevens is 4erha4s not the last
Fordsworthian bt heEs !lose9 the 4oet determined to bild an inhabitable
world ,rom the debris o, 4rose$
Bt to make the stone stony is to !hi4 away the ins!ri4tion someone
!arved on it8 it is to trn si'ns ba!k into thin's$ Formalist 4oetry ;not to say a
'ood deal o, modern writin'= does this by ,ore'rondin' the materiality o,
lan'a'e. disr4tin' the si'ni,yin' ,n!tion in order to ,ree words ,rom the
symboli! order that rational 4eo4le say we !onstr!t ,rom them$ Other sorts
o, 4oets jst take the world o, 4rose to heart and !on,ond the idea o, 4oetry
alto'ether. as when Filliam -arlos Filliams says ;4a!e Stevens= that H&
4oem !an be made ot o, anythin'H9 'ro!ery lists. news4a4er !li44in's.
!rde love notes. the nrevised doodlin's o, an eGhasted 4ediatri!ian$ &
sbstantial 4ortion o, &meri!an writin' has tried to work ot the !onse1
?en!es o, this idea. most re!ently in the movement !alled Hlan'a'e
4oetry.H whi!h. amon' other thin's. tries to write a 4oetry that ;4a!e
<allarme= doesnEt seal itsel, o,, ,rom whatever is not itsel,>doesnEt. ,or
eGam4le. try to seal itsel, o,, ,rom the randomness o, everyday talk$ Here
are some li nes ,rom Ron Sill imanEs $hat ;()//=9
Foman do!tor and male nrse are rnnin' down
the hos4ital !orridor$ SyntaG ,ree5es them ,orever.
tho'h I merely made them 4$ Fhatness vs$
Fhi!hness$ HTEs not jst the lar'e beard on the
small 'y bt the way it jts ,orward$ Swivel yor
hi4s with a knee di4 and the skateboard serves 4
the !rb ram4$ Brit ,la' in window serves as
!rtain$ Falker in sweatsit and knit !a4>lone
,i're on tra!k at dawn$ Pa'es o, GeroG in a
dimestore binder$ So letEs 4atent blood ;knowin' the
market=$ So thereEs Habermas in a 'est s4ot on
%iami &ice. Or the way tabloids se ?otation marks in
4la!e o, itali!s$ #ike water. lan'a'e rns to the sea.
,lsh with in,ormation$ @ot that. aardvarkM Pre,er
4oetsE ya4 to their la4$ %is!ordan!e in nmber
tri''ers an adit$ S?int jst to kee4 'lasses ,rom
slidin' down nose$ & line a day kee4s the !riti!
away$ Rework !onteGt ,or 4revios vowel$
xi' Theory of Prose
@O P&RI FI## BE TOFE%
s4ray14ainted ,reehand on 'ara'e door$
Nen 'ro!er$ Eyes a!he
a,ter day at -RT$
& teena'e 'irl with a bri'ht smile.
sa,ety 4in thr her nose$
&s Ste4hen Fredman says in his book Poet(s Prose lan'a'e 4oetry like
Ron SillimanEs is written in 4rose bt is not 4rose 4oetry8 rather it is 4oetry
that de,amiliari5es lan'a'e by in!or4oratin' the over,amiliar. or what
belon's to the daily li,e o, a 4rose environment$
& ,inal 4oint wold be that 4rose is inherently !omi! 4re!isely be!ase it
is the dis!orse o, what is near at hand or everyday$ Fhat is remote is
always mysti,ied. bt what we rb 4 a'ainst every day always in!lines s
toward la'hter. 4arti!larly when we see it take the ,orm o, lan'a'e.
whi!h is to say lan'a'e that is not only material bt 4al4able$ Prose
belon's to the world o, ,lesh and skin$ It is in its natre to be !or4lent rather
than lean$ O, !orse. 4hiloso4hers try to make 4rose lean by red!in' it to
4ro4ositional ,orm. be!ase they know that thereEs no sayin' anythin' in
4rose. no sayin' somethin' abot somethin' and 'ettin' it eGa!tly ri'ht. not
when 4rose is allowed to 'o its natral way. 'rowin' as m!h as ,n!tionin'$
ThereEs more to 4rose than senten!es$ It over,lows tho'ht$ One needs
4ara'ra4hs. !ha4ters. volmes>and still 4rose will 4rove n!ontainable$
@ot ,or nothin' Henry Kames !alled s!h novels as he himsel, did not write
Hloose and ba''y monsters.H nor that his 4rose is distant. distan!in'. not o,
this world. im4al4able and 4re!ise$ Bt even Kames !old hardly sto4 revis1
in'. as i, what he had on!e written had 'one to 4ot and needed to be 4onded
ba!k into sha4e. the way o, all 4rose$
Translator(s Introduction
Shklovsky and the Revoltion
Benjamin Sher
"odEs voi!e !alled ,or me and said9
H&rise. O 4ro4het. listen and behold.
Fill every sinew with <y will$ &nd as
yo travel over land and sea. Set hearts
on ,ire with yor Ford$H
>Pshkin. HThe Pro4hetH
Standin' on the brink o, the Stalinist ni'htmare o, the ()0*s. Viktor
Shklovsky de!lared !ora'eosly and ,orthri'htly that the word is aton1
omos and that the artist who !ommands its 4ano4ly o, devi!es is soverei'n
and absolte in his domain9
& literary work is 4re ,orm$ It is neither thin' nor material. bt a relationshi4 o,
materials$ $$$ Hmoros works. tra'i! works. world1en!om4assin' or intimate
works. !on,rontations o, worlds or o, !ats and stones>are all e?al in the eyes o,
literatre$ It is ,rom this that !omes the ino,,ensive !hara!ter o, art. its sense o, bein'
sht 4 within itsel,. its ,reedom ,rom eGternal !oer!ion$ $ $ $ &n arti,a!t has a sol
that is very m!h like a ,orm. like the 'eometri! relationshi4 o, masses$ ;(/). ()(=
Fhat eGa!tly does Shklovsky meanL
Is he 4ro!laimin' a @ew -riti!al mani,esto a la Brooks. Farren O -o$
!entered on the artist as master !ra,tsmanL Or is he wa'in' a rear'ard
battle to 4reserve a de!adent. elitist. art1,or1artEs1sake individalism a'ainst
the new dominant <arGist ideolo'y and its mass !ltreL Or is he 4erha4s
seekin' some new synthesis as yet nknownL
One o, ShklovskyEs most tellin' distin!tions in Theory of Prose is
between. on the one hand. Hre!o'nition.H that is. an nderstandin' o, an
obje!t or thin' based on ,ormlas. !onventions and 4re!on!e4tions. and. on
the other hand. EHseein'.H the 4er!e4tion o, an obje!t as revealed by an artist
wieldin' the devi!es o, his !ra,t$ HSeein'H is an a!tive. dynami! a!t o, 4er1
!e4tion bro'ht into 4lay by the artistEs te!hni?e whi!h allows s to see
what. ntil then. had not and !old not yet !ome into view$
Shklovsky has nothin' bt !ontem4t ,or any theory o, literatre that
denies or i'nores the !reative 4ro!ess ;in the modern sense o, !ra,t=$ For
Theory of Prose
him the artist is a ma'i!ian. a s4reme master in !ommand o, a whole array
o, Hdevi!esH ;4lot. rhythm. ima'e. word4lay. et!$=. withot whi!h art does
not eGist$
I, this is so. a Festern reader mi'ht be tem4ted to Hre!o'ni5eHH a,,inities
between ShklovskyEs ideas and !ertain Festern tenden!ies. when what is
!alled ,or here is nothin' less than a Hseein'H that attem4ts to nderstand
Shklovsky ,rom within. that is. that sees him as a !riti! who so'ht to
Henstran'e.H to trans,orm or !onventional 4er!e4tions o,literary history$
;See below ,or a dis!ssion o, the key !on!e4t o, Henstran'ement$H=
#ike Pasternak. <ayakovsky. Tsvetaeva. <andelshtam. &khmatova.
and other lminaries o, the 4ost1Revoltionary era. Shklovsky was n1
dobtedly an otstandin' re4resentative o, a 4re1Revoltionary Rssian
intelli'entsia that !alled Paris its home no less than St$ Petersbr' or
<os!ow$ That is. it had stron' links with Festern vales as we have !ome
to know them sin!e the Renaissan!e$ Yet. s!h vales ,onded on the
sensibility o, the solitary 'enis blossomed on Rssian soil a'ainst the
ba!k'rond o, a so!iety torn a4art by a t'1o,1war between the tsarEs
re4ressive. myo4i! re'ime and a lon'1s,,erin' 4eo4le )narod* in!reasin'ly
alienated and radi!ali5ed a'ainst him$
From this welter o, dobt. a44rehension and loss o, ,aith emer'ed a
whole array o, !om4etin'. ,anati!al ideolo'ies 4romisin' salvation to
nation and7or individal sol$ These isms en!om4assed the whole s4e!trm
o, Rssian !ltre. ,rom 4oliti!s ;Bolshevism. a Rssian variant o, <arG1
ism=. history ;Slavo4hilism=. reli'ion ;Rssian OrthodoGy=. literatre
;symbolism. &!meism. et!$=. natre ;4rimitivism=.. te!hnolo'y and rban1
ism ;Ftrism=. et!$ These indi'enos isms. alon' with Festern im4orts
ran'in' ,rom !bism and eG4ressionism in art to liberalism in 4oliti!s.
thrived in an a4o!aly4ti! a'e shered in by the tsar on Bloody Snday. )
Kanary ()*A. when he nleashed the ,irst revoltion by massa!rin' 4ea!e1
,l 4etitioners on the streets o, Saint Petersbr'$
Ths. when the Revoltion broke ot in Rssia in ()(B ;in Febrary and
a'ain in O!tober=. it had already been eG4e!ted ,or nearly a 'eneration$
&nd ,or many years therea,ter this world1histori!al !ata!lysm nrtred the
ima'ination o, writers. 4ainters. !om4osers and ,ilmmakers. ins4irin' them
to sbordinate their 4ersonal sensibilities to the lo,ty ideals o, the Revoltion$
This was the s4irit o, the a'e. embra!in' one and all. ,rom the aristo!rati!.
deli!ate Symbolists to the to'h. yon'er breed$ &s <ar! Slonim writes in
So'iet +ussian "iterature ;()C2=9
The Symbolists had had a ,orebodin' o, the !ata!lysm. and they were well
?ali,ied to eG4ress the belie, that the ,lame kindled in <os!ow wold set the whole
world abla5e$ $ $ $ Revoltionary messianism was in the air9 in the !ities and villa'es
s4eakers were 4ro!laimin' Rssia as the savior o, hmanity and the bilder o, a new
so!iety$ $ $ $ Other symbolists and a!meists. s!h as &nna &khmatova. also san' o,
illmination and s4oke o, the Revoltion with messiani! ,ervor$ $ $ $ The romanti!
and heroi! 4oems 3o, the yon'6 stressed the 'rander. the niversal swee4 o,
Translator(s Introduction x'ii
events and were ,rankly Dto4ian and hy4erboli!$ & 'ro4 o, 4roletarian 4oets.
!allin' themselves -osmists. 4redi!ted a !on?est o, s4a!e beyond or 4lanet9 Hwe
will ,irst overthrow the earth. then we shall sta'e the rebellion o, the stars$ $ $ $H They
eG4e!ted the Forld Revoltion to !ome at any moment ,rom jst arond the !orner8
they !old hear the tread o, history$ -ons!iosly or n!ons!iosly. the 4eo4le o,
Rssia wel!omed the advent o, a new era$
Thrst into this a4o!aly4ti! trmoil. Shklovsky mst have ,elt the earth
tremblin' beneath his ,eet$ Yet. he boldly and ne?ivo!ally 4ro!laimed the
soverei'nty o, the artist and his vo!ation in a dyin' world that was waitin' to
be reborn$
#ookin' at a 4i!tre o, Shklovsky in the !om4any o, <ayakovsky and
Pasternak>re4rod!ed on the !over>I ,ond mysel, wonderin' abot the
4ossible relevan!e o, this 'ro4 4hoto to the major themes o, Theory of
Prose.
Fhat is the si'ni,i!an!e o, ShklovskyEs 4resen!e in the !om4any o, two
revoltionary FtristsL Fhat were the eG4onents o, a s4irital and histor1
i!al trans,ormation thro'h destr!tion and re'eneration doin' side by side
with an e!!entri! devotee o, the artist and his devi!esL
It sddenly str!k me that Shklovsky may have !onsidered his role to be
,ar more than a mere de,ender o, the artist and his !ra,t ;a role he 4layed.
admittedly. with !onsmmate art himsel,=$ Is it not !on!eivable that
ShklovskyEs 4reo!!4ation with !ra,t may have arisen ,rom a heroi!.
revoltionary !on!e4tion o, the artist as a man1'od whose mission is to
destroy the old and bild the new. that is. the new 4aradise. on earthL I, this
is so. then may we not s''est. in trn. that the real thrst o, ShklovskyEs
!riti!ism was dire!ted not merely at establishin' the atonomy o, the artist
thro'h his !ra,t bt at the emancipation o, the artist ,rom his histori!al
bonda'e to eGtra1literary ,or!es that have eG4loited him like a la!key ,or
their own endsL In e,,e!t. Shklovsky is strivin' with mi'ht and main. or so it
seems. to rehabilitate the artist. whether in the 4erson o, the anonymos
storyteller o, the <iddle &'es or the "reek !lassi!s or -ervantes. or
%i!kens or Tolstoi or even &rthr -onan %oyle$ He seeks to liberate him
,rom the !lt!hes o, the so!ial s!ientists. 4sy!holo'ists. 4oliti!al s!ientists.
4hiloso4hers. theolo'ians. historians. even ,rom the !lt!hes o, literary
!riti!s themselves$
&nd it is here that we mst ask the !ardinal ?estion9 Fhy did Shklovsky
stri4 these masters o, their an!ient. !onventional non1literary layers o,
inter4retationL In other words. why did he enstran'e them. why did he. like
a ma'i!ian. remove the s4er,los veil ,rom or eyes i, not indeed to trans1
,orm these a44arently literary valets into heroi!. revoltionary arti,i!ers.
into demi'ods with the 4ower 'iven them by their !ra,t to !reate a new
world. or at least a vision o, itL
This may also a!!ont ,or ShklovskyEs ,as!ination with SterneEs all1
en!om4assin' 4ower to !reate a literary niverse that obeyed at will the
!ommands o, its one solitary !reator. the athor$ &nd. in!identally. this
x'iii Theory of Prose
hy4othesis wold hel4 eG4lain ShklovskyEs disa44roval o, BelyEs involve1
ment with the mysti!al movement o, anthro4oso4hy$ For in ShklovskyEs
o4inion. Bely doomed his 4henomenolo'i!al sear!h ,or his !hildhood by
!hainin' it to the 4ro!rstean bed o, anthro4oso4hy$
Fe may ths !onsider Theory of Prose as ShklovskyEs 4aean to the
artists o, the 4ast. who had in trn enstran'ed the materials o, their world
and art. and who ths s!!eeded in trans,ormin' the ,ormlai!. !onven1
tional 4er!e4tions o, their a'e into a tre vision o, what man is and !an be$
In his very style. Shklovsky betrays his kinshi4 to the new revoltionary
;tho'h not ne!essarily <arGist= movement$ #ike Pasternak. <ayakovsky.
and Tsvetaeva. Shklovsky ses a variety o, devi!es to enstran'e his material
and to 4rovoke in s an irresistible s!orn ,or whatever is ha!kneyed. trite.
and stereoty4i!al in the old world ;#esa'e. "o'ol. -hekhov. Tolstoi= and
an e?ally irresistible desire ,or a vision o, the new a'e ;Ro5anov. Bely.
-ervantes. even. aestheti!ally s4eakin'. Sterne=$ &nd. like his Ftrist
!omrades. he abandons the smooth. in!antatory !aden!es o, the Symbolists
;so ,re?ent in their !elebrations o, death and the world beyond death= in
,avor o, a this1worldly. ro'h1teGtred. HlaboriosH and elli4ti!al style that
bristles with eGtrava'ant !om4arisons. witti!isms. tren!hant 4ns. liberal
se o, itali!s and endless di'ressions ,rom the main theme$ @o wonder we
,ind him o,ten !ontradi!tin' himsel, or thinkin' alod. as it were. as he
ln'es here or there$ His brilliant hal, analyti!al. hal, ane!dotal a44roa!h to
!riti!ism. showin'. it seems. little re'ard ,or the readerEs !om,ort.
Him4edesH the reader at every trn. 4ttin' him on the de,ensive. ,or!in'
him to ?estion a'e1old taboos. !hallen'in' him to HseeH the arti,a!t and not
merely to Hre!o'ni5eH it$
S!h a revoltionary hy4othesis mi'ht hel4 s to nderstand ShklovskyEs
obsession with the artistEs soverei'nty$ Far ,rom harkin' ba!k to the
%e!aden!e o, the (/)*s. ShklovskyEs whole thrst wold then 4oint instead
to the ,tre. to a Dto4ian ,tre that a44arently was never meant to be$ For
these same artists and s!holars and thinkers who !elebrated the messiani!
a'e so ,ervently were later martyred ,or their ,aith in an or'y o, annihilation
that trned the a4o!aly4se o, the Revoltion 4side down$
E@STR&@"E<E@T9 There are. to my knowled'e. at least three translations o,
this key term o, Shklovsky$ First. let me state the 4roblem9 The Rssian
word ostraniene ;non= or ostranit( )'erb* is a neolo'ism. a ,a!t in itsel, o,
s4reme im4ortan!e in a !riti! as 'iven to serios wit and 4nnin' as
Shklovsky is$ There is no s!h word in Rssian di!tionaries$ It is !lear that
the o 4re,iG )o-straniene* o,ten sed to im4lement an a!tion ;tho'h this is
only one o, its many and even !ontradi!tory ses=. may be nderstood to
a44ly to two stems simltaneosly. that is. to both stran ;stran'e= as well as
storon ;side. whi!h be!omes stran in s!h verbs as otstranit( 3to remove. to
Translator(s Introduction xix
shove aside6=$ It is a 4retty ,air assm4tion. then. that Shklovsky s4eaks o,
ostraniene as P4roPss or4!t that endows an obje!tor ima'e with Hstran'e
n?ssH by Hrernovi?'E$E i#ilJKI#jKie network o, !onventional.$1,o!nwhjj#!.
s
i
e
KQ+i0iPMJ)lj:
er!
LPPiBIP1PE
(
>.$DjlRDistj.! eG4ressions ;based on s!h 4er!e41
tinn'= This bein' die !ase. how shold we translate this !on!e4t into
En'lishL
The translation Hestran'ementH is 'ood bt ne'ative and limited$
H<akin' it stran'eH is also 'ood bt too 4ositive$ Frthermore. both
Hestran'ementH and Hmakin' it stran'eH are not new. that is. they re?ire
no s4e!ial e,,ort o, the ima'ination$ In ,a!t. they eGem4li,y the very de,e!t
they were s44osed to dis!ora'e$
Finally. there is Hde,amiliari5ation.H a term sed in #ee T$ #emon and
<arion K$ ReisEs +ussian ,ormalist -riticism ;()CA=$ This semi1neolo'ism
i'$v'rP Red!tive ntil yo reali5e that it is ?ite wron'headed$ Shkl?yskyjP
4ro!ess is in ,a!t the reverse o, that im4lied by this term$ It is not a transitionP
StQSl. the$ $H,amiliarH to the HnknownH ;im4li!itly=POn the !ontrary. it
4ro!eeds ,rom the !o'nitively known ;the lan'a'e o, s!ien!e=. the rles
and ,ormlas that arise ,rom a sear!h ,or an e!onomy o, mental e,,ort. to the
,amiliarly known. that is. to real knowled'e that eG4ands and H!om4li!atesH
or 4er!e4tal 4ro!ess in the ri!h se o, meta4hors. similes and ajiostjr,
ojijer ,i'res o, s4ee!h$ H%e,amiliari5ationH is dead wron'M
&nd so. a,ter some re,le!tion. I de!ided to !oin the word Henstran'e.H
Henstran'ement.H bilt on the same !o'nate root$ Fhile 4ositive ;see other
en- 4re,iG words s!h as HenthrallH=. it is also stron'ly asso!iated with the
!onter4ointin' Hestran'e.H Hestran'ement$H
& ,inal word on the sbje!t8 The Rssians I talked to rea!ted to ostranit(
eGa!tly the way an &meri!an reader wold rea!t to Henstran'e.H that is.
they immediately assmed that it was a mis4rint ,or otstranit( ;that is. the
Rssian e?ivalent. ,or the sake o, this dis!ssion. o, Hestran'eH=$
THE TEST9 Theory of Prose was ori'inally 4blished in ():A in a book o,
arond ()* 4a'es. some o, whose !ha4ters had been 4reviosly 4blished
as jornal essays$ I have sele!ted the eG4anded ():) edition o, Theory of
Prose ;:A* 4a'es 4ls indeG= ,or the ,ollowin' reasons9 ;(= Dniversity
<i!ro,orms In!$ ;&nn &rbor= !hose the ():) edition ,or its 4hoto!o4y
edition. available in many libraries$ ;:= &rdis Press. the ,amos Rssian
4blisher also in &nn &rbor. !hose the ():) edition ,or its ,a!simile re4rint
in ()B($ ;0= Fhile mentionin' both editions. Vi!tor Erli!h. an athority on
Formalism. shows an a44arent 4re,eren!e ,or the ():) edition )+ussian
,ormalism. /istory and Doctrine*.
PREVIODS TR&@S#&TIO@S9 I wold like to a!knowled'e the work o, others who
have hel4ed to sha4e my a44roa!h to Shklovsky$ First. I wold like to
mention the 4ioneerin' work o, Ri!hard Sheldon and Robert Sherwood$
Tho'h 4roblemati! in 4la!es. their 4blished translations to date
On the other hand. #emon and Reis are 4ro,essional. l!id and e
and I ho4e IEve mat!hed their 4assionate !ommitment with
@atrally. or terms o,ten di,,er. bt that is inevitable in translatin
as !hallen'in' as Shklovsky$
JDOT&TIO@S9 &ll translations ,rom Rssian teGts are mine nless otherwise
noted$ For other non1En'lish works. standard translations have been sed
and translators !redited$ &ltho'h <otteGEs baro?e translation o, Don
Quixote is no lon'er !onsidered standard. IEve sed it be!ase it has a
ma'ni,i!en!e and nobility I ,ind irresistible$
TR&@S#ITER&TIO@9 Rssian names have been transliterated a!!ordin' to the
system sed in Vi!tor TerrasEs /andboo0 of +ussian "iterature ;Yale
Dniversity Press. ()/A=$ This eG!ellent re,eren!e book also served as the
athority ,or book titles. names o, !hara!ters. literary terms. and En'lish
versions o, ntranslated Rssian works$
&-I@OF#E%"<E@TS9 I wish to eG4ress my dee4 a44re!iation to So4hia and
<is!ha Iky. ori'inally ,rom the Soviet Dnion. ,or their kind.
nsel,ish hel4 over many years$
<y heart,elt 'ratitde to my two se!retaries who believed in me and in
my 4roje!t and who 'ave o, their very best9 -elia Brewer. whose 4assion ,or
literatre and s!holarly resear!h were absoltely indis4ensable. and
Keanette Hornot. whose 4ro,essional eG4ertise and ineGhastible 4atien!e
made it all 4ossible$ <y thanks also to Peter "allim. who did a 'reat job as a
ty4ist in the ,irst 4hase o, the 4roje!t$
<y dee4 thanks to Kean #aves Hellie o, -hi!a'o. an eG4ert on early
twentieth1!entry Rssian literatre. ,or her eGtraordinary 'enerosity in
sharin' with me her erdition and insi'ht$
<y thanks to @atasha Ramer o, Tlane Dniversity. a native o, the Soviet
Dnion. ,or her nsel,ish assistan!e. 4atien!e and nderstandin'$
<y dee4 a44re!iation to <s$ Nit5elsber'er and her Rssian sta,, at the
@ew York Pbli! #ibrary ,or their s4lendid assistan!e. knowled'eability
and immense 4atien!e$
<y thanks to <s$ &rthr and the Rssian sta,, at HarvardEs Fidener
#ibrary ,or their invalable and nsel,ish hel4$
<y dee4 thanks to the Baker Street Irre'lars. es4e!ially <r$ Kohn
Bennet Shaw o, Santa Fe and <r$ Peter Bla o, Fashin'ton. %$-$. Sher1
lo!k Holmes eG4erts. ,or their enthsiasti!. nsel,ish resear!h into the
ar!ane mysteries o, the Sherlo!k Holmes !anon and a4o!ry4ha$ <y 'rati1
tde also to Frederi!k Pa'e and Kayne Stanton o, &nn &rbor. <i!hi'an$
Thanks to their ma'ni,i!ent work. the Sherlo!k Holmes re,eren!es are all
!om4lete$
<y thanks to Pro,$ FeliG Oinas o, Indiana Dniversity ,or his assistan!e
xx Theory of Prose
demonstrate how maddenin'ly elsive Shklovsky !an be$
On the other hand. #emon and Reis are 4ro,essional. l!id and em4athi!
E hd t h i it ommitmet ith my ownE
' a writer
Translator(s Introduction xxi
with some o, the more obs!re as4e!ts o, Rssian ,olk tales$
<y thanks to Pro,$ &ndy Horton o, the Dniversity o, @ew Orleans ,or
sharin' his Rssian materials with me$
<y 4ro,ond 4ersonal and 4ro,essional debt to Robert Olivier ;Olive Tree
Booksho4= and -arey Be!kham ;Be!khamEs Booksho4= o, @ew Orleans
'oes ba!k many. many years$ &lways 'eneros with time and money and
books. they have !onsistently shown their en!ora'ement. s44ort and
loyalty$
<y thanks also to the ,ollowin'9
Emilia Resende. ,or 'oin' ot o, her way to borrow r'ently needed
materials ,rom Tlane Dniversity$
Kstin Finston. ,or his immense store o, knowled'e and analyti!al
a!men$
Keremy <a!halek. ,or his 'reat intelli'en!e and analyti!al abilities$
#inda Hber. ,or her devotion and en!ora'ement$
%ebbie Ia,man. ,or her 4roo,readin' and enthsiasm$
Tom Hardin. ,or his ntirin' en!ora'ement and wise !onsel$
-hannin' and -arolyn Hardin. ,or their n?estionin' love and s44ort$
Sam. %vora and Ilanit To,. brother1in1law. sister and nie!e. res4e!1
tively. o, <elborne. &stralia. ,or their enthsiasti! s44ort and
en!ora'ement drin' many lean years$ S4e!ial thanks to Sam To, ,or
4rovidin' me with my Panasoni! word 4ro!essor. withot whi!h. as we all
know. this 4roje!t wold have never 'otten o,, the 'rond$
Helen Sher. my mother. o, @ew Orleans. who has ke4t me 'oin' year
a,ter year in her own s4e!ial way as lon' as I !an remember$
Finally. my thanks to <r$ Kohn OEBrien and the sta,, at %alkey &r!hive
Press ,or their ,aith. dedi!ation. meti!losness and eGem4lary 4ro,es1
sionalism$ <r$ OEBrien 'ided this 4roje!t to its ha44y !on!lsion with a
,irm bt 'entle hand$
-hapter 1
&rt as %evi!e
H&RT IS THI@II@" I@ I<&"ES$H This 4hrase may even be heard ,rom the moth
o, a ly!ee stdent$ It serves as the 4oint o, de4artre ,or the a!ademi!
4hilolo'ist who is makin' his ,irst stab at ,ormlatin' a theory o,literatre$
This idea. ,irst 4ro4onded. amon' others. by Potebnya. has 4ermeated the
!ons!iosness o, many$ In 2otes on the Theory of "iterature he says9
HThere is no art withot ima'ery. es4e!ially in 4oetry$H H#ike 4rose. 4oetry
is. ,irst and ,oremost. a mode o, thinkin' and knowin'$H
Poetry is a s4e!ial mode o, thinkin'>to be 4re!ise. a mode o, thinkin' in
ima'es$ This mode entails a !ertain e!onomy o, mental e,,ort that makes s
H,eel the relative ease o, the 4ro!ess$H The aestheti! sense is a !onse?en!e
o, this e!onomy$ This is how a!ademi!ian Ovsyaniko1Ilikovsky nder1
stands it. and his re!a4itlation o, this theory. based as it was on his tea!her.
whose works he had stdied with 'reat !are. was in all likelihood ?ite
a!!rate$ Potebnya and the nmeros members o, his movement !onsider
4oetry to be a s4e!ial ,orm o, thinkin' ;i$e$. o, thinkin' with the aid o,
ima'es=$ The raison dEetre o, the ima'e !onsists. in their o4inion. in hel4in'
to or'ani5e hetero'eneos obje!ts and a!tions into 'ro4s$ &nd the
nknown is eG4lained thro'h the known$ Or. in PotebynaEs words9
The relationshi4 o, the ima'e to that whi!h is eG4lained by means o, it may take
one o, two ,orms9 ;a= either the ima'e serves as a !onstant 4redi!ate to a s!!ession
o, ever1!han'in' sbje!ts>a 4ermanent means o, attra!tin' !han'eable 4er!e4ts.
or else ;b= the ima'e is m!h sim4ler and !learer than that whi!h is to be eG4lained$
Ths. Hsin!e the 4r4ose o, ima'ery is to brin' the si'ni,i!an!e o, the ima'e
!loser to or nderstandin'. and sin!e. withot this. an ima'e has no mean1
in'. then. the ima'e o'ht to be better known to s than that whi!h is
eG4lained by it$H
It wold be interestin' to a44ly this law to Tyt!hevEs !om4arison o,
smmer li'htnin' with dea,1and1dmb demons or to "o'olEs simile o, the
sky as the raiments o, the #ord$
HThere is no art withot ima'es$H H&rt is thinkin' in ima'es$H Enormos
ener'y has been 4t into inter4retin' msi!. ar!hite!tre. and son' alon'
the lines o, literatre$ &,ter a ?arter o, a !entry o, e,,ort. Ovsyaniko1
Ilikovsky has ,inally re!o'ni5ed the need ,or a s4e!ial !ate'ory o, non1
ima'isti! art en!om4assin' son'. ar!hite!tre. and msi!$ Se4aratin' them
3 Theory of Prose
,rom literatre. he de,ines this !ate'ory as that o, the lyri!al arts. whose
essen!e lies in a s4ontaneos 4lay o, the emotions$ &nd so it has trned ot
that at least one h'e !hnk o, art is not sbje!t to the ima'isti! mode o,
thinkin'$ &nd one o, these ;i$e$. the son'= resembles. nonetheless
Hima'isti!H art9 it too deals with words$ Fhat is even more im4ortant
ima'isti! art 4asses im4er!e4tibly into non1ima'isti! art$ &nd yet or
4er!e4tions o, them are similar$
Still. the assertion thatH &rt is thinkin' in ima'es.H and there,ore ;leavin'
ot the intervenin' ste4s known to everyone= the 4ro4osition that art is the
!reator. above all. o, symbols. has 4ersisted to this day. havin' srvived the
!olla4se o, the theory on whi!h it is based$ It is 4arti!larly very m!h alive
in the Symbolist movement. es4e!ially amon' its theoreti!ians$
-onse?ently. many 4eo4le still believe that thinkin' in ima'es ;i$e$. in
H4aths and shades.H H,rrows and bondariesH= is the distin'ishin'
,eatre o, 4oetry$ There,ore. these 4eo4le mst have eG4e!ted the history o,
this Hima'isti!H art. to se their own words. to !onsist o, the !han'es in the
history o, the ima'e$ It trns ot. however. that ima'es endre and last$
From !entry to !entry. ,rom !ontry to !ontry. ,rom 4oet to 4oet. these
ima'es mar!h on withot !han'e$ They belon' to Hno one$H eG!e4t 4erha4s
to H"od$H The more yo try to eG4lain an e4o!h. the more yo are !on1
vin!ed that the ima'es yo tho'ht were !reated by a 'iven 4oet were. in
reality. 4assed on to him by others with hardly a !han'e$ The work o,
s!!essive s!hools o, 4oetry has !onsisted essentially in a!!mlatin' and
makin' known new devi!es o, verbal arran'ement and or'ani5ation$ In
4arti!lar. these s!hools o, 4oetry are ,ar more !on!erned with the dis4osi 1
tion than with the !reation o, ima'ery$ In 4oetry. where ima'ery is a 'iven$
the artist does not so m!h HthinkH in ima'es as Hre!olle!tH them$ In any
!ase. it is not ima'isti! thinkin' that nites the di,,erent arts or even the
di,,erent ,orms o, verbal art$ &nd it is not the !han'es in ima'ery that
!onstitte the essential dynami!s o, 4oetry$
Fe know o, !ases where we stmble onto a 4oeti! somethin' that was
never meant. ori'inally. to serve as an obje!t o, aestheti! !ontem4lation$
For eGam4le. we may 4oint to &nnenskyEs o4inion !on!ernin' the s4e!ial
4oeti! !hara!ter o, -hr!h Slavoni! or to &ndrei BelyEs ra4tre over the
4ra!ti!e by ei'hteenth1!entry Rssian 4oets o, 4la!in' the adje!tive a,ter
the non$ Bely raves abot this as i, there were somethin' intrinsi!ally
artisti! abot it$ Or. more 4re!isely. Bely 'oes beyond this in assmin' that
this artisti! ?ality is also intentional$ In ,a!t. tho'h. this is nothin' bt a
'eneral 4e!liarity o, the 'iven lan'a'e ;the in,len!e o, -hr!h Slavoni!=$
In this way a work may be either !reated as 4rose and eG4erien!ed as 4oetry.
or else !reated as 4oetry and eG4erien!ed as 4rose$ This 4oints ot the ,a!t
that the artisti! ?ality o, somethin'. its relationshi4 to 4oetry. is a reslt o,
or mode o, 4er!e4tion$ In a narrow sense we shall !all a work artisti! i, it
has been !reated by s4e!ial devi!es whose 4r4ose is to see to it that these
arti,a!ts are inter4reted artisti!ally as m!h as 4ossible$
Art as De'ice 4
On the basis o, PotebnyaEs !on!lsion. whi!h asserts that 4oetry e?als
ima'ery. a whole theory has arisen de!larin' ,rther that ima'ery e?als
symbolism$ This 4res44oses that an ima'e is !a4able o, servin' as a
!onstant 4redi!ate to a s!!ession o, !han'eable sbje!ts$ This !on!lsion.
lyin' at the heart o, the Symbolist movement. has sed!ed. by virte o, its
kinshi4 o, ideas. s!h writers as &ndrei Bely and <ere5hkovsky with his
Heternal !om4anions$H This !on!lsion ,lows 4artly ,rom the ,a!t that
Potebyna did not distin'ish the lan'a'e o, 4oetry ,rom the lan'a'e o,
4rose$ Thanks to this he has ,ailed to noti!e that there eGist two ty4es o,
ima'ery9 ima'ery as a 4ra!ti!al way o, thinkin'. that is. as a means o,
nitin' obje!ts in 'ro4s. and. se!ondly. ima'ery as a way o, intensi,yin'
the im4ressions o, the senses$ #et me illstrate$ IEm walkin' alon' the street
and I see a man walkin' ahead o, me wearin' a hat$ Sddenly. he dro4s a
4a!ka'e$ ( !all ot to him9 HHey. yo with the hat. yo dro44ed a 4a!ka'eMH
This is an eGam4le o, a 4rely 4rosai! se o, an ima'e$ & se!ond eGam4le$
Several men are standin' at attention$ The 4latoon leader noti!es that one
o, the men is standin' awkwardly. a'ainst army re'lations$ So he yells at
him9 HHey. !lean 4 yor a!t. yo !rm4led hatMH This ima'e is a 4oeti!
tro4e$ ;In one !ase the word hat serves as a metonymy. while in the other
eGam4le weEre dealin' with a meta4hor$ &nd yet IEm really !on!erned here
with somethin' else$=
& 4oeti! ima'e is one o, the means by whi!h a 4oet delivers his 'reatest
im4a!t$ Its role is e?al to other 4oeti! devi!es. e?al to 4arallelism. both
sim4le and ne'ative. e?al to the simile. to re4etition. to symmetry. to
hy4erbole. e?al. 'enerally s4eakin'. to any other ,i're o, s4ee!h. e?al to
all these means o, intensi,yin' the sensation o, thin's ;this Hthin'H may well
be nothin' more than the words or even jst the sonds o, the literary work
itsel,=$ Still. the 4oeti! ima'e bears only a s4er,i!ial resemblan!e to the
,airy1tale ima'e or to the tho'ht ima'e ;see Ovsyaniko1Ilikovsky in
"an5ua5e and Art where a yon' 'irl !alls a rond s4here a Hwater 1
melonH=$ The 4oeti! ima'e is an instrment o, the 4oeti! lan'a'e. while the
4rose ima'e is a tool o, abstra!tion9 the watermelon instead o, the rond
lam4shade or the watermelon instead o, the head is nothin' more than an
a!t o, abstra!tin' ,rom an obje!t and is in no way to be distin'ished ,rom
head T s4here or watermelon T s4here$ This is indeed a ,orm o, thinkin'.
bt it has nothin' to do with 4oetry$
The law 'overnin' the e!onomy o, !reative e,,ort also belon's to a 'ro4 o,
laws taken ,or 'ranted by everyone$ Here is what Herbert S4en!er says9
On seekin' ,or some !le to the law nderlyin' these !rrent maGims. we may see
shadowed ,orth in many o, them. the im4ortan!e o, e!onomi5in' the readerEs or the
hearerEs attention$ To so 4resent ideas that they may be a44rehended with the least
4ossible mental e,,ort. is the desideratm towards whi!h most o, the rles above
?oted 4oint$ $ $ $ Hen!e. !arryin' ot the meta4hor that lan'a'e is the vehi!le o,
tho'ht. there seems reason to think that in all !ases the ,ri!tion and inertia o, the
6 Theory of Prose
vehi!le ded!t ,rom its e,,i!ien!y8 and that in !om4osition. the !hie,. i, not the sole
thin' to be done. is to red!e this ,ri!tion and inertia to the smallest 4ossible amont$
)The Philosophy of Style*
&nd Ri!hard &venaris writes9
I, the sol 4ossessed ineGhastible resor!es. then it wold be o, no moment to it.
o, !orse. how many o, these ineGhastible resor!es had a!tally been s4ent$ The
only thin' that wold matter wold be. 4erha4s. the time eG4ended$ However. sin!e
or resor!es are limited. we shold not be sr4rised to ,ind that the sol seeks to
!arry ot its 4er!e4tal a!tivity as 4r4ose,lly as 4ossible. i$e$. with. relatively
s4eakin'. the least eG4enditre o, ener'y 4ossible or. whi!h is the same. with.
relatively s4eakin'. the 'reatest reslt 4ossible$
By a mere allsion to the 'eneral law 'overnin' the e!onomy o, mental
e,,ort. Petra5hitsky dismisses KamesEs theory. in whi!h the latter 4resents
the !ase ,or the !or4oreal basis o, the a,,e!t$ The 4rin!i4le o, the e!onomy o,
!reative e,,ort. so sed!tive es4e!ially in the domain o, rhythm. was
a,,irmed by &leksandr Veselovsky$ Takin' S4en!erEs ideas to their !on!l1
sion. he said9 HThe merit o, a style !onsists 4re!isely in this9 that it delivers
the 'reatest nmber o, ideas in the ,ewest nmber o, words$H Even &ndrei
Bely. who. at his best. 'ave s so many ,ine eGam4les o, his own Hlaborios.H
im4edin' rhythm and who. !itin' eGam4les ,rom Baratynsky. 4ointed ot
the HlaboriosnessH o, 4oeti! e4ithets. ,ond it. nonetheless. ne!essary to
s4eak o, the law o, e!onomy in his book$ This work. re4resentin' a heroi!
attem4t to !reate a theory o, art. demonstrates BelyEs enormos !ommand
o, the devi!es o, 4oetry$ Dn,ortnately. it also rests on a body o, nveri,ied
,a!ts 'athered ,rom ot1o,1date books. in!ldin' Irayevi!hEs 4hysi!s teGt1
book. in ,ashion when he was a stdent at the ly!eEe$
The idea that an e!onomy o, e,,ort lies at the basis o, and 'overns the
!reative 4ro!ess may well hold tre in the H4ra!ti!alH domain o, lan'a'e$
However. these ideas. ,lorishin' in the 4revailin' !limate o, i'noran!e
!on!ernin' the natre o, 4oeti! !reation. were trans4lanted ,rom their
native soil in 4rose to 4oetry$
The dis!overy that there are sonds in the Ka4anese 4oeti! lan'a'e that
have no 4arallels in everyday Ka4anese was 4erha4s the ,irst ,a!tal indi!a1
tion that these two lan'a'es. that is. the 4oeti! and the 4ra!ti!al. do not
!oin!ide$ #$ P$ YakbinskyEs arti!le !on!ernin' the absen!e o, the law o,
dissimilation o, li?id sonds in the lan'a'e o, 4oetry. and. on the other
hand. the admission into the lan'a'e o, 4oetry. as 4ointed ot by the
athor. o, a !on,len!e o, similar sonds that are di,,i!lt to 4ronon!e
;!orroborated by s!ienti,i! resear!h=. !learly 4oint. at least in this !ase. to
the ,ndamental o44osition o, the laws 'overnin' the 4ra!ti!al and 4oeti!
ses o, lan'a'e$
For that reason we have to !onsider the ?estion o, ener'y eG4enditre
and e!onomy in 4oetry. not by analo'y with 4rose. bt on its own terms$
I, we eGamine the 'eneral laws o, 4er!e4tion. we see that as it be!omes
Art as De'ice
habital. it also be!omes atomati!$ So eventally all o, or skills and
eG4erien!es ,n!tion n!ons!iosly>atomati!ally$ I, someone were to
!om4are the sensation o, holdin' a 4en in his hand or s4eakin' a ,orei'n
ton'e ,or Ihe very ,irst time with the sensation o, 4er,ormin' this same
o4eration ,or the ten thosandth time. then he wold no dobt a'ree with s$
It is this 4ro!ess o, atomati5ation that eG4lains the laws o, or 4rose
s4ee!h with its ,ra'mentary 4hrases and hal,1arti!lated words$
The ideal eG4ression o, this 4ro!ess may be said to take 4la!e in al'ebra.
where obje!ts are re4la!ed by symbols$ In the ra4id1,ire ,low o, !onversa1
tional s4ee!h. words are not ,lly arti!lated$ The ,irst sonds o, names
hardly enter or !ons!iosness$ In "an5ua5e as A rt Po'odin tells o, a boy
who re4resented the senten!e H#es monta'nes de la Sisse sont bellesH in
the ,ollowin' se?en!e o, initial letters9 " m d I S s b.
This abstra!tive !hara!ter o, tho'ht s''ests not only the method o,
al'ebra bt also the !hoi!e o, symbols ;letters and. more 4re!isely. initial
letters=$ By means o, this al'ebrai! method o, thinkin'. obje!ts are 'ras4ed
s4atially. in the blink o, an eye$ Fe do not see them. we merely re!o'ni5e
them by their 4rimary !hara!teristi!s$ The obje!t 4asses be,ore s. as i, it
were 4re4a!ka'ed$ Fe know that it eGists be!ase o, its 4osition in s4a!e.
bt we see only its sr,a!e$ "radally. nder the in,len!e o, this 'enerali51
in' 4er!e4tion. the obje!t ,ades away$ This is as tre o,or 4er!e4tion o, the
obje!t in a!tion as o, mere 4er!e4tion itsel,$ It is 4re!isely this 4er!e4tal
!hara!ter o, the 4rose word that eG4lains why it o,ten rea!hes or ears in
,ra'mentary ,orm ;see the arti!le by #$ P$ Yakbinsky=$ This ,a!t also
a!!onts ,or m!h dis!ord in mankind ;and ,or all manner o, sli4s o, the
ton'e=$ In the 4ro!ess o, al'ebri5in'. o, atomati5in' the obje!t. the
'reatest e!onomy o, 4er!e4tal e,,ort takes 4la!e$ Obje!ts are re4resented
either by one sin'le !hara!teristi! ;,or eGam4le. by nmber=. or else by a
,ormla that never even rises to the level o, !ons!iosness$ -onsider the
,ollowin' entry in TolstoiEs diary9
&s I was walkin' arond dstin' thin's o,Fin my room. I !ame to the so,a$ For ihe
li,e o, me. I !oldnEt re!all whether I had already dsted it o,, or not$ Sin!e these
movements are habital and n!ons!ios. I ,elt that it was already im4ossible to
remember it$ I, I had in ,a!t dsted the so,a and ,or'otten that I had done so. i$e$$ i,
I had a!ted n!ons!iosly. then this is tantamont to not havin' done it at all$ I,
someone had seen me doin' this !ons!iosly. then it mi'ht have been 4ossible to
restore this in my mind$ I,. on the other hand. no one had been observin' me or
observin' me only n!ons!iosly. i, the !om4leG li,e o, many 4eo4le takes 4la!e
entirely on the level o, the n!ons!ios. then itEs as i, this li,e had never been$ ;:)
Febrary 3i$e$. ( <ar!hU (/)B=
&nd so. held a!!ontable ,or nothin'. li,e ,ades into nothin'ness$
&tomati5ation eats away at thin's. at !lothes. at ,rnitre. at or wives.
and at or ,ear o, war$
I, the !om4leG li,e o, many 4eo4le takes 4la!e entirely on the level o, the
n!ons!ios. then itEs as i, this li,e had never been$
7 Theory of Prose
&nd so. in order to retrn sensation to or limbs. in order to make s ,eel
obje!ts. to make a stone ,eel stony. man has been 'iven the tool o, art$ The
4r4ose o, art. then. is to lead s to a knowled'e o, a thin' thro'h the or'an
o, si'ht instead o, re!o'nition$ By Henstran'in'H obje!ts and !om4li!atin'
,orm. the devi!e o, art makes 4er!e4tion lon' and Hlaborios$H The 4er1
!e4tal 4ro!ess in art has a 4r4ose all its own and o'ht to be eGtended to
the ,llest$ Art is a means of experiencin5 the process of creati'ity. The
artifact itself is 8uite unimportant.
The li,e o, a 4oem ;and o, an arti,a!t= 4ro!eeds ,rom vision to re!o'nition
,rom 4oetry to 4rose. ,rom the !on!rete to the 'eneral. ,rom %on JiGoteM
the s!holarly and 4oor aristo!rat endrin' hal,1!ons!iosly his hmiliation
at !ort. to Tr'enevEs broad and hollow %on JiGote. ,rom -harlema'ne
to -harles the Fat$ &s the work o, art dies. it be!omes broader9 the ,able is
more symboli! than a 4oem and a 4roverb is more symboli! than a ,able$
For that reason. PotebnyaEs theory is least sel,1!ontradi!tory in its analysis
o, the ,able. whi!h. he believed. he had investi'ated thoro'hly$ &las. his
theory never dealt with the HeternalH works o, ima'inative literatre$ That
a!!onts ,or the ,a!t that Potebnya never did !om4lete his book$ &s is well
known. 2otes on the Theory of "iterature was 4blished in ()*A. thirteen
years a,ter the athorEs death$ Potebnya himsel, had mana'ed to work ot
,lly only the se!tion on the ,able$
&,ter bein' 4er!eived several times. obje!ts a!?ire the stats o, Hre!o'1
nition$H &n obje!t a44ears be,ore s$ Fe know itEs there bt we do not see
it. and. ,or that reason. we !an say nothin' abot it$ The removal o, this
obje!t ,rom the s4here o, atomati5ed 4er!e4tion is a!!om4lished in art by a
variety o, means$ I wish to 4oint ot in this !ha4ter one o, the devi!es sed
almost !onstantly by Tolstoi$ It is <ere5hkovskyEs belie, that Tolstoi
4resents thin's as he sees them with his eyes withot ever !han'in' them$
The devi!es by whi!h Tolstoi enstran'es his material may be boiled
down to the ,ollowin'9 he does not !all a thin' by its name. that is$ he
des!ribes it as i, it were 4er!eived ,or the ,irst time. while an in!ident is
des!ribed as i, it were ha44enin' ,or the ,irst time$ In addition. he ,ore'oes
the !onventional names o, the varios 4arts o, a thin'. re4la!in' them instead
with the names o, !orres4ondin' 4arts in other thin's$ #et me demonstrate
this with an eGam4le$ In HShameH Tolstoi enstran'es the idea o, ,lo''in' by
des!ribin' 4eo4le who. as 4nishment ,or violatin' the law. had been
stri44ed. thrown down on the ,loor. and beaten with swit!hes$ & ,ew lines
later he re,ers to the 4ra!ti!e o, whi44in' their behinds$ In a note on this
4assa'e. Tolstoi asks9 HKst why this st4id. sava'e method o, in,li!tin' 4ain
and no other9 s!h as 4ri!kin' the sholder or some s!h other 4art o, the
body with needles. s?ee5in' somebodyEs hands or ,eet in a vise. et!$H
I a4olo'i5e ,or the harshness o, this eGam4le bt it is ty4i!al o, the way
Tolstoi rea!hes or !ons!ien!e$ The sal method o, ,lo''in' is enstran'ed
by a des!ri4tion that !han'es its ,orm withot !han'in' its essen!e$ Tolstoi
!onstantly makes se o, this method o, enstran'ement$
Art as De'ice
In HIholstomer.H where the story is told ,rom the 4oint o, view o, a horse.
the obje!ts are enstran'ed not by or 4er!e4tion bt by that o, the horse$
Here is how the horse views the instittion o, 4ro4erty9
Fhat they were sayin' abot ,lo''in' and abot -hristianity I nderstood very
well$ Bt I was !om4letely mysti,ied by the meanin' o, the 4hrase 9m' !oltH or H7itEs
!olt$EH I !old see that hmans 4res44osed a s4e!ial relationshi4 between me and
the stable$ Fhat the natre o, that relationshi4 was I !old not ,athom at the time$
Only m!h later. when I was se4arated ,rom the other horses. did I nderstand what
all this meant$ &t that time. however. I !oldnEt 4ossibly nderstand what it meant
when I heard mysel, !alled by 4eo4le as the 4ro4erty o, a hman bein'$ The words
Hmv horseH re,erred to me. a livin' horse. and this seemed to me jst as stran'e as
the words Hmy land.H Hmy airH or Hmy water$H
&nd yet. these words had an enormos im4a!t on me$ I tho'ht abot this ni'ht
and day. and it was only a,ter many diverse !onta!ts with hmans that I learned at
last the si'ni,i!an!e o, these stran'e words$ The 'ist is this9 Peo4le are 'ided in
their li,e not by deeds bt by words$ They love not so m!h the o44ortnity o, doin'
;or not doin'= somethin' as the !han!e to talk abot a host o, thin's in the 4ossessive
lan'a'e so !stomary amon' them9 my book. my hose. my land. et!$ I saw that
they a44lied this HmyH to a whole 'amt o, thin's. !reatres and obje!ts. in ,a!t.
even to 4eo4le. to horses. to the earth itsel,$ They have made a !om4a!t amon' them1
selves that only one 4erson shall say HmyH to any one thin'$ &nd. in a!!ordan!e
with the rles o, this 'ame. he who !old say HmyH abot the 'reatest nmber o,
thin's wold be !onsidered to be the ha44iest o, men$ Fhy this is so I donEt know.
bt it is so$ For a lon' time I tried to see in this some dire!t bene,it to me. bt in the
,inal analysis. it all seemed so njst$
<any o, the 4eo4le. ,or eGam4le. who !all me their horse did not ride on me$
Others did$ These same 4eo4le never ,ed me$ Others did$ On!e a'ain. I was shown
many kindnesses. bt not by those who !alled me their horse$ @o. by !oa!hmen.
veterinarians and stran'ers o, all sorts$ &s my observations 'rew. tho'h. I be!ame
in!reasin'ly !onvin!ed that this !on!e4t o, mine was invalid not only ,or s horses
bt also ,or hman ,olk. i$e$. that it re4resents nothin' more than manEs base and
beastly instin!t to !laim 4ro4erty ,or himsel,$ & landlord. ,or instan!e. says Hmy
hoseH bt never lives in it. !on!ernin' himsel, only with the str!tre and main1
tenan!e o, the hose$ & mer!hant says Hmy sho4.H Hmy !lothin' sho4.H yet he
himsel, does not wear any !lothes made ,rom the ,ine material dis4layed in it$
There are 4eo4le who !all a 4ie!e o, land theirs bt have never laid eyes on it nor
walked it$ There are 4eo4le who !all other 4eo4le theirs. bt who have never seen
them$ &nd their entire !onta!t with these 4eo4le !onsists o, doin' them evil$
There are 4eo4le who !all women HtheirsH or HtheirH wives. yet these women live
with other men$ &nd 4eo4le do not as4ire to do 'ood$ @o. they dream o, namin' as
many obje!ts as 4ossible as )heir o:n.
#eavin' aside other 'ood reasons ,or or s4eriority. I am now !onvin!ed that
what distin'ishes s ,rom hmans and 'ives s the ri'ht to !laim a hi'her 4la!e on
the ladder o, livin' !reatres is sim4ly this9 that the hman s4e!ies is 'ided. above
all. by :ords while ors is 'ided by deeds.
The horse is killed o,, lon' be,ore the end o, the story. bt the mode o,
tellin' the story. its devi!e. does not !han'e9
4
d' 4
ni,orm a
Fe see by the end o, this story that Tolstoi !ontines to make se o, this
devi!e even when no motivation ,or it eGists$
In $ar and Peace Tolstoi des!ribes battles sin' the same devi!e$ They
are all 4resented. above all. in their stran'eness$ Dn,ortnately. I !annot
o,,er any ,ll eGam4les. be!ase this wold re?ire eG!er4tin' a lar'e
4ortion o, the monmental novel$ However. a des!ri4tion o, the salons and
the theater will s,,i!e ,or the moment9
#evel boards were s4read ot in the !enter o, the sta'e$ &lon' the win's stood
4ainted 4i!tres de4i!tin' trees$ Behind them. a !anvas was stret!hed on boards$ In
the middle o, the sta'e sat yon' 'irls in red bodi!es and white skirts$ One yon' 'irl.
very ,at. and attired in white silk. was sittin' se4arately on a low ben!h to whi!h a
'reen !ardboard was atta!hed ,rom behind$ They were all sin'in' somethin'$ Fhen
they ,inished sin'in'. the yon' 'irl in white walked over to the 4rom4terEs boG and a
man in ti'ht1,ittin' silken hose on his ,at le's a44roa!hed her. s4ortin' a 4lme.
s4read his arms in des4air and be'an sin'in'$ The man in ti'ht1,ittin' hose san'
alone. then she san'$ Then they both ,ell silent. the msi! roared. and the man be'an
,in'erin' the hand o, the yon' 'irl dressed in white. evidently waitin' a'ain ,or his
tm to join her in son'$ &,ter their det. everyone in the theater a44laded and
shoted$ "esti!latin'. the lovers then smiled and bowed to the adien!e$
The se!ond a!t in!lded s!enes de4i!tin' monments$ The moon and stars
4ee4ed in thro'h holes in the !anvas and lam4shades were raised in ,rames$ Then.
to the sond o, bass horns and doble basses. hordes o, men rshed onto the sta'e
s4ortin' bla!k mantles and brandishin' what looked like da''ers$ Then still others
ran 4 and started 4llin' on the arm o, a yon' 'irl$ %ressed earlier in white. she
was now dressed in a li'ht ble dress$ They did not dra' her o,, ri'ht away$ First.
they joined her in a son' ,or what seemed like a very lon' time$ &t lon' last. a,ter
whiskin' her o,,. they str!k three times on some metalli! obje!t o,,sta'e$ Then.
everyone ,ell on his knees and be'an sin'in' a 4rayer$ Several times the a!tions o,
the 4rota'onists were interr4ted by the enthsiasti! s!reams o, the adien!e$
So also in the third a!t9
$ $ $ Bt sddenly a storm broke ot and in the or!hestra yo !old hear the
!hromati! s!ales and diminished seventh !hords and they all ran 4 and dra''ed
another o, the !hara!ters o,,sta'e as the !rtain ,ell$
; Theory of Prose
<!h later. they dm4ed Ser4khovskyEs body into the 'rond$ He had walk rt
the earth$ He had drnk and eaten o, it$ @either his skin nor ,lesh nor bones were o,
any se to anybody$
For twenty years. this dead body walkin' the earth was a 'reat brden to everyone$
@ow. the dm4in' o, this body seemed like another hardshi4 to others He no
lon'er o, any se to anyone and !old no lon'er !ase anyone any 'rie,$ @ever
theless. the dyin' who bried the dead had ,ond it ne!essary to dress 4 this bloated
body. whi!h was abot to rot. in a dress ni,orm and to lower him. with his 'ood
boots on. into a ,ine !o,,in adorned with new tassels at the ,or !orners$ They then
4t this new !o,,in into another !o,,in made o, lead. took it to <os!ow. where they
' 4 an!ient hman bones and bried this body in,ested with worms in its new
ni,orm and 4olished boots$ Then they 4ored earth all over his !o,,in
!ient hman bones and bried this body in,ested with worms in
nd 4olished boots$ Then they 4ored earth all over his !o,,in$
Art as De'ice
Or in the ,orth a!t9
There was a !ertain devil on the sta'e who san'. with arms ots4read. ntil
someone 4lled the board ,rom nder him and he ,ell thro'h$
Tolstoi des!ribes the !ity and !ort in +esurrection in the same way$
Similarly. he asks o, the marria'e in The <reut=er Sonata. HFhy shold
two 4eo4le who are sol mates slee4 to'etherLH
Bt the devi!e o, enstran'ement was not sed by Tolstoi to enstran'e
only those thin's he s!orned9
Pierre 'ot 4 and walked away ,rom his new ,riends and made his way amon'
!am4 ,ires to the other side o, the road where. as he had been told. the !a4tive
soldiers stayed$ He wanted to have a little talk with them$ On the way. a Fren!h
sentinel sto44ed him and ordered him to retrn$ Pierre retrned. bt not to the !am4
,ire. not to his ,riends. bt to an nharnessed !arria'e that stood somewhat a4art$
-ross1le''ed and with his head lowered. he sat on the !old earth by the wheels o, the
!arria'e and tho'ht ,or a lon' time withot movin'$ <ore than an hor 4assed$
@o one distrbed him$ Sddenly. Pierre broke ot with a robst. 'ood1natred
la'h that was so lod that 4eo4le looked ba!k ,rom all dire!tions at this evidently
stran'e la'h$
HHa$ ha. ha7E Pierre la'hed and he be'an talkin' to himsel,9 HSo the soldier
woldnEt let me thro'h. ha. ha. haM They sei5ed me. blo!ked my way$ <e. <e$ <y
immortal sol$ Ha. ha. ha.H he !ontined la'hin' as tears rolled down his
!heeks$ $ $$
Pierre looked 4 at the sky. at the 4lay,l stars that were re!edin' into the
distan!e$ H&nd all o, this is mine and all o, this is within me and all o, this is me.H
Pierre tho'ht to himsel,$ H&nd they sei5ed all o, this and sht it o,, with boards$H
He smiled. retrned to his !omrades and went to slee4$
Everyone who knows Tolstoi well !an ,ind several hndred eGam4les o,
this sort$ His way o, seein' thin's ot o, their sal !onteGt is e?ally
evident in his last works. where he a44lies the devi!e o, enstran'ement to
his des!ri4tion o, the do'mas and ritals he had been investi'atin'$ He
rej4la!es the !stomary terms sed by the OrthodoG -hr!h with ordinary.
down1to1earth words$ Fhat reslts is somethin' stran'e. somethin' mon1
stros whi!h was taken by many>?ite sin!erely. I mi'ht add>as a ,orm
o, blas4hemy. !asin' them 'reat 4ain$ &nd yet this is the same devi!e that
Tolstoi a44lied to his 4er!e4tions and des!ri4tions o, the world arond him$
TolstoiEs ,aith was shattered by his 4er!e4tions$ He was !on,rontin' that
whi!h he had been tryin' to evade ,or a lon' time$
The devi!e o, enstran'ement is not 4e!liar to Tolstoi$ I illstrated it with
eGam4les ,rom his work ,or 4rely 4ra!ti!al !onsiderations. that is. sim4ly
be!ase his work is known to everyone$
Havin' delineated this literary devi!e. let s now determine the limits o,
its a44li!ation more 4re!isely$ In mv ,t 4ini4n$ enstrPneement !an be ,ond
$almost anywheG'P-ltS1i wherever there is an ima'e =$
Fhat distin'ishes or 4oint o, view ,rom that o, Potebnya may be
1> Theory of Prose
,ormlated as ,ollows9 The ima'e is not a !onstant sbje!t ,or !han'in'
4redi!ates$ The 4r4ose o, the ima'e is not to draw or nderstandin'
!loser to that whi!h this ima'e stands ,or. bt rather to allow s to 4er!eive
the obje!t in a s4e!ial way. in short. to lead s to a HvisionH o, this obje!t
rather than mere Hre!o'nition$H
The 4r4ose o, ima'ery may be most !learly ,ollowed in eroti! art$ The
eroti! obje!t is here !ommonly 4resented as somethin' seen ,or the very
,irst time$ -onsider. ,or eGam4le. "o'olEs H-hristmas EveH9
Then he moved !loser to her. !o'hed. let ot a la'h. to!hed her eG4osed. ,ll
arm and said in a voi!e that eG4ressed both !nnin' and sel,1satis,a!tion9
H&nd whatEs that yo have there. my s4lendid SolokhaLH Sayin' this. he took
several ste4s ba!k$
HFhat do yo meanL <y arm. Osi4 @iki,orovi!hMH Solokha answered$
H HmM Yor armM Heh. heh. henMH the se!retary. satis,ied with his o4enin' 'ambit.
said warmly and 4a!ed abot the room$
H&nd whatEs that yo have there. SolokhaL Fhy are yo tremblin'LH he said with
that same look in his eyes as he started ,or her a'ain and to!hed her ne!k li'htly
with his hand$ He then 4lled ba!k as be,ore$
H&s i, yo didnEt see. Osi4 @iki,orovi!hMH Solokha answered$ HItEs my ne!k and
on my ne!k there is a ne!kla!e$H
HHmM So there is a ne!kla!e on yor ne!kM Heh. heh. hehMH and the se!retary
a'ain 4a!ed 4 and down the room. wrin'in' his hands$ H&nd whatEs that yo have
there. my 4eerless SolokhaLH
Fho knows how ,ar the se!retary wold dare 'o with those lon' ,in'ers o, hisL
Or in HamsnEs /un5er. HTwo white mira!les showed thro'h her
blose$H
Or else eroti! obje!ts are de4i!ted alle'ori! ally. where the athorEs intent
is !learly somethin' ?ite other than a !on!e4tal nderstandin'$
Here belon's the des!ri4tion o, 4rivate 4arts in the ,orm o, a lo!k and key
;e$'$. in SavodnikovEs +iddles of the +ussian People* or in the !orres4ond1
in' 4arts o, a loom. or in the ,orm o, a bow and arrow. or in the 'ame o, rin's
and marlines4ikes$ Fe ,ind the latter in the traditional bylina ;,olk e4i!=
abot Stavyor. where the hsband ,ails to re!o'ni5e his wi,e. who has 4t on
the armor o, a bo'atyr ;,olk= heroine$ She 4oses the ,ollowin' riddle9
H%o yo remember. Stavyor. remember. dearL
How we strolled alon' the street when yon'.
How we 4layed rin's and Hs4ikes to'ether9
Yor marlines4ike was made o, silver$
Fhile my rin' was made o, 'old$
I wold hit the tar'et now and then
Bt 'ou str!k bllEs1eye every time $ $ $H
Stavyor. son o, "odinovi!h. says in trn9
HI have never 4layed marlines4ikes with yoMH
Vasilisa <ikli!hna ,ires ba!k. ?ote9
H %onEt yo remember. Stavyor. donEt yo re!all
An as De'ice 11
How we learned or al4habet to'ether9
<ine was -he silver inkwell. and yor 4en was 'olden
*
7 moistened yor 4en then and there.
Yes. I moistened it. all ri'ht. then and there$H
There is another version o, this bylina where a riddle is answered9
&t this 4oint the ,earsome ambassador Vasilyshka
Raised her dress all the way 4 to her navel$ &nd
behold. yon' Stavyor. the son o, "odinovi!h
Re!o'ni5ed the 'ilt1ed'ed rin' $ $ $
Bt enstran'ement is not a devi!e limited to the eroti! riddle>a e4he1
mism o, sorts$ It is also the ,ondation o, all riddles$ Every riddle either
de,ines and illstrates its sbje!t in words whi!h seem ina44ro4riate drin'
the tellin' o, it ;,or instan!e9 HFhat has two rin's with a nail in the middle o,
itLH= or else it re4resents a 4e!liar adio ,orm o, enstran'ement ;i$e$. a kind
o, mimi!ry9 9slon da 0ondri09 instead o, 9=aslon i 0onni09*.
Similarly. eroti! ima'es that are not riddles may also be a ,orm o,
enstran'ement$ I mean. o, !orse. the whole ran'e o, !olor,l obs!enities
asso!iated with the brles?e$ The devi!e o, enstran'ement is 4er,e!tly
!lear in the widely disseminated ima'e>a kind o, eroti! 4ose>in whi!h
bears and other animals ;or the devil. 4rom4ted by a di,,erent motivation ,or
non1re!o'nition= do not re!o'ni5e man$ Very ty4i!al is this tale o, non1
re!o'nition. one o, the ?reat +ussian Tales of )he Perm Pro'ince !olle!ted
by %$ S$ Nelenin9
& 4easant was !ltivatin' a ,ield with a 4iebald mare$ & bear a44roa!hes him and
asks9 HHey. brother$ Fho made this mare 4iebald ,or yoLH
HI mysel,. o, !orse.H the 4easant re4lied$
HReally. and howLH the bear ,ired ba!k$
H-ome on. let me make yo 4iebald too$H
The bear a'reed$
The 4easant tied the bearEs le's with a ro4e. removed the 4lo'hshare ,rom the
4lo'h. heated it in the ,ire. and o,, he went to a44ly it to the bearEs ,lanks$ This
s!or!hed his !oat to the very bone. makin' him 4iebald$ &,ter the 4easant ntied
him. the bear moved away and lay nder a tree$
& ma'4ie swoo4ed down on the 4easant to 4e!k at his ,lesh$ The 4easant sei5ed it
and broke one o, its le's$ The ma'4ie then ,lew o,, and sat down on the same tree
a'ainst whi!h the bear was restin'$
Finally. a horse,ly !ame alon' and sat on the mare and be'an bitin' it$ The
4easant sei5ed the horse,ly. shoved a sti!k 4 its behind. and let it 'o$ The horse,ly
,lew o,, and sat in the same tree where the ma'4ie and bear were re4osin'$
&ll three were restin' to'ether when the 4easantEs wi,e arrived on the s!ene with
her hsbandEs dinner$ &,ter eatin' his dinner in the o4en air. the 4easant beat his
wi,e. throwin' her re4eatedly to the 'rond$
Seein' this. the bear said to the ma'4ie and the horse,ly9 H<y "odM #ooks like
this 4easant is ot to make someone 4iebald a'ain$H H@o. no.H the ma'4ie
answered. Hno$ he wants to break someoneEs le'$H
13 Theory of Prose
HOh. no. ,ellows. yo 'ot it all wron'.H the horse,ly annon!ed solemnly9 H@ot at
all$ He wants to shove his sti!k 4 her behindMH
The similarity o, the enstran'ement devi!e here with its se by Tolstoi in
HIholstomerH is. I believe. ?ite obvios$
The enstran'ement o, the seGal a!t in literatre is ?ite ,re?ent$ For
eGam4le. in the Decameron Bo!!a!!io re,ers to Hthe s!ra4in' o, the
barrel.H EHthe !at!hin' o, the ni'htin'ale.H Hthe merry woolbeatin' workH
;the last ima'e is not de4loyed in the 4lot=$ Kst as ,re?ent is the enstran'e1
ment o, the seGal or'ans$
& whole series o, 4lots is bilt on Hnon1re!o'nition.H ,or eGam4le.
&,anasievEs Indecent Tales. The whole tale o, the HBash,l #adyH revolves
arond the ,a!t that the obje!t is never !alled by its 4ro4er name ;i$e$. it is
based on a 'ame o, non1re!o'nition=$ The same is tre o, On!hkovEs H&
FomanEs BlemishH ;tale no$ A:A= and HThe Bear and the Rabbit.H also
,rom Indecent Tales in whi!h a bear and a rabbit 'ive ea!h other a
Hwond$
(
V
To this devi!e o, enstran'ement belon' also !onstr!tions s!h as Hthe
4estle and the mortarH or Hthe devil and the in,ernal re'ionsH !Decameron*.
-on!ernin' enstran'ement in the ,orm o, 4sy!holo'i!al 4arallelism. see
my neGt !ha4ter on 4lot ,ormation$ Here let me say only. what is im4ortant
in 4sy!holo'i!al 4arallelism is ,or ea!h o, the 4arallel str!tres to retain its
inde4enden!e in s4ite o, obvios a,,inities$
The 4r4ose o, 4arallelism is the same as that o, ima'ery in 'eneral. that
is. the trans,er o, an obje!t ,rom its !stomary s4here o, 4er!e4tion to a new
one8 we are dealin' here with a distin!t semanti! !han'e$
In or 4honeti! and leGi!al investi'ations into 4oeti! s4ee!h. involvin'
both the arran'ement o, words and the semanti! str!tres based on them.
we dis!over everywhere the very hallmark o, the artisti!9 that is. an arti,a!t
that has been intentionally removed ,rom the domain o, atomati5ed
4er!e4tion$ It is Harti,i!iallyH !reated by an artist in s!h a way that the
4er!eiver. 4asin' in his readin'. dwells on the teGt$ This is when the
literary work attains its 'reatest and most lon'1lastin' im4a!t$ The obje!t is
4er!eived not s4atially bt. as it were. in its tem4oral !ontinity$ That is.
be!ase o, this devi!e. the obje!t is bro'ht into view$
These !onditions are also met by H4oeti! lan'a'e$H &!!ordin' to
&ristotle. 4oeti! lan'a'e o'ht to have the !hara!ter o, somethin' ,orei'n.
somethin' otlandish abot it$ In 4ra!ti!e. s!h lan'a'e is o,ten ?ite
literally ,orei'n9 jst as Smerian mi'ht have been re'arded as a H4oeti!
lan'a'eH by an &ssyrian. so #atin was !onsidered 4oeti! by many in
medieval Ero4e$ Similarly. &rabi! was tho'ht 4oeti! by a Persian and
Old Bl'arian was re'arded likewise by a Rssian$ Or else it mi'ht indeed
be a lo,ty lan'a'e. like the lan'a'e o, ,olk son'. whi!h is !lose to litera1
tre$ To this !ate'ory belon' also the wides4read ar!haisms o, 4oeti!
lan'a'e. the di,,i!lties o, the lan'a'e o, the twel,th !entry !alled Hdol!e
Art as De'ice 14
stil novo.H the lan'a'e o, %aniel. with its dark style and di,,i!lt ,orms.
presupposin5 difficulties in pronunciation. Yakbinsky has demonstrated in
his arti!le the law o, di,,i!lty ,or the 4honeti!s o, 4oeti! lan'a'e. 4arti!1
larly in the re4etition o, identi!al sonds$ In this way. there,ore. the lan'a'e
o, 4oetry may be said to be a di,,i!lt. Hlaborios.H im4edin' lan'a'e$
In !ertain isolated !ases. the lan'a'e o, 4oetry a44roa!hes the lan'a'e
o, 4rose. bt this does not violate the 4rin!i4le o, Hdi,,i!lty$H Pshkin
writes9
Her sister was !alled Tatiana$
Fill,lly shall we shed li'ht On
the tender 4a'es o, this novel$
@amin' her so ,or the ,irst time$
For the !ontem4oraries o, Pshkin. the elevated style o, %er5havin :as
4oeti! lan'a'e. while the style o, Pshkin. de to its banality ;as was
tho'ht then= re4resented ,or them somethin' neG4e!tedly di,,i!lt$ #etEs
not ,or'et that PshkinEs !ontem4oraries were horri,ied at his trite eG4res1
sions$ Pshkin em4loyed ,olk s4ee!h as a s4e!ial devi!e o, arrestin' the
readerEs attention 4re!isely in the same way that his !ontem4oraries inter1
s4ersed +ussian words in their everyday Fren!h s4ee!h ;see the eGam4les
in TolstoiEs $ar and Peace*.
&t this 4oint. an even more !hara!teristi! 4henomenon takes 4la!e$
Tho'h alien to Rssia by its natre and ori'in. the Rssian literary lan'a'e
has so dee4ly 4enetrated into the heart o, or 4eo4le that it has li,ted
m!h o, 4o4lar s4ee!h to nheard1o, hei'hts$ &t the same time. literatre
has be!ome enamored o, diale!t ;Remi5ov. Ilyev. Esenin. and others.
all o, these so neven in their talent and yet so near to a !ons!iosly
4rovin!ial diale!t= and o, barbarisms ;we mi'ht in!lde here SeveryaninEs
s!hool=$ <aksim "orky. meanwhile. is makin' a transition at this very
moment ,rom the literary ton'e o, Pshkin to the !onversational idiom o,
#eskov$ &nd so ,olk s4ee!h and the literary ton'e have !han'ed their
4la!es ;Vya!heslav Ivanov and many others=$ Finally. a 4ower,l new
movement is makin' its debt with the !reation o, a new$ s4e!iali5ed 4oeti!
lan'a'e$ &t the head o, this s!hool. as is well known. stands Velimir
Ihlebnikov$
&ll thin's !onsidered. weEve arrived at a de,inition o, 4oetry as the
lan'a'e o, impeded distorted s4ee!h$ Poeti! s4ee!h is structured s4ee!h$
Prose. on the other hand. is ordinary s4ee!h9 e!onomi!al. easy. !orre!t
s4ee!h ;%ea Prosae. the ?een o, !orre!t. easy !hildbirth. i$e$. head ,irst=$ I
shall s4eak in more detail o, the devi!e o, im4edin'. o, holdin' ba!k. when I
!onsider it as a 'eneral law o, art in my !ha4ter on 4lot !onstr!tion$
Still. those who ,avor the e!onomy o, artisti! ener'y as the distin!tive
,eatre o, 4oeti! lan'a'e seem to be ?ite 4ersasive when it !omes to the
?estion o, rhythm$ S4en!erEs inter4retation o, the role o, rhythm seems on
the ,a!e o, it ?ite nshakeable9
i
16 Theory of Prose
Kst as the body in re!eivin' a series o, varyin' !on!ssions. mst kee4 the
ms!les ready to meet the most violent o, them. as not knowin' when s!h may
!ome9 so. the mind in re!eivin' narran'ed arti!lations. mst kee4 its 4ers4e!tives
a!tive eno'h to re!o'ni5e the least easily !a'ht sonds$ &nd as. i, the !on!ssions
re!r in de,inite order. the body may hsband its ,or!es by adjstin' the resistan!e
need,l ,or ea!h !on!ssion8 so. i, the syllables be rhythmi!ally arran'ed. the mind
may e!onomi5e its ener'ies by anti!i4atin' the attention re?ired ,or ea!h syllable$
This a44arently !onvin!in' remark s,,ers ,rom a !ommon de,e!t. that is.
the trnin' 4side1down o, the laws that 'overn 4oetry and 4rose$ In his
Philosophy of Style S4en!er !om4letely ,ailed to distin'ish them$ It may
well be that there eGist two ty4es o, rhythm$ The rhythm o, 4rose or o, a
work son' like H%binshkiH re4la!es the need ,or an order ,rom a s4er1
visor by its rhythmi! !hant9 HletEs 'roan to'ether$H On the other hand. it also
eases and atomati5es the work$ &nd indeed. it is easier to walk with msi!
than withot it$ O, !orse. it is jst as easy to walk while talkin' 4 a storm.
when the a!t o, walkin' disa44ears ,rom or !ons!iosness$ In this sense.
the rhythm o, 4rose is im4ortant as a ,a!tor leadin' to automati=ation. Bt
s!h is not the rhythm o, 4oetry$ There is indeed s!h a thin' as HorderH in
art. bt not a sin'le !olmn o, a "reek tem4le ,l,ills its order 4er,e!tly. and
artisti! rhythm may be said to eGist in the rhythm o, 4rose disrupted.
&ttem4ts have been made by some to systemati5e these Hdisr4tions$H
They re4resent todayEs task in the theory o, rhythm$ Fe have 'ood reasons
to s44ose that this systemi5ation will not s!!eed$ This is so be!ase we
are dealin' here not so m!h with a more !om4leG rhythm as with a disr41
tion o, rhythm itsel,. a violation. we may add. that !an never be 4redi!ted$ I,
this violation enters the !anon. then it loses its 4ower as a !om4li!atin'
devi!e$ Bt eno'h o, rhythm ,or the time bein'$ I shall devote a se4arate
book to it in the ,tre$
-hapter 3
The Relationshi4 between %evi!es o,
Plot -onstr!tion and "eneral %evi!es o, Style
H Fhy walk on a ti'htro4eL &nd. as i, that were not eno'h. why s?at every
,or ste4sLH asked Saltykov1Sh!hedrin abot 4oetry$ Every 4erson who has
ever eGamined art !losely. a4art ,rom those led astray by a de,e!tive theory
o, rhythm as an or'ani5ational tool. nderstands this ?estion$ & !rooked.
laborios 4oeti! s4ee!h. whi!h makes the 4oet ton'e1tied. or a stran'e.
nsal vo!ablary. an nsal arran'ement o, words>whatEs behind all
thisL
Fhy does Iin' #ear ,ail to re!o'ni5e IentL Fhy do both Ient and #ear
,ail to re!o'ni5e EdwardL So asked Tolstoi in tter astonishment abot the
nderlyin' laws o, Shakes4earean drama$ This !omes ,rom a man who
knew 'reatly how to see thin's and how to be sr4rised by them$
Fhy does the re!o'nition s!ene in the 4lays o, <enander. Plats and
Teren!e take 4la!e in the last a!t. when the s4e!tators have already had a
4resentiment by then o, the blood relationshi4 bindin' the anta'onists. and
when the athor himsel, o,ten noti,ies s o, it in advan!e in the 4rolo'eL
Fhy is it that in dan!e a 4artner re?ests Hthe 4leasre o, the neGt dan!eH
even a,ter the woman had already ta!itly a!!e4ted itL
Fhat kee4s "lahn and Edvarda a4art in HamsnEs Pan s!atterin' them
all over the world in s4ite o, their love ,or ea!h otherL
Fhy is it that. in ,ashionin' an Art of "o'e ot o, love. Ovid !onsels s
not to rsh into the arms o, 4leasreL
& !rooked road. a road in whi!h the ,oot ,eels a!tely the stones beneath
it. a road that trns ba!k on itsel,>this is the road o, art$
One word ,its another$ One word ,eels another word. as one !heek ,eels
another !heek$ Fords are taken a4art and. instead o, one !om4leG word
handed over like a !ho!olate bar at a !andy store. we see be,ore s a word1
sond. a word1movement$ %an!e is movement that !an be ,elt$ Or more
a!!rately. it is movement ,ormed in order to be ,elt$ &nd behold. we dan!e
as we 4low$ Still. we have no need o, a ,ield$ Fe !an dan!e even withot it$
ThereEs an old story in some "reek !lassi! $ $ $ a !ertain royal 4rin!e was
so im4assioned with the dan!e at his weddin' that he threw o,, his !lothes
and be'an dan!in' naked on his hands$ This enra'ed the brideEs ,ather. who
shoted. HPrin!e. yo have jst dan!ed yorsel, ot o, a weddin'$H To
IS
17 Theory of Prose
whi!h the yon' man. addressin' the wold1be ,ather1in1law. said. HYor
<ajesty. I !oldnEt !are lessMH and went on dan!in' anyway. his ,eet 4 in
the air$
The Ethno'ra4hi! S!hool
The ethno'ra4hi! s!hool. re4resented amon'st s most ,or!e,lly by &$ @$
Veselovsky. has !ome to the ,ollowin' !on!lsion in its ?est ,or a 4oeti!s o,
4lot str!tre>bt be,ore 'oin' any ,rther. it wold behoove s to let
Veselovsky de,ine the !on!e4ts o, H4lotH and Hmoti,
(
9
&= By motif I mean the sim4lest narrative unit !orres4ondin' tma'isti!ally to the
diverse needs o, a 4rimitive mind and to the needs o, ordinary 4er!e4tion$ &s a reslt
o, the similarity or$ rather. nity o, material and psycholo5ical !onditions eGistin'
at the early sta'es o, hman develo4ment. s!h moti,s !old have arisen inde4en
dently o, ea!h other and nonetheless !old still have eGhibited similar ,eatres at
one and the same time$ &s eGam4les. we may !ite the ,ollowin'9
(= The so1!alled le'endes des ori'ines. the sn7eye simile. the sn
;brother or
hsband=7moon ;sister or wi,e= !om4arison. snrise and snset myths. myths abot
s4ots on the moon. e!li4ses. et!$
:= Everyday sitations9 abd!tion o, a yon' woman ;the ,olk weddin'
e4isode=.
abd!tion o, HRostanH ;i n ,airy tales=. et!$
B= By plot I mean a theme. into whi!h a variety o, moti,1sitations have been
woven$ For eGam4le9
(= Tales o, the sn and his mother ;!,$ the "reek and <alaysian le'ends
o, the
!annibalisti! sn=$
:= Tales o, abd!tion$ The more !om4leG and illo'i!al the
!ombination o,
moti,s ;as in a son'. where we are dealin' with an inte'ration o, stylisti! moti,s=. the
'reater the nmber o, its !om4onent moti,s. the more di,,i!lt it is to s44ose. when
,a!ed with. e$'$$ two similar tales ori'inatin' in two di,,erent tribes. that ea!h o, them
arose by 4ro!ess o, 4sy!holo'i!al sel,1'eneration a'ainst a ba!k'rond o, identi!al
!on!e4ts and realities$ In s!h !ases one may raise the 4ossibility of borro:in5s in
historical time o, a 4lot str!tre by one nationality ,rom another$
Ths9
I, in di,,erent national milies we en!onter a ,ormla with an identi!al. random
se?en!e o, G ;a1G. G; l = . G;:=. et!$= then s!h a resemblan!e mst not be n!ondi1
tionally re4la!ed by analo'os 4ro!esses o, the 4sy!he$ I, we 4osit ( : s!h GEs. then.
a!!ordin' to Ka!obsEs !al!lations ),ol0lore* the 4robability o, its inde4endent
,ormation takes on the ratio o, (92B).**($A))$ In that !ase. we have the ri'ht to
s4eak o, borrowin' somethin' ,rom another nationality$
However. this !oin!iden!e o, 4lot str!tres may be en!ontered even
where there is no 4resm4tion o, borrowin'8 ,or eGam4le. the &meri!an
Indian le'end o, how the birds !hose ,or themselves a kin'. with the smallest
Plot -onstruction and Style 1@
bird mana'in' to win the honor thro'h sheer !nnin'. is remarkably
similar to a Ero4ean le'end on the same sbje!t ;Ilin'er=$ Similarly. as
Veselovsky notes. a !ertain le'end ,rom Nan5ibar resembles "rimmEs tale
no$ (A$
Es4e!ially remarkable is the Potanian 4arallel between the story o, Bat
and his wi,e &n4a ;the E'y4tian tale o, the two brothers= and the Trki!
tale o, Idi'a ; i n Ariental %otifs*.
I wold like to 4oint ot that an interval o, ,or thosand years se4arates
these re!ords$ Tre. it is a !ommon 4ra!ti!e in s!h !ases to resort to the
hy4othesis that s!h a story was !arried there by !olonists$ Yet s!h an
eG4lanation reminds s too easily o, VoltaireEs hy4othesis that ,ossil sea1
shells ,ond on the &l4s were bro'ht there by 4il'rims$ Besides it is ?ite
ineG4li!able as to why the random se?en!e o, moti,s shold be 4reserved
drin' this borrowin'. when eyewitness testimony shows that it is 4re!isely
the se?en!e o, events that is sally most dee4ly distorted nder s!h
!ir!mstan!es$ <oreover the ;,airy= tale. even when remainin' within the
same lin'isti! milie. is not distin'ished ,or its teGtal stability$ Rybnikov
eG4lains9
#etEs listen to the storyteller. I, he is a 'ood one. his words will weave themselves
into 4la!e like beads on a strin'$ Yo !an hear the rhythm itsel,$ Fhole lines o,
verse$ Bt all o, this is tre ,or stories whi!h the storyteller has learned b' heart
whi!h he has told and retold$ The ,ortitos !aden!e. the lines o, verse. !ome
evidently ,rom the traditional lo!tions o, the heroi! HHbylina$H For!e him to re4eat
and he will eG4ress m!h o, it di,,erently$ &sk him i, anyone else knows the story.
and heEll 4oint to a fello: 'illa5er a !ertain So1and1So. and heEll tell yo that this
So1and1So heard this story alon' with him ,rom a !ertain old man or minstrel$ Then
'o ask this So1and1So to tell this same story. and yo will hear the story told not only
in a di,,erent lan'a'e and with di,,erent ,i'res o, s4ee!h. bt o,ten in a di,,erent
key$ One storyteller introd!es ;or 4reserves= the 4iteos details. another !ontribtes
;or 4er4etates= the satiri!al 4oint o, view in !ertain e4isodes. while a third story1
teller ada4ts a denoement ,rom another tale ;or ,rom the 'eneral fund that is
available to all stor'lellers o, whi!h later=$ In addition. new !hara!ters and new
adventres a44ear on the s!ene$ Then. ,ollowin' 4$ yo ask him how he learned this
story and he will answer by sayin' that he was ,ishin' on the shores o, #ake #ado'a
or #ake One'a or that he was in a shelter or in some d:ellin5 or sittin' by a !am4,ire
when he ,irst heard it and many others like it told$ Some were told by Poven!hians.
others by Naolon'enans. still others by Io4els and still others by Swedes ;Finns=$
He !rammed as many o, these stories into his head as he !old$ Yet$ he had no more
than two or three o, these stories in his re4ertoire$ The well1known. !ommnally
shared !on!e4tions had 4t on a !ertain !ostme and were eG4ressed with a !ertain
trn o, s4ee!h$ Story T Structure.
The story disinte'rates and is rebilt anew$
To sm 49 Fortitos !oin!iden!es are im4ossible$ -oin!iden!es !an be
eG4lained only by the eGisten!e o, s4e!ial laws o, 4lot ,ormation$ Even the
admission o, borrowin's does not eG4lain the eGisten!e o, identi!al stories
se4arated by thosands o, years and tens o, thosands o, miles$ For this
1; Theory of Prose
reason. Ka!obs is wron'9 he 4res44oses an absen!e o, laws 'overnin' 4lot
,ormation. 4ositin' instead a ,ortitos arran'ement o, moti,s into series or
!lsters$ &s a matter o, ,a!t. s!h stories are ,orever disinte'ratin' and
,orever bein' rebilt in a!!ordan!e with s4e!ial laws o, 4lot ,ormation still
nknown to s$
<oti,s
<any obje!tions may be raised a'ainst the ethno'ra4herEs theory o, the
ori'in o, moti,s$ Pro4onents o, this theory have eG4lained the resemblan!e
o, narrative moti,s by the 4resen!e o, identi!al so!ioe!onomi! ,orms and
reli'ios !on!e4tions$ This theory is !on!erned eG!lsively with moti,s as
s!h and deals with the in,len!e o, story s!hemata 4on ea!h other only in
4assin'$ &s ,or the laws 'overnin' 4lot !onstr!tion. the ethno'ra4hers
!oldnEt have !ared less$
Yet. even a4art ,rom this !onsideration. the ethno'ra4hi! theory is ,lawed
to its very !ore$ &!!ordin' to this theory. story moti,1sitations !onstitte
re!olle!tions o, relationshi4s that have a!tally eGisted in reality$ So$ ,or
eGam4le. the 4resen!e o, in!est in !ertain stories attests to a 4rimitive
Hhetaerism$H Similarly. the 4resen!e o, hel4,l beasts attests to tra!es o,
totemism. while the abd!tion o, brides alldes to the 4ra!ti!e o, elo4ement$
The works o, these s!holars. es4e!ially Veselovsky. are 4ra!ti!ally
!ho!k1,ll o, s!h eG4lanations$ In order to show jst how ,ar s!h an
eG4lanation o, the ori'in o, moti,s may 'o. I shall analy5e one !lassi! stdy
o, the ori'in o, a tale. namely o, the le'end o, %ido. who had sei5ed !ontrol
o, land thro'h !nnin'$ This story has been analy5ed by V$ F$ <iller in an
essay in +ussian Thou5ht ;(/)2=$
<iller !onne!ts the 4lot dealin' with the sei5re o, land ;by !overin' it
with !owhide !t into stri4s= with the ,ollowin'9 ;(= the !lassi!al "reek
le'end o, %ido. sed later by Ver'il8 ;:= three lo!al Indian le'ends8 ;0= an
Indo1-hinese le'end8 ;2a= a By5antine le'end o, the ,i,teenth !entry and
;2b= a Trkish le'end timed to !oin!ide with the bildin' o, a ,ortress on
the shore o, the Bos4ors8 ;A= a Serbian le'end8 ;C= an I!elandi! sa'a
!on!ernin' Ra'nar #odbrokEs son Ivan ;B= the %anish story o, SaGo "ram1
mati!s o, the twel,th !entry8 ;/= the "ott,ried !hroni!le o, the twel,th
!entry8 ;)= a !ertain Swedish !hroni!le8 ;(*= the le'end o, the ,ondin' o,
Ri'a. as re!orded by %ionysis Fabrit58 ;((= the le'end !on!ernin' the
,ondin' o, the Iirillo1Belo5ersky monastery ;with a tra'i! denoement=8
;(:= the ,olk le'end ,rom Pskov !on!ernin' the ere!tion o, the walls o, the
Pe!hersky monastery nder the rei'n o, Ivan the Terrible8 ;(0= the
-herni'ovsky #ittle Rssian le'end abot Peter the "reat8 ;(2= the
Nyryansky le'end o, the ,ondin' o, <os!ow8 ;(A= the -abardinian le'end
o, the ,ondin' o, the Iydenetov -a!asian villa'e ;a Kewish hero=8 ;(C= the
stories o, the @orth &meri!an Indians havin' to do with the de!eit,l sei5re
Plot -onstruction and Style 1B
o, land by Ero4ean !olonists$
Havin' ths eGhastively tra!ed all o, the variants o, this 4lot. <iller
dire!ts or attention to the 4e!liar ,a!t that the de!eived 4arty in these
stories never 4rotests a'ainst the violent takeover o, land by the other 4arty$
This is bro'ht abot. o, !orse. by the !onvention lyin' at the heart o,
every work o, art. namely. that the sitations in ?estion. isolated ,rom their
interrelationshi4 in reality. a,,e!t ea!h other only in a!!ordan!e with the
laws o, the 'iven artisti! neGs9 HIn this story one has the sense of a con'ic-
tion that the a!t o, !overin' a 4ar!el o, land with a stri4 o, !owhide !on1
stittes a jridi!al a!t havin' the ,or!e o, law$H
The meanin' o, this a!t is !onveyed in some sense in the Vedi! le'end
re!orded in the oldest Indian reli'ios work entitled <atha0a-#rahmana.
&!!ordin' to this le'end the &sri s4irits. who are hostile to the 'ods.
measre ot land with the hide o, a bll and divide it amon' themselves$
-orres4ondin' to this le'end. the an!ient Indian wordPo stood ,or HlandH
or H!ow$H The word 5ocarman ;!owhide= stood ,or a de,inite 4ie!e o, land9
HFe have a 4arallel to this an!ient Indian measrement !5ocarman*9 says
<iller.
in the &n'lo1SaGon word hyd and in the En'lish Hhide$H si'ni,yin'. ,irst. the skin
;"erman haul* and. se!ondly. a s4e!i,i! stri4 o, land. e?ivalent to ,orty1siG
mor'ens$ This leads s toEbelieve with a hi'h de'ree o, 4robability that the Indian
5ocarman had ori'inally desi'nated a 4ie!e o, land that !old be !overed by the
stri4s o, a !owhide$ Only later it seems. when its an!ient meanin' was ,or'otten. did
this word !ome to desi'nate an area o!!4ied in toto by one hndred !ows with their
!alves and bll$
&s we have seen above. the attem4t to !lari,y the so!ioe!onomi! sb1
str!tre is !arried not only to the bitter end bt to absrdity$ It trns ot
that the de!eived 4arty>and all variations o, the story are based on an a!t
o, de!e4tion>did not 4rotest a'ainst the sei5re o, land be!ase land was.
'enerally s4eakin'. measred by this means$ This reslts in an absrdity$ I,.
at the moment o, the alle'ed a!tion o, the story. the !stom o, measrin'
land ;i$e$. o, !overin' a 4ortion as ,ar as 4ossible with stri4s o, !owhide=
a!tally eGisted and was known to both sellers and byers. then not only
was there no a!t o, de!e4tion. bt neither was there a story 4lot1line. sin!e
the seller himsel, knew what it was all abot$
The abd!tion o, brides. whi!h has similarly been taken as a de4i!tion
o, a real !stom. !an likewise hardly be re'arded as a re,le!tion o, a so!io1
e!onomi! instittion$ There is every reason to believe that the weddin'
ritals that alle'edly srvive as vesti'es o, this !stom are really !harms
and s4ells desi'ned to ward o,, the Evil S4irit. lest it harm the newlyweds$
&!!ordin' to @$ S$ %er5havin.
Fe !an be ?ite !ertain o, this in 4art and by analo'y with other 4arti!lars o, the
weddin' !eremony. at least. with the weddin' rooster. who serves ordinarily as
an obje!t o, amsement and 4lays a lar'e role in #ittle Rssian and Bl'arian
3> Theory of Prose
weddin's$ $ $ $ &nd so we shall not be mistaken i,. in smmari5in' or !on!lsion
we say that in those modern nationalities :here the predatory abduction of :omen
still ta0es place this practice has arisen as a corruption of an ori5inal ritual
abduction. &ltho'h weddin' rites have been traditionally re'arded as an e!ho o,
the abd!tion rital. these mst be !onsidered only as measres desi'ned to 4rote!t
the weddin' 4ro!ession ,rom the Evil S4irits$ This is so be!ase these rites. like the
!stom o, rital abd!tion. are !losely bond 4 with the 4rimitive reli'ios !on1
!e4tions o, the nation$
<!h the same !an be said ,or the 4lot ;moti,= Hhsband at the weddin'
o, his wi,e$H Irk and Veselovsky eG4lain its o!!rren!e by alldin' to the
!stom of le'irat the a!knowled'ment that the hsbandEs relatives have a
ri'ht to his wi,e$ I, this is tre. then the wrath o, Odysses. who evidently did
not know o, this !stom. is red!ed to nonsense$
Fithot denyin' the 4ossible emer'en!e o, these moti,s on a so!io1
e!onomi! basis. I wold like to 4oint ot that it is a !ommon 4ra!ti!e in the
!reation o, s!h moti,s to make se o, a !lash o, !stoms ;i$e$. o, their
!on,li!t=$
The re!olle!tion o, a !stom no lon'er in eGisten!e may be sed in the
settin' 4 o, this !on,li!t$ So we ,ind in <a4assant a whole series o, stories
;e$'$. HThe Old <anH= based on the de4i!tion o, a sim4le. non1emotional
attitde towards death as eG4erien!ed by a Fren!h 4easant$ It a44ears that
the story is based on a sim4le des!ri4tion o, everyday reality$ On the
!ontraryM The whole story a!hieves its e,,e!t by 4res44osin' a reader ,rom
a di,,erent milie with a very di,,erent attitde towards death$
The same te!hni?e is ,ond in
Wl
The RetrnH9 a hsband retrns home
a,ter a shi4wre!k$ He dis!overs that his wi,e has remarried$ The two
hsbands drink wine ami!ably$ Even the tavern kee4er isnEt sr4rised$ This
story is meant ,or a reader who is ,amiliar with the 4lot moti, o, H& Hsband
at His Fi,eEs Feddin'H and who has. there,ore. a more so4histi!ated
attitde toward thin's$ Fe see here the embodiment o, the law that nder1
lies the ,ormation o, a moti, on the basis o, an obsolete !stom$
I wold like to add the ,ollowin' as a 'eneral rle9 a work o, art is 4er1
!eived a'ainst a ba!k'rond o, and by asso!iation with other works o, art$
The ,orm o, a work o, art is determined by its relationshi4 with other 4re1
eGistin' ,orms$ The content of a :or0 of art is in'ariably manipulated it is
isolated 9silenced.9 &ll works o, art. and not only 4arodies. are !reated
either as a 4arallel or an antithesis to some model$ The ne: form ma0es its
appearance not in orderto express a ne: content but rather to replace an
old form that has already outli'ed its artistic usefulness.
2ote. I wold sin'le ot only one 'ro4 o, non1sensos ,orms. the most im4ortant
'ro4 by ,ar in my o4inion. that is. differentiaC perceptions or perceptions in'ol'in5
distinctions.
Fhenever we eG4erien!e anythin' as a de'iation ,rom the ordinary. ,rom the
normal. ,rom a !ertain 'idin' !anon. we ,eel within s an emotion o, a s4e!ial
natre. whi!h is not distin'ished in its kind ,rom the emotions arosed in s by
Plot -onstruction and Style 31
diver'en!e$ $$ $
Fhy is the lyri!al 4oetry o, a ,orei'n !ontry never revealed to s in its ,llness
even when we have learned its lan'a'eL
Fe hear the 4lay o, its harmoni!s$ Fe a44rehend the s!!ession o, rhymes and
,eel the rhythm$ Fe nderstand the meanin' o, the words and are in !ommand o, the
ima'ery. the ,i'res o, s4ee!h and the !ontent$ Fe may have a 'ras4 o, all the
sensos ,orms. o, all the obje!ts$ So whatEs missin'L The answer is9 di,,erential
4er!e4tions$ The sli'htest aberrations ,rom the norm in the !hoi!e o, eG4ressions. in
the !ombinations o, words. in the sbtle shi,ts o, syntaG>all o, this !an be mastered
only by someone who lives amon' the natral elements o, his lan'a'e. by someone
who. thanks to his !ons!ios awareness o, the norm. is immediately str!k. or
rather. irritated by any deviation ,rom it$
Yet. the domain o, the norm in a lan'a'e eGtends ,ar beyond this$ Every lan'a'e
4ossesses its own !hara!teristi! de'ree o, abstra!tion and ima'ery$ The re4etition o,
!ertain sond !ombinations and !ertain ,orms o, !om4arison belon' to the realm o,
the norm. and any deviation ,rom it is ,elt ,lly only by a 4erson who is thoro'hly at
home in the lan'a'e$ Every !han'e o, eG4ression. o, ima'ery. o, a verbal !ombina1
tion. strikes him as a sensos 4er!e4tion$ $$ $
<oreover. there is the 4ossibility o, dal and inverse di,,erentials$ & 'iven
deviation ,rom the norm may. in its trn. be!ome the 4oint o, de4artre and yard1
sti!k ,or other deviations$ In that !ase every retrn to the norm is eG4erien!ed as a
deviation$$ $$
This idea has been eG4ressed essentially by @iet5s!he in his a4horism on H'ood
4roseH9 only in the 4resen!e o, 4oetry !an one write 'ood 4rose$ Prose. writes
@iet5s!he. is en'a'ed in a !ontinal war o, !ortesy with 4oetry. and all o, its
!harms !onsist in this. that it !onstantly seeks to ,lee ,rom it and !ontradi!t it$ I,
4oetry by natre holds itsel, at some remove ,rom everyday 4rose. then we may say
similarly that 'ood 4rose holds itsel, at some remove ,rom 4oetry$
&nythin' whi!h may serve as a norm may be!ome the startin' 4oint ,or a!tive
di,,erential 4er!e4tions$ In 4oetry. this may take the ,orm o, a 'eometri!ally ri'id
system o, rhythm9 words sbmit to this order. bt not withot !ertain nan!es. not
withot !on,li!ts that weaken the severity o, the meter$ Ea!h word insists on its own
syllabi! stress and len'th. thereby eG4andin' or !ontra!tin' the s4a!e allotted to it in
the verse line$ This is why we 4er!eive minte aberrations ,rom the ri'id demands o,
the meter$
Frthermore. there is the o44osition o, meanin' and verse$ The verse line
demands the em4hasis o, !ertain syllables on whi!h the main stress ,alls. while the
sense o, the teGt im4er!e4tibly trans,ers the a!!ent onto other syllables$
&'ain. there is also the delimitation o, ea!h line o, verse ,rom its adja!ent lines$
The !onne!tion demanded by the sense lea4s over these intervals. allowin' only an
o!!asional 4ase. i, any ;whi!h shold !ome at the end o, a line=. and !arries it over.
into. 4erha4s. the middle o, the neGt line$ Thanks to the stresses and 4ases !alled
,or by the meanin'. we witness a !ontinal violation o, the basi! meter$ These
distin!tions brin' li,e to the str!tre o, verse$ <eanwhile. the metri! s!heme ,l,ills
33 Theory of Prose
a ,n!tion other than that o, servin' as a basis ,or ,ormal. rhythmi! 4er!e4tions It
also serves as a standard by whi!h to 'a'e deviations ,rom the norrnPnatheS it
serves as a ,ondation ,or the di,,erential 4er!e4tions themselves
ThisW same 4henomenon is ,amiliar to s ,rom msi!9 the mathemati!al !on!e4tion
o, the beat is ,elt as a ba!k'rond a'ainst whi!h a livin' stream o, sond ,lows and
this is attained by the !ombination o, the most sbtle nan!es and distin!tions IS
V$ 3-hristiansen. Philosophy of An ()((=
Ste44ed -onstr!tion and %e!eleration
There are those who think that the 4r4ose o, art is to ,a!ilitate somethin' or
to ins4ire or to 'enerali5e$ #a!kin' a s,,i!ient nmber o, steam hammers.
these 4eo4le enlist the hel4 o, rhythm to do the job ;see. !hie,ly. Bti!herEs
$or0 and +hythm*. &nd yet. those who have looked dee4ly into this
matter know better$ Indeed. how thoro'hly alien is 'enerali5ation to art$
How m!h !loser it is instead to H4arti!lari5ation$H
&rt is not a mar!h set to msi!. bt rather a walkin' dan!e to be eG4eri1
en!ed or. more a!!rately. a movement o, the body. whose very essen!e it is
to be eG4erien!ed thro'h the senses$
The 4ra!ti!al mind seeks 'enerali5ations by !reatin'. inso,ar as 4ossible.
wide1ran'in'. all1en!om4assin' ,ormlas$ &rt. on the !ontrary. with its
Hlon'in' ,or the !on!reteH ;-arlyle=. is based on a ste41by1ste4 str!tre
and on the 4arti!lari5in' o, even that whi!h is 4resented in a 'enerali5ed
and ni,ied ,orm$
Pro'ressive str!tre in!ldes nder its rbri! s!h devi!es as re4etition
;with its 4arti!lar ,orm o, rhythm=. tatolo'ies. tatolo'i!al 4arallelism.
4sy!holo'i!al 4arallelism. retardation o, the a!tion. e4i! re4etitions. the
ritals o, ,airy tale and le'end. 4eri4eteia and many other devi!es o, 4lot
!onstr!tion$
The !onver'en!e o, many identi!al 4hrases o, the ty4e HI !ommand
yo.H HI order yo.H and so ,orth. are o,ten en!ontered in re,ined En'lish
bsiness s4ee!h ;as 4ointed ot by %i!kens in Da'id -opperfield*. This
was !ommon 4ra!ti!e in an!ient oratory ;Nelinsky=$ This 4henomenon
re4resents a kind o, 'eneral 4rin!i4le in ,olk 4oetry$ Here are some
eGam4les ,rom %ovnar1Na4olskyEs Son5s of the Pinchu0s. HThey are
beatin' the drms > they are 4ondin' on them8 tamborines > drms8 the
wind blows > the wind wa,ts8 !herry > wild !herry8 to order > to
!ommand8 walks > strolls8 wee4s > 'rieves8 drank > !arosed8 kno!k >
rattle.H et!$
Here are some eGam4les ,rom Pro,essor S4eranskyEs +ussian Aral
"iterature.
Rssian 4oetry is a44arently ?ite enamored o, this devi!e and has evolved in this
res4e!t a 'reat diversity o, ,orms9 this !onsists either o, a sim4le re4etition ot one
and the same word or o, !onsonants synonymos in meanin'. e$'$. 9chudnim
Plot -onstruction and Style 34
chudno9D (-di'nim E di'no9 et!$ This devi!e may also take ;with es4e!ial ,re1
?en!y= the ,orm o, a re4etition o, the 4re4osition. s!h as HinH 'lorios HinH old
HinH Iiev et!$. or. a'ain. this devi!e may ,re?ently take the ,orm o, a re4etition o,
one and the same word or 4hrase in two adja!ent lines o, verse. where the ,inal word
o, one line rea44ears as the ,irst word o, the neGt line9
O, this sable. 4erha4s. ,rom abroad$
From abroad. a sable with ear,la4s$
& sable with ear,la4s. !overed with down $ $ $
Sometimes this re4etition takes the ,orm o, a denial o, an antithesis9 Hby a
dire!t rote. not a !ir!itos oneH8 H,rom 'reat rather than little veGationH8
Ha ba!helor. an nmarried man$H Here belon' also s!h synonymos
eG4ressions as Hwithot a ,i'ht. withot bloodshedH8 H,rom 'rie,. ,rom
sorrowH8 Han estate >1 ,ortneH8 et!$. et!$ Sometimes this eG4ression
!onsists o, two words. one native. the other borrowed or diale!t in ori'in. as
,or eGam4le. Hl!k > ,ate.H et!$ Or else o, a s4e!ies !on!e4t modi,yin' a
'ens !on!e4t 9 H4ike ,ish.H H,eather'rass. H Htitmose$H
& more advan!ed ,orm. a sim4le re4etition. may involve entire e4isodes
o, a story$ These !an be es4e!ially e,,e!tive and 4leasin'$ S!h. ,or
eGam4le. are the bylina e4isodes !on!ernin' the battle between %obrynya
and %naya;the des!ri4tion o, %naEs tent. %obrynya
(
s arrival. %obrynya
and &lyosha. %obrynyaEs 4nishment o, his wi,e and its !onse?en!es=$ &s
an es4e!iall y !lear eGam4le o, re4et ition. we may 4oi nt to Pot y!kEs
wrestlin' with the nder'rond ser4ent ;"il,erdin'. no$ A:=$ Finally we
o'ht also to in!lde nder this rbri! !ombinations o, two words. ea!h o,
whi!h belon's to a di,,erent 'rammati!al !ate'ory yet linked by the root9 Hto
bi ld a bi ldi n'. H Ht o 'i ld wit h 'old. H Ht o !ry ot with a !ry. H et!$
The se o, synonyms was "o'olEs ,avorite stylisti! devi!e$
The distin'ishin' ,eatre o, "o'olEs style lies in the nsal ,re?en!y. indeed.
the !onstan!y with whi!h the athor em4loys two synonymos eG4ressions in
s!!ession. even tho'h this does not ne!essarily !ontribte to 'reater !larity or
4re!ision o, tho'ht$ @early always one o, the eG4ressions trns ot to be !om1
4letely s4er,los. bein' in every sense a ,ll re4etition o, the other eG4ression and
only rarely servin' to brin' the symbol into 'reater relie,$ The reader may satis,y
himsel, as to the trth o, this 4henomenon by eGaminin' its o!!rren!e even within a
!om4aratively narrow s!o4e9 H$ $ $ :ithfirmness in the !ase o, li,e. with cheerful-
ness and with the encoura5ement o, all arond yo$H Or$ in the same vein. bt in the
,orm o, a verb9 Hso that he may he Ip his ,ellow man with 'ood !onsel$ $ $ so that he
may cheer and in'i5orate him with intelli'ent words o, 4artin'$H Or else in the ,orm
o, a 4arti!i4le or adje!tive9 Hyo will there,ore !arry it ot 4re!isely as one shold.
and as re?ired by the 'overnment.1 i$e$. with in'i5oratin5 and encoura5in5
stren5th...9- HYo may a!t with measres that are neither coerci'e nor 'iolent. . .9D
H%ire!t 4assa'es have become :ea0er have lost their stren5th de to the
introd!tion o, indire!t$ $ $H8 H%o not hurry do not hasten to add them on.H and so
on$
In his book The 2ature of ?o5ol( s St'le Pro,essor <andelshtam o,,ers
36 Theory of Prose
nmeros s!h eGam4les$ In Pshkin too we ,ind s!h eGam4les as Hthe
thnderstorm thndersH and Hlo!ked in by a lo!kH ;!,$ BrikEs HSond
Re4etitionsH=$
This 4henomenon eG4resses the !ommon 4rin!i4le9 form creates for
itself its o:n content. For that reason. whenever the !orres4ondin' twin o, a
word is absent. its 4la!e is taken by an arbitrary or derivative word For
eGam4le9 helter1skelter. to4sy1trvy. 4ell1mell. and so on$ &ll o, these
eGam4les o, an im4eded. 4ro'ressive !onstr!tion do not sally a44ear
to'ether and a se4arate eG4lanation has been o,,ered by some ,or ea!h o,
these !ases$ So ,or eGam4le. an attem4t has been made to shar4ly delimit
4sy!holo'i!al and tatolo'i!al 4arallel str!tres$ & 4arallelism o, the ty4e
OrYelino!hkais ha44y winter and smmer Or
<alashka is wonder,l every day
!onstittes. in VeselovskyEs o4inion. an e!ho o, totemism and o, a time
when individal tribes re'arded trees as their an!estors$ Veselovsky there 1
,ore believes that i, a sin'er !om4ares a man to a tree. then either he is
!on,sin' them or else his mother had !on,sed them$ This 4sy!holo'i!al
4arallelism is. in his o4inion. shar4ly distin'ished ,rom a rhythmi! 4aral 1
lelism as 4ra!ti!ed in Kewish. Finnish. and -hinese 4oetry$ Veselovsky
o,,ers the ,ollowin' eGam4le9
The sn did not know where to ,ind his 4ea!e$ The
moon did not knowwhere to ,ind his stren'th$
Psy!holo'i!al 4arallelism is shar4ly distin'ished ,rom this msi!al1
rhythmi! tatolo'y ori'inatin'. a!!ordin' to Veselovsky. in the method o,
4er,orman!e>tro!hai! or iambi!$ Yet even ,ormlas o, 4sy!holo'i!al
4arallelism o!!asionally trn into or. in VeselovskyEs words. HsinkH into a
ty4e o, tatolo'i!ally msi!al 4arallelism$ Even Veselovsky a!knowled'es
here. i, not an a,,inity. then at least a 4redile!tion on the 4art o, ea!h o, these
ty4es o, str!tre ,or ea!h other$ They share a !ommon. 4e!liar 4oeti!
!aden!e$ Ea!h o, these !ases reveals a need ,or de!eleration o, the ima'isti!
mass and ,or its arran'ement in the ,orm o, distin!t ste4s$ In one !ase. an
in!on'rity o, ima'es is sed ,or the ,ormation o, these ste4s. in the other
!ase. a ,ormal1verbal in!on'rity$ For eGam4le9
How shall I !rse whom "od has not !rsedL How
shall I abhor whomthe #ord does not abhorL
Here is an eGam4le ,rom Psalms illstratin' a variety o, ste4s9
"ive nto the #ord. oh ye sons o, the #ord. "ive
nto the #ord 'lory and stren'th$
Or a movement ,orward with a kind o, enjambment ,rom line to line9
Plot -onstruction and Style 3F
For the #ord knows the way o, the im4ios$
&nd the way o, the im4ios leads to 4erdition$
Here we observe a 4henomenon !ommon in art9 a 4arti!lar ,orm seeks to
!om4lete itsel, in a manner analo'os to the way that words seek !om4le1
tion in !ertain sond1blrs in lyri!al 4oetry ;see VeselovskyEs HThree
-ha4ters ,rom Histori!al Poeti!sH and H'oEs !omments on !om4letin'
the s4a!e between rhymes=$ For this reason. in the Finnish e4i! where
synonymos 4arallelism is the norm and where the stan5as take the ,orm o,
I, yo take ba!k yor in!antation$ I,
yo withdraw yor evil s4ell $ $ $
and where nmbers are ,ond in the verse whi!h. as is well known. la!k
synonyms. then the nmber that is neGt in order is sele!ted that does not
nmeri!ally !all attention to a distortion in meanin'$ For eGam4le9
He ,inds siG seeds on the 'rond$ Seven
seeds he raises ,rom the 'rond$
Or !onsider the Finnish <ale'ala.
On the seventh ni'ht she 4assed away. On
the ei'hth ni'ht she died$
In my o4inion. a triolet 4resents a 4henomenon that is very !lose to a
tatolo'i!al 4arallelism$ &s in the !ase o, the rondea. this devi!e has
already been !anoni5ed ;i$e$. it serves as the ,ondation ,or the HwebH and
4ervades the entire work=$ The e,,e!t o, the triolet lies 4artly in the ,a!t that
one and the same line o, verse lands in di,,erent !onteGts. a ,a!t whi!h
4rod!es a m!h needed di,,erential im4ression$ & similar de'ree o,
di,,erentiality is re4resented by 4sy!holo'i!al 4arallelism. and the
develo4ment o, a ne'ative 4arallelism alone shows that there was never a
?estion here o, !on,sin' a hman bein' with a tree or a river$ Here we
en!onter two ne?al ,i'res that 4artially overla49 the e,,e!t !onsists in
this. that in s4ite o, the in!on'rity ths !reated. the ,irst 4art o, the
4arallel is e!hoed by the analo'os 4hrase in the se!ond 4art$
&s re,tation o, a totemisti! inter4retation. we may also assert that a
4arallel is o,ten established. not between obje!ts or a!tions o, two obje!ts.
bt between an analo'os relationshi4 between two sets o, obje!ts. ea!h set
taken as a 4air$ Here is an eGam4le taken ,rom a lovely ,olk ditty9
@ot alon' the sky do rain !lods dri,t. @ot
alon' the skyEs hei'hts. @ot ,or vir'ins
do lads 4ine. @ot ,or a vir'inEs beaty$
The synonymos ;tatolo'i!al= 4arallelism with a transition and
re4etition ,rom stan5a to stan5a trns into what is !alled in the 4oeti!s o,
37 Theory of Prose
Gll4 X Hde!eleration$H &s an eGam4le. here is
an eG!er4t ,rom a %yima wanin' Ilya <romets. as
re!orded ,or P$ V$ Iireevsky in the 4rovin!e o,
Simbirska9
Itya walked ot onto a hi'h hill$
Onto a hi'h hill thatEs rollin'.
S4read ot the white ,la4s o, his tent$
&,ter arran'in' his tent. he started a ,ire$
He started a ,ire. be'an n4a!kin'$
Fannin' the ,ire. he be'an to !ook his stew.
&,ter !ookin' his stew. he ate it all$
He 'obbled 4 the stew and lay down$
Fe ,ind the same devi!e in the son' re!orded by Iireevsky in <os!ow9
Shall I 'o then. lovely damsel. To
stroll in the o4en ,ield. To 'ather the
harm,l rootsL "atherin' the harm,l
roots. I shall wash them ot white as
snow$ Fashin' ot the roots$ I shall
dry them ot as dry as sand$ &,ter
dryin' the harm,l roots. I shall !rsh
them to little bits$ &,ter !rshin' the
harm,l roots. I shall boil some sweet
honey$ Havin' boiled some sweet
honey. I shall invite a ,riend as a
'est$ &,ter invitin' my ,riend as a
'est. I shall sit her down on my bed$
Havin' sat her down on my bed $ $ $
There are nmeros eGam4les o, this ty4e o, de!eleration$ However.
thanks to the ne'li'en!e o, those 4eo4le who have been seekin' in these
son's a so!ial messa'e. a sol. a 4hiloso4hy. many eGam4les have been
lost$ For eGam4le. all o, the re4etitions in Pro,essor &$ I$ SobolevskyEs
!olle!tion o, Rssian son's have been deleted$ In all 4robability. the
esteemed 4ro,essor believed. alon' with many others. that literatre is o,
interest only inso,ar as it re,le!ts the history o, a !ltre$
Fe ,ind 4e!liar instan!es o, de!eleration in the old Fren!h 4oem !on1
!ernin' Renad de <ontaban$ In it we !ome a!ross jst s!h an endlessly
drawn1ot e4isode$ -harles wants to han' the !a4tive Ri!hard and 4ro4oses
to Beran'er the kni'ht to !arry ot the senten!e$ Beran'er answers9 H<ay
he be !rsed who has shame,lly tho'ht o, sei5in' the !a4tiveEs estate ,or
himsel,$H -harles then trns to O5ier and to the siG other kni'hts and. with
minor !han'es. re4eats his de!laration$ He re!eives ,rom them the eGa!t
same answer$ &nd ea!h time -harles eG!laims9 HS!ondrel. "od will
4nish yo. bt I swear by the beard o, -harles. the !a4tive shall be
han'ed$H Finally one o, the kni'hts takes 4on himsel, this !ommission$
the Rssian son' a
bylina !on!ernir
Plot -onstruction and Style
3@
Fhat is tre o, de!eleration is e?ally tre o, 4arallelism9 a 4arti!lar
,orm seeks ,l,illment and. i, nmerals ha44en to o!!r in the !reation o, the
ste4s. then the athor deals with it in a very ori'inal way. in a!!ordan!e with
the laws o, a 'iven HwebH9
<y yon' ni'htin'ale$
%o not sin' early in the s4rin'M
%o not sin' sweetly. do not sin' lodlyM
The yon' man wonEt ,eel so wret!hed.
@ot so wret!hed or so bitter$
I mysel, do not know why. I only know
That I lon' ,or her. ,or my beloved.
<y beloved who has le,t me behind$
#e,t me behind>le,t behind ,or hndred.
For hndred. ,ive hndred. twelve !ities.
Twelve !ities. thirteen !ities$
&nd !ame to the 'lorios !ity o, <os!ow$
In HE4i! Re4etitions as a -hronolo'i!al Fa!tor.H Veselovsky tried to
eG4lain these 4e!liar re4etitions with their enjambment ,rom stan5a to
stan5a by alldin' to their me!hanism o, eGe!tion ;his sal eG4lanation=9
he assmed that these works ;or 4rototy4es o, these works>a !r!ial ,a!tor
ins,,i!iently eG4lained in his arti!le= were eGe!ted iambi!ally. and that
these re4etitions a!!om4anied ea!h sin'er as he joined in the son'$ Here are
some o, VeselovskyEs eGam4les o, re4etitions9
The Sara!ens srronded -harlema'neEs rear 'ard8 Olivier tells his !om4anion
Roland that there are many enemies abot8 Olivier tells him to blow his horn so that
-harlema'ne will hear it and !ome to their res!e$ Bt Roland re,ses. and this
!ir!mstan!e is develo4ed three times in the ,ollowin' manner9
(= -omrade Roland. blow yor hornM -harlema'ne will hear it and his
army will
retrn$ Roland answers9 I wold be a!tin' senselessly in that !ase8 I wold lose my
'lorios ,ame in sweet Fran!e$ I shall strike mi'hty blows with my sword %rendal.
so that the blade o, my sword shall be!ome !rimson to its very hilt$ The vile 4a'ans
have !ome to the montain 'or'es at a bad hor8 I 'arantee yo that they are all
doomed to a !ertain death$
:= -omrade Roland. blow yor horn$ -harlema'ne will hear it and order
his army
to retrn$ Roland answers9 "od will not 4ermit my kith and kin to be shamed on my
a!!ont and ,or sweet Fran!e to be deni'rated. were I to blow my horn on a!!ont o,
these 4a'ans$ On the !ontrary. I shall be'in to ha!k away mi'htily with my sword
%rendal$$ $$ Yo will all see the bloody blade o, my sword$ These vile 4a'ans have
'athered here at a bad hor$ I 'arantee yo that they are all !ondemned to a !ertain
death$
0= -omrade Roland. blow yor hornM -harlema'ne shall hear it and !ome
rshin'
a!ross the 'or'es$ I 'arantee yo that the Fren!h troo4s shall retrn$ &nd Roland
answers9 Bt the #ord shall not 4ermit that someone amon' the livin' shold say
that I had blown my horn on a!!ont o, 4a'ans8 I shall not 'o a'ainst the traditions o,
my ,amily$ In the heat o, battle I shall rain down a thosand and seven hndred
blows$ Yo shall see the blade o, %rendal made !rimson with blood$ $ $ $
Theory of Prose
Finally$ Roland. who has been wonded. de!ides to blow his horn$
(= Roland 4la!es his horn in his moth. 'ras4s it Firmly with his hand and be'ins to
blow ,or!e,lly$ The montains are tall$ Yo !old hear the e!hoes ,ar away$ On the
thirty major 4eaks yo !old barely hear its e!ho$ -harlema'ne and his troo4s hear
it$ The em4eror says9 ItEs or boysM They are ,i'htin' the 'ood ,i'ht$ Bt "anelon
answers him9 Had anyone said that. it wold have been !onsidered a 'reat lie$
:= -ont Roland blows his horn with m!h e,,ort. di,,i!lty and
'reat 4ain$
S!arlet blood streams ot o, his molh and the veins on his tem4les brst$ Far away
the sond o, his horn is heard$ -harlema'ne hears it as he advan!es thro'h the
'or'es$ %ke @emon hears it$ The Fren!h troo4s hear it$ The em4eror says9 I hear
RolandEs horn$ "anelon answers9 @o. there is no battle$ He twits the a'ed em4eror
,or his !hildish 'llibility. as i, he didnEt know how ha'hty Roland was$ Fhy. he
was jst showin' o,, be,ore his 4eers$ #etEs 'o ,orward$ Fran!e is still so ,ar away$
0= Blood streams ot o, -ont RolandEs moth$ The veins on his
tem4les are
brstin'$ He blows his horn with 4ain and di,,i!lty$ -harlema'ne hears him$ The
Fren!h troo4s hear him$ The em4eror says9 This horn is mi'hty and 4ower,l$ %ke
@emon answers9 Barons. a loyal vassal is ,i'htin' the 'ood ,i'ht$ In my o4inion. a
battle is ra'in'$ He ss4e!ts "anelon$ Fe mst hel4 or own men$$ $ $
<eanwhile$ Roland. dyin'. ;a= tries to smash his sword %rendal so that it wonEt
,all into the hands o, in,idels8 and ;b= !on,esses his sins$ Ea!h o, these moti,s is
develo4ed in three !onse!tive Hlaisses$H
(= Roland ,eels that death is at hand$ Be,ore him is a dark stone$ In
an'er and
an'ish he strikes it ten times with his sword$ The steel s!ra4es bt does not break
nor is it not!hed$ &n address to the sword with whi!h the hero had been vi!torios in
so many battles ,ollows$
:=YYYRoland strikes his sword a'ainst the hard stone$ The steel s!ra4es bt
does not
break and is not not!hed$ Plaints ,ollow alon' with e4i!ally develo4ed reminis
!en!esYYYY
0= Roland strikes the 'rey stone and !hi4s o,, more than I !old ever tell
yo$ The
sword s!ra4es bt does not break and is not shattered$ $$ $
Innmerable similar eGam4les analo'os to the three strikes by Roland
!an be ,ond elsewhere. altho'h in other e4i!s s!h a devi!e is not the
norm$
For eGam4le. the three strikes by Ilya a'ainst Svyato'orEs !o,,in or the
three strikes in,li!ted by Tor a'ainst the 'iant$ I wold like to !all yor
attention to the ,a!t that in all s!h !om4arisons it is my 4r4ose to stress
not so m!h the similarity o, moti,s. whi!h I !onsider o, little si'ni,i!an!e.
as the similarity o, the 4lot s!hemata$
In s4ite o, this re4etition. the a!tion does not !ome to a sto4$ It advan!es.
bt more slowly$ The ,a!tory son' abot <arsa is !onstr!ted alon' the
same lines$ <arsa. who has been 4oisoned. is visited ,irst by her 'irl1
,riends. then by her mother. and ,inally by her !lose ,riend$ These visitors
are 'iven an answer ,irst by the nrse. then by the do!tor. and ,inally by the
wat!hman9 H<arsa is in delirimH8 HShe is n!ons!iosH8 HShe is in the
mortary$H This devi!e o, the three arrivals is also tili5ed in the #ittle
Rssian dma ;Dkranian ,olk ballad=9
Plot -onstruction and Style
Shaded by the BeskidEs snowball trees$
Stands a new tavern 4rod and stron'$
Fithin. a Trk sits drinkin' away$
&s a 'irl kneels be,ore him and !ries9
HOh. Trk. oh. Trk. oh. TrkM
%onEt kill me. ,or I am so yon'MH
The yon' woman says that her ,ather has already 4aid ,or her ransom$
Bt her ,ather does not show 4 and the yon' woman wee4s$ The ,ollowin'
stan5a re4eats the same s!ene9 Beskid. the inn. and the yon' womanEs
entreaty$ This time it a44ears that her mother has 4aid her ransom$ The
third time the same thin' ha44ens and ,inally a kind man a44ears with the
ransom$
Similarly. a yon' wi,eEs !all home in the vernal son's o, the <almariee
ty4e is also broken down into three sta'es$ <any Rssian son's are based
on the same te!hni?e ;Veselovsky=$
Similarly. in PerraltEs tale. the de!eived wi,e o, Blebeard waits ,or
hel49
H<y sister &nnaM Please 'o 4 the tower to see i, or brothers are !omin'9 they
4romised to !ome see me today$ &nd i, yo see them. 'ive them a si'n so that they
may hrry$H
The sister !limbed 4 to the tower and the 4oor woman s!reamed ot to her9
H&nna. my sister &nnaM %o yo see anythin'LH
HI see only the dst 'leamin' in the sn and the 'reen 'rass$H
<eanwhile Blebeard. holdin' in his hand a lar'e kit!hen kni,e. s!reamed at the
to4 o, his voi!e9 H-ome down ?i!kly or else IEll !ome 4 mysel,MH
HOne more minte I be' o, yo.H re4lied his wi,e$ &'ain she !alled so,tly to her
sister9 H&nna. my sister &nna. do yo see anythin'LH
&nd her sister answered9 HI see only the dst 'leamin' in the sn and the 'reen
'rass$H
H-ome down ?i!kly.H Blebeard !ried. Hor IEll !ome 4 mysel,$H
HI am !omin'.H his wi,e answered a'ain$ &nd a'ain she shoted to her sister9
H&nna. my sister &nna. do yo see anythin'LH
HI see.H answered the sister.
1
Ea !lod o, dst a44roa!hin'$H
H&re those my brothersLH
H&las. no. my sister$ I see a herd o, rams$H
HFill yo !ome down. ,or 'oodness sakeMH Blebeard shoted$
HKst one more minte.H answered his wi,e and then shoted to her sister9 HH&nna.
my sister &nna. do yo see anythin'LH
HI see.H she answered. Htwo horsemen travelin' in or dire!tion. bt they are still
Tar away$H
HThank "odMH she eG!laimed$ HThose are or brothers$ IEll try my very best to
'ive them a si'n to hrry$H
This s!hema. amon' other thin's. has been widely sed in En'land.
where it is ,ond in 4arodies$
I shall re,rain ,rom o,,erin' ,rther eGam4les. so as not to trn this essay
into a !hrestomathy$
4> Theory of Prose
-onstr!tions o, the ty4e a Z ;aZa= Z ;Ua Z ;aZa=6= Z $ $ $ ,ollow an
arithmeti! 4ro'ression$
There are tales !onstr!ted on a 4e!liar 4lot tatolo'y o, the ty4e a Z
;aZa= Z ;3a Z ;aZa=6 Z a:=. et!$ For eGam4le. these tales ,rom E$ R$
RomanovEs #elorussian Antholo5y.
The Slave Hen
"rand4a and "randma had a slave hen$ She lay a basket,l o, e''s$ "rand4a beat
on them. beat on them bt didnEt break them8 "randma beat on them. beat on them
bt didnEt break them$ & mose 4assed by. wa''ed its tail and broke them
"rand4a we4t$ "randma we4t. the hen !a!kled. the 'ate !reaked. the ,ire !ra!kled
the do's barked. the 'eese honked. 4eo4le yelled$
& wol, !ame alon' and said9 H"rand4a. why are yo !ryin'LH
"rand4a answered9 HFhy shold I not be !ryin'L "randma and I were livin'
4ea!e,lly$ Fe had a slave hen$ She lay a basket,l o, e''s$ I beat on them. beat on
them bt didnEt break them$ "randma beat on them. beat on them bt didnEt break
them$ & mose 4assed by. wa''ed its tail and broke them. $ $ $ "rand4a !ried. the
hen !a!kled. the 'ate !reaked. the ,ire !ra!kled. the do's barked. the 'eese honked.
4eo4le yelled$ $ $ $H
The wol, howled$ &lon' !ame a bear who said9 HFhy are yo howlin'. oh wol,LH
HFhy shold I not be howlin'.H said the wol,$ HOn!e there was a "rand4a and a
"randma$ They had a slave hen$ She lay a basket,l o, e''s ,or them$ "rand4a beat
on them. beat on them bt didnEt break them$ "randma beat on them. beat on them
bt didnEt break them$ & mose 4assed by. wa''ed its tail and broke them$ $$$
"rand4a !ried. the hen !a!kled. the 'ate !reaked. the ,ire !ra!kled. the do's barked.
the 'eese honked. 4eo4le yelled. and I. a wol,. am howlin'$ $ $$H
&nd the bear 'rowled$ &lon' !ame an elk who said9 HFhy are yo 'rowlin'. oh
bearLH
H&nd why shold I not be 'rowlin'L On!e there was a "rand4a and a "randma$
They had a slave hen$ She laid a basket,l o, e''s ,or them$ "rand4a beat on them.
beat on them bt didnEt break them$ "randma beat on them. beat on them bt didnEt
break them$ & mose 4assed by. wa''ed its tail and broke them$ $ $ $ "rand4a !ried.
"randma !ried. the hen !a!kled. the 'ate !reaked. the ,ire !ra!kled. the do's barked$
the 'eese honked. 4eo4le yelled. the wol, howled. and I. a bear. am 'rowlin'$H
&nd the elk lowered its horns$ $ $ $
This rond o, ?estionin' eventally leads to the 4riestEs servants. who
!rsh a b!ket ,rom 'rie,$ &nd then to a dea!on who rends his books ot o,
sym4athy$ &nd. ,inally. to the 4riest himsel,. who. ,rom sheer woe. sets the
!hr!h a,lame$
The Roost er and t he Hen
"rand4a and "randma had a rooster and a hen$ On!e they were di''in' a hole in the
dm4$ The hen d' 4 a 4in and the rooster d' 4 a 4ea$ The hen then said to the
rooster9 H"ive me yor 4ea. and IEll 'ive yo my 4inMH The rooster 'ave the hen the
Plot -onstruction and Style 41
4ea. and the hen 'ave him the 4in$ The hen ate the 4ea. while the rooster swallowed
the 4in and started !hokin' on it$
The hen ran to the sea ,or water and said9 HOh my sea. my sea. 'ive me water$ The
rooster is !hokin' to death$H
H@o. no. I shall not 'ive yo water$ "o down to the bad'er$ "o down and ask the
bad'er to 'ive me his tsks$H
The hen ran 4 to the bad'er and said. HOh bad'er. my bad'er. 'ive the sea yor
tsks$ Then the sea will 'ive me water. ,or the rooster is !hokin' to death$H
H@o. no. I shall not 'ive yo my tsks. 'o down to the oak and ask him to 'ive me
his a!ornsMH
The hen ran to the oak and said9 H<y oak. my oak. 'ive the bad'er yor a!orns$H
H@o. no. I shall not 'ive him a!oms$ "o down to the !ow. and ask her to 'ive me
some o, her milk$H
The hen ran 4 to the !ow and said9 HOh !ow. my !ow. 'ive the oak some o, yor
milkMH
H@o. no. I shall not 'ive any milk$ "o down to the rea4er and tell him to 'ive me
his hayMH
The hen ran 4 to the rea4er and said9 HOh rea4er. my rea4er. 'ive the !ow some
o, yor hayMH
H@o. no. I shall not 'ive him hay$ "o down to the linden tree and ask him to 'ive
me bast ,or my shoes$H
The hen ran 4 to the linden tree and said9 HOh linden tree. my linden tree. 'ive the
rea4er bast ,or his shoesMH
H@o. I shall not 'ive him the bast$ "o down to the bla!ksmith and ask him to 'ive
me a kni,eMH
The hen ran down to the smith and said9 HOh smith. my smith. 'ive the linden tree
a kni,e. so that he may 'ive the rea4er bast ,or his shoes$H
H@o. I shall not 'ive the linden tree a kni,e$ "o down and 'et me some 4eas and
brin' them to me$ Then I will 'ive yo a kni,e$H
The hen s!ored the yard till it ,ond a 4ea. then bro'ht the 4ea to the smith and
the smith 'ave her a kni,e$ She then bro'ht the kni,e to the linden tree$ The linden
tsks$ The hen look the tsks ,rom the bad'er and ran o,, to meet the sea$
&nd the sea 'ave the hen water$ The hen then !arried the water to the rooster and
4ored it into his moth and the rooster s!reamed9 Ika1rekM
It is absoltely im4ossible. i, I may observe. to ,athom ,rom this tale why
the sea needs the bad'erEs tsks as a ,orm o, ransom$ The motivation here is
obviosly an artisti! one$ That is. the athor ,eels a need to !reate a ste41by1
ste4 str!tre$
Some versions involve a 4e!liar. everyday inter4retation o, this moti,$
In these variants. when the rooster retrns. he ,inds that the hen has already
been eaten 4 by the worms$ [In some versions. it is the rooster who rns ,or
hel4. in others. it is the hen$=
&lon' these lines ;Fedorovsky=. a little boy. born mira!losly ,rom the
saliva o, a blade o, 'rass. demands that the latter ro!k it like a !radle$ The
43 Theory of Prose
blade o, 'rass re,ses$ He sends ,or the 'oat. then ,or the wolves then ,or
4eo4le. and ,inally ,or ,ire. et!$ They all re,se$ Finally. the hens are on their
way to 4e!k the worms$ The worms are on their way to shar4en the 4in. and
so on$ The 'oat is ,ora'in' ,or a blade o, 'rass$
Similarly. that whi!h is desi'nated in 4rose by an H&H is eG4ressed in art
by means o, an H &; I= &H ;,or eGam4le. a tatolo'y= or by means o, an
& &; (= ;,or eGam4le. 4sy!holo'i!al 4arallelism=$ This is the ,ondation o,
all te!hni!al devi!es$ In a!!ordan!e with this. i, the reali5ation o, a !ertain
task demands a de'ree o, e,,ort e?al to &; n=. then it wold take the ,orm o,
&;n>:=. &;n>(=. &;n=$ Ths. in the byliny it is &lyosha Po4ovi!h who
takes the ,ield o, battle ,irst. then %obrynya @ikiti!h. and ,inally Ilya
<romets$ This is the order o, battle ,or the heroes o, these tales$ This
devi!e was 4reserved and tili5ed by Tennyson in his Idylls of the <in5.
Similarly. the Hkosh!hei.H the hob'oblin o, Rssian ,olklore. was beaten
three times in order to 'et him to !on,ess where %eath is$ In the Bible. too.
Samson !on,esses the se!ret o, his stren'th three times$
In the Belorssian tales o, E$ R$ Romanov. Ivan is bond Has a test o, his
stren'thH ,irst with !anvas. then with silk ;or with a strand o, hair=. and
,inally with a 4ie!e o, ro'h ro4e$ The delivery o, the rin' or the kiss o, the
4rin!ess thro'h the twelve 4anes o, 'lass is similarly !onstr!ted$ The ,irst
time he jm4s. bt he doesnEt rea!h it. three !rowns$ The se!ond time he
jm4s. almost rea!hin' it. two !rowns$ The third time he jm4s and rea!hes
it and attains the 'oal$
Seekin' re,'e ,rom kin'7maiden. the 4rin!e ,inds at ea!h way station a
valiant horse waitin' ,or him at the ht o, Baba Ya'a. the wit!h$ Fith ea!h
station the ra!e brin's him !loser and !loser to the 'oal$ &t ,irst. ,i,teen
verst. then ten verst. and ,inally ,ive$ &nd the 4rin!e saves himsel, by hidin'
in the 'rass and leavin' behind him a de!e4tive ins!ri4tion$
Osi4 Brik observed in'eniosly that the dead and livin' waters re4resent
nothin' more than the !on!e4t o, Hhealin' watersH broken down into two
se4arate !on!e4ts ;as is well known. the Hdead waterH o, le'end joins
to'ether the ha!ked1o,, limbs o, a body=. that is. & is de4i!ted as9 &;l=.
&;:=$ In the same way. a !ertain Hty4eH is red4li!ated in "o'olEs Inspector
?eneral. Dndobtedly. Bob!hinsky and %ob!hinsky ,orm a doble. a ,a!t
whi!h is evident ,rom their srnames$ Here too. & is 4resented as &;l=$
&;:=$
The answer sally 'iven in this !ase is that we are dealin' here with the
Hritals o, le'ends$H However. in sayin' this. a !riti! may ,ail to reali5e that
this rital !hara!teri5es more than jst le'end$ It is also the rital and
sa!rament o, all art$ So. ,or eGam4le. The Son5 of +oland is not a le'end.
and neither is a ,ilm a le'end$ Even now we !an see a !hase in a ,ilm9 with
the enemy breathin' down his ne!k. or hero sddenly makes his 'etaway in
a !ar$ #et me s''est a !om4arison with the des!ri4tion o, a !hase a,ter Kean
Valjean in H'oEs %isembles. The !on!ldin' e,,e!t !onsists o, !limbin'
over a wall and Findin' re,'e in a monastery$
Plot -onstruction and Style
%e!eleration as an &rtisti! %evi!e
In 'eneral. the devi!e o, a belated res!e. as a ,ittin' theme ,or a ste41by1
ste4 str!tre. is widely sed in le'ends and in adventre novels$ The 4rin!e
is near death$ &nimal hel4ers. rshin' to his res!e. eat their way thro'h
twelve iron doors$ The 4rin!e asks ,or 4ermission to bathe$V
Ivan Tsarevi!h walks 4 to the bathhose and starts li'htin' the ,ire$ Sddenly. a
!row ,lies 4 to him. !ryin' ot9
H-awM -awM Ivan Tsarevi!h$ #i'ht the ,ire$ #i'ht the ,ireM ItEs 'oin' otM Yor
'reyhonds are rshin' to yor res!eM They have already broken thro'h ,or
doors$H
Behold Ivan Tsarevi!h as he li'hts the ,ire$ Still. it kee4s 'oin' ot$
@o sooner does the !row vanish than Iosh!hei. the evil s4irit who knows not
death. a44ears to the boy9
HIvan Tsarevi!h. is the bathhose readyLH
H@o. not yet. the stones are not yet in 4la!e$H
HFell then. try harderMH
&t that very moment a se!ond !row ,lies 4 to the boy. !ryin' ot9 H-awM -awM
Ivan Tsarevi!h$ li'ht the ,ire. li'ht the ,ireM ItEs 'one ot a'ain$ Yor 'reyhonds
have broken thro'h another ,or doors$H
@o sooner does the se!ond !row vanish than Iosh!hei$ the 'oblin who knows not
death. a44ears a'ain9
HIvan Tsarevi!h. Ivan Tsarevi!h. is the bathhose ready yetLH
H@ot yet. bt IEve jst set the stones in 4la!e.H the lad re4lies$
HFell then. hrry 4 and li'ht the ,ireMH
Behold a'ain how Ivan li'hts the ,ire$
& third !row ,lies 4 and !ries ot9 H-awM -awM Ivan Tsarevi!h. li'ht the ,ire. li'ht
the ,ireM ItEs 'one ot a'ain$ Yor 'reyhonds have broken thro'h the last ,or
doors$H
&t that moment Ivan ,inally li'hts the ,ire$ Fhen the ,ire is hot and ready.
Iosh!hei. the s4irit who knows not death. a44ears and says9
HFell 'o on. take yor bath$ I !an wait a little lon'er$H
&s soon as Ivan walks into the bathhose. his 'reyhonds rsh in $ $ $ ;E$ R
Romanov. #elorussian Antholo5y*
In another version. Ivan Nlatovs re!eived 4ermission be,ore his death to
4lay the 5hleika. a wooden ,lte9
He !limbed 4 the bir!h tree$ Fhen he 4layed the ,lte. a bird ,lew 4 to him$
Fhen he 4layed it the se!ond time. more birds Hew 4$ Fhen he 4layed it ,or the
third time. all o, the beasts o, the ,ield ran 4 to him$ ;Ibid$=
VThis brie, introd!tion is in sin'le s4a!e. withot ?otes. in the Rssian teGt. as is.
o, !orse. the tale that ,ollows it$ ShklovskyEs ;his editorEsL= 4n!tation. 4ara'ra4h
division. et!$ are. like so m!h else in Theory of Prose so errati! and arbitrary that
one !annot always be sre what his real meanin' in a 'iven !onteGt is$ In this !ase. it
seems that Shklovsky himsel, is s4eakin'$ UTrans$ note=
46 Theory of Prose
So also does Solomon 4lay nder the 'allows tree as he !limbs 4 ste4 by
ste4 !allin' ,or hel4 ;see &$ @$ Veselovsky. HSolomon and IitovrasH=$
The eGisten!e o, ritals in le'end has been. 'enerally s4eakin'. a!knowl 1
ed'ed by everyone to be !anoni!al ,or this 'enre$ I wold like to o,,er
several eGam4les ot o, the thosands available9 the three nder'rond
kin'doms o, honey. silver and 'old8 the heroEs three battles with the !har1
a!teristi! 'radated natre o, the tasks>,or eGam4le9 the !a4tre o, the
Fire Bird. the !a4tre o, the steed. the !a4tre o, the Beati,l Vasilisa$
This series o, tasks is 4re!eded by an eG4osition whi!h eG4lains the
ne!essity ,or the tasks$ This ty4e ;Hthreadin'H o, the tasks= 4assed on into
the adventre and !hivalros novel$
The tasks themselves are eGtremely interestin'$ They serve as a motiva1
tion ,or the !reation o, an a44arently nresolvable sitation$ Here the
4osin' o, riddles serves as the sim4lest means o, !reatin' s!h a ho4eless
sitation$ -hara!teristi! o, this ty4e are the tales o, the Hseven yearsH
;&,anasiev=$
& task is im4osed9 do not !ome by ,oot. do not !ome on horseba!k. do not
!ome naked. do not !ome dressed. and so on$ & yon' woman is wra44ed in
a net. and rides on the ba!k o, a rabbit. et!$ Here the story is !onstr!ted
ba!kwards. as a motivation is so'ht tojsti,y a s!!ess,l resoltion o, the
story$ The re!o'nition o, one o, twelve look1alikes with the hel4 o, a bee is
similarly !onstr!ted. et!$ The HwisdomH here is more !om4leG. that is. it
!alls. ,or eGam4le. ,or distin'ishin' yon' maidens ,rom adoles!ent 'irls$
Similarly. it !alls ,or identi,yin' the ille'itimate son by the latterEs Hina41
4ro4riate tho'hts.H as. ,or instan!e. in the !ase o, the smithEs son. who has
been ,radlently re4la!ed by Solomon$ D4on seein' the beati,l 4la!e. he
says9 HHere shold we 4t the bla!ksmithEs ,or'eH ;On!hkov. "e5ends of
the 2orth*.
-onsider also the thie, inA Thousand and Ane 2i5hts who. amon' his
other tasks. re!o'ni5es the !ook as the sltanEs son be!ase the latter
!on,ers 4on him an award in the ,orm o, ,ood$ Fe meet with an e!ho o, this
in the nobility o, Hmistaken !hildrenH in adventre novels>,or eGam4le.
#e %estin in S!arronEs "e roman comi8ue and the nmeros heroes o,
!hildrenEs tales$
;&n interestin' story abot a ,alsely eG!han'ed H!onter,eit white boyH
is to be ,ond in <ark TwainEs Pudd(nhead $ilson.*
The 4art 4re!edin' the tasks !onstittes what in the 4oeti!s o, !inemato'1
ra4hy is !alled a Hse'eH ;i$e$. a s!ene that has no inde4endent si'ni,i!an!e$
servin' only as 4re4aration ,or what ,ollows=$
&s I have already said. the ,l,illment o, the tasks o,ten o!!4ies the tale
in its entirety$ Fe may distin'ish ;lookin' at it ,rom the stand4oint o,
te!hni?e rather than essentials= two ty4es o, s!h ,l,illments. or resol1
tions9 resoltion by the 'essin' o, riddles or resoltion by means o, some
ma'i!al or non1ma'i!al !reatre s!h as animal hel4ers$ The !lassi!al ty4e
o, resoltion in the latter !ase has ea!h wild animal !arry ot a task that it
Plot -onstruction and Style 4F
alone !an do$ The ant 'athers seeds ;tale ,rom &4leis=$ Sometimes. the
ant is !alled 4on to a!!om4lish a s4e!i,i! task. s!h as 'atherin' and brin'1
in' ;or takin' ot= seeds into ;or ot o,= a !losed barn$ & ,ish or !rab is !alled
4on to brin' a rin' ,rom the de4ths o, the sea$ & mose 4rloins the rin'
,rom the teeth o, the abd!ted 4rin!ess$ The ea'le or ,al!on !a4tres a d!k$
In !ases where the tasks are o, a similar natre. ea!h animal is !alled 4on
to 4er,orm its task with a 4ro'ressively 'reater de'ree o, stren'th ;tale o,
Prin!e #arokoney=$ The animal hel4ers may be re4la!ed by hel4,l 4eo4le
and hel4,l ma'i!al obje!ts or o, the ty4e HOak1SlayerH ;H,ellin' the oakH=
or H<ontain1TamerH ;Hovertrn the montainH= and so on. or by stron'
men o, 4ro'ressively 'reater stren'th ;!om4are the names o, do's o, the
ty4e o, tale re4resented by HBeast1milk.H H-rshmontain.H HBreakwall.H
HBreakironH=$ Or else 4eo4le wieldin' ma'i!al 4owers 4ossess s4e!i,i!
attribtes$ This mirrors the s4e!i,i! tasks o, the wild beasts$ Fe en!onter
here the H'lttonH or H'55ler.H the man who trembles with !old in the ,ire
and Ha marksman shootin' a 4estle ,rom a mortar$H Fe en!onter e!hoes
o, these hel4er ,i'res in novels. ,or eGam4le. in the ,orm o, hel4,l stron'
men. s!h as Drss in Sienkiewi!5Es Quo &adisH <a!iste in dE &nnn5ioEs
,ilm -abiria Porthos in The Three %us0eteers by %mas. and others$
Similarly. Rabelais em4loyed in his Panta5ruel the well1known le'endary
!hara!ter o, the hel4er a!robat$ In the !ontem4orary H s!ienti,i!H adventre
novel a s4e!ial role is assi'ned to the hel4,l s!ientist$ Dnder this rbri!
,alls also the ty4e o, tale re4resented by HThe Seven Semions.H the seven
brothers who ea!h 4ossess a ni?e skill ;e$'$. how to steal. or how to bild a
shi4 3&,anasiev6=$
This entire !olle!tion o, devi!es asso!iated with the 'enre o, the le'end
makes 4ossible the !onstr!tion o, a tale in whi!h the ,ate o, the hero.
!a'ht. it seems. in a ho4eless 4redi!ament. is neG4e!tedly resolved$ &
sitation that is !a4able o, !reatin' s!h 4lot !om4li!ations is sele!ted as a
moti,>,or eGam4le. the moti, o, the Htwo keys to the same doorH ;S4anish
drama=. or o, the Hse!ret doorH !A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts* the E'y4tian
tale o, the !nnin' thie, ;re4orted by Herodots=$ Thanks to this. !ertain
moti,s have be!ome s4e!ial ,avorites>,or eGam4le. the moti, o, the shi41
wre!k or o, the abd!tion o, the hero in adventre novels$ The hero is not
killed immediately. sin!e he is still needed ,or the re!o'nition s!ene$ I, they
want to remove him ,rom the 4i!tre. then they dra' him o,, somewhere$
Jite ,re?ently. these e4isodes involvin' stealin' and restealin'. es!a4es
and other vain attem4ts are !om4li!ated by the ,a!t that their vi!tims. in
love with ea!h other. strive towards their 'oal by the most !ir!itos 4ath$
The e4isodes. ,ollowin' one 4on the other. are hard to distin'ish ,rom
ea!h other and 4lay in adventre novels the same role o, de!eleration that
the task or ritals o, le'end 4lay in tales. or that 4arallelism and the slowin'
o, the narrative do in son'$ The moti,s o, the shi4wre!k. o, abd!tion by
4irates. et!$. are introd!ed into the 4lot not ot o, realisti! bt rather ot o,
te!hni!al1artisti! !onsiderations$ @o more o, the real world im4in'es 4on
47 Theory of Prose
a work o, art than the reality o, India im4in'es 4on the 'ame o, !hess$ The
adventre novel is to this day interr4ted. a!!ordin' to Veselovsky. by
s!hemata and methods inherited ,rom the 'enre o, the le'endary tale$
Veselovsky himsel, !onsiders HadventresH to be a stylisti! devi!e ;HBelle
#ettres in &n!ient "ree!eHE=$
This ty4e. the ty4e o, the !ir!itos 4ath. very !losely resembles the
'ame !alled H<ove D4H ;HStaraysya VverkhH= or the 'ame o, H"ooseH
;H"syekH=. whi!h is 4layed in the ,ollowin' way9 %i!e are !ast8 in
a!!ordan!e with the nmber o, 4oints allotted. yo re!eive a 4la!e on a
!hart$ %e4endin' 4on the nmber shown by the di!e. the 4layerEs 4osition
either moves 4 or down on the !hart$ This is 4re!isely the kind o, labyrinth
re4resented by the adventre novel$ This similarity has been 4ointed ot by
the !reators o, adventre novels themselves$ In Kles VerneEs Testament of
an Iccentric the di,,erent !oin!iden!es and adventres o, the heroes are
motivated by the ,a!t that the heroes mst 'o where the di!e 4oint$ In this
!ase. the ma4 o, the Dnited States is divided into ?adrants and re4resents a
4layin' ,ield. while the heroes re4resent nothin' more than ,i'res>that is.
H'eese$H
The motivation ,or the di,,i!lties nder'one by the hero o, the adventre
tale is very m!h worth notin'$ #et me o,,er two eGam4les. a'ain ,rom Kles
Verne. who is 4resently nder !onsideration$ The ,irst novel bears the title
The +eturn /ome whi!h tells o, the retrn o, !ertain a!robats ,rom @orth
&meri!a to Fran!e by way o, -anada. the Straits o, %e5hnev and Siberia.
de to their havin' lost their money$ In the other novel. a stbborn Trk by
the name o, Ieriban travels ,rom one shore o, the Bos4ors to the other by a
rondabot 4ath whi!h takes him all over the Bla!k Sea$ The reason ,or this
is that he re,ses to 4ay a ,ew ko4e!ks re?ired by !stoms$ @atrally. these
!rooked 4aths are !alled into bein' by s4e!i,i! !onditions>by the demands
o, the 4lot$ &s an eGam4le o, the di,,eren!e between resoltions o, a
4roblem in 4rose and 4oetry. I re!ommend the reader look at <ark TwainEs
Ad'entures of /uc0leberr' ,inn. The matter at hand !on!erns the ,reein'
o, a ,'itive @e'ro$ H!k Finn re4resents the method o, 4rose. when he
s''ests9
H<y 4lan is this$H I says$ HFe !an easy ,ind ot i, i, s Kim in there$ Then 'et 4 my
!anoe lo1morrow ni'ht. and ,et!h my ra,t over ,rom ihe island$ Then the ,irst dark
ni'ht that !omes. steal the key ot o, the old manEs brit!hes. a,ter he 'oes to bed$ and
shove o,, down the river on the ra,t. with Kim$ hidin' day1times and rnnin' ni'hts.
the way me and Kim sed to do be,ore$ FoldnEt that 4lan workLH
9$or0H Fhy !ertEnly$ it wold work. like rats a1,i'htin'$ Bt itEs too blameH
sim4le9 there ainEt nothin' to it$ FhatEs the 'ood o, a 4lan that ainEt no more troble
than thatL ItEs as mild as 'oose1milk$ Fhy. H!k$ it woldnEt make no more talk than
breakin' into a soa4 ,a!tory$H ;!ha4$ 02=
&nd there yo have itM & 4oeti!ally laborios 4lan is !on!o!ted$ & le'
,rom a bed is sawn o,,$ It is wra44ed in a !hain$ &ltho'h it !old have been
Plot -onstruction and Style 4 @
li,ted with little e,,ort. an nder'rond 4assa'e is d' 4. a ro4e ladder is
!onstr!ted and handed over to the 4risoner in a 4iro'e. the nei'hbors are
warned o, the abd!tion>in a word. everythin' is 4layed a!!ordin' to the
rles o, art$ &t the !on!lsion o, the novel. it trns ot that Kim is not a
,'itive at all$ He had been eman!i4ated lon' be,ore$ Fe may see a 4arallel
here with a Hre!o'nitionH and with the attendant !olla4se o, all obsta!les
standin' in the way o, a marria'e$ It is 4re!isely this marria'e. a,ter all. that
the 4arents o, the !on!erned 4arties desire$ So how do we answer TolstoiEs
?estion HFhy didnEt #ear re!o'ni5e Ient. and why didnEt Ient re!o'ni5e
EdwardLH Sim4ly by sayin' that this is ne!essary ,or the !reation o, a
drama. that Shakes4eare was as ndistrbed by the nreality o, the literary
work as a !hess4layer is ndistrbed by the ,a!t that a kni'ht !an only move
obli?ely on the board$
I wold like to now retrn to the abd!tion and re!o'nition 4lot$ Nelinsky
s44oses that it has a ,ondation in reality$ -on!ernin' a !ertain 4lay by
&4ollo Iaristsky. he writes9
@o dobt abot itM Yo !oldnEt ,ind a better 4lanned story line$ ThereEs nothin'
s4er,los in it. all the s!enes hold to'ether beati,lly$ Similarly. there is no viola1
tion o, the 4rin!i4le o, verisimilitde. eG!e4t 4erha4s ,or the !a4ri!ios 4lay o, Fate$
Bt 4eo4le saw thin's ?ite di,,erently in those trobled times be,ore the advent o,
4ass4orts and tele'rams$ DneG4e!tan!y rled their lives$ For that reason. it was
4ermissible ,or an athor. in !onstr!tin' his work. to sele!t ,rom a mltitde o,
meanin'less. ,ortitos events by whi!h he was srronded. to sele!t those events in
whi!h an intelli'ent 4lan and 'ood will made themselves mani,est$
First and ,oremost. NelinskyEs eG4lanation ,ails to eG4lain 4re!isely how
the 4lot !old have srvived beyond the times o, &leGandria to the times o,
<oliere and almost to or own day$ Besides. this eG4lanation is ,a!tally
in!orre!t$ By the time o, <enander. the 4lot havin' to do with the re!o'ni 1
tion o, abd!ted babies had already 4assed ,rom an a!tal 4henomenon to
4re literary tradition$ So. ,or eGam4le. the slave in the 4lay Ipitrepontes
havin' ,ond the baby with items indi!atin' its ori'in. s4eaks o, the 4ossi1
W||if- r flint !." .t-M~J ____!_!_*. I- ^ ' _ J !_.. L^~ ______n4-n nltiif^irtrt *l-fcjt*-r-ll^Tr n^\t
lint ot a similar !hara!teristi! in the mores U o, the times U in the ,rank
issinn mad4 hv %anhniE8E ,ather lie had abandoned his little son to the
4; Theory of Prose
sk
all 4eriods o, de!aden!e$ This is not a 4a'an 4atriar!hal severity. whi!h we
en!onter in Homer and in the works o, the "reek tra'edians>rather. it
re4resents a !ase o, sava'ery. o, a !oarsenin' o, mores in a de'eneratin' !ltre$
O, !orse. it wold be absrd to !ondemn the athor9 he took ,rom li,e only what
he ,ond in it. and a dee4 artisti! obje!tivity 4revented him ,rom embellishin'
it$ !Iternal -ompanions*
&s I have already said. the abd!tion 4lot had already be!ome a
4rely bookish a,,air by that time$ To set <ere5hkovskyEs mind at rest.
let me relate the ,ollowin'9
In the a'e of Sturm und Dran5 in "ermany. the overwhelmin'
majority o, 4lays drin' a s4a!e o, ,ive years were based on the sbje!t o,
,ratri!ide$ So. ,or eGam4le. all three 4lays 4resented at a !om4etition in a
theater in Hambr' in (BBC de4i!t jst s!h a !rime )Gulius 'on Tarent by
#eisewit5. The T:ins by Ilin'er. and The Ill-Starred #rothers by an
anonymos athor=$ S!hillerEs The +obbers also bears some relationshi4
to the theme. @evertheless. this does not 4rove that !ases o, ,ratri!ide
were o!!rrin' in massive nmbers in "ermany at the time$ It is worth
re4eatin' that Veselovsky !onsiders the adventres o, the "reek novel
to re4resent a 4rely stylisti! devi!e$
The abd!tion devi!e took a lon' time in dyin'$ Its ,ate is a !rios
one$ &s it de'enerated. it be'an to a44ear in sbsidiary 4lot lines$
@ow. however. it has des!ended to the level o, !hildrenEs literatre$ It
,lared 4 ,eebly when it was renewed in the so1!alled war stories o, ()(2
to ()(C$ However. even be,ore that. this devi!e s,,ered a most nsal
and !rios ,ate$ Fe shold mention in 4assin' that a devi!e in a state o,
deterioration !an still be sed to 4arody the devi!e itsel,$ So Pshkin
made se o, the banal rhyme EHrose7!loseH even as he 4ointed ot its
banality in his verse$
The abd!tion 4lot was already 4arodied by Bo!!a!!io in the seventh
story o, the se!ond day. the one havin' to do with the Babylonian
sltan who sends one o, his da'hters to be married to the kin' o, El
"harb$ &s a !onse?en!e o, every 4ossible kind o, ,ortitos in!ident. she
'oes thro'h ten hsbands in as many lo!alities drin' the !orse o, ,or
years$ Retrnin' at last to her ,ather. she leaves home on!e a'ain. as a
vir'in. ,or her meetin' with the kin'. in order to enter into marria'e with
him a!!ordin' to the ori'inal 4lan$ The 4oint here is that the e,,e!t
a!hieved in the !lassi! adventre tale involvin' a yon' woman as a
heroine lies 4re!isely in her 4reservation o, her inno!en!e even in the
hands o, her abd!tors$ This vir'inity. le,t inviolate ;by writers= ,or the
neGt ei'hty years. was mo!ked by -ervantes$
The endin' o, the story. with its assran!es o, the maidenEs !hastity
and with the li'ht1headed 4rank o, the moths that wold not shrink
,rom kissin'. has the same e,,e!t on Veselovsky that a dissonant !hord
has when it neG4e!tedly demolishes a ,atalisti! melody$
However. the !orre!tness o, or inter4retation o, this story as a 4arody
is !on,irmed by the ,a!t that Bo!!a!!io has several other literary
4arodies in his book$ #et me mention two o, them$
Plot -onstruction and Style 4B
The ei'hth story o, the ,i,th day9 In Ravenna a !ertain @asta'io de'li
Onesti loves a yon' woman o, the Traversari ,amily$ Even a,ter lavishin'
his ,ortne on her. his love remains nre?ited$ &t the insisten!e o, rela1
tives. he travels to -hia55a$ There he wat!hes as a kni'ht 4erse!tes a
yon' woman. kills her and throws her body to the do's$ Seein' this. he
invites his kin,olk and the woman he loves to -hia55a ,or dinner$ %rin'
dinner. she sees the do's ri44in' the yon' woman a4art$ Fearin' a similar
,ate. she de!ides to marry @asta'io$ EH@or was it in her instan!e alone that
this terror was 4rod!tive o, 'ood9 on the !ontrary. it so wro'ht amon' the
ladies o, Ravenna that they all be!ame. and have ever sin!e been. m!h
more !om4liant with menEs desires than they had been wont to beH ;Ri''
translation=$
Bo!!a!!ioEs women. it trns ot. are ths severely 4nished ,or their
intra!tability$ In the le'end whi!h serves as the 4rototy4e ,or this story.
however. s!h a 4nishment was reserved ,or adltery only$ Veselovsky
!atiosly s''ests that Bo!!a!!io did not draw on this le'end ,or his 4roto1
ty4e bt on a di,,erent. less orthodoG one$ This is VeselovskyEs sal 4oint
o, view$ He has never ,lly re!o'ni5ed the inde4endent. deliberate !han'es
and trans,ormations e,,e!ted by the writer himsel,. and whi!h are the very
sor!e o, his !reativity$ Fe may s44ose that Bo!!a!!io had in mind here a
work based on the !on,li!t between new and old inter4retations o, morality
and 4nishment$ This assm4tion is all the more ri'ht in that Bo!!a!!io
o,,ers s another story with !almin' assran!es !on!ernin' retribtion
beyond the 'rave$ This is the tenth story o, the seventh day$
Re!o'nition. however. re4resents only an isolated !ase o, a 4eri4eteia$
The ,ndamental 4rin!i4le on whi!h 4eri4eteia is based also !alls ,or
im4edin' and retardin' it$ That whi!h o'ht to have been revealed immedi1
ately and that whi!h is already !lear to the s4e!tator is slowly made known
to the hero$ EGam4le9 Oedi4s ,inds ot abot his mis,ortne$ Here the
drama slows down. !a'ht in the tortre o, de,erred 4leasre ;see NelinskyEs
analysis o, 4eri4eteia in So4ho!lesE Aedipus*. Bt this ?estion is easier to
stdy in the everyday ritals o, li,e than in a 4lay that is a work o, art$ #et me
re!ommend. as an eGam4le. the best manEs story at a Rssian weddin'.
re4orted by Veselovsky$
The best man de!lares that he has !ome neither nder dress nor nder
!oer!ion$ Rather he was sent by the bride'room. and so on9
Or yon' bride'room was !omin' ot o, the tower !hamber onto the
wide street jst as I. his best man$ walked 4ast$I harnessed my brave horse. saddled
and reined il and whi44ed it with a silken lash$ <y valiant horse be!ame an'ry and
ki!ked a'ainst the 'rond$ Fa''in' his tail. my brave horse lea4ed ,rom montain
to montain and ,rom hill to hill$ &!ross valleys and rivers he lea4ed till he rea!hed
the ed'e o, the ble sea$ In the ble sea swam 'rey 'eese and white swans and
brilliant ,al!ons$ I asked the 'eese. the swans9 HFhere is that tower !hamber o,
or yon' brideLH &nd the 'eese answered me9
H"o to the ble sea. to the eastern side o, the ble sea$ There yoEll see an oak o,
6> Theory of Prose
twelve roots standin'$H So I rode to the eastern shore o, the sea. I rode 4 to that oak
and a marten jm4ed ot$ @ot the one who roams the ,orest. bt the one that is a
yon' woman sittin' on the latti!e !hair in the tower !hamber. weavin' a towel ,or
her bride'room$ ($ the 'roomEs best man$ ,ollowed the martenEs tra!k and rode 4 to
the tower !hamber. to the tower !hamber on the broad street. to the newly wed
bride$ The martenEs tra!ks led to the 'ates and there they !ame to an end$ HShow s
the martenEs tra!ks or o4en the doorMH
Riddles by the 'ate9
HFho are yo$ a mos?ito or a ,lyLH
HI am neither a mos?ito nor a ,ly$ I am a man o, the Holy S4irit$ Show s the
martenEs tra!ks or o4en the 'ale$H
There ,ollows an eGtremely im4ortant 4assa'e whi!h I wold like very
m!h to insist on$ & debate ,ollows$ From within they 4ro4ose to the best
man9
a= Stand nder a !orner window$
b= -limb over the 'ate$
!= The 'ates are lo!ked$ The keys have been thrown into the sea$
d= He went to the wron' 4or!h$
e= The 'ates are over'rown with ,orest and thi!ket$
To all these 4ro4osals the best man res4onds with9 HShow s the martenEs
tra!ks or o4en the 'ate$H Finally. they allow him into the 4easant ht$
He answers ;!= as ,ollows9
Or bride'room rode to the ble sea. where he hired some brave ,ishermen.
men o, 'ood will$ They !ast a silken net into the waters and !a4tred a white ,ish$
In that white ,ish they ,ond the 'olden keys to the tower !hamber$
To ;e= he answered9
Or bride'room rode to the bla!ksmiths. to the yon' bla!ksmiths$ They ,or'ed
heroi! aGes and hired bold workers. who !ho44ed down the ,orest and the thi!ket
and battered down the 'ates$
Fe see the devi!e o, de!eleration even more !learly in the eGtraordinarily
!rios !stom re!orded by Roman Kakobson in the villa'e o, Iostyshino.
o, the Ro'a!hesky Volost. %emidovsky %istri!t. <os!ow Provin!e9
r the ni'ht$ The 'irl
invites i
n th
HFho is itL H<eH
;so and so=$
Plot -onstruction and Style 61
HFhat do yo wantL
H#et me in$H
\HO, !orse$H
She lets him in and says9 HI am alone bt there are many o, yo$H HI
am alone too$H
She eG4oses him as a liar$ He tries to jsti,y himsel, and says9 HBt yo are not
alone either$ @yshka <anyshka and others are with yo$H
This she denies. sayin'9 HFell now$ i, I let yo in$ I wonEt be able to let yo ot$
Pa4a is !omin' ba!k in an hor$H
The yon' ,ellows say that they !ame by ,or jst hal, an hor$ Finally she lets
them in thro'h the window$ They all ,ind a seat$ They then demand that she li'ht
the lam4$
HIEm ot o, kerosene$ The wi!k is rined and <ama hid the 'lass lid$H
&ll o, these ar'ments are re,ted. one by one. by the boys$ The lam4 is lit$
HPt on the samovarMH the boys !ry ot$
HFeEre ot o, !oal and weEre ot o, water$H the 'irl says$ HThe samovar has been
taken a4art and <ama has hidden the tea$H
&ll o, these ar'ments are re,ted by the boys$ The samovar is heated$ They drink
tea and the boys 4ro4ose9 H@ow why donEt we all 'o to slee4$H
The 'irls say no. nder all sorts o, 4reteGts$ The ,ellows re,te their ar'1
ments and. ,inally. they all 'o to bed. two at a time$ Every attem4t at
disrobin' or immodest advan!e 4rovokes a motivated re4ly. bt the boys do
not 'ive 4$ By mornin'. they all dis4erse$ Retrnin' home. the 4arents
4retend they didnEt noti!e a thin'$
&n analo'os !stom eGisted in "ermany nder the name o, Htrial
ni'hts$H
Smtsov had already !ommented on the a,,inity between these Hyon'
4eo4leEs 'atherin'sH and Htrial ni'hts$H
&4art ,rom elements whi!h !onsist o, borrowin's. a work o, art also
!ontains an element o, !reativity. a ,or!e o, will drivin' an artist to !reate his
arti,a!t 4ie!e by 4ie!e as an inte'ral whole$
The laws nderlyin' this !reative will mst be bro'ht to li'ht$ Here is a
letter by Tolstoi on the sbje!t9
%ear Prin!ess V9
( am very ha44y. my dear 4rin!ess. at the o!!asion whi!h has !ased yo lo
remember me$ &nd$ as 4roo, o, that$ I am hastenin' to do ,or yo ;he im4ossible$
th i r yor ?esti on$ &ndrei Bk i th hra!ter
ated by a novelist$ He does not re4resent the writers 4ersonality or his me
I wold have been ashamed to be 4blished i, all o, my work !onsisted o, nothin'
more than !o4yin' a 4ortrait ,rom li,e. or dis!overin' and rememberin' details abot
4eo4le I s h l l d h & d i i I h & l i ; hi h
remember me$ &nd$ as 4roo, o, that$ I am hastenin' to do ,or yo ;he im4ossible$
that is to answer yor ?estion$ &ndrei Bolkonsky is no more than a !hara!ter
!reated by a novelist$ He does not re4resent the writerEs 4ersonality or his
memoirs$ I wold have been ashamed to be 4blished i, all o, my work !onsisted o,
nothin' more than !o4yin' a 4ortrait ,rom li,e. or dis!overin' and rememberin'
details abot 4eo4le$ I shall endeavor to say who my &ndrei is$ In the battle o,
&sterlit5; whi!h was des!ribed later= it was ne!essary ,or me to kill o,, a brilliant
yon' man$ #ater in the same novel I ,ond that I needed old man Botkonsky and his
da'hter$ Sin!e it is ralher awkward to des!ribe a ! h a t h i i no way
!onne!ted with the novel
1111$$$7ard to des!ribe a !hara!ter who is in no way !onne!ted with the
novel$
I de!ided to make another brilliant yon' man the son o, old Bolkonsky$ I then
be!ame interested in him and 'ave him a role in the n,oldin' 4lot o, the111111HE
&
H
H
y
el$
&nd$
63
Theory
of Prose
,eelin' !haritable. I had him severely wonded instead o, killed$ &nd so my dear
4rin!ess here $s my totally honest tho'h somewhat va'e eG4lanation as to who
Bolkonsky is$ ;0 <ay (/CA=
I wold like to !all the readerEs attention to TolstoiEs motivation ,or the
blood kinshi4 between his 4rota'onists$ I, we !om4ared his motivation to
the motivation nderlyin' H'oEs novels ;e$'$. "es %iserables* then it
wold be !lear how !onventional indeed is the kinshi4 and lo!ality motiva1
tion that links the se4arate 4arts o, TolstoiEs !om4osition$ Fe see a lot more
darin' in this res4e!t. be,ore Tolstoi$
I,. ,or !om4ositional reasons. an athor de!ides to !onne!t two ,ra'1
ments. then this need not ne!essarily im4ly a !asal relationshi4$ S!h are.
,or eGam4le. the motivations ,or the !onne!tions between stories in Oriental
tales$ In one o, these Oriental tales. a story is told by a hero !arryin' a s4in1
nin' wheel on his head ;*str4=$ This thoro'hly ntre1to1li,e sitation
did not in any way embarrass or !on,se the !om4iler o, the story be!ase
the 4arts o, this work are not ne!essarily linked to ea!h other. nor are they
de4endent 4on ea!h other in a!!ordan!e with any non1!om4ositional
laws$
Framin' as a %evi!e o, %e!eleration
2ote. The ty4e o, storytellin' where the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters tell their stories in
s!!ession ad in,initm ntil the ,irst story is !om4letely ,or'otten may be !on1
sidered to be s4e!i,i!ally Indian in ori'in$
This method o, ,ramin' the a!tion is en!ontered everywhere in the
Panchatantra /itopadesa &etalapancha'imsati and in all similar works$
&s ,ar as the im4robability o, the sitations in whi!h the !hara!ters ,ind
themselves is !on!erned. the Hinds !oldnEt !are less$ Ths. amidst the
most terri,yin' torments. at deathEs door. the !hara!ters relate or. in trn.
hear ot with tter !almness all sorts o, ,ables ;e$'$. a man who tells o, his
4ast while a wheel is s4innin' on his head=$
&s in the story !on!ernin' The Se'en &i=iers>a work o, ndobtedly
Hind ori'in. where we were dealin' with a method o, transmittin' stories
that is well known to s>so also in A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts we
en!onter that same !hara!teristi! way o, slowin' down and 4rolon'in' the
tellin' o, the stories in order thereby to de,er the !arryin' ot o, the death
senten!e$
Similarly. we en!onter an absoltely analo'os sitation in the litera1
tre o, India. where a whole series o, ,ables is told with the 4r4ose o,
dra''in' ot the time and ,orestallin' a hasty de!ision$ Su0a-saptati ;i$e$.
seventy stories by a 4arrot= is a story abot a !ertain lady who wants to visit
her lover in the absen!e o, her hsband$ Be,ore leavin' on his voya'e.
Plot -onstruction and Style 64
however. the hsband le,t his wi,e a 4arrot$ Every day this 4arrot re!ites a
di,,erent story to its mistress. and ea!h ni'ht it ends its story by sayin'9
HYoEll ,ind ot the rest tomorrow. i, yo stay home toni'ht$H
3 wold s''est !om4arin' this story with the son' abot &lvass ;,rom
the Idda* in whi!h Tor. seekin' to hold ba!k the snrise. when he wold
s44osedly be trned into stone. kee4s askin' ,or the names o, varios
obje!ts amon' the 'ods o, the elves. trs and !arls$
It is worth notin' that in this 4arti!lar !ase the devi!e is !ons!iosly
4er!eived as a delayin' ta!ti!$
#et me o,,er another eGam4le9
& vi5ier disobeys the kin'Es order to kill the ?een$ Instead. he hides her$
The kin'. not knowin' this. laments her death$ The vi5ier. answerin' the
kin'Es ?ery. 4lays with his im4atien!e in a way analo'os to a H,ramin'
devi!e$H For instan!e9
The kin' says9 HYo have 4set my state o, mind and in!reased my sorrow$H So
he eGe!tes the H4aGn$H
The H4a'hH res4onds9 HThere are two kinds o, 4eo4le who deserve sorrow9 the
one who !ommits sins every day o, his li,e and the one who never does any 'ood
deeds$ FhyL Be!ase their joy in the world and their bliss are insi'ni,i!ant. while
their re4entan!e. i$e$. a,ter a lon' 4eriod o, 4nishment. is beyond measre$H
The kin' says8 HYo are ri'ht$ I, the 4aGn were alive$ I woldnEt 'rieve ,or any1
thin' in the world$H
The 4a'h answers9 HThere are two kinds o, 4eo4le who shold not 'rieve$ One o,
them is the man who eGer!ises himsel, by doin' 'ood deeds.H et!$
In one version o, this story )<aiilah and Ditnnah* the vi5ierEs answers
;alon' with the 4arables= o!!4y nine 4a'es o, the teGt$
This devi!e o, Hind 4oeti!s 4lays a role similar to that o, the ritals
,ond in le'ends and the Him4edin' elementsH in adventre novels$
#et s retrn. however. to the ?estion o, the artistEs intention$ Here is an
eG!er4t ,rom !ha4ter (B o, &ristotleEs Poetics. The reader may wish to
!om4are it with TolstoiEs letter above$
&nd the ar'ment o, the 4lay. whether 4reviosly made or in 4ro!ess o, !om4osi 1
tion by onesel,. shold ,irst be sket!hed ot in abstra!t ,orm and only then eG4anded
and other s!enes ;He4isodesH= added$ I mean. as a method ,or 'ainin' a 'eneral view
o, the 4lay. the ,ollowin'. ,or eGam4le. with the Iphi5enia. & !ertain yon' woman
is sa!ri,i!ed bt s4irited away withot the sa!ri,i!ers 4er!eivin' it$ She is established
in another !ontry. where the !stom is to sa!ri,i!e all ,orei'ners to their 'oddess.
and wins this 4riesthood$ & !onsiderable while later ;he 4riestessEs brother ha44ens
lo !ome to the !ontry ;the ,a!t that the 'od ordered him to do so. and ,or what
4r4ose. is otside o, the 4lot=. and havin' !ome and been !a4tred he is abot to be
sa!ri,i!ed when he re!o'ni5es his sister$ $ $ and then!e !omes his deliveran!e$ &t
this sta'e. bt not be,ore. one may assi'n names to the !hara!ters and add other
s!enes8 bt be sre that these are a44ro4riate. as ,or eGam4le the ,it o, madness
thro'h whi!h he is !a4tred and their es!a4e by means o, the 4ri,i!ation !eremony
are a44ro4riate to Orestes$ ;Else translation=
66 Theory of Prose
r
From this it ,ollows that the battle between ,ather and son is a reslt o, the
artistEs !ons!ios !hoi!e and not be!ase o, matriar!hal re!olle!tions ;Ilya
and Sokolnik. Rstem and Sokhrab and so on=$
I wold like to !all the readerEs attention to the ,a!t that all o, the versions
o, the story s4eak o, the sonEs Hre!o'nitionH by his ,ather$ That means that
the writer who ,ormed the 4lot is !onvin!ed that the ,ather o'ht to know his
own son$
O, interest to s are the di,,erent eG4ositions !onstr!ted by the athor to
enable him to kill o,, the ,ather and !reate a state o, in!est$ For eGam4le.
Ylian <ilostivy slays his ,ather and mother. whom he ,inds slee4in' in the
'est room. mistakin' them ,or his wi,e and her lover$
-om4are the analo'os le'end !alled HOn the Poor and @eedyH9 H&,ter
a 4eriod o, absen!e. a mer!hant sees two yon' men lyin' in his wi,eEs bed$
He wants to kill them$ They are his sons$H
Fhat is evident here is the will o, the artist strivin' to motivate the !rime
that he needs ,or his work$ -onsider the ,ollowin' eG!er4t ,rom !ha4ter (2
o, &ristotleEs Poetics.
Sin!e it is the 4leasre derived ,rom 4ity and ,ear by means o, imitation that the
4oet shold seek to 4rod!e. it is !lear that these ?alities mst be bilt into the
!onstitent events$ #et s determine. then. whi!h kinds o, ha44enin' are ,elt by the
s4e!tator to be ,ear,l and whi!h 4itiable$ @ow s!h a!ts are ne!essarily the work o,
4ersons who are near and dear ;!lose blood kin= to one another. or enemies. or
neither$ Bt when an enemy atta!ks an enemy there is nothin' 4atheti! abot either
the intention or the deed. eG!e4t in the a!tal 4ain s,,ered by the vi!tim8 nor when
the a!t is done by HnetralsHE8 bt when the tra'i! a!ts !ome within the limits o, !lose
blood relationshi4. as when brother kills or intends to kill brother or do somethin'
else o, that kind to him. or son to ,ather or mother to son or son to mother>those are
the sitations one shold look ,or$
<yths 4assed on by means o, le'end o'ht not to be mtilated$ ;It is very
!hara!teristi!. indeed. how !ertain myths have been altered=$ In &es!hylsE
-hoephori Orestes alone in,orms -lytemnestra o, her sonEs death$
So4ho!les. on the other hand. divides this role between Orestes and
Talthybis$ Fhile the latter delivers the a!tal messa'e. Orestes delivers
the ,i!titios remains o, the dead son$ That is. we are dealin' here with the
sal devi!e o, eG4ressin' & thro'h &;l=. &;:=$
The !han'e. as I nderstand it. has -lytemnestra killed by Orestes and
Eri4hyle by &l!maeon$ The 4oet. however. mst be his own inventor and
make se o, the le'end as he sees ,it$
#et s be even !learer and say what 4re!isely we mean by H as he sees ,it$H
The a!tion may be 4er,ormed as in !lassi!al drama. where the !hara!ters
!arry ot their deeds !ons!iosly$ This is how Eri4ides de4i!ts <edea
mrderin' her !hildren$ Yet. one !an 4er,orm s!h an a!tion withot bein'
,lly aware o, its horror and dis!over only a,terwards the nderlyin' rela1
tionshi4 o, blood or ,riendshi4 that binds one to oneEs vi!tim. as in the !ase
o, So4ho!lesE Oedi4s$ In the !ase o, the latter. moreover. the horrible deed
Plot -onstruction and Style
is a!!om4lished within the 4lay by &l!maeon &stydamanta or by Tele'ons
in $ounded Adysseus.
There is a third 4ossibility9 & !hara!ter who intends to !ommit a !ertain
n,or'ivable !rime !omes to re!o'ni5e his mistake be,ore a!tally !om1
mittin' his deed$ Other than this. there is no other 4ossible alternative$ One
mst either !ommit the !rime or not !ommit it. whether !ons!iosly or
n!ons!iosly$ O, these alternatives the worst is that where someone has
!ons!iosly 4lanned to !ommit the !rime bt does not 'o thro'h with it. ,or
this ,ailre to !ommit the !rime is re4'nant bt not tra'i! to s$ This is so
be!ase s,,erin' is absent ,rom the sitation$ For that reason. no one has
!om4osed in that vein eG!e4t 4erha4s ,or a ,ew !ases. as ,or eGam4le in
Anti5one. In this 4lay. Haemon intends to kill -reon bt does not kill him$
There is also the !ase where the !rime ;nder similar !ir!mstan!es= is
4er,ormed$ Best o, all is a sitation where someone !ommits a !rime in
i'noran!e and a,terwards re!o'ni5es his deed. be!ase s!h a sitation
ins4ires in s not dis'st. bt astonishment$
The most e,,e!tive alternative is re4resented by the !ase above$ &s an
eGam4le. !onsider the <resfont. <ero4a 4lans to kill his son bt does not
kill him$ Instead. he re!o'ni5es his !rime be,ore !ommittin' it$ Similarly in
Gphi5enia a sister intends to kill her brother and does not do so. while in
/elle a son$ who has 4lanned to betray his mother. re!o'ni5es her$ This is
why$ as it has been said. tra'edies move within the !ir!le o, a ,ew ,amilies$
This method o, workin' ot their story line was dis!overed by 4oets thro'h
!han!e rather than art$ For this reason. they rel!tantly sei5e 4on any
,amilies who had eG4erien!ed these ty4es o, mis,ortnes$
-om4are this with the des!ri4tions o, in!est in <a4assantEs HThe
Hermit
(
H9 ;a= ,ather and da'hter. in whi!h a re!o'nition takes 4la!e by
means o, a 4hoto'ra4h8 and ;b= brother and sister ;HFran!oiseH=. where
re!o'nition takes 4la!e by means o, a !onversation$
#et me make a !om4arison$
The a!tion o, a literary work takes 4la!e on a ,ield o, battle$ The masks
and ty4es o, modern drama !orres4ond to the ,i'res o, !hess$ The 4lots
!orres4ond to the moves and 'ambits. that is$ to the te!hni?es o, the 'ame.
as these are sed and inter4reted by the 4layers$ The tasks and the 4eri4eties
!orres4ond to the moves made by the o44onent$
The methods and devi!es o, 4lot !onstr!tion are similar to and in
4rin!i4le identi!al with the devi!es o,. ,or instan!e. msi!al or!hestration$
Forks o, literatre re4resent a :eb of sounds mo'ements and ideas.
In a literary work an idea may take a ,orm analo'os to the 4ronn!iatory
and sonar as4e!t o, a mor4heme or else the ,orm o, a hetero'eneos element$
Here is an eG!er4t ,rom a letter ,rom Tolstoi to @$ @$ Strakhov9
I , l wanted to eG4ress in words all that whi!h I so'ht to eG4ress in a novel. IEd
have no !hoi!e bt to write the very same novel I had written in the ,irst 4la!e$ &nd i,
the !riti!s now nderstand me and are able to de!lare in their ,eilletons what it was
that I had really meant to say$ then I !on'ratlate them and assre them. i , l may
67 Theory of Prose
a lot more abot it than I do$ &nd i, these
i
these myo4i! !riti!.
think that I intended to des!ribe only that whi!h I ,ond to my likin'.
,or eGam4le
Ob,onsky at dinner or IareninaEs sholders. then they are mistaken E
In everythin'. in almost everythin' that ( have ever written$ ( have been 'ided by
the need to !olle!t my tho'hts. to !onne!t them in s!h a way that I may eG4ress
mysel,$ However. every tho'ht that is eG4ressed in words loses its meanin' and
de'enerates horribly whenever it is taken by itsel,. that is. whenever it is ri44ed ot
o, the inte'ral str!tre o, whi!h it is a 4art$ The str!tre o, words !onsists not o,
ideas as s!h ;I believe=. bt o, somethin' else. and it is im4ossible to eG4ress the
basis o, this str!tre dire!tly thro'h words$ This basis !an be eG4ressed only
thro'h the mediation o, words. that is thro'h ima'es. a!tions. sitations
@ow. however. when nine1tenths o, what is 4blished !onsists o, !riti!ism. we
need 4eo4le who wold show s the absrdity o, sear!hin' ,or 3individal6 tho'hts
in a work o, art and who !old 'ide the reader 4ermanently in that endless labyrinth
o, inter!onne!tions whi!h is the essen!e o, art$ &nd in a!!ordan!e with those laws
whi!h in,orm these inter!onne!tions$
The tale or le'end. the short story. the novel>are a !ombination o,
moti,s$ The son' is a !ombination o, stylisti! moti,s$ For that reason the 4lot
and the natre o, 4lot !onstitte a ,orm no less than rhyme$ From the stand1
4oint o, 4lot. there is no need ,or the !on!e4t o, H!ontentH in or analysis o,
a work o, art$ Fe may !onsider ,orm in this !onteGt to be the 4rin!i4le
nderlyin' the !onstr!tion o, an obje!t$
&PPE@%IS &
3Trans. note9 Sh0lo's0y be5ins :ith abbre'iated biblio5raphic citations to further
examples of the 0ind of story referred to on p. 4> abo'e. The terse citations
demonstrate Sh0lo's0y(s :ide ac8uaintance :ith fol0lore literature but :ould
mean little to the contemporary reader and hence are omitted. The text resumes.J
These tales have !lose relatives in barter stories$ For eGam4le. &,anasiev. ,irst
tale. variant9 The she1,oG eG!han'es a sti!k ,or a 'oose. the 'oose ,or a trkey. the
trkey ,or a bride$ Same devi!e in the Fest Ero4ean tale worked ot by &ndersen
nder the title o, HFhatever the #ittle <an %oes Is Fine$H The barter is made vivid
by a hmoros inter4retation o, the e'er diminishin5 vale o, the obje!ts eG!han'ed$
For 4r4oses o, !om4arison I wold like to o,,er an eG!er4t ,rom the work o, S$ I$
Beilin. 2omadic or Uni'ersal Tales and "e5ends in Ancient +abbinical "itera-
ture ;()*B=$ Here we en!onter the ty4e a]b]!]d. i$e$. a kind o, 'eometri!
4ro'ression$
In the twel,th tale o, the third book o, Panchatantra HOn the <ose That Fas
Trned into a <aiden and -hose Its BetrothedH8 also in !ha4ter ei'ht. tale tG
seven. ,rom the book o, <alilah and Dimnah on the hermit and the mose. we read
the ,ollowin'9
.
& !ertain 4ios and !om4assionate hermit ke4t a mose$ Thro'h 4rayer. he %
se!retly trans,ormed it into a beati,l woman so that it woldnEt be shnned by ni
be so bold. that they kn
think that I
myo4i!
!riti!. ,
Plot -onstruction and Style 6@
,amily$ Fhen the 'irl rea!hed adlthood. the 'ood hermit be'an sear!hin' ,or a
worthy sitor ,or her$
Sin!e she asked ,or the stron'est man alive. the soli!itos 'ardian trned to the
sn. who was the most 4ower,l bein' in the niverse. and 4leaded with him to marry
his da'hter$ In doin' this. he eG4lained why he was trnin' to the sn and to no one
else$ Bt then the sn answered9
HI will show yo someone who is stron'er$ It is the !lod. whi!h !overs and
detains all o, my rays and e!li4ses my rays$H
Then the hermit went to see the !lod and said to him what he had earlier said to
the sn$ Bt the !lod answered9
HI too will show yo someone who is stron'er$ "o see the wind. who moves me
ba!k and ,orth and drives me to the east and west$H
So the hermit went to see the wind and said to him what he had already said to the
!lod$ The wind answered9
HI too will show yo someone stron'er$ ItEs the montain. whi!h I !annot move$H So
the hermit !ame to see the montain and re4eated his s4ee!h$ &nd the montain said
to him9
HI will show yo someone stron'er$ ItEs the rat. ,rom whi!h I am 4owerless to
4rote!t mysel, when he bores a hole within me and sele!ts me ,or his dwellin'$H So
the hermit went to see the rat and asked it9 HFonEt yo 4lease marry my
da'hterLH &nd he answered9
H How !an I marry her when my brrow is so narrow$ On the !ontrary. a rat wold
rather marry a mose$H
So the hermit. with the !onsent o, the yon' woman. be'an to 4ray to his #ord.
im4lorin' Him to trn his da'hter ba!k into the mose she had on!e been$ So "od
trned her ba!k into a mose and she and the rat lived ha44ily ever a,ter$
This tale was !lled by me ,rom the book o, <alilah and Dimnah a !olle!tion o, ,airy
tales nder the name o, Bindnaya. translated ,rom the &rabi! by <$ O$ &ttaya and<$
V$ Ryabinina ;<os!ow. (/))=$ The moral9 Hman natre does not !han'e$
&!!ordin' to Rmanian le'end>HEa baby mose always retrns to its brrowEH> the
wind assres him that the oak is stron'er than he. sin!e the latter stands in the way
o, the mi'hty whirlwinds$ Bt he in,orms him what the latter knows already. namely.
that the oak will nevertheless soon ,all to the 'rond. sin!e mi!e have in,iltrated its
roots$ For that reason. the wind advises the baby mose to retrn to its own brrow.
thinkin' that thereby the mose will ,ind there the stron'est !reatre on earth$ Fe read
the ,ollowin' story in the <idrash. Bereshit ;"enesis=. book I$ !ha4ter 0/ ;edited
between the third and ,i,th !entries &$%$=9
Fhen Terah ,ond ot abot the hereti!al ideas and re!kless a!tions o, his son
&braham ;i$e$. that &braham had intentionally and 4rovo!atively smashed the idols
o, the 4eo4le. that he had s4ite,lly and 4ointedly mo!ked the an!ient ,aith. that he
was 4rea!hin' some new tea!hin' o, Hthe one "odH=. he handed him over to
@imrod$
HBow down in worshi4 be,ore the ,ireMH @imrod orders &braham$ HFoldnEt it be
more !orre!t to bow down be,ore the water that eGtin'ishes the ,ireLH obje!ts
&braham$
HFine. then bow down be,ore the waterMH orders @imrod$ HBt woldnEt it be more
!orre!t. in that !ase. ,or me to bow down be,ore rain !lods. who hold within them
waterLH
6; Theory of Prose
HFell. all ri'ht. then bow down be,ore the rain !lodsMH
HO, !orse. bt woldnEt it be more !orre!t ,or me to bow down be,ore the winri
whi!h s!atters the rain !lodsLH &braham obje!ts a'ain$ HFine. then 'o
ahead and bow down be,ore the windMH HI, so. then woldnEt it make
more sense to bow down be,ore the beine
!ontains the wind within himsel,LH &nd the kin'. in!ensed. !ries ot9 HThese are
,oolish ideas that yo are tterin'$ #ook here. I shall bow down be,ore
the ,ire. and it is into the ,ire that I shall !ast yo$ #et yor 'od. the 'od yo believe
in. !ome save yo$H
Fe read the ,ollowin' edi,yin' 4assa'e in the Babylonian Talmd !on!ernin' the
mi'hty and bene,i!ial 4ower o, virte ;jsti!e. 4ea!e o, mind. et!$=V>in whi!h a
similar bt more detailed 4arallelism ;a kind o, order= 4lays a role. a 4arallelism in
whi!h the 4hysi!al and s4irital ,or!es o, natre dominate ea!h other in trn$
Rabbi Yehda says9 HKsti!e ;the administration o, jsti!e. mer!y= is in,initely
'reat. be!ase it hastens the day o, salvation ;se!res hman ha44iness on earth=. as
it is said in the o4enin' verse o, Isaiah AC9 EThs saith the #ord. Iee4 ye jd'ment.
and do jsti!e9 ,or my salvation is near to !ome. and my ri'hteosness to be
revealed$E H He also said9 HTen 4ower,l obje!ts>one stron'er than another>have
been !reated in the world9 a hard ;stone= montain>whi!h is 4lveri5ed by iron8
hard iron>whi!h is melted down by ,ire8 a mi'hty ,ire>whi!h is eGtin'ished by
water8 mi'hty waters>whi!h are !arried to the earth by rain !lods8 ,ormidable
!lods>whi!h are s!attered by the wind8 violent winds>whi!h are sto44ed by a
body8 ;a 4ower,l= body>whi!h is ndermined by sorrow8 a 'reat sorrow>whi!h is
!on?ered ;assa'ed= by wine8 a stron' wine>whi!h loses its e,,e!t in slee4$ &nd
death over4owers them all$ Bt virte saves s even ,rom death$H
Fe ,ind a similar ste41by1ste4 4arallelism in the <idrash Iohelet [!ha4$ B. no$
2C=. bt with a di,,erent inter4retation or !on!lsion$ There it is !arried ot as a
satire on Hshrewish women$H
The idea o, this satire lies in the ,ollowin'9 one 4ower over!omes another 4ower$
One is more mi'hty ;or more ,ier!e= than another$ Yet. there is nothin' worse than a
s4ite,l shrew$ She is more terri,yin' than anythin' on earth. even death itsel,$
This 4assa'e ,rom the <idrash says the ,ollowin'9
Rabbi Yehda said9 HThere are ,orteen thin's. ea!h o, whi!h is mi'htier than the
other ;over4owers the other=$ The abyss is mi'hty. bt the land rises above it$ sin!e
it en!om4asses it$ The land is mi'hty. bt the montains are even mi'htier. sin!e
they rise above the 4lain$ The montain is mi'hty. bt iron !an !t into it$ The iron.
hard tho'h it may be. !an be melted by ,ire$ Fire devors all. bt it in trn is over1
4owered by water. whi!h eGtin'ishes it$ Faters are mi'hty. bt they are !arried to
the earth by !lods$ The !lods are mi'hty. bt they are s!attered by the wind$ The
winds are mi'hty. bt the wall !an sto4 them$ The wall is stron'. bt a man !an
destroy it$ & man is 4ower,l. bt sorrow !an lay him low$ Sorrow is mi'hty. bt
wine !an dll its 4ain and it is ,or'otten$ The 4ower o, wine ;intoGi!ation= is 'reat.
bt it is !hased away by slee4$ Slee4 is mi'hty ;saltary=. bt illness !an !hase it
away$ The 4ower o, illness is 'reat. bt the an'el o, death 4revails and !arries the
sol into the 44er re'ions$ Bt a shrewish wi,e is worse than all o, these$H
^These 4arentheti!al variants are ShklovskyEs. not mine>Trans$
Plot -onstruction and Style 6B
Similarly. there is a !ertain Ethio4ian 4arable that rns9 H Iron is stron'. bt ,ire is
stron'er than iron8 water is stron'er than ,ire. the sn is stron'er than water. the
!lod is stron'er than the sn$ the earth is stron'er than the !lod. man is stron'er
than the earth. sorrow is stron'er than man. wine is stron'er than sorrow. slee4 is
stron'er than wine. bt stron'er than all o, them by ,ar is a woman$H
The same !asti! or hmoros o4inion o, the shrew. and in the same ,orm ;i$e$. as
in the <idrash=. a44ears in the monments o, an!ient Rssian teGts. and this
o4inion 4assed on into the oral ,olk literatre in the ,orm o, ,olk riddles and jokes
;see Ihdyakov. HRssian Riddles.H Ithno5raphic -ollections URssian Im4erial
"eo'ra4hi!al So!iety. (/C2== and is eG4ressed in the ,ollowin' ,orm9
HThe ,ire has hardly been lit$ when it is eGtin'ished by the water$ FhatEs
stron'er than waterL Find$ FhatEs stron'er than windL & montain ;be!ase it
withstands the wind=$ FhatEs stron'er than the montainL <an ;he !ts into the
montain=$ FhatEs stron'er than manL Fine ;it de4rives s o, the se o, le's and
arms=$ FhatEs more ,ier!e than wineL Slee4$ FhatEs more ,ier!e than slee4L &
shrew$H ;See also Py4inEs /istory of Iarly +ussian "iterature.*
&mon' #ithanian Kews the son'1tale HThe Pears Re,se to FallH is a ,avorite with
the !hildren$
The well1known tale HIhad "adyaH ;i$e$$ &n Only Iid= is even more 4o4lar>
and remains so to this very day>amon' the -entral and Eastern Ero4ean Kews.
the so1!alled &shkena5im ;or Kews o, "ermani! eGtra!tion=$ This animal tale has
even made its way into the Passover Ha'ada ;Passover le'ends read on the ,irst two
days o, the Passover in !ommemoration o, the EGods o, the Kews ,rom E'y4t=$
In these ,olk tales we are dealin' with animate and inanimate obje!ts that wa'e
war a'ainst ea!h other and over4ower ea!h other$
The !ontent o, the ,irst o, them>save ,or !ertain insi'ni,i!ant alterations>
identi!al to that whi!h we ,ind in the "ermani! ,olk tale>is the ,ollowin'9
"od !reated the 4ear tree so that it may bear ,rit. bt the tree re,ses to bear ,rit.
and the 4ears re,se to ,all ,rom the tree$
It is then that the #ord sends the yon' boy Yankele to 'ather ;to 4i!k= the ri4e
4ears ,rom the tree. bt Yankele. in his trn. re,ses to 'o 4i!k them jst as they. in
their trn. re,se to ,all ;re,se to let themselves be 4i!ked=$ The #ord then sends a
do' to bite Yankele ,or his disobedien!e$ The do' re,ses to obey$ In order to s4r on
the do'$ the #ord sends a !d'el )shte0ele* bt the !d'el also re,ses$ Finally. the
#ord sends ,ire a,ter the !lb. and water a,ter the ,ire. and a steer )e0sele* to drink 4
the water. and a rital sla'hterer a,ter him$ and an an'el o, death a,ter the rital
sla'hterer )sho0het*. Bt all o, this is in vain$ They all re,se to obey$ Bt when the
#ord raises His arm a'ainst the an'el o, death and a!ts in His own 4erson. then the
matter takes a di,,erent trn9 Everyone sddenly obeys$ The an'el o, death de!lares
his willin'ness to !t down the rital sla'hterer ,or his disobedien!e. the rital
sla'hterer !ts down the steer. the steer drinks the water. et!$$ et!$ &nd in the end
the yon' boy 4i!ks the 4ears ,rom the tree and the 4ears ,all willin'ly into his hands$
& similar son' is ,ond amon' the Slovenes. relatives o, the Rssian 4eo4le. and
!onsists o, the ,ollowin'9
They send a do' a,ter Yrik. in order to brin' the yon' boy home. bt the do'
re,ses to 'o bite him$ They then send a !d'el a,ter the do'$ bt the !d'el wold
not beat the do'$ They then send ,ire a,ter the !d'el. and water a,ter the ,ire. and
a,ter the water blls. and a,ter the blls the bt!hers. a,ter the bt!hers the wit!h. bt
F> Theory of Prose
all in vain$ Finally. when they send the %evil himsel, a,ter the wit!h to take h
away. the wit!h 'oes o,, to 4t her s4ell on the bt!hers. the bt!hers sla'hter th
blls. the blls drink the water. water 4ts ot the ,ire. the ,ire sets the !d'el a,ire
the !d'el beats the do'. the do' bites Yrik. and Yrik retrns home$ ;BslaevE
H@omadi! Tales and Stories$H +ussian /erald <ay (/B2$=
& similar son'1tale has been a sor!e o, amsement amon' kids all over Rssia
Its !ontent is as ,ollows9 & 'oat went lookin' ,or nts. bt did not retrn home$ First
they sent the wolves a,ter her. bt the wolves re,sed to eat the 'oat$ They then sent
4eo4le a,ter the wolves. et!$. bt all was in vain$ @o one obeyed$ @o one wold do as
he was told$ Finally. 'eese are sent a,ter the worms9
The 'eese 4e!k at the worms.
The worms 'naw at the btt o, the aG$
The btt o, the aG strikes down the blls.
The blls drink the water.
The water 4ts ot the ,ire.
The ,ire !onsmes the stone.
The stone shar4ens the aG.
The aG !ho4s down the oak.
The oak kno!ks down the bear.
The bear ri4s 4eo4le a4art.
Peo4le !hase a,ter the wolves.
The wolves eat the 'oat>
ThereEs the 'oat with the nts$
There is the 'oat with the shelled nts$ ;Bslaev. ibid$=
In the above1mentioned Kewish Passover son'. HIhad "adya.H as in the other
,olk tales ;Kewish. Rssian. "erman. et!$=. we ,ind a whole 4ro!ession o, bein's
;!hara!ters= and obje!ts. who over4ower ea!h other in battle$ Vi!tory is
always to the last one. i$e$. to "od$
The di,,eren!e between this litr'i!al son' and other tales ,or !hildren similar to
it lies only in the relationshi4 inherin' between the !hara!ters and their a!tions9 in
the Passover son' they a!t on their own a!!ord. volntarily>some o, them are
motivated by an evil will. others. on the !ontrary. by a sense o, dty and jsti!e.
rather than by !ommand. as in the others$
The !ontent o, the son' H&n Only IidH ;Ihad "adya= is as ,ollows9 The beloved
kid$ the one and only kid$ 4r!hased by the ,ather ,or two 55es ;55 T a monetary
nit=. is torn to 4ie!es by a wild. ,ero!ios !at$ In 4nishment. the do' bites the !at$
the !d'el beats the do'. the ,ire !onsmes the !d'el. the water 4ts ot the ,ire. ;he
bllo!k drinks 4 the water. the bllo!k is !t down by the rital sla'hterer. the
rital sla'hterer is str!k down by the an'el o, death$
In the work jst !ited. the relationshi4 between the athor and the obje!t o, his
investi'ation is in!orre!t. sin!e he !alls or 4arti!lar attention to the inessential.
namely. to the way a distin!t semanti! !ontent is a44lied to the 'iven devi!e$ It may
well be the !ase that this moral. atta!hed to the end o, the work. bears the same
relationshi4 to it that the tears o, msi! lovers have to the msi!$ &s is well known.
!om4osers at times ada4ted their !horales ,or brles?e to the deli'ht o, the 4bli!
that a44laded it ,or its wit and 'aiety$ Yet. on Snday mornin'. the msi! seemed to
them to be reli'ios to its !ore ;Hansli!k=$
The chief thin5 here is that the de'ice is constructed on the basis of deceleration.
Plot -onstruction and Style F1
&PPE@%IS B ;4$ 22=
HI have not s!orned other in,len!es or themes. whi!h are !stomarily advan!ed in
these !ases. s!h as the in,len!es o, ra!e or environment$ However$ I believe that o,
all the in,len!es at work in the history o, literatre. the chief influence is exercised
by one literanK :or0 on another literary :or0 and it is this influence that I ha'e
chiefly sou5ht to trace. I :ould li0e to follo: a line of in'esti5ation that is different
from that pursued by m' predecessors. It is this influence of artifact upon artifact
that is the ori5in and actin5 principle responsible for chan5es of taste and for
re'olutions in art includin5 those in literature. There is no 8uestion :hatsoe'er
here of metaphysics. L The Pleiade o, the siGteenth !entry wanted to !reate some1
thin' di,,erent ,rom the work 4rod!ed by the s!hool o, -lement <arot$ Ra!ine. in
his Androma8ue wanted to !reate somethin' di,,erent ,rom -orneilleEs Pertharite
while %iderot in his ,ather of the ,amily wanted to !reate somethin' ?ite di,,erent
,rom <oliereEs Tartuffe. Finally. Romanti!s o, or time want to !reate somethin'
di,,erent ,rom the works o, !lassi!al writers$$$ $t There is no 4oint in mlti4lyin' the
!ases needlessly or nder the 4reteGt that literatre is an eG4ression o, so!iety$
There is no 4oint in !on,sin' the history o, literatre with the history o, mores$
These are two !om4letely di,,erent thin's$H >F$ Brnetiere$ 4re,a!e to %anuel de
I(hisioire de la litterature francaise ;(/)/=$
V<y readin' o, Hmeta4hysi!sH is stri!tly !onje!tral$ ShklovskyEs eni'mati!
m(e(t(a(=(0i !sicC* is both tantali5in' and !hara!teristi!ally ,rstratin'$ It looks and
sonds like a teasin' slant rhyme on the Rssian word 'a-=y0 ;lan'a'e= with an
obvios 4lay on the word metafi=i0a. Or then a'ain. it !old all be a weird !ase o, a
ty4o ;bt how to eG4lain the ,ive a4ostro4hes in the ori'inalL=$ 3Trans. note6
i tThere were also those who wanted Hto !reate somethin' ?ite similarH to
their M 4rede!essors$ I know them very well. indeedM Bt it is 4re!isely these who
!an be E eG!lded ,rom the history o, literatre and art$ 3ShklovskyEs note6
A
4
ct a sensuously experienced :or0. I, we look
-hapter 4
The Str!tre o, Fi!tion
Be,ore I set ot to eGamine the str!tre o, ,i!tion. I ,eel dty1bond to
!on,ess to the reader that I do not have a de,inition ,or HstoryH as s!h$ That
is$ I do not !laim to know what !hara!teristi!s de,ine a moti, or how moti,s
are a!tally ,ormed and sha4ed into a 4lot$ Ima'es alone or 4arallel str!1
tres alone or even mere des!ri4tions o, the events do not 4rod!e the
,eelin' o, a work o, ,i!tion in and o, themselves$
In !ha4ter : I attem4ted to show the relationshi4 between the devi!es o,
4lot ,ormation and the 'eneral devi!es o, style$ In 4arti!lar$ I 4ointed ot
the 4ro'ressive a!!mlation o, moti,s$ S!h a!!mlations are by their
very natre limitless. as are also the adventre novels bilt on them$ This is
the sor!e ,or all those innmerable volmes o, Ro!ambole and also ,or
&leGandre %masEs Ten Nears "ater and T:enty Nears "ater. This
eG4lains the need ,or an e4ilo'e in these novels. where an endin' is
4ossible only by !han'in' the time dimension. that is. by H!rm4lin' it$H
Yet. it is !ommon 4ra!ti!e to en!lose this a!!mlation o, stories and
tales within the str!tre o, a H,ramin' story$H For eGam4le. in addition to
the devi!es o, abd!tion and re!o'nition. the writer o, an adventre novel
may ?ite ,re?ently ado4t a !lima!ti! weddin' !eremony as a ,ramin'
story ,or this work$ This is why <ark Twain de!lares at the end o, The
Ad'entures of Tom Sa:yer that he is at a loss as to how to end his story$
sin!e. a,ter all$ the boy is obviosly too yon' ,or the obli'atory weddin'
that ends adlt novels$ For that reason$ Twain ends his book at an o44ortne
4oint in the narrative$ &s is well known. the story o, Tom Sawyer had a kind
o, se?el in the story o, H!k Finn ;who. havin' 4layed a minor role in his
,riendEs novel. now takes !enter sta'e=$ This theme was later !ontined in
the ,orm o, a dete!tive novel$ Finally. another Hse?elH was 4rod!ed by
Kles Verne in his novel ,i'e $ee0s in a #alloon.
Bt what 4re!isely does a story need in order to be nderstood as some1
thin' trly !om4leteL
It is easy to see that. in addition to a 4ro'ressive develo4ment. there
eGists in a story also a str!tre analo'os to a rin' or. rather. a loo4$ The
des!ri4tion o, ha44y lovers does not in and o, itsel, !reate a story$ Fhat a
story needs is love hindered by obsta!les ;i$e$. it needs ha44y lovers
F3
The Structure of ,iction F4
4er!eived a'ainst the traditional ba!k'rond o, love hindered by obst, For
eGam4le. & loves B. bt B doesnEt love &$ By the time B ,alls in iove with
&. & has !eased to love B$ This is the s!hema that nderlies the relationshi4
between E'ene One'in and Tatiana$ The !ases o, their ill1timed 4assion
are 4resented in terms o, a !om4leG. 4sy!holo'i!al motivation$ This same
devi!e in Boiardo is motivated by a wit!hEs s4ell$ In his Arlando
Innamorato Rinaldo is in love with &n'eli!a. bt a,ter a!!identally drink1
in' water ,rom an en!hanted s4rin'. he sddenly ,or'ets his love ,or her$
<eanwhile. a,ter drinkin' water ,rom another s4rin'. &n'eli!a !on!eives
an ardent love ,or Rinaldo. whom she had 4reviosly hated$ &s a reslt.
Rinaldo rns away ,rom &n'eli!aEs advan!es. while she. in trn. 4rses
him ,rom !ontry to !ontry$ &,ter wanderin' all over the 'lobe. Rinaldo.
still 4rsed by &n'eli!a. lands a'ain in the en!hanted ,orest$ &s they both
drink o, the water. their roles are reversed on!e more9 &n'eli!a !on!eives a
hatred ,or Rinaldo. while he ,alls in love with her a'ain$ Here the motivation
is nearly laid bare$
Ths. to be a tre Hstory.H it mst have not only a!tion bt !ontera!tion
as well ;i$e$. some kind o, in!on'rity=$ This reveals a !ertain a,,inity
between a Hmoti, and a tro4e ;e$'$. a 4n=$ &s I have already said in the
!ha4ter on eroti! enstran'ement. the 4lot lines o, eroti! tales re4resent
eGtended meta4hors ;e$'$. the male and ,emale seGal or'ans are !om4ared
in Bo!!a!!io with the 4estle and mortar=$ This !om4arison is motivated by
the entire story. 'ivin' rise thereby to a Hmoti,$H Fe see a similar sitation
in the story abot HThe %evil and the @ether Re'ions$H Only here the
develo4ment is more !learly shown. sin!e the athor 4oints ot ,rankly at
the storyEs end that s!h an eG4ression does in ,a!t eGist in the verna!lar$
Obviosly. the story is a develo4ment o, this eG4ression$
-ontless stories are. at bottom. really eGtended 4ns$ &s an eGam4le.
we may !ite stories dealin' with the ori'in o, names$ I mysel, had o!!asion
to hear ,rom the li4s o, a !ertain old resident o, Okhtyaska that the name
ta!les=.
in love
boken 4 into noneGistent 4ro4er names$ For instan!e$ %os0'a
be!omes %os and <'a and Nausa be!omes Na and Usa ;as ,ond in the
le'end o, the ,ondin' o, <os!ow=$
& moti, is not always an eGtension o, lin'isti! material$ For eGam4le$
the in!onsisten!ies o, mores and !stoms may serve as a basis ,or the
develo4ment o, a moti,$ It is worth notin' the ,ollowin' detail ,rom the ,olk1
lore o, soldiers ;tho'h the in,len!e o, lin'isti! elements is also evident
here=9 the o4enin' o, a bayonet is !alled a Hlittle mleH and it is said abot
yon' soldiers that they !om4lain o, havin' lost their little mle$
& similar moti,. based on its asso!iation with a smokeless ,ire ;ele!tri!1
ity=. may be ,ond in the story abot a warrant o,,i!er who was !onvin!ed
by his !om4atriots that the ele!tri! blb han'in' in the smoke1,illed barra!ks
was really a lam4 !overed in soot$
F6
Theory
of Prose
& !on,li!t also serves as a basis ,or the moti, o, a H,alse im4ossibility$H
The devi!e o, H4ro4he!yH brin's abot a !lash o, 4r4oses on the 4art o, the
4rota'onists. who seek to avoid the ,ate H4redi!tedH ,or them by assertin'
that this 4redi!tion has already been ,l,illed ;the Oedi4s moti,=$ Tho'h
seemin'ly nreali5able. this 4ro4he!y is. in ,a!t. ,l,illed in the ,orm o, an
a44arent 4n$
&s another eGam4le. I may 4oint to the Fit!hEs 4romise to <a!beth that
he shall not be de,eated till Birnam wood HremoveH to <a!beth and that he
!annot be !on?ered by any man Ho, woman born$H %rin' their assalt on
<a!bethEs !astle. the soldiers 4i!k 4 bran!hes in order to !on!eal the si5e
o, their army$ <a!bethEs killer. we ,ind ot later. was not born o, a woman
bt ri44ed ,rom the womb$
The same is tre o, the &leGander le'end9 &leGander is told that he will
die in an iron land nder a sky made o, bone$ In ,a!t. he dies on a shield
nder a !eilin' made o, ivory$ The same holds ,or Shakes4eare$ The kin'
who is told in a 4ro4he!y that he will die in Kersalem dies instead in a
monastery !ell bearin' the name HKersalem$H
The sense o, !ontrast is the basis ,or the ,ollowin' moti,s9 H,ather vs$
son.H Hbrother vs$ brother1in1lawH ;in PshkinEs ada4tation o, a ,olk son'.
this moti, is ?ite !om4li!ated=. and the moti, o, Hthe hsband at his wi,eEs
weddin'H ;Hhsband vs$ wi,eEs new hsbandH=$ This devi!e serves as the
basis also ,or the moti, o, the Helsive !riminalH introd!ed into history by
Herodots$ Fe meet this !hara!ter ,irst in a state o, des4air and then in his
!lever resoltion$ Dnder this rbri! ,all also tales based on riddles and
riddle solvin' or. in more advan!ed ,orms. tales based on the solvin' o,
tasks and on heroi! eG4loits$
In literatre o, a later time. the moti, o, the Hinno!ent !riminalH !ame to
the ,ore$ In this ty4e o, moti, we see ,irst the establishment o, the very 4os1
sibility o, s!h an indi!tment. then the indi!tment itsel,. and. ,inally. the
inno!ent manEs a!?ittal$ This a!?ittal is o,ten attained by jGta4osin' the
4erjred testimony o, witnesses ;as a Ssanna ty4e. this is ,ond also in the
Iamoanksky tales o, <inaev=. or by the intervention o, a !ons!ien!e1
stri!ken witness$
This !ase may la!k a denoement. bt then we do not ,eel the 4resen!e
o, a 4lot either$
-onsider. i, yo will. #esa'eEs Asmodeus or the De'iC on T:o Stic0s
where there are s!enes that eGhibit no 4lot str!tre at all$ For eGam4le9
Yo observe that new bildin'. whi!h is divided into two win's$ One is o!!4ied
by the 4ro4rietor. the old 'entleman whom yo see. now 4a!in' the a4artment. now
throwin' himsel, into an easy !hair$ He is evidently immersed in some 'rand 4roje!t.
said Nambllo9 who is he9 I, one may jd'e by the s4lendor whi!h is dis4layed in
his mansion. he is a 'randee o, the ,irst order$ @e H E H H H E H
#
_
9
_
The Structure of ,iction FF
eG4e!ts shortly to be !alled 4on to render his a!!ont in another world. where
bribery is im4ra!ti!able. he is abot to !om4ond ,or his sins in this. by bildin' a
monastery8 whi!h done. he ,latters himsel, that 4ea!e will revisit his heart$ He has
already obtained the ne!essary 4ermission8 bt. as he has resolved that the establish1
ment shall !onsist o, monks who are eGtremely !haste. sober. and o, the most
-hristian hmility. he is m!h embarrassed in the sele!tion$ He need not bild a
very eGtensive !onvent$
The other win' is inhabited by a ,air lady. who has jst retired to rest a,ter the
lGry o, a milk bath$ This vol4tary is widow o, a kni'ht o, the order o, Saint
Kames. who le,t her at his death her title only8 bt ,ortnately her !harms have
se!red ,or her valable ,riends in the 4ersons o, two members o, the !on!il o,
-astile. who 'enerosly divide her ,avors and the eG4enses o, her hosehold$
HarkM !ried the Stdent8 srely I hear the !ries o, distress$ Fhat dread,l mis1
,ortne has o!!rredL & very !ommon one. said the %emon9 two yon' !avaliers
have been 'amblin' in a hell ;the name is a s!andal on the in,ernal re'ions=. whi!h
yo 4er!eive so brilliantly illminated$ They ?arrelled 4on an interestin' 4oint o,
the 'ame. and natrally drew their swords to settle it9 nl!kily they were e?ally
skill,l with their wea4ons. and are both mortally wonded$ The elder is married.
whi!h is n,ortnate8 and the yon'er an only son$ The wi,e and ,ather have !ome
jst in time to re!eive their last si'hs8 and it is their lamentations that yo hear$
Dnha44y boy. !ries the ,ond 4arent over the still breathin' body o, his son. how
o,ten have I !onjred thee to renon!e this dread,l vi!eM>how o,ten have I warned
thee it wold one day !ost thee thy li,e$ Heaven is my witness. that the ,alt is none
o, mineM <en. added the %emon. are always sel,ish. even in their 'rie,s$ <eanwhile
the wi,e is in des4air$ &ltho'h her hsband has dissi4ated the ,ortne she bro'ht
him on their marria'e8 altho'h he has sold. to maintain his shame,l eG!esses. her
jewels. and even her !lothes. not a word o, re4roa!h es!a4es her li4s$ She is in!on1
solable ,or her loss$ Her 'rie, is vented in ,ranti! eG!lamations. miGed with !rses on
the !ards. and the devil who invented them8 on the 4la!e in whi!h her hsband ,ell.
and on the 4eo4le who srrond her. and to whom she ,ondly attribtes his rin$
;Thomas translation=
Obviosly. s!h a 4assa'e ;or a ,ra'ment o, it= doesnEt ?ali,y as a story.
and this is not be!ase o, its brevity$ On the other hand. the sense o, !om1
4letion is !onveyed by the short s!ene that interr4ts the story told by
&smodes9
&smodes was at this moment interr4ted in his re!ital by the Stdent. who ths
addressed him9 > <y dear %evil. interestin' as is the history yo are relatin' to me.
my eyes have wandered to an obje!t whi!h 4revents my listenin' to yo as atten1
tively as I !old wish$ ( see a lady. who is rather 'ood1lookin'. seated between a
yon' man and a 'entleman old eno'h to be his 'rand,ather$ They seem to enjoy
the li?ers whi!h are on the table near them. bl what amses me. is. that as ,rom
time to time the amoros old dotard embra!es his mistress. the de!eiver !onveys her
hand to the li4s o, the other. who !overs it with silent kisses$ He is dobtless her
'allant$ On the !ontrary. re4lied the !ri44le. he is her hsband. and the old ,ool is her
lover$ He is a man o, !onse?en!e.>no less than a !ommandant o, the military
order o, -alatrava8 and is rinin' himsel, ,or the lady. whose !om4laisant hsband
holds some in,erior 4la!e at !ort$ She bestows her !aresses on the si'hin' kni'ht$
F7 Theory of Prose
,or the sake o, his 'old8 and is n,aith,l to him in ,avor o, her hsband. ,rom
in!lination$
The sense o, !om4leteness. o, a ,inished state. derives ,rom the ,a!t that
the narrative moves ,rom a ,alse re!o'nition to a revelation o, the tre state
o, a,,airs [i$e$$ the ,ormla is reali5ed=$
On the other hand. even in more sbstantial short stories and tales. we
o,ten sense a !ertain in!om4leteness. as i, they were never ?ite trly
,inished$ S!h a story is to be ,ond at the end o, the tenth !ha4ter$ It be'ins
with a des!ri4tion o, a serenade. inters4ersed here and there with lines o,
$ $ $ bt eno'h o, these !o4lets. !ontined he. yo will hear msi! o, another kind$
Follow with yor eyes those ,or men who have sddenly a44eared in the street$
SeeM they 4on!e 4on the serenaders9 the latter raise their instrments to de,end
their heads. bt their ,rail b!klers yield to the blows whi!h ,all on them. and are
shattered into a thosand 4ie!es$ &nd now see$ !omin' to their assistan!e. two
!avaliers8 one o, whom is the 'allant donor o, the serenade$ Fith what ,ry they
!har'e on the ,or a''ressorsM &'ain. with what skill and valor do these latter
re!eive them$ Fhat ,ire s4arkles ,rom their swordsM SeeM one o, the de,enders o, the
serenade has ,allen$>it is he who 'ave it$>he is mortally wonded$ His !om4anion.
4er!eivin' his ,all. ,lies to 4reserve his own li,e8 the a''ressors. havin' e,,e!ted their
obje!t. ,ly also8 the msi!ians have disa44eared drin' the !ombat9 and there
remains 4on the s4ot the n,ortnate !avalier alone. who has 4aid ,or his 'allantry
with his li,e$ In the meanwhile. observe the al!adeEs da'hter9 she is at her window.
when!e she has observed all that has 4assed$ This lady is so vain o, her beaty$>
altho'h that is nothin' eGtraordinary either.>that instead o, de4lorin' its ,atal
e,,e!t. she rejoi!es in the ,or!e o, her attra!tions. o, whi!h she now thinks more than
ever$
This will not be the end o, it$ Yo see another !avalier. who has this moment
sto44ed in the street to assist. were it 4ossible. the n,ortnate bein' who is
swimmin' in his blood$ Fhile o!!4ied in this !haritable o,,i!e. seeM he is sr4rised
by the wat!h$ They are takin' him to 4rison. where he will remain many months9 and
he will almost 4ay as dearly ,or this transa!tion as tho'h he were the mrderer
himsel,$
This is$ indeed. a ni'ht o, mis,ortnesM said Nambllo$
The story is ,elt to be in!om4lete$ &t times. s!h Hstory 4i!tresH are
s44lemented by what I shall !all a H,alse endin'$H This ,alse endin' is
sally ,ashioned ,rom a des!ri4tion o, natre or the weather. like the
endin' o, a !ertain -hristmas story ;Hthe ,rost trned ,ier!e and violentH=
that be!ame so ,amos thanks to the Satyricon. Yo mi'ht wish. dear
reader. to try yor hand at !om4osin' somethin' alon' similar lines$ IEd
s''est a des!ri4tion o, Seville at ni'ht or a des!ri4tion o, an Hindi,,erent
skyH and a44end it to the eG!er4t ,rom #esa'e$
Very ty4i!al o, a ,alse endin' is a des!ri4tion o, atmn a!!om4anied by
the eG!lamation9 HHow borin' is li,e. 'entlemanMH ,ond in "o'olEs HTale
o, How Ivan Ivanovi!h Jarreled with Ivan @iki,orovi!h$H
The Structure of ,iction F@
This new moti, !orres4onds to the 4re!edin' material and the story then
a44ears to be !om4lete$
There is an entirely s4e!ial ty4e o, story that involves what may be !alled
a Hne'ative endin'$H #et me ,irst eG4lain the term by analo'y$ In words like
chairs s0ies or oxen the letters s -ies and -en re4resent in,le!tional
endin's that are atta!hed to their res4e!tive stems )chair s0y. ox*.
@ormally. these words. when sed in the sin'lar. are 4er!eived as
H4ositive ,orm$H However. a'ainst the ba!k'rond o, 4lral in,le!tional
endin's. a word in the sin'lar ;i$e$. a word withot an endin'= may be
4er!eived in this instan!e as Hne'ative ,orm$H ;FortnatovEs term$ This has
also been termed a H* endin'H by Badoin de -ortenay$= S!h ne'ative
,orms are ,re?ently en!ontered in short stories. 4arti!larly in the stories
o, <a4assant$
For eGam4le. a mother travels to see her ille'itimate son. who has been
sent to the !ontry ,or his ed!ation$ It trns ot that he has be!ome a
!oarse 4easant$ In 'rie,. his mother rns away and ends 4 4ln'in' into the
river$ The son. knowin' nothin' abot her. s!ors the bottom o, the river
with a 4ole and ,inally dra's her ot by her dress$ This is where the story
ends$ This story is 4er!eived a'ainst the ba!k'rond o, traditional stories
with an Hendin'$H In!identally ;inso,ar as I !an tell=. the Fren!h novel o,
everyday li,e o, the e4o!h o, Flabert made wide se o, this devi!e o, the
n!onsmmated story )Sentimental Iducation*.
The story sally re4resents a !ombination o, !ir!lar and ste41by1ste4
!onstr!tion. !om4li!ated by develo4ment$
In -hekhovEs !om4lete works it is the volme !ontainin' his short stories
that shows the most wear and tear$ The 4bli! at lar'e ,avors. above all. his
yoth,l stories. those whi!h -hekhov himsel, !onsidered to be most
neven$ Fhen we eGamine the 4lots o, these stories. we !ome to the reali5a1
tion that -hekhovEs themes are o, the most ordinary ty4e$ -hekhov tells
stories mostly abot 4etty brea!rats and mer!hants. a s4here o, li,e
already !on?ered ,or literatre a lon' time be,ore ;see the works o, #eikin
and "orbnov=$ In ,a!t. !ontem4orary adien!es ,ind this theme rather old
hat by now$
The eG4lanation ,or -hekhovEs s!!ess in these stories is in their 4lot
str!tres$ Rssian literatre had 4aid s!ant attention to the short story
'enre$ For years "o'ol waited ,or an ane!dote that !old be develo4ed into
a story or tale$
"on!harovEs str!tre. ,rom the 4oint o, view o, the 4lot. was ?ite ho4e1
less$ In Ablomo' the nineteenth1!entry writer "on!harov has 4eo4le o,
the most diverse ty4es troo4 in and ot in the !orse o, one day$ From this
in!om4etent eG4osition. the reader is ,or!ed to !on!lde that Oblomov lives
a li,e o, trmoil and disorder$
Tr'enevEs +udin !onsists o, one story. one e4isode. and RdinEs
!on,ession$
In the world o, the short story 4ro4er. PshkinEs stories eGhibit s4e!ial
AV Theory of Prose
ener'y when it !omes to 4lot str!tre$ Other short story writers in!lde
Ialashnikov. Vonlyarlyarsky. Solo'b. #ermontov and <arlinsky. athor
o, monotonos so!iety tales$
-hekhovEs stories !onstitte a shar4 break with that tradition$ <ndane
in !ontent. theyEre distin'ished nevertheless ,rom the innmerable H4hys1
iolo'i!alH sket!hes>whi!h in their time !om4eted with the so!iety tale>
by distin!t 4lot lines with neG4e!ted resoltions$
The ,ndamental str!tral devi!e sed by -hekhov is the Herror$H The
,irst story. HIn the Bathhose.H is based on the histori!al ,a!t that in 4re1
Revoltionary Rssia lon' hair was worn by both nihilists and the !ler'y$ In
order to make this HerrorH work. it was ne!essary ,or -hekhov to eliminate
all se!ondary elements ,rom his story$ That is why the a!tion takes 4la!e in
a bathhose$ In order to hei'hten the im4a!t o, this !on,li!t. -hekhov
sele!ts the season o, #ent ,or the time o, the a!tion ;i$e$. when isses !on1
!ernin' the !ler'y are most in vo'e=$ The re4lies by the 4riest. who is
mistaken ,or a nihilist. are str!tred in s!h a way that. when we dis!over
that the 4riest is indeed a dea!on and not a nihilist. we ,eel an neG4e!ted
sense o, re!o'nition$ Yet this re!o'nition is le'itimate. sin!e it reveals the
meanin' o, the 4riestEs obs!re mtterin'$ To make the denoement work.
-hekhov had to involve the 4rota'onist in the denoement$ He had to brin'
ot the re!o'nition s!ene in bold relie,9 The barber is distressed to dis!over
that he has inslted a member o, the !ler'y drin' #ent. be,ore !on,ession.
by thinkin' that he was harborin' some stran'e ideas in his head$
Fe have be,ore s here a !orre!tly ,ormed e?ation. both 4arts o, whi!h
,n!tion in mtal harmony$
The short story entitled HFat and ThinH o!!4ies only a ,ew 4a'es$ It
is bilt on a so!ial ine?ality between two ,ormer s!hoolmates$ This is
a thoro'hly elementary sitation. bt it is develo4ed with an neG4e!ted
and 4re!ise inventiveness$ &t ,irst. the old !omrades 'reet ea!h other with
a bi' bear h' as they look joyosly into ea!h otherEs tear1soaked eyes$ The
thin man hastens to tell his !omrade abot his ,amily$ His words 4or ot
n!ontrollably. as one mi'ht eG4e!t o, an old ,riend$ In the middle o, the
story. that is. in the middle o, the ,irst 4a'e. the thin man reali5es that the ,at
one is a State -on!illor. and. sddenly. a !hasm o, ine?ality o4ens 4
between them$ This is ?ite !lear. be!ase. 4rior to this re!o'nition. the
,riends were re4resented as i, in their ,ormer state o, 4overty$ The thin man.
stammerin'. re4eats to the ,at man almost word ,or word everythin' he had
said earlier abot his ,amily. bt now he s4eaks withot emotion. 4er,n!1
torily. as i, he were re!itin' an o,,i!ial re4ort$ In s4ite o, this symmetry. the
re4etition !arries a di,,erent nan!e the se!ond time arond. thereby
revealin' the ,ll meanin' o, the storyEs str!tre$
The 4arallel str!tre is !ontined to the very end o, the story$ It has a
doble denoement based on a di,,eren!e in the ,eelin' o, the two !omrades
who have met$ The State -on!illor is almost naseated by the !ortesies
bestowed 4on him by his ,ormer ,riend$ Finally. he trns away ,rom the
thin one and shakes his hand in ,arewell$ The thin one shakes three o, his
,in'ers. bows with his whole body. and be'ins to 'i''le like a -hinese. hee1
hee1heeM His wi,e smiles$ @a,anail sh,,les his ,eet and dro4s his 4eak1!a4$
&ll three are 4leasantly dmb,onded$
Jite ,re?ently. -hekhov bases his work on a violation o, some tradi1
tional 4lot !onvention$
ThereEs a story by him entitled H& Terri,yin' @i'htH !on!ernin' a man
who ,inds !o,,ins at ni'ht in every a4artment that he visits. in!ldin' his
own$ The story be'ins in a 4rimitive1mysti!al manner$ The storytellerEs
srname is Re?iem$ He lives at the !orner o, %eath and "rave Streets in
the home o, a 'overnment !lerk by the name o, -or4se$ To so,ten the im4a!t
o, a devi!e laid bare. -hekhov adds the 4hrase9 H&nd so it ha44ened in one
o, the most obs!re lo!alities o, &rbat$H
By this a!!mlation o, inert horrors. -hekhov a!hieves a thoro'hly
neG4e!ted endin'$ The endin' is based on a !lash between the !o,,in as a
mysti!al obje!t in a terri,yin' story and the !o,,in as the 4ro4erty o, a !o,,in1
maker$ To elde his !reditors. the !o,,in1maker hides his !o,,ins !landes1
tinely with his ,riends. who dis!over their sr4rise with horror when they 'et
home$
H&n Eni'mati! @atreH is ,illed with an irony 4layed on the e4i'ones o,
the hi'h so!iety tale$ By tellin' her story dire!tly to the writer. the heroine
lays bare the devi!e$ The a!tion takes 4la!e in a ,irst1!lass !o4e a'ainst a
ba!k'rond that has be!ome traditional ,or the hi'h so!iety heroine9 H@eGt
to her in the !o4e sits a 4rovin!ial o,,i!ial. a yon' writer. who has been
4blishin' short stories ;Enovellas.H he !alls them= abot hi'h so!iety li,e in
the 4rovin!ial 4ress$H
The be'innin' o, this story. told by a woman. is !om4letely traditional9
She was a 4oor woman. who Hendred the 'ly 4brin'in' o, a boardin'1
s!hool 'irl. read lots o, st4id novels. !ommitted the sal indis!retions o,
yoth. and eG4erien!ed her ,irst timid love$H
She has ,allen in love with a !ertain yon' man and wants to be ha44y$
This is ,ollowed by another 4arody on the e4i'ones o, the 4sy!holo'i!al
novel9 H HHow s4lendid.E the writer 4rattles. as he kisses her bra!elet$ EI am
not kissin' yo. my divine !reatre$ Rather$ I am kissin' s,,erin'
hmanity$E H
The woman marries an old man$ This is ,ollowed by a 4arodi! des!ri41
tion o, her li,e in a ,ew lines$ The old man dies and leaves her a ,ortne$
Ha44iness kno!ks on her door. bt on the way she en!onters another
obsta!le9 H HFhat stood in yor wayLH E&nother ri!h old man$E H
The doblin' o, this same moti, !om4letely de4rives it o, its ori'inal
motivation and in!or4orates the hi'h so!iety story within the ,ramework o,
an ordinary bsiness transa!tion$
Parody also serves as a ,ondation ,or the story !alled HIt Fas She$H
a work o, lesser ?ality$ This story. on!e a'ain. is bilt on the inertia o, a
-hristmas story. on an en!onter with an nknown woman. whose mystery
7> Theory of Prose
is not asserted bt im4lied$ Fhen she trns ot to be the wi,e o, the story1
teller. the listeners 4rotest and the storyteller is ,or!ed to ado4t a traditional
endin'$
&n ambi'os stan!e towards one and the same thin'. !arried ot with1
ot the stati! ?ality o, another 'enre. in,orms -hekhovEs remarkable story
H& Familiar Fa!e$H & 4rostitte is released ,rom a hos4ital withot her
,ormer 4ro,essional !ostme ;i$e$. withot her ,ashionable short blose. tall
hat and bron5e1!oloretl shoes=$ #ookin' at her internal 4ass4ort. she dis1
!overs that she is now @atasha Ianavkina and not Fanda. the 4ro,essional
hooker. and this makes her ,eel naked$ Sin!e she is in need o, money on this
day. Fanda7@atasha. the dal woman. 4awns her last rin' ,or a rble and
'oes to see her ,riend Finkel. the dentist$ She had ori'inally intended to
sr4rise him. and to ask him. ,a!e beamin' with la'hter. ,or twenty1,ive
rbles$ She kno!ks on his door$ %ressed in ordinary !lothes. she walks in and
timidly asks. HIs the do!tor homeLH The stair!ase seems to her lGrios.
and above the stair!ase is a mirror$ Fanda a'ain sees hersel, withot a hat.
withot the ,ashionable blose. withot the bron5e1!olored shoes$ She
enters the do!torEs o,,i!e and ,rom sheer bash,lness says she has a tooth1
a!he$ Finkel soils her li4s and 'ms with his toba!!o1stained ,in'ers and
4lls ot her tooth. where4on Fanda 'ives him her last rble$
The str!tre o, this short story is based on the ambi'os natre o, a
4ersonEs station in li,e$ Here we are dealin' with two 4eo4le o, very di,,erent
4ro,essions>a 4rostitte and a dentist$ Besides. she a44roa!hes him now
as an amater vis1a1vis a 4ro,essional$ FandaEs !han'ed state o, a,,airs is
!onstantly !onter4ointed by the athorEs reminder o, her !han'e o, attire$
&t bottom. we are dealin' here with shame$ The shame o, sayin' who yo
are8 the shame that leads to 4ain$ This is the !rG o, the entire story9
"oin' otside. she ,elt an even 'reater shame than be,ore$ Bt now she was no
lon'er ashamed o, her 4overty$ She no lon'er noti!ed that she was la!kin' a tall hat
and a ,ashionable blose$ She was walkin' alon' the street s4ittin' blood and every
red s4ittle told her o, her li,e. o, her bad and hard li,e. o, those inslts whi!h she had
borne and whi!h she shall !ontine to bear tomorrow. a week later and a year a,ter
that till her death$
-hekhov rarely makes se o, 4rely le'endary material$ Yet he has an
nsr4assed story !alled HPolyenkaH where le'endary material is tili5ed
,or a !om4ositional 4r4ose$
&
ith will s
is takin' 4la!e even as the 4rota'onists are ne'otiatin' over trimmin's ,or
sale$ The intonations o, their voi!es seem to !ontrast shar4ly with the drama
in 4ro'ress$ The sale is intentionally drawn ot. be!ase the man is in love
while the woman ,eels 'ilty$
HThe most ,ashionable trimmin's nowadays are ,rom bird ,eathers. the most
,ashionable !olor. i, yo will. is heliotro4e or else the !olor of 0ana0 that is. bordeaG
The Structure of ,iction 71
with a tin'e o, yellow$ Fe have a h'e sele!tion$ &nd where is this story headin'L I
really donEt know $ $ $H
The woman is 4ale and tears roll down her !heeks as she sele!ts the
bttons$
HFeEll be makin' it ,or the mer!hants wi,e.H she says. Hso 'ive me somethin'
otstandin'. ot o, the ordinary$H
HIndeedM I, itEs ,or the mer!hantEs wi,e.H he says$ Hthen. by all means. we mst
have a little more !olor$ Here are some bttons$ & !ombination o, ble. red and
,ashionable 'old$ TheyEre as bi' as eyes$ <ore re,ined 4eo4le 4re,er the dll bla!k
bttons with a brilliant ,rin'e$ ItEs jst that I donEt nderstandM -anEt yo see all this
,or yorsel,LM Fell. whatEs the 4oint o, all these $ $ $ EstrollsE o, yorsE$EH
HI really donEt know $ $ $H Polyenka whis4ers as she bends down to look at the
bttons$ HI really donEt know whatEs ha44enin' to me$ @ikolai Timo,ei!h$H
The story ends with an almost meanin'less series o, deliberately 'allant
words and tears$
@ikolai Timo,ei!h shields Polyenka with his arm. as he tries des4erately to !on1
!eal her a'itation ,rom the other !stomers in the sho4$ He ,or!es a smile and says
with a lod voi!e9
HThere are two kinds o, la!e. madam$ -otton and silk$ Oriental. British. Valen!i1
ennes. !ro!het. tor!hon>these are !otton$ On the other hand. ro!o!o. sota!he and
!ambri! are silk$ $ $ $ For "odEs sake. wi4e away yor tears$ Peo4le are !omin'$H
Seein' that she is still sobbin'. the salesman !ontines. loder than ever9
HHS4anish la!e. ro!o!o. sota!he. !ambri!$ $ $ Filde!osovian sto!kin's.
!otton. silk sto!kin's$E H
-hekhovEs short stories made their a44earan!e ori'inally in the hmor
ma'a5ines ,avored by the yon'$ -hekhovEs literary re4tation was ,irst
made in the theater and in the 'enre o, the tale$ It is hi'h time ,or -hekhov
not only to be re4blished bt reeGamined as well$ Everyone who does so
will srely admit that his most 4o4lar stories are also the most ,ormally
4er,e!t$
#et s now look !losely at 4arallelism as a devi!e o, s4e!ial im4ortan!e in
the ,ormation o, a short story$ FeEll do so with a 4arti!lar em4hasis on
Tolstoi$
In order to trans,orm an obje!t into a ,a!t o, art$ it is ne!essary ,irst to
withdraw it ,rom the domain o, li,e$ To do this. we mst ,irst and ,oremost
shake 4 the obje!t.H as Ivan the Terrible sorted ot his hen!hmen$ Fe
Hlst eGtri!ate a thin' ,rom the !lster o, asso!iations in whi!h it is bond$ It
ne!essary to trn over the obje!t as one wold trn a lo' over the ,ire$
Fhe ,ollowin' eGam4le a44ears in -hekhovEs 2oteboo0s. Someone walks
73 Theory of Prose
alon' a !ertain alley ,or ,i,teen or maybe thirty years$ Ea!h day he reads the
si'n that han's above a !ertain sho49 #&R"E SE#E-TIO@ OF BE&RS. and ea!h day
he asks himsel,9 HSo who needs a lar'e sele!tion o,EbearsELH Fell. one ,ine
day. ,or reasons nknown. the si'n is taken down and laid a'ainst the wall$
It is then that he reads ,or the ,irst time9 #&R"E SE#E-TIO@ OF PE&RS$
& 4oet removes all si'ns ,rom their 4la!es$ &n artist always in!ites insr1
re!tions amon' thin's$
Thin's are always in a state o, revolt with 4oets. !astin' o,, their old
names and ado4tin' new names and new ,a!es$ & 4oet em4loys ima'es as
,i'res o, s4ee!h by !om4arin' them with ea!h other$ For instan!e. he may
!all ,ire a red ,lower or he may atta!h a new e4ithet to an old word. or else.
like Badelaire. he may say that a !ar!ass li,ts its le's like a woman with
las!ivios intent$ In this way he brin's abot a semanti! shi,t$ He wrests the
!on!e4t ,rom the semanti! !lster in whi!h it is embedded and reassi'ns it
with the hel4 o, the word ;,i're o, s4ee!h= to another semanti! !lster$ Fe.
the readers. sense the 4resen!e o, somethin' new. the 4resen!e o, an obje!t
in a new !lster$ The new word envelo4s the obje!t. as new !lothes envelo4
a man$ The si'n has been taken down$ This is one o, the ways in whi!h an
obje!t !an be trans,ormed into somethin' sensos. into somethin' !a4able
o, be!omin' an arti,a!t$ &nother way is re4resented by a 4ro'ressive.
ste44ed str!tre$ The obje!t divides into two or three se'ments that re,le!t
or !on,ront ea!h other$
Oh my a44le. who are yo !ortin'L Oh
<ama. do yo want to marryL
sin's a va'abond ,rom Rostov. 4er4etatin'. in all 4robability. the tradition
re4resented by9
&n a44le rolled down ,rom the brid'e$
Iati!hka asked to be eG!sed ,rom the table$
Fe see here two thoro'hly in!on'ros !on!e4ts$ Yet. ea!h dis4la!es
the other ,rom its res4e!tive !lster o, !onventional asso!iations$
&t times the obje!t is red4li!ated or dismembered$ In &leksandr Blok.
,or eGam4le. the adje!tive railroad is broken 4 in Hrail road melan!holy$H
Or a'ain #eo Tolstoi. in his most ,ormally msi!al 4ie!es. !reates str!1
tres in,ormed by the 4rin!i4les o, enstran'ement and ste41by1ste4
develo4ment$
I have already s4oken o, TolstoiEs enstran'ement elsewhere$ One o, the
variety o, ways in whi!h this devi!e is sed involves ,o!sin' on a !ertain
detail in the H4i!treH and em4hasi5in' it in s!h a way that its !onventional
4ro4ortions are altered$ For eGam4le. in his de4i!tion o, a battle s!ene$
Tolstoi develo4s the detail o, the moist. masti!atin' moth$ Sin'lin' ot
s!h a detail !reates a 4e!liar dis4la!ement$ ;Ionstanin #eontiev showed
little nderstandin' o, this devi!e in his book on #eo Tolstoi$=
The most !ommon devi!e in Tolstoi. however. may be !hara!teri5ed as
The Structure of ,iction 74
the athorEs re,sal to re!o'ni5e thin's by their names ;i$e$. he insists on
des!ribin' thin's as i, they were seen ,or the ,irst time U enstran'ement6=$
For eGam4le. he !alls theatri!al s!enery in $ar and Peace 4ie!es o,
4ainted !ardboard. or he !alls the !ommnion bread a bn and assres
s that -hristians eat their "od$ I believe that this Tolstoian devi!e has
its sor!e in Fren!h literatre. 4erha4s in VoltaireEs Hron. ni!knamed
H#Ein'en$H or 4erha4s in the des!ri4tion o, the Fren!h !ort made by
-hateabriandEs HSava'e$H In any !ase. Tolstoi enstran'es Fa'nerian
thin's. des!ribin' them 4re!isely ,rom the 4oint o, view o, an intelli'ent
4easant ;i$e$$ ,rom the 4oint o, view o, someone nen!mbered with the
!stomary asso!iations o, thin's. in the manner o, the Fren!h 4rimitives=$
Besides. the te!hni?e o, des!ribin' a !ity ,rom the stand4oint o, a
4easant had already been sed in the an!ient "reek novel ;Veselovsky=$
The se!ond devi!e. that o, ste41by1ste4 !onstr!tion. was !arried ot
by Tolstoi in a most ori'inal way$
I shall not attem4t even a !rsory essay on the 4ro!ess by whi!h
Tolstoi !reated his ori'inal 4oeti!s$ Instead I shall !on,ine mysel, here
to several eGam4les$
The yon' Tolstoi was rather naive in the way he !onstr!ted his
4arallel str!tres$ In order to work ot the theme o, Hdyin'$H that is. in
order to illstrate it. Tolstoi ,elt it ne!essary in HThe Three %eathsH to
!arry ot three sbthemes9 the death o, the mistress o, the hose. the
death o, the 4easant. and the death o, the tree$ The three 4arts o, the
story are !onne!ted by a s4e!i,i! motivation9 the 4easant is the ladyEs
!oa!hman. and the tree is !ho44ed down to serve as a !ross on the
4easantEs 'rave$
In later ,olk lyri!s. 4arallelism is also o!!asionally motivated$ For
eGam4le. the !onventional 4arallel Hto love is to tram4le 4on the
'rassH is motivated by the ,a!t that the lovers tram4le 4on the 'rass as
they 'o ,or a stroll$
In HIholstomerH Tolstoi s44orts the 4arallelism horse7man with the
,ollowin' 4hrase9 H<!h later. they dm4ed into the 'rond the body o,
Ser4ykhovsky that had eaten and drnk o, the earth and had walked on
it$ They ,ond no se ,or either his skin or bones$H
These 4arts o, the 4arallelism are linked to'ether motivationally by
the ,a!t that Ser4ykhovsky had on!e been IholstomerEs master$
In HThe Two Hssars.H the 4arallel str!tre. ?ite evident ,rom the
title itsel,. is !arried ot also in the details o, love. !ards. and ,riends$
The relationshi4 amon' the 4arts is motivated by the kinshi4 ties that
bind the 4rota'onists$
I, we !om4are ToltoiEs devi!es with the devi!es o, <a4assant. then
we may wish to make the ,ollowin' observation9
In makin' se o, 4arallelism. <a4assant omits. as it were. the
se!ond 4art o, the 4arallel str!tre$ Instead he seems to im4ly it$ S!h an
im4li!it. ta!itly nderstood se!ond 4art is sally re4resented by the
traditional ,ramework o, the short story. whi!h he violates ;i$e$$ his stories
seem to la!k
76 Theory of Prose
an endin'=. or else it is re4resented by the ordinary. !onventional Fren!h
bor'eois attitde towards li,e$ So. ,or eGam4le. in many o, his stories
<a4assant de4i!ts the death o, a 4easant$ He des!ribes it sim4ly bt with
astonishin' enstran'ement by H!om4arin'H it with the literary des!ri4tion
o, the death o, a townsman$ However. this literary des!ri4tion is never
introd!ed into the story 4ro4er$ Rather. it is im4lied$ Sometimes. this
se!ond 4art o, the 4arallelism is bro'ht into the story in the ,orm o, the
narratorEs 4ersonal assessment$
In this res4e!t$ Tolstoi is more 4rimitive than <a4assant. sin!e he ,eels
the need to eG4ose the 4arallel str!tre. as. ,or eGam4le. in his HFrits o,
Enli'htenment.H where he jGta4oses the kit!hen and the livin' room$ I
believe that this 4henomenon is to be eG4lained by the 'reater !larity ,ond
in the Fren!h literary tradition vis1a1vis ors$ The Fren!h reader ,eels the
violation o, norms with 'reater ,or!e or else he ,inds it easier to sear!h ,or
the a44ro4riate 4arallel im4lied in the teGt$ Or Rssian reader. on the other
hand. o4erates with a m!h more neblos !on!e4tion o, literary norms$
I wold like to mention in 4assin' that. when I s4eak o, a literary tradi tion.
I do not have in mind a literal borrowin' by one writer ,rom another$ I
!on!eive o, it as a !ommon ,nd o, literary norms ,rom whi!h ea!h writer
draws and on whi!h he is de4endent$ I, I were to se the analo'y o, an
inventor and his tradition. I wold say that s!h a literary tradition !onsists
o, the sm total o, the te!hni!al 4ossibilities o, his a'e$
<ore !om4leG !ases o, 4arallelism in Tolstoi may be ,ond in his novels.
where one 'ro4 o, 4rota'onists is 4itted a'ainst another 'ro4$ For
eGam4le. the ,ollowin' antitheti!al relationshi4s are !learly dis!ernible in
$ar and Peace.
(= @a4oleon 1 It5ov$
:= Pierre Be5khov 1 &ndrei Bolkonsky$ Fe may also
in!lde here
@ikolai Rostov. who serves as a !oordinate ;standard o, measrement= ,or
both Be5khov and Bolkonsky$
In Anna <arenina we observe the ,ollowin' !om4osition9
&nna 1 Vronsky 'ro4 vs$ #evin 1 Iitty 'ro4$
The relationshi4s amon' these !hara!ters are motivated by bonds o,
kinshi4$ This is a !ommon motivation in Tolstoi and in novelists in 'eneral.
4erha4s$ Tolstoi himsel, writes that he Hhas made the elder Bolkonsky the
,ather o, the brilliant yon' &ndrei be!ase it is awkward to des!ribe a
!hara!ter who bears no relationshi4 whatsoever to the rest o, the novel$H
Tolstoi made little se o, the devi!e o, involvin' a 4rota'onist in several
di,,erent 'ro4in's ;a ,avorite devi!e o, En'lish novelists=$ The one eG!e41
tion 4erha4s is the Petrshka1@a4oleon e4isode. where he em4loyed it ,or
4r4oses o, enstran'ement$ In any !ase. the two 4arallel lines in Anna
<arenina are so loosely !onne!ted ,rom the stand4oint o, motivation that
one may !onsider this motivation to serve a stri!tly artisti! need$
Tolstoi eG4loits the kinshi4 moti, in an intri'in' way when he resorts to
it not ,or the 4r4ose o, motivatin' a relationshi4 bt as 4art o, a 4ro'ressive
The Structure of ,iction 7F
!onstr!tion$ Fe see the two Rostov brothers and their only sister$ They
are 4resented as a develo4ment o, a sin'le ty4e$ &t times Tolstoi !om4ares
them. as ,or eGam4le be,ore PetiEs death$ @ikolai Rostov is a Hradi!al over1
sim4li,i!ation.H a H!rder versionH o, @atasha$
Stiva Oblonsky eG4resses one side o, &nna IareninaEs sol$ This rela1
tionshi4 is 4resented by means o, the 4hrase Ha little bitH ttered by &nna in
StivaEs voi!e$ Stiva serves as a ste44in' stone to his sister$ Here the rela1
tionshi4 amon' the !hara!ters is not eG4lained by kinshi4 bonds as s!h$
Tolstoi is not too timid here to establish an a,,inity in his novel between two
se4arately !on!eived 4rota'onists$ Here a kinshi4 bond was ne!essary ,or a
ste41by1ste4 !onstr!tion$
The de4i!tion o, ,amily members is in no way linked in literary tradition
with the athorEs obli'ation to show the distortions nder'one by one and
the same !hara!ter$ That this is so is demonstrated by the traditional devi!e
o, 4ittin' a noble brother a'ainst a !riminal brother. both o,,s4rin' o, the
same 4arents$ Still on o!!asion. a motivation is introd!ed s!h as il1
le'itima!y ;Fieldin'=$ Here as always in art. we are dealin' with the
motivation o, a master$
The modern novel was 4re!eded by the short story !olle!tion$ I am statin'
this as a !hronolo'i!al ,a!t. withot ne!essarily im4lyin' a !asal relation1
shi4 between these 'enres$
-olle!tions o, short stories were ordinarily 4t to'ether in s!h a way
that the individal stories bore some relationshi4. however ,ormal. to ea!h
other$ This was a!hieved by en!losin' the individal stories within one
,ramin' story that held them to'ether as its 4arts$ This eG4lains the !om1
4osition o, Panchatantra <alilah and Dimnah /itopadesa Tales of a
Parrot The Se'en &i=iers A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts and The #oo0 of
$isdom and "ies ;the ei'hteenth1!entry "eor'ian !olle!tion o, short
stories=. and many others$
Fe may distin'ish several ty4es o, ,ramin' stories. that is$ te!hni?es o,
en!losin' one story within another$ The te!hni?e most 4o4lar with
writers introd!es the tellin5 o, le'ends and tales into the body o, the main
story in order to retard its a!tion$ So. ,or eGam4le. in The Se'en &i=iers the
vi5iers restrain the kin' ,rom eGe!tin' his own son$ while in A Thousand
and Ane 2i5hts S!hehera5ade s!!eeds in 4ost4onin' her own eGe!tion
by tellin' her tales$ In the <on'ol short story !olle!tion o, Bddhist ori'in
entitled Ard=hi #ar=hi the wooden states that serve as ste4s kee4 the kin'
,rom as!endin' the throne by tellin' stories$ &s a matter o, ,a!t. m!h as the
,irst story en!loses the se!ond story. so does the se!ond story en!lose the
third and ,orth stories$ Similarly. the 4arrot o, Tales of a Parrot restrains
the wi,e ,rom betrayin' her hsband by tellin' its stories ntil her hsband
77 Theory of Prose
!omes home$ This 4rin!i4le o, deceleration also nderlies the !y!les o,
stories makin' 4 A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts. Their very obje!tive is to
ward o,, the eGe!tioner$
& se!ond mode o, en!losre may be !alled a Hdebate o, stories.H where
tales are introd!ed to demonstrate some idea$ In this !ase. one story is
!alled 4on to re,te another story$ This te!hni?e is o, interest to s
be!ase it eGtends also to other materials ss!e4tible o, develo4ment s!h
as 4oems or maGims$
It is very im4ortant to 4oint ot that these devi!es are !on,ined to the
domain o, written literatre$ The !mbersome natre o, this material does
not 4ermit s!h an interrelationshi4 o, 4arts in the oral tradition$ The rela1
tionshi4 amon' the 4arts is so ,ormal that it !an be dis!erned. 4erha4s. only
by a reader bt !ertainly not by a listener$ The workin' ot o, a ni,yin'
te!hni?e ,or short stories in the so1!alled7o7,! or anonymos ;as o44osed
to !ons!iosly 4ersonal= literatre was 4ossible only in embryoni! ,orm$
From the day o, its birth and even be,ore. the novel 'ravitated towards a
literary rather than an oral ,orm$
Jite early in Ero4ean literatre emer'ed !olle!tions o, short stories
whose nity was a!hieved by havin' one story serve as a ,ramin' devi!e$
&ntholo'ies o, Oriental ori'in. transmitted into Ero4e by Kews and
&rabs. introd!ed into the lives o, Ero4eans many tales ,rom abroad.
many o, whi!h had analo'es in the indi'enos literatre o, Ero4e$
&t the same time. a Ero4ean ty4e o, ,ramin' devi!e was born. motivated by
the desire to tell the story for the sa0e of the storytellin5 itself. I am
s4eakin' o, the Decameron.
The Decameron alon' with its des!endants. di,,ers very stron'ly ,rom
the Ero4ean novel o, the ei'hteenth and nineteenth !entries in that the
individal e4isodes !om4risin' it are not linked to ea!h other by the nity o,
their !hara!ters$
I wold 'o a ste4 ,rther and assert that we are not dealin' here with a
4rota'onist at all$ The ,o!s is entirely on the n,oldin' a!tion. while the
bearer o, the a!tion serves merely as a 4reteGt ,or the reali5ation o, the 4lot$
Tho'h I have no way o, 4rovin' it. I wold ventre to say that this state
o, a,,airs lasted a rather lon' 4eriod o, time$ Even as late as #esa'eEs ?il
#ias the hero is de4i!ted as a thoro'hly s4ineless !hara!ter$ This has
4rovoked !riti!s to !laim that the athorEs obje!tive in this novel was to
de4i!t the man on the street$ This is not tre$ "il Bias is not a hman bein'
at all$ He is a thread a tedios thread. by means o, whi!h all o, the e4isodes
o, the novel are woven to'ether$
& m!h stron'er relationshi4 between the a!tion and its bearer eGists in
The -anterbury Tales.
& ,ramin' devi!e was widely sed in 4i!ares?e novels$ O, 'reat interest
to s is the ,ate o, this devi!e in the works o, -ervantes. #esa'e. and
Fieldin' and. thro'h Steme. its re,ra!tion in the Ero4ean novel$
The Structure of ,iction 7@
Very !rios indeed is the !om4osition o, the HThe Tale o, Iamar al1
Naman and the Prin!ess Bdr$H This story eGtends ,rom the (B*th to the
:2)th ni'ht of A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts. It immediately breaks 4 into
a nmber o, se4arate tales9
(= The story o, the son ;Iamar al1Naman. son o, Shahriman=
with his
demon assistants$ The str!tre o, the story is very !om4leG. !lminatin' in
the loversE weddin' and in Prin!ess BdrEs desertion o, her ,ather$
:= The story o, the kin'Es two sons ;&mjad and &sEad=$ This
story is
!onne!ted with the ,irst story only by the ,a!t that these sons are the o,,
s4rin' o, Iin' IamarEs wives$ The kin' wants to 4nish them. bt they rn
o,, and nder'o all sorts o, adventres$
The kin'Es da'hter. <arjanah. ,alls in love with &sEad. who met her ,irst
as a mamelke slave$ #andin' in one adventre a,ter another. he ,alls
re4eatedly into the !lt!hes o, Bahram the wi5ard$ &t lon' last &sEad and
<arjanah are renited$ On this o!!asion. the wi5ard. a,ter re4entin' and
!onvertin' to Islam. tells them the story o, H@iEamah and @aomi$H This
story is very !om4leG and is nowhere interr4ted by the story o, the two
brothers$ H#istenin' to the story intently. the kin'Es sons are ,illed with
astonishment$H
It is arond this time that <arjanah$ the kin'Es da'hter. arrives on the
s!ene at the head o, her army$ She demands the retrn o, the beardless
mamelke. who had been abd!ted ,rom her earlier$ This is ,ollowed by the
arrival o, the army o, Iin' "hayr. the ,ather o, Jeen Bdr$ who is. in
trn. the mother o, &mjad$ & third army headed by Iamar arrives soon
therea,ter$ Iamar has been bsy sear!hin' ,or his !hildren. a,ter learnin' o,
their inno!en!e$ Finally. the army o, Iin' Shahriman makes its entran!e$
This kin'. whom we have almost !om4letely ,or'otten. has also arrived at
this 4la!e lookin' ,or his son$
By means o, this arti,i!ial devi!e. several stories have been welded
to'ether$
It is worth notin' how the 4lot o, the ,olk drama <in5 %aximilian has
evolved over the years$ The basi! 4lot str!tre is very sim4le$ The son o,
Iin' <aGimilian. who had married Vens. re,ses to worshi4 idols and
s,,ers death at the hands o, his ,ather ,or it$ The ,ather. alon' with the entire
!ort. is str!k down by death$ This teGt is later ado4ted as a kind o,
s!enario$
S44orted by the most diverse motivations. hi'hly develo4ed moti,s are
inter4olated at di,,erent 4oints into the narrative o, the story$ For eGam4le.
!onsider the ,olk drama The #oat or The ?an5. Sometimes they are
atta!hed to Iin' <aGimilian withot any motivation. jst as 4astoral
s!enes are in!or4orated into Don Quixote or as 4oems are introd!ed into
A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts.
&t other times. however. and I take this to be a later histori!al develo41
ment. these moti,s are inter4olated with the ,ollowin' motivation9 &dol,.
re,sin' to sbmit to his ,ather. rns away to join a 'an'$ Kst 4revios to
7; Theory of Prose
this we heard the story o, H&nika and %eath$H Perha4s this had already
taken 4la!e in the version o, the teGt that was ,ond ,irst in the !ontry ;and
whi!h we may. ,or the sake o, sim4li!ity. !onsider. tho'h wron'ly. the
ori'inal teGt=$
The e4isode !on!ernin' the mo!k re?iem mass. ,amiliar to s ,rom
otside this !omedy. was inserted into the teGt at a m!h later date$
In many 4la!es. new e4isodes and word4lay. 4arti!larly in the ,orm o,
an a!!mlation o, homonyms motivated by dea,ness. 'rew with s!h
lGrian!e that <aGimilian himsel, was nearly smothered by them$ In ,a!t.
he served as a 4reteGt ,or many a new !omedy$ The road ,rom the ori'inal
<in5 %aximilian whi!h has !lose a,,inities with the Soth Rssian s!hool
o, drama. to the later %aximilian disinte'ratin' in a teGt ri,e with 4ns and
o44osed to it in 4rin!i4le. was no shorter than the 4ath that leads ,rom
%er5havin to &ndrei Bely$
In!identally. %er5havinEs 4oetry o!!asionally ,inds its way into these
a,orementioned 4lays$ Fe have here. more or less. a history tra!in' the
!han'es in the te!hni?e o, 4lot develo4ment in the <in5 %aximilian teGt$
Fith the addition o, lo!al material. the teGt !han'ed and develo4ed$
I, we !onsider any ty4i!al story1ane!dote. we shall see that it re4resents
somethin' !om4lete and ,inished$ I,. ,or eGam4le. we look at the s!!ess,l
answer by whi!h a 4erson eGtri!ates himsel, ,rom a !ertain 4redi!ament.
then we will dis!over a motivation ,or the 4redi!ament. the heroEs answer.
and a de,inite resoltion$ S!h is the str!tre o, stories based on H!nnin'H
in 'eneral$ For eGam4le. i,. a,ter the !ommission o, a !rime. a man ,inds
himsel, marked by the !li44in' o, a t,t o, hair. he may im4ose the same
tonsorial style on his !omrades and thereby save himsel,$ The same holds
tre ,or the analo'os tale o, the hose marked by !halk )A Thousand and
Ane 2i5hts and &ndersenEs tales=$ Fe witness here a de,inite !om4leted
!ir!le o, 4lot str!tre. whi!h at times de4loys des!ri4tions or !hara!teri5a1
tions. bt whi!h. in itsel,. re4resents somethin' !om4letely resolved$ &s I
have said above. several s!h stories may ,orm a more !om4leG str!tre by
bein' in!or4orated within one ,ramework. that is. by bein' inte'rated into
one 4lot str!tre$
Yet another devi!e o, 4lot !om4osition. namely. the Hthreadin'H devi!e.
is even more widely disseminated$ In this mode o, !om4osition one ,inished
story moti, s!!eeds another moti, and is linked to it by the nity o, the
4rota'onist$ The !om4li!ated tale o, the !onventional ty4e with its tasks set
be,ore the hero already re4resents a !om4osition o, the threadin' ty4e$
It is 4re!isely this devi!e o, threadin' that makes it 4ossible ,or the moti,s
o, one story to be assimilated by the moti,s o, another$ Some tales !om4rise
two or even ,or s!h moti,s$
The Structure of ,ie 7B
#et s establish at the otset two ty4es o, threadin'9 (= In one ty4e the
hero is netral$ The adventres s4rin' 4on him$ so to s4eak$ He is not
res4onsible ,or their a44earan!e$ S!h a 4henomenon is ?ite !ommon in
the adventre novel. where a yon' man or woman is abd!ted ba!k and
,orth by di,,erent 'ro4s o, 4irates and where the shi4s o, these 4irates are
in!a4able o, rea!hin' their a44ointed rende5vos$ This sitation 'ives
rise to an endless series o, adventres$
:= In other works. on the other hand. we see some attem4ts at linkin' the
a!tion and the bearer o, the a!tion ;i$e$$ an attem4t at motivatin' the
adventre=$ The adventres o, Odysses are motivated. tho'h only
eGternally. by the an'er o, the 'ods. who do not 'ive or hero any 4ea!e$
OdyssesE &rabi! !osin. Sinbad the Sailor. kee4s the eG4lanation ,or his
nmeros adventres ;i,. indeed. he has an eG4lanation= to himsel,$
Be!ase Sinbad has s!h a 4assion ,or travel. the athor s!!eeds in
weavin' into his heroEs seven voya'es the entire travel ,olklore o, his a'e$
In &4leisV ?olden Ass the threadin' motivation is woven arond the
!riosity o, #!is. who is always eavesdro44in' or s4yin'$ In!identally.
The ?olden Ass re4resents a !ombination o, the two devi!es o, the ,ramin'
story and threadin'$ By means o, the threadin' devi!e. &4leis has
mana'ed to inter4olate into his teGt the e4isodes !overin' the battle with the
wineskins. the stories !on!ernin' metamor4hoses. the adventres o, the
robbers. the ane!dote abot the donkey in the atti!. et!$
On the other hand. the devi!e o, the ,ramin' story has made 4ossible the
inter4olation o, stories abot a sor!eress. the ,amos story o, H-4id and
Psy!heH and many little stories to boot$
In the !on!ldin' 4arts o, works !om4osed alon' the threadin' 4rin!i4le.
we very ,re?ently have the ,eelin' that these !onstitent 4arts on!e had an
inde4endent eGisten!e all their own$ For eGam4le. in The ?olden Ass a,ter
the e4isode with the donkey. whi!h had taken re,'e in the atti! and whi!h
was ,inally re!o'ni5ed by its shadow. we en!onter the s''estion that this
very sitation had s4awned a 4roverb;i$e$$ it is 4res44osed that the story is
known to its adien!e either in its entirety or in its basi! str!tre=$
Still. the most 4o4lar motivation by ,ar ,or the threadin' devi!e has been
;and ,rom very early time. I mi'ht add= the jorney. and in 4arti!lar a
jorney in sear!h o, a !ertain 4la!e$ S!h a !onstr!tion !hara!teri5es
"a=arillo of Tormes one o, the oldest o, the S4anish 4i!ares?e novels$
This novel de4i!ts the variety o, adventres eG4erien!ed by a little boy in
sear!h o, a !ertain 4la!e$ It is !stomary to s''est that !ertain e4isodes and
!ertain eG4ressions ,rom "a=arillo had entered into the ;hmoros= idiom
o, the S4anish ba5aar$ I. ,or one. am o, the o4inion that they were there even
be,ore their in!lsion in the novel$ The novel ends stran'ely with ,antasti!
adventres that involve metamor4hoses. a'ain. a rather !ommon 4henom1
enon. sin!e the or'ani5in' idea that in,orms the ,irst 4art o, s!h a novel
nearly always eGhasts itsel, by the se!ond 4art$ These se!ond 4arts there1
,ore are sally !onstr!ted on a whole new base$ S!h was the !ase with
@> Theory of Prose
Don Quixote and with Swi,tEs ?ulli'er(s Tra'els.
On o!!asion we ,ind that the threadin' devi!e is sed with material that is
not 4art o, the 4lot$ In -ervantesE H<an o, "lass$H a short story abot a
s!holar who had broken away ,rom his 4eo4le and who had a,terwards 'one
mad a,ter drinkin' a love 4otion. we en!onter his inter4olated. or rather.
threaded sayin's ,or whole 4a'es at a time9
He also had no end o, ,alt to ,ind with the 444et masters. sayin' that they were a
lot o, va'abonds who were 'ilty o, inde!en!y in the 4ortrayal o, sa!red thin's9 the
444ets they em4loyed in their shows made a mo!kery o, devotion. and they some1
times st,,ed into a ba' all or nearly all the 4ersona'es o, the Old and @ew
Testament. and then wold sit down 4on them to eat and drink in the alehoses and
taverns$ In short. it was a wonder that 4er4etal silen!e was not im4osed 4on them.
or that they were not banished ,rom the realm$
Fhen an a!tor dressed like a 4rin!e went by. "lass!ase looked at him and said$ HI
remember havin' seen that ,ellow in the theater9 his ,a!e was smeared with ,lor and
he was wearin' a she4herdEs !oat trned inside ot9 bt at every ste4 he takes o,, the
sta'e. yo wold swear 4on yor word o, honor that he was a 'entleman$H
HThat may very well be$H someone reminded him. H,or there are many a!tors who
are well born and sons o, somebody$H
HThat is tre eno'h$H re4lied "lass!ase. Hbt what the sta'e stands least in need
o, is individals o, 'entle birth$ #eadin' men$ yes. who are well mannered and know
how to talk. that is another matter$ For it mi'ht be said o, a!tors that they earn their
bread by the sweat o, their brows. with an nbearable amont o, labor. havin' !on1
stantly to memori5e lon' 4assa'es. and havin' to wander ,rom town to town and
,rom one inn to another like 'y4sies. losin' slee4 in order to amse others. sin!e their
own well1bein' lies in 4leasin' their 4bli!$ <oreover. in their bsiness. they
de!eive no one. inasm!h as their mer!handise is dis4layed in the 4bli! s?are.
where all may see and jd'e o, it$
H&thors. too. have an in!redible amont o, work to 4er,orm and a heavy brden
o, !are8 they have to earn m!h in order that by the end o, the year they may not be so
,ar in debt that they will have to 'o into bankr4t!y8 yet ,or all o, that. they are as
ne!essary to the state as are shady 'roves. 4bli! walks and 4arks. and other thin's
that 4rovide de!ent re!reation$H
He went on to !ite the o4inion o, a ,riend o, his to the e,,e!t that a servant to an
a!tress was a servant to many ladies at one and the same time9 to a ?een. a nym4h.
a 'oddess. a kit!hen wen!h. a she4herd lass. and many times a 4a'e or a la!key as
well. sin!e the a!tress was sed to im4ersonatin' all these and many other !har1
a!ters$ ;Ptnam translation=
These sayin's s44lant the a!tion in the story$ Fhen. at the end o, the
story. the s!holar re!overs. a 4henomenon ?ite !ommon in art intervenes9
the motivation may have !eased to eGist. bt the devi!e !ontines to ,n!1
tion naltered ;i$e$. the s!holar !ontines to s4ot his mad sayin's even
a,ter makin' a ,ll re!overy=$ His s4ee!h on the !ort is ?ite similar to his
4revios 4ronon!ements$
So also in TolstoiEs HIholstomer.H where the 4e!liar des!ri4tion o, li,e
,rom the stand4oint o, a horse !ontines even a,ter the horseEs death$ Only
The Structure of ,iction @1
now it isses dire!tly ,rom the li4s o, the athor$
In &ndrei BelyEs <oti0 "etae' the 4aronamasti! !onstr!tions. moti1
vated by an in,antEs 4er!e4tion o, the world. eG4loit material that the baby
itsel, !old never have known$
To retrn to my theme9 we may say in 'eneral that both the ,ramin'
devi!e and the threadin' devi!e. histori!ally s4eakin'. led in the !orse o,
the novelEs history to a !loser bond between the inter4olated material and
the main body o, the novel$ Fe !an ,ollow this 4ro!ess very !learly in a
work known to everyone. that is. in Don Quixote.
-hapter 6
The <akin' of Don Quixote
($ The S4ee!hes o, %on JiGote
In !lassi!al drama. monolo'es o,ten end with a 4ithy sayin'. a H'nome H
& 'nome was a ,or!e,l ,i're o, s4ee!h that was et!hed into the memory
The 4ithy sayin's o, So4ho!les and Eri4ides had already a!hieved distin!1
tion amon' the an!ients themselves$ So4ho!lesE sayin's always bear the
mark o, a moral maGim inde4endent o, the !hara!ter o, the 4erson s4eakin'
while in Eri4ides the !on!lsion o, a monolo'e may be either moral or
immoral. de4endin' 4on the 4erson who 4ronon!es it$
The an!ients eG4lained this di,,eren!e rather naively by assertin' that
So4ho!les did not want anyone to asso!iate a blas4hemos sayin' with
him$ There is. however. another 4ossible inter4retation$ The s4ee!hes o,
the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters !onstitte one o, the means by whi!h the writer
develo4s his 4lot$ The athor. ,or instan!e. introd!es new material thro'h
them$ That is. the 4rota'onistsE s4ee!hes ori'inally served only to motivate
the introd!tion o, s!h new material$ The relationshi4 between the s4ee!h
and the 4erson makin' the s4ee!h. as between the a!tion and the initiator o,
the a!tion. has never been a !onstant one in the history o, literary ,orm$ In
So4ho!les. the Hs4ee!hH is nevertheless the s4ee!h o, the athor. who does
not as yet wish to individali5e the s4ee!hes o, his masks$
%on JiGote was !on!eived by -ervantes to be a 4erson o, rather limited
intelli'en!e9 HThe sn wold have melted the brains o, this hidal'o. i, only
he had had anyH ;<otteG translation. rev$ Kohn O5ell 3(B()6=$ &nd yet
already in the ,irst 4a'es o, the novel. in ,a!t. in the very 4re,a!e. -ervantes
laments>ironi!ally. to be sre>the ,a!t that
@ow I want all these Embellishments and "ra!es9 I have neither mar'inal @otes
nor !riti!al Remarks8 I do not so m!h as know what &thors I ,ollow. and !onse1
?ently !an have no ,ormal IndeG. as Etis the Fashion now. methodi!ally strn' on
the #etters o, the &l4habet. be'innin' with &ristotle. and endin' with Seno4hon. or
Noils. or NeGis8 whi!h last two are !ommonly !rammEd into the same Pie!e. tho
one o, them was a ,amos Painter. and tEother a sa!y -riti!k$
Elsewhere in the 4re,a!e -ervantes says that
yo have no need to 'o be''in' Senten!es o, Philoso4hers. Passa'es ot o, Holy
Frit. Poeti!al Fables. Rhetori!al Orations. or <ira!les o, Saints$ %o bt take !are
@3
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote
73
to eG4ress yor sel, in a 4lain. easy <anner. in well1!hosen. si'ni,i!ant. and de!ent
Terms. and to 'ive an harmonios and 4leasin' Trn to yor Periods9 Stdy to
eG4lain yor Tho'hts. and set them in the trest #i'ht. laborin'. as m!h as
4ossible. not to leave Hem dark nor intri!ate. bt !lear and intelli'ible$
@otwithstandin' this dis!laimer. -ervantes went on to write a novel with
the breadth and s!o4e o, an i!onostasis or an en!y!lo4edia$
Fe shold. however. also take into !onsideration the ,a!t that the dimen1
sions o, this novel. whi!h was laid ot like a dinin' table. evidently ,ar
sr4ass -ervantesE ori'inal intentions$
#et s now retrn to %on JiGote$
So %on JiGote was ori'inally !on!eived as a HbrainlessH kni'ht$ Bt as
the novel 4ro'ressed. -ervantes ,ond that he needed %on JiGote as a
ni,yin' thread o, wise sayin's$ -ervantes valed the 4oor kni'ht and
ennobled him. m!h as he had earlier ennobled the madness o, the H<an o,
"lass$H
The ,irst o, nmeros dis!orses whi!h re,le!t this !han'ed 4er!e4tion in
the !orse o, the novel is delivered by %on JiGote in 4art (. !ha4ter (($
This is the s4ee!h on the "olden &'e$ Here is its o4enin'9
O ha44y &'e. !ryEd he. whi!h or ,irst Parents !allEd the &'e o, "oldM not be!ase
"old. so m!h adorEd in this Iron1&'e. was then easily 4r!hased. bt be!ase those
two ,atal Fords. <ine and Thine. were %istin!tions nknown to the Peo4le o, those
,ortnate Times8 ,or all Thin's were in !ommon in that holy &'e9 <en. ,or their
Sstenan!e. needed only to li,t their Hands. and take it ,rom the strdy Oak. whose
s4readin' &rms liberally invited them to 'ather the wholesome savory Frit9 while
the !lear S4rin's. and silver Rivlets. with lGriant Plenty. o,,erEd them their 4re
re,reshin' Fater$ In hollow Trees. and in the -le,ts o, Ro!ks. the laborin' and
indstrios Bees ere!ted their little -ommonwealths. that <en mi'ht rea4 with
4leasre and with Ease the sweet and ,ertile Harvest o, their Toils$
&s yo !an see. this is an almost verbatim translation ,rom OvidEs
"olden &'e$ The motivation ,or this s4ee!h is a !rios one$ This entire
s4ee!h ;whi!h we !old have most eG!ellently done withot= was delivered
by or kni'ht on the o!!asion o, the 4resentation to him o, a!orns. whi!h
reminded him o, the "olden &'e$ -ervantes himsel, !omments on this
s4ee!h9
&ll this lon' Oration. whi!h mi'ht very well have been s4arEd. was owin' to the
&!orns that re!allEd the "olden &'e to or Ini'htEs Remembran!e. and made him
ths hold ,orth to the "oat1herds. who devotly listenEd$ bt edi,yEd little. the
%is!orse not bein' sited to their !a4a!ities$ San!ho$ as well as they. were silent all
the while. eatin' &!orns. and ,re?ently visitin' the se!ond Skin o, Fine. whi!h ,or
-oolness1sake was hn' 4on a nei'hborin' -ork1Tree$ &s ,or %on JiGote. he
was lon'er. and more intent 4on his s4ee!h than 4on his S44er$
@6 Theory of Prose
"o'olEs$ Similarly. it is no less interestin' to note TolstoiEs va!illation when
ada4tin' a s4e!i,i! set o, ideas to his hero$ For eGam4le. the ideas on war in
$ar and Peace are ,irst 4t in the moth o, &ndrei Bolkonsky and only
later does Tolstoi stri4 him o, these tho'hts and eG4ress them as his
own$
I shall ski4 over %on JiGoteEs s4ee!h on 4ro!rin' as well as over
several o, his dis!orses on kni'hthood and shall 4ass dire!tly to the ,orth
book o, 4art ($ Here %on JiGote. a,ter a series o, re!o'nitions in the
tavern. delivers his s4ee!h on the military and s!holarly 4ro,essions$ It is
interestin' to observe that in the o4enin' se!tion -ervantes reminds s o,
his heroEs s4ee!h to the she4herds9 H%on JiGote. to raise the %iversion.
never minded his <eat. bt ins4irEd with the same S4irit that movEd him to
4rea!h so m!h to the "oat1herds. he be'an to hold ,orth in this <annerH
;!ha4$ 0B=$
This allsion by -ervantes to an earlier s4ee!h alon' similar lines is most
!rios$ #ikewise. in the !riti!al 4assa'es in!or4orated into Don Quixote
;the eGamination o, %on JiGoteEs library. the !onversation with the inn1
kee4er. and so on= we hear mention o, the hosekee4er who had brned the
kni'htEs books>the ,irst a!t o, !riti!ism$
In the !om4leG novelisti! s!hemata o, or new a'e. the relationshi4
between kindred e4isodes is a!hieved by the re4etition o, !ertain words.
very m!h in the manner o, Fa'nerian leitmotivs ;,or eGam4le. in &ndrei
BelyEs The Sil'er Do'eD see also the work o, &leksandra Beksler=$
&'ain. %on JiGoteEs s4ee!h is essentially ot o, 4la!e$ He was s41
4osed to s4eak abot the va'aries o, ,ate$ Instead. he 4raises the military
4ro,ession$ It is interestin' to observe how -ervantes shi,ts to this new
theme9
H-ertainly. "entlemen. i, we ri'htly !onsider it. those who make Ini'ht1Errantry
their Pro,ession. o,ten meet with most sr4ri5in' and st4endos &dventres$ For
what <ortal in the Forld. at this Time entrin' within this -astle. and seein' s sit
to'ether as we do. will ima'ine and believe s to be the same Persons whi!h in
reality we areL Fho is there that !an jd'e. that this #ady by my side is the 'reat
Jeen we all know her to be. and that I am that Ini'ht o, the woe,l Fi're. so
niversally made known by FameL It is then no lon'er to be dobted. bt that this
EGer!ise and Pro,ession sr4asses all others that have been invented by <an. and is
so m!h the more honorable. as it is more eG4osEd to %an'ers$ #et none 4resme to
tell me that the Pen is 4re,erable to the Sword8 ,or be they who they will. I shall tell
them they know not what they say9 For the Reason they 'ive. and on whi!h !hie,ly
they rely. is that the #abor o, the <ind eG!eeds that o, the Body. and that the
EGer!ise o, &rms de4ends only 4on the Body. as i, the se o, them were the
Bsiness o, Porters. whi!h re?ires nothin' bt m!h Stren'th$ Or. as i, This. whi!h
we who 4ro,ess it !all -hivalry. did not in!lde the &!ts o, Fortitde. whi!h de4end
very m!h 4on the Dnderstandin'$ Or else. as i, that Farrior$ who !ommands an
&rmy or de,ends a -ity besie'Ed. did not labor as m!h with the <ind as with the
Body$ I, this be not so. let EG4erien!e tea!h s whether it be 4ossible by bodily
Stren'th to dis!over or 'ess the Intentions o, an Enemy$ The ,ormin' OofJ %esi'ns.
layin' o, Strata'ems. over!omin' o, %i,,i!lties. and shnnin' o, %an'ers. are all
The %a0in5 of Don JiGote @F
Forks o, the Dnderstandin'. wherein the Body has no Share$ It bein' there,ore
evident. that the EGer!ise o, &rms re?ires the Hel4 o, the <ind as well as #earn1
in'. let s see in the neGt 4la!e. whether the S!holar or the SoldierEs <ind nder'oes
the 'reatest #abor$H
This is ,ollowed by a len'thy and. in its own way. brilliant s4ee!h !om1
4arin' the ,ate o, the s!holar and the soldier$ This s4ee!h. o, !orse. is
in!or4orated into the teGt in m!h the same way that verse is in!or4orated
into A Thousand and Ane %i5hts or. ,or that matter. as one tale is in!or1
4orated into another tale in the same work$ &t its !on!lsion. -ervantes
remembers %on JiGote9
&ll this lon' Preamble %on JiGote made. whilst the -om4any s44Ed. never mind1
in' to eat a <oth,l. tho'h San!ho Pan5a had several times advisEd him to mind his
<eat. tellin' him there wold be time eno'h a,terwards to talk as he tho'ht ,it$
Those who heard him were a,resh movEd with -om4assion. to see a <an. who seemEd
in all other Res4e!ts. to have a sond Kd'ment and !lear Dnderstandin'. so abso1
ltely mad and distra!ted. when any mention was made o, his !rsEd Ini'ht1Errantry$
By this 4oint the wisdom o, the Hbrainless kni'htH has been de,initively
established$ In a similar way. the ima'e and si'ni,i!an!e o, Pi!kwi!k are
de!isively !han'ed in the str!tre o, %i!kensEs Pic0:ic0 Papers.
By now -ervantes has be'n to eG4loit the !ontrast between the madness
and wisdom o, %on JiGote$ So. ,or instan!e. drin' his !onversation with
his nie!e. %on JiGoteEs s4ee!h be'ins with the madness o, the kni'ht. then
moves on to moral maGims. whi!h move his nie!e to eG!laim9
HBless meM dear Dn!le.H !ryEd the @ie!e. Hthat yo shold know so m!h. as to be
able. i, there was O!!asion. to 'et 4 into a Pl4it. or 4rea!h in the Streets. and yet
be so stran'ely mistaken. so 'rosly blind o, Dnderstandin'. as to ,an!y a <an o,
yor Years and In,irmity !an be stron' and valiant8 that yo !an set every thin' ri'ht.
and ,or!e stbborn <ali!e to bend. when yo yorsel, stoo4 beneath the Brden o,
&'e8 and whatEs yet more odd. that yo are a Ini'ht. when Etis well known yo are
noneL For thoE some "entlemen may be Ini'hts. a 4oor "entleman !an hardly be
so$ be!ase he !anEt by it$H HYo say well$ @ie!e.H answered %on JiGote8 Hand
as to this last Observation. I !old tell yo thin's that yo wold admire at. !on1
!ernin' Families8 bt be!ase I will not miG Sa!red Thin's with Pro,ane$ I wave the
%is!orse$ However. listen both o, yo$ and ,or yor Farther Instr!tion know. that
all the #inea'es and %es!ents o, <ankind. are red!eable to these ,or Heads9
First$ O, those. who ,rom a very small and obs!re Be'innin'. have raisEd them1
selves to a s4readin' and 4rodi'ios <a'nitde$ Se!ondly$ O, those. who derivin'
their "reatness ,rom a noble S4rin'. still 4reserve the %i'nity and -hara!ter o, their
ori'inal S4lendor$ Third. &re those who. tho'h they had lar'e Fondations. have
ended in a Point like a Pyramid. whi!h by little and little dwindle as it were into
nothin'. or neGt to nothin'. in !om4arison o, its Basis$ Others there are ;and those
are the Blk o, <ankind= who have neither had a 'ood Be'innin'. nor a rational
-ontinan!e. and whose endin' shall there,ore be obs!re8 s!h are the !ommon
Peo4le. the Plebean Ra!e$H ;4art :$ !ha4$ C=
%on JiGote !on!ldes his s4ee!h with some lines o, verse9
@7 Theory of Prose
ThroE stee4 &s!ents. throE strait and r''ed Fays.
Or selves to "loryEs lo,ty Seats we raise9
In vain he ho4es to rea!h the blessEd &bode.
Fho leaves the narrow Path. ,or the more easy Road$
H&la!k a1dayMH !ryEd the @ie!e. Hmy Dn!le is a Poet tooM He knows every thin'$
IEll lay my #i,e he mi'ht trn <ason in !ase o, @e!essity$ I, he wold bt ndertake
it. he !old bild a Hose as easy as a Bird1!a'e$H
This !a'e retrns s to &lon5o the Brave. that is. to %on JiGote be,ore
his madness$ It is worth notin' here that -ervantes himsel, did not reali5e
that %on JiGote. with all his !a'es and tooth4i!ks. !old not have been
hal, so wise be,ore his madness as a,terwards. when he was dbbed the
Ini'ht o, the Foe,l Fi're$ %on JiGoteEs wisdom is not anti!i4ated by
the athor either at the be'innin' or even in the middle o, the novel$ &ll we
!an say abot &lon5o is that he is HbraveH ;'ood=$ %on JiGoteEs s4ee!h on
'lory !onstittes a kind o, !olle!tion o, ?otations and re!olle!tions. a kind o,
!hrestomathy$ This entire s4ee!h has evidently been inter4olated into the teGt
in m!h the same way that 4assa'es ,rom a di!tionary o, synonyms have been
in!or4orated into the teGt o, Fonvi5inEs The &7iEr!or;StarodmEs !onversa1
tion with <itro,anshka=$ Here is the eG!er4t9
HFhat tho sayEst. San!ho.H answerH d %on JiGote. H 4ts me in mind o, a Story$ &
!elebrated Poet o, or Time wrote a very s!rrilos and absive #am4oon 4on all the
intri'in' #adies o, the -ort. ,orbearin' to name one. as not bein' sre whether she
deservEd to be 4t into the -atalo'e or not8 bt the #ady not ,indin' hersel, there. was
not a little a,,ronted at the Omission. and made a 'reat -om4laint to the Poet. askin'
him what he had seen in her. that he shoEd leave her ot o, his #ist8 desirin' him at the
same time to enlar'e his Satire. and 4t her in. or eG4e!t to hear ,arther ,rom her$ The
&thor obeyed her -ommands. and 'ave her a -hara!ter with a Ven'ean!e. and. to
her 'reat Satis,a!tion. made her as ,amos ,or In,amy as any Foman abot the Town$
S!h another Story is that o, %ianaEs Tem4le. one o, the Seven Fonders o, the
Forld. brnt by an obs!re Fellow merely to eterni5e his @ame8 whi!h. in s4ite o, an
Edi!t that enjoinEd all Peo4le never to mention it. either by Ford o, <oth. or in
Fritin'. yet is still known to have been Erostrats$ The Story o, the 'reat Em4eror
-harles the Fi,th. and a Roman Ini'ht. 4on a !ertain O!!asion. is m!h the same$
The Em4eror had a 'reat %esire to see the ,amos Tem4le on!e !alled the Pantheon.
bt now more ha44ily. the -hr!h o, &ll Saints$ Tis the only entire Edi,i!e remain1
in' o, Heathen Rome. and that whi!h best 'ives an Idea o, the "lory and <a'ni,i!en!e
o, its 'reat Fonders$ ETis bilt in the Sha4e o, a hal, Oran'e. o, a vast EGtent and
very li'htsome. thoE it admits no #i'ht. bt at one Findow. or to s4eak more 4ro4erly.
at a rond &4ertre on the To4 o, the Roo,$ The Em4eror bein' 'ot 4 thither. and
lookin' down ,rom the Brink 4on the Fabri!k. with a Roman Ini'ht by him. who
shewEd all the Beaties o, that vast Edi,i!e9 a,ter they were 'one ,rom the Pla!e. says
the Ini'ht. addressin' the Em4eror. HIt !ame inlomy Head a thosand Times. Sa!red
Sir. to embra!e yor <ajesty. and !ast mysel, with yo. ,rom the To4 o, the -hr!h
to the Bottom. that I mi'ht ths 4r!hase an immortal @ame$HE I thank yo.H said the
Em4eror. E,or not doin' it8 and ,or the ,tre. I will 'ive yo no O44ortnity to 4t yor
#oyalty to s!h a Test$ There,ore I banish yo U,rom6 my Presen!e ,oreverE8 whi!h

The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote @@

done. he bestowH d some !onsiderable Favor on him$ I tell thee. San!ho. this %esire
o, Honor is a stran'e bewit!hin' Thin'$ Fhat dost tho think made Horatis.
armEd at all Points. 4ln'e headlon' ,rom the Brid'e into the ra4id TyberL Fhat
4rom4ted -rtis to lea4 into the 4ro,ond ,lamin' "l4hL Fhat made <tis brn
his HandL Fhat ,or!Ed -aesar over the Rbi!on. s4ite o, all the Omens that dis1
saded his Passa'eL &nd to instan!e a more modern EGam4le. what made the
ndanted S4aniards sink their Shi4s. when nder the most !orteos -orte5. bt
that s!ornin' the stale Honor o, this so o,ten !on?erEd Forld. they so'ht a
<aiden "lory in a new S!ene o, Vi!toryL These and a <lti4li!ity o, other 'reat
&!tions. are owin' to the immediate Thirst and %esire o, Fame. whi!h <ortals
eG4e!t as the 4ro4er Pri!e and immortal Re!om4en!e o, their 'reat &!tions$ Bt we
that are -hristian -atholi!k Ini'hts1Errant mst ,iG or Ho4es 4on a hi'her
Reward. 4la!Ed in the Eternal and -elestial Re'ions. where we may eG4e!t a
4ermanent Honor and !om4leat Ha44iness9 not like the Vanity o, Fame. whi!h at
best is bt the Shadow o, 'reat &!tions. and mst ne!essarily vanish. when destr!1
tive Time has eat away the Sbstan!e whi!h it ,ollowed$H ;4art :. !ha4$ /=
It is worth notin' that as %on JiGote be!omes wiser and wiser. an
analo'os develo4ment takes 4la!e with San!ho Pan5a9 H ETrly$ San!ho.E
said %on JiGote. Ethy Sim4li!ity lessens. and thy Sense im4roves every
%ayE H ;4art :. !ha4$ (:=$
The 4oint is that -ervantes leaves the wisdom o, ,olklore to San!ho while
reservin' the worldly1bookish wisdom ,or %on JiGote$ San!hoEs wisdom
!omes into its own in his jd'ments. whi!h. as is well known. re4resent an
a44ro4riation by the novel o, the le'ends o, wise law'ivers$
Here is a sam4le o, one o, San!hoEs strin's o, 4roverbs$ These strin's are
es4e!ially !hara!teristi! o, 4art : o, Don Quixote.
HHeavEn ,orbid8 <arry and &men.H !ryEd San!hoM HFho !an tell what may ha44enL
He that 'ives a broken Head !an 'ive a Plaister$ This is one %ay. bt to <orrow is
another. and stran'e thin's may ,all ot in the roastin' o, an E''$ &,ter a Storm
!omes a -alm$ <any a <an that went to Bed well. has ,ond himsel, dead in the
<ornin' when he awakEd$ Fho !an 4t a S4oke in FortneEs FheelL @o body here I
am sre$ Between a FomanEs Yea and @ay. I wold not en'a'e to 4t a PinEs14oint.
so !lose they be one to another$ I, <rs$ Jiteria love <aster Basil. shell 'ive
-ama!ho the Ba' to hold8 ,or this same #ove. they say. looks thro'h S4e!ta!les.
that makes -o44er look like "old. a -art like a -oa!h. and a Shrim4 like a #obster$H
&t the end o, !ha4ter 0 o, 4art :. San!ho takes !enter sta'e. overshadow1
in' %on JiGote himsel,$ This 4henomenon is ?ite !ommon in the history
o, the novel$ So. ,or eGam4le. in Rabelais. Panr'e moves to !enter sta'e at
the end o, the novel$ This means. in essen!e. that the old novel has !ome to
an end. and a new novel based o,ten on new devi!es has taken its 4la!e$
It wold be very instr!tive to ,ollow the devi!e. already sed by
-ervantes be,ore. o, alternatin' wisdom and madness by eavesdro44in'. as
it were. on the kni'htEs meetin' with %on %ie'o$ This !onversation. whi!h
be'ins with %on JiGoteEs H!hivalrosH s4ee!h and ?i!kly moves on to
literary themes. is astonishin' ,or its 4ro,essional knowled'e o, literary
@; Theory of Prose
history$ This s4ee!h is motivated by the ,a!t that %on %ie'o has a son who
is a 4oet$ &t ,irst. the mad kni'ht s4eaks o, the dty o, 4arents be,ore their
!hildren$ He then moves on to !riti!ism$ Dn,ortnately. shorta'e o, s4a!e
4revents me ,rom ?otin' this s4ee!h ;o!!4yin' abot hal, o, !ha4ter (C o,
4art :=$ %eliverin' his wise s4ee!hes. %on JiGote remains nonetheless
,aith,l to his own madness. as he dons the barberEs basin on his head$ The
mad kni'ht mistakes this basin ,or a helmet at 4re!isely the moment when
San!he5 has mislain a 4ie!e o, n,inished !otta'e !heese in it$
However. %on JiGoteEs sbse?ent adventre with the lions. whom he
!hallen'es to battle. stands ot ,rom the sal. tedios 'ory ,inales whi!h
!rown the !onventional adventre novel$ There is little 4arody in %on
JiGoteEs s4ee!h. whi!h serves. as always. as a yardsti!k by whi!h to 'a'e
the dis!re4an!y between the kni'htEs real a!tion and its ima'ined ,orm9
HBt a m!h nobler Fi're is the Ini'ht1Errant. who ,irEd with the Thirst o, a
'lorios Fame. wanders thro'h %esarts. thro'h solitary Fildernesses. thro'h
Foods. thro'h -ross1ways. over <ontains and Valleys. in Jest o, 4erilos
&dventres. resolvEd to brin' them to a ha44y -on!lsion$ Yes$ I say. a nobler
Fi're is a Ini'ht1Errant s!!orin' a Fidow in some de4o4lated Pla!e. than the
-ort1Ini'ht makin' his &ddresses to the -ity %ames$ Every Ini'ht has his
4arti!lar Em4loyment$ #et the -ortier wait on the #adies8 let him with s4lendid
E?i4a'e adorn his Prin!eEs -ort. and with a ma'ni,i!ent Table s44ort 4oor
"entlemen$ #et him 'ive birth to Feasts and Tornaments. and shew his "rander.
#iberality. and <ni,i!en!e. and es4e!ially his Piety8 in all these thin's he ,l,ils the
%ties o, his Station$ Bt as ,or the Ini'ht1Errant. let him sear!h into all the
-orners o, the Forld. enter into the most intri!ate #abyrinths. and every Hor be
ready to attem4t Im4ossibility itsel,$ #et him in desolate Filds ba,,le the Ri'or o,
the Feather. the s!or!hin' Heat o, the SnEs ,ier!est Beams. and the In!lemen!y o,
Finds and Snow9 #et #ions never ,ri'ht him. %ra'ons dant him. nor evil S4irits
deter him$ To 'o in Jest o, these. to meet. to dare. to !on,li!t. and to over!ome Eem
all$ is his 4rin!i4al and 4ro4er O,,i!e$ Sin!e then my Stars have de!reed me to be one
o, those &dventros Ini'hts. I think my sel, obli'ed to attem4t every thin' that
seems to !ome within the Ver'e o, my Pro,ession$ This. Sir. en'a'Ed me to en!onter
those #ions jst now. jd'in' it to be my immediate bsiness. thoE I was sensible o,
the eGtreme Rashness o, the Dndertakin'$ For well I know. that Valor is a Virte
sitate between the two vi!ios EGtremes o, -owardi!e and Temerity$H ;4art :.
!ha4$ (B=
In the ,ollowin' !ha4ter we see the literary learnin' o, one %on JiGote.
a 4oor 4rovin!ial nobleman. &lon5o the Brave. known as a master in the art
o, !oo41makin'. 'row ever more 4ro,essional$ Here are several eGam4les
,rom his s4ee!hes9
1I, the -om4osition be desi'nEd ,or a Poeti!al Pri5e$ I wold advise yo only to
4t in ,or the se!ond8 ,or the ,irst always 'oes by Favor. and is rather 'ranted to
the 'reat Jality o, the &thor than to his <erit. bt as to the neGt. Etis adjd'ed to
the most deservin'8 so that the third may in a manner be esteemEd the se!ond. and
the ,irst no more than the third. a!!ordin' to the <ethods sEd in or Dniversities
o, 'ivin' %e'rees$ &nd yet a,ter all. Etis no small matter to 'ain the Honor o,
bein'
The %a0in5 of Don JiGote
!alFd the ,irst$H Hitherto allEs well. tho'ht %on #oren5o to himsel,$ I !anEt think
thee mad yet8 letEs 'o on >
Or take. ,or instan!e. this 4assa'e9
HI remember$H said %on JiGote. Ha Friend o, mine. a <an o, Sense. on!e told me$
he woEd not advise any one to break his brains abot that sort o, -om4osition8 and
he 'ave me this Reason ,orEt$ That the "loss or -omment !oEd never !ome 4 to
the Theme8 so ,ar ,rom it. that most !ommonly it le,t it alto'ether. and rn !ontrary
to the Tho'ht o, the &thor$ Besides he said. that the Rles to whi!h -stom ties
4 the -om4osers o, those elaborate &msements are too stri!t. allowin' no Inter1
ro'ations. no s!h Interje!tions as Hsaid heE orEshall I sayE8 no !han'in' o, @ons
into Verbs8 nor any alterin' o, the Sense9 Besides several other -on,inements that
!ram4 4 those who 455le their Brains with s!h a !rabbed way o, " lossin'$ as yo
yorsel,. Sir. withot dobt mst know$H
%on JiGoteEs s4ee!hes later demonstrate even more s4e!iali5ed learnin'$
-ervantes e?i4s him with knowled'e in lin'isti!s and the theory o, transla1
tion. s!h as in this dis?isition on S4anish words be'innin' with.21. AI- et!$
HFhat are the Albo5uesH9 ?oth San!ho9 HFor I donEt remember IEve ever seen or
heard o,Eem in my #i,e$H HThey are.H said %on JiGote. Ha Sort o, Instrments
made o, Brass1Plates. ronded like -andlesti!ks9 The one shttin' into the other.
there arises thro'h the Holes or Sto4s. and the Trnk or Hollow. an odd Sond.
whi!h i, not very 'ra!e,l. or harmonios. is however not alto'ether disa'reeable$
bt does well eno'h with the rsti!ity o, the Ba'1Pi4e and Tabor$ Yo mst know
the Ford is <oorish. as indeed are all those in or S4anish. whi!h be'in with PnAl-
as Altnoa=a Almorsar Alhombra Al5uasil Alucema Almacen Alcan=ia and
the like. whi!h are not very many$ &nd we have also bt three <oorish Fords in or
Ton'e that end in 178 and they are #orce8ui Qa8uicami and %ara'ediD ,or as to
Alheli and Alfa8ui they are as well known to be &rabi!k by their be'innin' with AC-
as their endin' in -i. I !oEd not ,orbear tellin' thee so m!h by the Bye. thy Quere
abot Albo5ue havin' bro'ht it into my Head$H [4art :. !ha4$ CB=
&nd here is an even more s4e!iali5ed re4ort9
EHFhat is the @ame o, it 4rayLH said %on JiGote$ HSir.H answerEd the &thor. Hthe
Title o, it in Italian is "e #a5alele.9 H&nd 4ray$ Sir.H askEd %on JiGote. HwhatEs
the <eanin' o, that Ford in S4anishLH HSir$H answerEd the "entleman$ 9"e
#a5atele is as m!h to say ETri,lesE8 bt tho'h the Title 4romises so little. yet the
-ontents are <atters o, Im4ortan!e$H HI am a little !onversant in the Italian.H said
the Ini'ht. Hand vale my sel, 4on sin'in' some Stan5as o, &riosto9 there,ore$
Sir. withot any O,,en!e. and not dobtin' o, yor Skill. bt meerly to satis,y my
-riosity. 4ray tell me$ have yo ever met with s!h a Ford as Pi5nata in ItalianLH
HYes. very o,ten. Sir$H answerEd the &thor$ H&nd how do yo render it 4rayLH said
%on JiGote$ HHow shold I render it$ Sir.H re4lyEd the Translator. Hbt by the
FordEPorrid'e1PotELH HBody o, me.H !ried %on JiGote. Hyo are <aster o, the
Italian IdiomL I dare hold a 'ood Fa'er. that where the Italian says Piace yo
translate it EPleaseE8 where it says Piu yo render it E<oreE8 Su E&bove.E and ?iu
Beneath$$$$$$$$<ost !ertainly$ Sir.H answerEd tEother. H,or s!h are their 4ro4er
Si'ni,i!ations$H ;4art :. !ha4$ C:=
;> Theory of Prose
Fe may assert in 'eneral that the s4ee!hes o, 4art : are more ,ra'mentary
and e4isodi! than those o, 4art ($ The se!ond 4art. as I have already
observed. eGhibits more o, a mosai! str!tre than the ,irst. and i, there are
no 'reat inset tales or stories in it. s!h as those that on o!!asion 4sh %on
JiGote ,rom the sta'e in 4art (. yet. nonetheless. we meet with many small
e4isodi! ane!dotes. delivered eGtem4oraneosly by or hero$
#et me. with the readerEs indl'en!e. draw the ,ollowin' !on!lsions
;altho'h it is really ,or the reader to draw !on!lsions ,or himsel,=9
($The %on JiGote ty4e made ,amos by Heine and 'shed over by
Tr'enev was not the athorEs ori'inal 4lan$ This ty4e a44eared as a reslt
o, the novelEs str!tre. jst as a !han'e in the mode o, eGe!tion o,ten
!reated new ,orms in 4oetry$
:$Towards the middle o, the novel -ervantes reali5ed that in loadin'
%on JiGote with his own wisdom. he was !reatin' a dality in him$ &t that
4oint he be'an to take advanta'e o, this dality ,or his own artisti! ends$
:$ Inset Stories in Don Quixote
<ost ,ortnate and ha44y was the &'e that sherEd into the Forld that most darin'
Ini'ht %on JiGote de la <an!haM For ,rom his 'eneros Resoltion to revive and
restore the an!ient Order o, Ini'ht1Errantry. that was not only wholly ne'le!ted.
bt almost lost and abolishEd. or &'e. barren in it sel, o, 4leasant Re!reations$
derives the Pleasre it rea4s ,rom his tre History. and the varios Tales and
E4isodes thereo,. in some res4e!ts. no less 4leasin'. art,l and athenti!. than the
History itsel,$
So be'ins the ,orth book of Don Quixote ;4art (. !ha4$ :/=$ In reality.
the thread o, a!tion in -ervantesE work is ,ra'ile and tattered$ The inset
stories of Don Quixote may be divided into several !ate'ories in
a!!ordan!e with the way they are introd!ed into the novel$ Be,ore I
4ro!eed to !lassi,y these stories. tho'h. I wold like to des!ribe them$
I, we !lassi,y the stories by theirHreality.H then. above all. we meet with a
whole array o, 4astoral ones$ These tales be'in with the <ar!ella e4isode in
!ha4ters (:. (0. and (2 o, 4art ($ <ore !orre!tly. the e4isode be'ins with
%on JiGoteEs s4ee!h on the "olden &'e ;see my analysis above= and then
!ontines nder the 'ise o, a 4oem. naively inter4olated into the teGt9 H ESir
Ini'ht.E said he. Ethat yo may be sre yo are heartily wel!ome. weEll 'et
one o, or Fellows to 'ive s a Son'8 he is jst a !omin'E H ;4art (. !ha4$ (( *R
This is ,ollowed by lines o, verse$ &s yo !an see. the introd!tion o,
verse into the teGt is motivated in m!h the same way that ra!y. to4i!al
do''erel is inters4ersed in vadeville a!ts or the way that 4oems are re!ited
by the heroes o, A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts be,ore evil s4irits as well as
beati,l ladies$
& little later. we en!onter the <ar!ella e4isode itsel,$ The story is intro1
d!ed in the ,ollowin' way9
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote ;1
& Yon' Fellow. who sEd to brin' Hem Provisions ,rom the neGt Villa'e.
ha44enEd to !ome while this was doin'. and addressin' himsel, to the "oat1herds.
HHark ye$ Friends$H said he. HdEye hear the @ewsLH HFhat @ews$H !ryEd one o, the
r&mnanE
(
HThai ,ine She%herd and S!holar -hrvsostome dvEd this <nrnino H
In order to introd!e this e4isode into the teGt. -ervantes makes se o, a
H!orier1storytellerH that re!alls. a44arently. the HheraldH o, !lassi!al
tra'edy$ Yet. his role is essentially di,,erent$ The herald in,orms his
adien!e abot !r!ial events not de4i!ted on sta'e$ He thereby hel4s it to
make sense o, the basi! 4lot o, the tra'edy$ This !orier. on the other hand.
is sed to motivate the inter4olation o, an inset story into the main 4lot$
The !orierEs story be'ins at the 4oint in the narrative where everyone
has le,t ,or the site o, the mrder$
In order to !onne!t the inset story with the main 4lot o, the novel.
-ervantes involves %on JiGote himsel, in its 4lot$ This boils down to the
devi!e o, havin' the Ini'ht o, Foe,l Fi're emend the story as it n,olds9
H EFe !all it an E!li4se.E !ryEd%on JiGote. Eand not a -li4. when either o,
those two 'reat #minaries are darkenEd$E H
Yet Peter. not dwellin' on s!h 4etty details. !ontines his story9
HHe woEd alsoH ;!ontinEd Peter. who did not stand 4on s!h ni!e %istin!tions=
H,oretel when the Year woEd be 4lenti,l or Hestil$E H HYo woEd say Esteril.E H
!ryEd %on JiGote$ HSteril or Estil.H re4lyEd the Fellow. HthatEs all one to me9 Bt
this I say. that his Parents and Friends. bein' rlEd by him. 'rew wondy ri!h in a
short Time9 ,or he wold tell Eem. HThis Year sow Barley. and no Fheat9 In this yo
may sow Pease. and no Barley9 @eGt Year will be a 'ood Year ,or Oil9 The three
a,ter that. yo shanEt 'ather a %ro4E9 and whatsoever he said woEd !ertainly !ome
to 4ass$H HThat S!ien!e.H said %on JiGote. His !allEd &strolo'y$H HI donEt know
what yo !all it.HE answerEd Peter. Hbt I know he knew all this. and a deal more$ Bt$
in short. within some ,ew <onths a,ter he had le,t the Versity$ on a !ertain <ornin'
we saw him !ome dressEd ,or all the Forld like a She4herd. and drivin' his Flo!k.
havin' laid down the lon' "own. whi!h he sEd to wear as a S!holar$ &t the same
time one &mbrose. a 'reat Friend o, his. who had been his Fellow1S!holar also.
took 4on him to 'o like a She4herd. and kee4 him -om4any. whi!h we all did not a
little marvel at$ I had almost ,or'ot to tell yo how he thatEs dead was a mi'hty <an
,or makin' o, Verses. insom!h that he !ommonly made the -arols whi!h we sn'
+n -hristmas1Eve9 and the 4lays whi!h the yon' #ads in or @ei'hborhood
ena!ted on -or4s -hristi %ay$ and every one woEd say. that no body !oEd mend
`m$ Somewhat be,ore that time -hrysostomeEs Father died. and le,t him a deal o,
Fealth. both in #and$ <oney. -attle. and other "oods. whereo, the yon' <an
remainEd dissolte <aster8 and in troth he deservEd it all. ,or he was as 'ood1natrEd ,
ol

as

e
Eer trod on Shoe o, #eather8 mi'hty 'ood to the Poor. a main Friend to all wnest
4eo4le. and had a Fa!e like a Blessin'$ &t last it !ame to be known. that the Reason
o, his alterin' his "arb in that Fashion. was only that he mi'ht 'o 4 and
*Fn

a,ter
that
She4herdess <ar!ella. whom or !omrade told yo o, be,ore. ,or he
;3 Theory of Prose
was ,allen mi'htily in love with her$ &nd now IEll tell yo s!h a thin' yo never
heard the like in yor born %ays. and mayEnt !han!e to hear o, s!h another while
yo breathe. thoV yo were to live as lon' as Sarnah$H HSay Sarah.H !ryEd %on
JiGote. who hated to hear him blnder ths$ HThe Sarna. or the It!h. ;,or thatEs all
one with s. ?oth Peter= lives lon' eno'h too8 bt i, yo 'o on ths. and make me
break o,, my Tale at every Ford. we anEt like to have done this Twelve1month$H
These interr4tions be!ome less and less ,re?ent$
This method o, linkin' the inset story with the novel itsel, by !onstantly
remindin' the reader o, the 4resen!e o, the leadin' !hara!ters o, the main
4lot is o,ten em4loyed by -ervantes$
In Tristram Shandy the s4ee!h abot the In?isition. drawn ot by the
athor. is interr4ted by TrimEs emotional otbrsts$ Orelse in other4la!es
the athor interr4ts himsel, by alldin' to other moti,s9 either knots and
bttonholes or Kenny or else he reminds the reader o, the eGisten!e o, the
novel by resortin' to re4etition ;i$e$. by re4eatin' the very 4hrase with
whi!h he had broken o,, his narrative in the ,irst 4la!e=$ Bt o, this I shall
have more to say in my analysis o, Sterne$
In -ervantes the story is linked with the main 4lot of Don Quixote in the
,ollowin' ways9
(= & 4rin!i4al !hara!ter o, the novel interr4ts the a!tion o, the inset
story$ Dsin' 4re!isely this te!hni?e. %on JiGote interr4ts the !on,sed.
tan'led web o, tales o, the se!ond volme with a s4ee!h !om4arin' the ,ate
o, the stdent with the ,ate o, the soldier$ Even more ty4i!al is his interr4
tion not by word or s4ee!h bt by a!tion$ So. ,or eGam4le. %on JiGoteEs
battle with the wineskins re4eatedly interr4ts the drawn1ot story !alled
HThe @ovel o, the -rios Im4ertinentH ;in!or4orated into the novel in
a!!ordan!e with the 4rin!i4le o, the H,ond mans!ri4tH=9
The @ovel was !ome near a !on!lsion. when San!ho Pan5a !ame rnnin' ot o,
%on JiGoteEs -hamber in a terrible Fri'ht and !ryin' ot. HHel4. Hel4. 'ood
Peo4le. Hel4 my <aster. heEs jst now at it$ Tooth and @ail. with that same 'iant.
the Prin!ess <i!omi!onaEs Foe9 I neEer saw a more dread,l battle in my born1days$
He has lent him s!h a Sliver. that whi4. o,, went the "iantEs head. as rond as a
Trni4$H ;4art (. !ha4$ 0A=
:= The leadin' !hara!ters o, the story 4arti!i4ate in the a!tion o, the main
4lot$ This takes its most so4histi!ated ,orm in the 4arti!i4ation by %orothea
;the heroine o, the most 4ower,l inset tale in Don Quixote* in the hoaG
4er4etrated on %on JiGote. where she is 4assed o,, as Prin!ess
<i!omi!ona$
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote
distressed #adies sEd to eG4ress themselves when they !ame to be' some Ini'ht1ErrantEs
&ssistan!e. ;4art (. !ha4$ :)=
This is 4resented in a more naive ,orm by -ervantes in the two e4isodes in whi!h
%on JiGote 'ets involved in a ,i'ht with the leadin' !hara!ters o, the res4e!tive inset
tales$
&t last. a,ter he had stood ths a !onsiderable while. he raisEd his Head. and sddenly
breakin' Silen!e. HI am 4ositively !onvin!Ed$H !ryEd he. Hnor shall any <an in the Forld ever
4erswade me to the !ontrary8 and heEs a Blo!khead who says. that 'reat Villain <r$ Elisabat.
never lay with Jeen <adasima$H
H Tis ,alse.H !ryEd %on JiGote. in a mi'hty Heat8 Hby all the Powers above. Etis all S!andal
and base %etra!tion to say this o, Jeen <adasima$ She was a most noble and virtos #ady8
nor is to be 4resmEd that so 'reat a Prin!ess wold ever debase her sel, so ,ar as to ,all in #ove
with a Ja!k$ Fhoever dares to say she did. lyes like an arrant Villain8 and IEll make him
a!knowled'e it either a1Foot or a1Horseba!k. armEd or narmEd. by @i'ht or by %ay. or how he
4leases$H -ardenio very earnestly ,iGEd his Eyes on %on JiGote. while he was ths de,yin'
him. and takin' Jeen <adasimaEs Part. as i, she had been his tre and law,l Prin!ess8 and
bein' 4rovokEd by these &bses into one o, his mad Fits. he took 4 a 'reat Stone that lay by
him$ and hit %on JiGote s!h a Blow on his Breast with it. that it beat him down ba!kwards.
;4art (. !ha4$ :2=
In 4re!isely this way the relationshi4 with the main novel is renewed in one o, the
4astoral e4isodes. in whi!h the she4herd tells the story o, the soldier who had
!a4tivated the 4rod she4herdess #eandra with his ,an!y attire$
The !ommentaries that -ervantes inter4olates into the body o, the story are most
!rios9
The "oat1herdEs Story was mi'htily likEd by the whole -om4any. es4e!ially by the -anon.
who 4arti!larly minded the manner o, his relatin' it$ that had more o, a S!holar and a
"entleman. than o, a rde "oat1herd8 whi!h made him !on!lde the -rate had reason to say$
that even the <ontains bred S!holars and <en o, Sense. ;4art ($ !ha4$ A:=
Here the athor dire!tly alldes to the bookishness o, his story$
There is one eGtremely odd tale in -ervantesE oevre$ It was written. i, I am not
mistaken. arond (C(0. drin' the interval between the 4bli!ation o, 4arts ( and :
o, Don Quixote. Its title is H& -onversation between Two %o's$H
The str!tre o, this story is ?ite banal. takin' on the ,orm o, a news4a4er arti!le$
The 4rota'onists. two do's. are. however. nsal. or more !orre!tly. one o, the two
do's$ Ber'an5a. sin!e the other do' S!i4ion serves only as an adien!e ,or the ,ormerEs
li,e story$ &s is !ommon in novels o, the threadH ty4e. this work is sewn ot o, a whole
series o, e4isodes. at times eGistin' only in otline ,orm$ They are linked to ea!h other
only by the ,a!t that they o!!r to one and the same nem4loyed do' whi!h !han'es
hands ,rom one day to the neGt$
%esi'n
$ $ and then trnin' to -ardenio and %orothea. he
;6 Theory of Prose
This novella may be seen as a !anine version of"a=arillo and ?il #ias. It
is worth notin' that the devi!e o, a job hnt has served as a motivatin' link
between e4isodes to the 4resent day$ This is the str!tral 4attern in O!tave
<irbeaEs Diary of a -hambermaid and o, <aksim "orkyEs In the $orld.
In his wanderin's. the do' works ,or a time ,or a sla'hterhose. then ,or
she4herds. ,or the 4oli!e. ,or soldiers. ,or 'y4sies. ,or a <oor. ,or a 4oet. in
the theater. and ,inally. in a hos4ital$ Ea!h new job o, Ber'an5aEs is a!!om1
4anied by a !orres4ondin' new tale$ Still. on o!!asion a new job serves only
as a motivation ,or a brie, des!ri4tion o, !stoms and mores$
#et s look. ,or instan!e. at what the do' saw in the world o, the
she4herds$ &bove all. Ber'an5a was str!k by the dis!re4an!y between the
real li,e she4herds lived and what she had learned abot them ,rom re!ita1
tions by her ,irst ownerEs mistress$ Reality did not in the least !orres4ond to
the 4ortrayal o, she4herds in books$ She4herds did not 4lay ,ltes or oboes
and they never beat their sti!ks or 4ie!es o, 4ottery eG!e4t when sin'in'
very sim4le !ontry tnes$ They s4ent their days not in dreamin' abot
she4herdesses bt in re4airin' their ,ootwear and 'atherin' inse!ts$ They
!alled ea!h other not &morisa or Filida or "alathea or #o5arda or
Hya!inthia. bt &ntonio. %omini?e. Pal and Florentia$ It wold be
worth !om4arin' this realisti!ally H'rmblin'H 4i!tre with how -ervantes
des!ribed she4herds be,ore and a,ter his writin' o, H& -onversation
between Two %o's$H Here. ,or 4r4oses o, !om4arison. is the !on!lsion
o, the story abot #eandra ;see above=9
HThere is not a hollow Pla!e o, a Ro!k. a bank o, a Brook. or a shady "rove. where
there is not some or other o, these amoros She4herds tellin' their dole,l Stories to
the &ir and winds$ E!ho has learnt to re4eat the @ame o, #eandra. #eandra all the
Hills resond. the Brooks mrmr #eandra. and Etis #eandra that holds s all
In!hanted. ho4in' withot Ho4e. and ,earin' withot knowin' what we ,ear$ O, all
these ,oolish Peo4le. the 4erson who shews the least. and yet has the most Sense. is
my Rival &nselmo. who ,or'ettin' all other -ases o, -om4laint. !om4lains only o,
her &bsen!e8 and to his #te. whi!h he to!hes to &dmiration. he joins his Voi!e in
Verses o, his own !om4osin'. whi!h de!lare the "reatness o, his "enis$ For my
4art. I take another -orse. I think a better. IEm sre an easier. whi!h is to say all the
ill thin's I !an o, FomenEs #evity. In!onstan!y. their broken Vows and vain de!eit,l
Promises. their ,ondness o, Show and %isre'ard o, <erit$ This. "entlemen. was the
O!!asion o, those Fords. whi!h. at my !omin' hither. I addrest to this "oat9 ,or
bein' a she. I hate her. thoE she is the best o, my Herd$ This is the Story whi!h I
4romisEd to tell yo8 i, yo have tho'ht it too lon'. I shall endeavor to re?ite yor
Patien!e in any thin' I !an serve yo$ Hard by is my -otta'e. where I have some
'ood ,resh <ilk and eG!ellent -heese. with several sorts o, Frits. whi!h I ho4e yo
will ,ind a'reeable both to the Si'ht and Taste$H ;4art (. !ha4$ A(=
The #eandra story is very naively introd!ed9 the she4herd sim4ly walks
4 to the sto44in'14la!e where %on JiGote was bein' de!eit,lly led away
home by !ertain 4eo4le and relates to them his tale$ #et s. however. trn
or attention to the way in whi!h the story is inter4olated into the novel$
The %a0in5 of Don JiGote
This -ervantes does by resortin' to the H,i'htH ty4e ;i$e$. jst as in the
-ardenio e4isode=$ %on JiGote takes o,,ense at the she4herd. who has
mistaken him ,or a madman9
Fith that. snat!hin' 4 a #oa, thai was near him. he str!k the "oat1herd so ,rios
a Blow with it. that he almost levelEd his @ose with his Fa!e$ TEother. not a!1
!stomEd to s!h Saltations. no sooner 4er!eivEd how s!rvily he was treated. bt
withot any Res4e!t to the Table1!loth. @a4kins. or to those who were eatin'. he
lea4Ed ,riosly on %on JiGote. and 'ras4in' him by the Throat with both his
Hands. had !ertainly stran'lEd him. had not San!ho Pan5a !ome in that very ni!k o,
Time. and 'ri4in' him ,ast behind. 4llEd him ba!kwards on the Table. brisin'
%ishes. breakin' "lasses. s4illin' and overtrnin' all that lay 4on it$ %on JiGote
seein' himsel, ,reed. ,ell violently a'ain 4on the "oat1herd. who. all besmearEd
with Blood. and tram4lEd to 4ie!es nder San!hoEs Feet. 'ro4Ed here and there ,or
some Ini,e or Fork to take a ,atal Reven'e8 bt the -anon and -rate took !are to
4revent his Pr4ose. and in the mean while. by the BarberEs -ontrivan!e. the
"oat1herd 'ot %on JiGote nder him. on whom he let ,all s!h a Tem4est o,
Blows. as !asEd as 'reat a Shower o, Blood to 4or ,rom the 4oor Ini'htEs Fa!e as
he had streamEd ,rom his own$ ;4art (. !ha4$ A:=
S!h is the se!ond mode o, rein,or!in' the relationshi4 between the novel
itsel, and the sbordinate story set within it$
& ,ew more words !on!ernin' this$ Freein' himsel, ,rom the she4herdEs
'ri4. %on JiGote lan!hes immediately 4on a new adventre withot
even botherin' to wi4e the blood ,rom his ,a!e$ This is the e4isode o, the
Penitents$ He is beaten on!e a'ain$
I am not sr4rised by this streak o, !oarseness in the novel$ Still. these
rows and battles belon' to the world o, the !ir!s and ,airy tale$ Even the
tears we shed ,or or hero are more arti,i!ial than real$
@ow letEs take 4 a more ,ndamental isse. that o, the te!hni!al means
by whi!h -ervantes inter4olates these stories into the main body o, the
novel$
&s we have already noted. the <ar!ella e4isode is introd!ed by means
o, a story$ The ,irst 4art o, the -ardenio1 #! inda1%orothea1% on Fernando
tale is similarly introd!ed$ &t ,irst it is related by -ardenio to %on JiGote
with an interr4tion o!!asioned by a ,i'ht$ It is then told by -ardenio to the
barber and the !rate$ Then everyone hears ot %orothea. too$ Both
-ardenio and %orothea !a4tivate the other members o, the !om4any with
their sin'in'9
Fhile they ?ietly relreshEd themselves in that deli'ht,l Pla!e. where they a'reed
to stay till San!hoEs Retrn. they heard a Voi!e. whi!h tho'h nattended with any
Instrment. ravishEd their Ears with its melodios Sond9 &nd what in!reasEd their
Sr4ri5e. and their &dmiration. was to hear s!h art,l @otes. and s!h deli!ate
<si!k. in so n,re?ented and wild a Pla!e. where s!ar!e any Rsti!ks ever
stra''lEd. m!h less s!h skil,l Son'sters. as the Person whom they heard n?es1
tionably was8 ,or tho'h the Poets are 4leasEd to ,ill the Fields and Foods with
Swains and She4herdesses. that sin' with all the Sweetness and %eli!a!y
;7 Theory of Prose
ima'inable. yet Etis well eno'h known that those "entlemen deal more in Fi!tion
than in Trth. and love to embellish the %es!ri4tions they make. with Thin's that
have no EGisten!e bt in their own Brain$ @or !old or two listEnin' Travellers
think it the Voi!e o, a Peasant. when they be'an to distin'ish the Fords o, the son'.
,or they seemEd to relish more o, a !ortly Style than a rral -om4osition$ These
were the Verses. ;4art (. !ha4$ :B=
These lines o, verse 'ive way to the ,ollowin' dis!orse9 The Time. the
Hor. the Solitariness o, the Pla!e. the Voi!e and a'reeable <anner with whi!h
the nseen <si!ian sn'. so ,illEd the Hearers <inds with Fonder and %eli'ht.
that they were all &ttention8 and when the Voi!e was silent. they !ontined so too
a 4retty while. wat!hin' with listEnin' Ears to !at!h the eG4e!ted Sonds.
eG4ressin' their Satis,a!tion best by that dmb &44lase$ &t last. !on!ldin' the
Person wold sin' no more. they resolvEd to ,ind ot the !harmin' Son'ster8 bt as
they were 'oin' so to do. they heard the wishEd1,or Voi!e be'an another &ir$ whi!h
,iGEd Eem where they stood till it had sn' the ,ollowin' Sonnet9
& SO@@ET
O Sa!red Friendshi4. HeavenEs %eli'ht.
Fhi!h tirEd with <anEs ne?al <ind.
Took to thy native Skies thy Fli'ht$
Fhile s!ar!e thy ShadowEs le,t behindM
From thee$ di,,sive "ood. below.
Pea!e and her Train o, Koys we tra!e8
Bt Falsehood with dissemblEd Show
Too o,t sr4s thy sa!red Fa!e$ BlessEd
"enis then resme thy SeatM %estroy
Im4ostre and %e!eit.
Fhi!h in thy %ress !on,ond the BallM
Harmonios Pea!e and Trth renew.
Shew the ,alse Friendshi4 ,rom the tre$
Or @atre mst to -haos ,all$
This Sonnet !on!lded with a dee4 Si'h. and s!h dole,l Throbs. that the -rate
and the Barber now ot o, Pity. as well as -riosity be,ore. resolvEd instantly to ,ind
ot who this morn,l Son'ster was$
In jst this way the se!ond leadin' !hara!ter o, this story ;i$e$. %orothea=
is introd!ed9
Fe told yo that as the -rate was 4re4arin' to 'ive -ardenio some seasonable
-onsolation. he was 4revented by a Voi!e. whose dole,l -om4laints rea!hEd his
Ears$ HE* Heavens.H !ryEd the nseen <orner. His it 4ossible I have at last ,ond
ot a Pla!e that will a,,ord a 4rivate "rave to this miserable body. whose #oad I so
re4ine to bearL Yes. i, the Silen!e and Solitte o, these %esarts do not de!eive me.
here I may die !on!ealEd ,rom Hman Eyes$ &h meM &h wret!hed -reatreM to what
EGtremity has &,,li!tion driven me$ red!Ed to think these hideos Foods and
Ro!ks a kind RetreatM Tis tre indeed. I may here ,reely !om4lain to Heaven. and
be' ,or that relie, whi!h I mi'ht ask in vain o, ,alse <ankind9 For Etis vain. I ,ind to
seek below either -onsel. Ease. or Remedy$H ;4art (. !ha4$ :/=
&t this jn!tre. ne!essity !om4els me to share with the reader the story
line o, that tale whi!h -ervantes introd!ed into his novel. and whi!h I am
now introd!in' into my work$
-ardenio. an aristo!rat. introd!es his ,riend %on Fernando. the yon'er
son o, a !ertain S4anish 'randee. to his Fian!ee #!inda$ %on Fernando
,alls in love with her and sends -ardenio away thro'h !hi!anery$ He then
4ro!eeds to woo -ardenioEs ,ian!ee himsel,$ She noti,ies her beloved. who
rshes to her de,ense$ &rrivin' jst in time ,or the weddin' !eremony.
-ardenio hears #!inda say ;mistakenly= HyesH to Fernando at the altar.
where4on he 'oes mad and ,lees to the montains$
<eanwhile. %on Fernando has a ,ian!ee himsel,. the ri!h and beati,l
4easant 'irl %orothea. whom he dm4s ,or #!inda$ "rie,1stri!ken.
%orothea ,lees to the montains too$ There she lands in -ervantesE novel$
Sbse?ently. both -ardenio and %orothea arrive at the inn. the same one
in whi!h San!ho was on!e tossed on a blanket$
This is indeed a remarkable inn$ It was set 4 by -ervantes in a!!ordan!e
with a 4atent that was evidently issed with stri!tly literary 4r4oses in
mind$ %o5ens o, tales and re!o'nitions !ross 4aths within its !on,ines$ This
4la!e !onstittes the 'eometri! !enter o, the individal !riss!rossin' lines o,
the novel$ To this H!om4ositionalH inn !ome %on Fernando and #!inda$
Fe see here a new mode o, introd!in' stories by means o, a Hmeetin'$H
Here %orothea re!o'ni5es Fernando. and -ardenio re!o'ni5es #!inda$ It
trns ot that when #!inda ,ainted drin' the weddin' !eremony. %on
Fernando dis!overed a letter restin' on #!indaEs breast$ In this letter.
written by #!inda. she s4eaks o, hersel, as -ardenioEs wi,e$ #!inda
enters a !onvent. ,rom whi!h %on Fernando abd!ts her$ On the way.
tho'h. they meet -ardenio$ %orothea !hallen'es him with a s4ee!h in
whi!h she 4roves 4oint by 4oint that he is nder obli'ation to love her$ This
s4ee!h re!alls the HEsosariaH ;or s4ee!hes o, 4ersasion=. eGam4les o,
whi!h we ,ind in Ovid9
HI am that 4oor and hmble Villa'er. whom yor 'eneros Bonty$ I dare not say
yor #ove. did !ondes!end to raise to the Honor o, !allin' yo her own9 I am she$
who. on!e !on,inEd to 4ea!e,l Inno!en!e. led a !ontented #i,e. till yor Im4ortnity.
yor Shew o, Honor. and deldin' Fords. !harmEd me ,rom my Retreat. and made
me resi'n my Freedom to yor Power$ How I am re!om4ensEd$ may be 'essEd by
my "rie,. and my bein' ,ond here in this stran'e Pla!e. whither I was led$ not
thro'h any %ishonorable Ends. bt 4rely by %es4air and "rie, to be ,orsaken o,
Yo$ HTwas at yor %esire I was bond to yo by the stri!test Tie$ and whatever yo
do. yo !an never !ease to be mine$ -onsider. my dear #ord. that my mat!hless
#ove may balan!e the Beaty and @obility o, the Person ,or whom Yo wold
,orsake me8 she !annot share yor #ove. ,or Etis only mine8 and -ardenioEs Interest
in her will not admit a Partner$ Tis easier ,ar. my #ord. to re!all yor wandrin'
%esires. and ,iG them 4on her that adores yo. than to draw Her to love who hates
yo$ Remember how yo did solli!it my hmble State. and !ons!ios o, my <ean1
ness. yet 4aid a Veneration to my Inno!en!e. whi!h joinEd with the honorable
!ondition o, my yieldin' to yor %esires. 4ronon!e me ,ree ,rom ill %esi'n or
The %a0in5 of Don JiGote
;; Theory of Prose
%ishonor$ -onsider these ndeniable Trths9 have some Re'ard to yor HonorM
Remember yoEre a -hristianM Fhy shold yo then make her #i,e end so
miserably. whose Be'innin' yor Favor made so ha44y
(
L I, I mst not eG4e!t the
Dsa'e and Res4e!t o, a Fi,e. let me bt serve yo as a Slave8 So I belon' to yo
thoE in the meanest Rank$ I never shall !om4lain9 #et me not be eG4osEd to the
slandrin' Re,le!tions o, the -ensorios Forld by so !rel a Se4aration ,rom my
#ord9 &,,li!t not the de!linin' Years o, my 4oor Parents. whose ,aith,l Servi!es to
Yo and Yors have merited a more sitable Retrn$ I, yo ima'ine the -rrent o,
yor noble Blood shold be de,ilEd by miGin' with mine. !onsider how many noble
Hoses have rn in s!h a -hannel9 besides the womanEs Side is not essentially
re?isite to enoble %es!ent9 Bt !hie,ly think on this. that Virte is the trest
@obility. whi!h i, yo stain by basely wron'in' me. yo brin' a 'reater blot 4on
yor Family than <arryin' me !old !ase$ In Tine. my #ord. yo !annot. mst not
disown me ,or yor Fi,e9 To attest whi!h Trth. I !all yor own Fords. whi!h mst
be tre. i, yo 4ri5e yorsel, ,or Honor. and that @obility. whose want yo so
des4ise in <e8 witness yor Oaths and Vows. witness that Heaven whi!h yo so
o,ten invokEd to rati,y yor Promises8 and i, all these shold ,ail. I make my last
&44eal to yor own -ons!ien!e. whose Stin' will always re4resent my Fron's
,resh to yor tho'hts. and distrb yor Koys amidst yor 'reatest Pleasres$H
These. with many s!h &r'ments. did the morn,l %orothea r'e. a44earin' so
lovely in her Sorrow. that %on FerdinandEs Friends. as well as all the rest sym4a1
thi5Ed with her. #!inda 4arti!larly. as m!h admirin' her Fit and Beaty. as
movEd by the Tears. the 4ier!in' Si'hs and <oans that ,ollowEd her Intreaties8 and
she woEd have 'one nearer to have !om,orted her. had not FerdinandEs &rms. that
still held her. 4revented it$ He stood ,ll o, -on,sion. with his eyes ,iGEd attentively
on %orothea a 'reat while8 at last. o4enin' his &rms. he ?itted #!inda$ HTho has
-on?ered.H !ryEd he. H!harmin' %orothea. tho hast -on?erEd me. Etis im4os1
sible to resist so many nited Trths and -harms$H ;4art ($ !ha4$ 0C=
Fhile this interminable tale n,olds at a snailEs 4a!e. another story en1
titled HThe @ovel o, the -rios Im4ertinentH is in!or4orated into the teGt$
This se!ond story. abot ei'ht mans!ri4t 4a'es in len'th ;by -ervantesE
own !al!lation=. is in!or4orated into Don Quixote in the !a4a!ity o, Ha
,ond mans!ri4tH ;i$e$. it is read by the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters o, the novel as
an nknown mans!ri4t whi!h was ,ond by them=$ The !rateEs remark is
interestin' at this 4oint. sin!e he is a sworn !riti! o, the novel$ ;See the
e4isode with %on JiGoteEs library. the !onversation with the innkee4er.
et!$= He says9
H I like this @ovel well eno'h.H said the -rate9 EHyet$ a,ter all$ I !annot 4ersade
mysel,. that thereEs any thin' o, Trth in it8 and i, it be 4rely Invention. the &thor
was in the wron'9 ,or Etis not to be ima'inEd there !oEd ever be a Hsband so ,oolish$
as to ventre on so dan'eros an EG4eriment$ Had he made his Hsband and Fi,e.
a "allant and a <istress. the Fable had a44earEd more 4robable9 bt$ as il is$ tis
neGt to im4ossible$ However$ I mst !on,ess$ I have nothin' to obje!t a'ainst his
manner o, tellin' it$H ;4art I$ !ha4$ 0A=
This !omment re!alls another maGim ttered by the sel,same !rate !on1
!ernin' the style o, another inset story. whi!h I have already to!hed 4on$
The %a0in5 of Don JiGote ;B
It seems to me that we may 4er!eive here an HeG4ressiveH orientation. so
ty4i!al in art$ The writer himsel, !omments on the varios 4arts o, his novel.
,irst. as individal 4henomena ;the style o, this 4arti!lar story=. and
se!ondly. as literary 4henomena in 'eneral ;e$'$. Hthe 4astoral style is a
'ood oneH=$
The te!hni?e o, introd!in' inset stories in a!!ordan!e with the 4rin!i4le
o, the H,ond mans!ri4tH be!ame sbse?ently very 4o4lar$ This was
widely sed by Sterne$ The s4ee!hes o, Yori!k in Tristram Shandy re4re1
sent s!h a H,ond mans!ri4t$H as does one e4isode in his Sentimental
Gourney. The same devi!e was tili5ed by %i!kens in Pic0:ic0 Papers a
work whi!h was. 'enerally s4eakin'. written in a!!ordan!e with the 4rin!i4le
o, the ,ramin' novel ;H%iary o, a <admanH= alon' with an admiGtre o,
elements derived ,rom the Hthreadin'H devi!e$ This is the sor!e ,or the
Pi!kwi!k ty4e$ The -ervantes !onne!tion serves as a basis. in all 4roba1
bility. ,or the Samel Feller ty4e. who. like Pan5a. also weaves many
4roverbs like a thread$ Bt San!hoEs sayin's re4resent a di,,erent ty4e than
those o, Samel$ The 4roverbs o, Pi!kwi!kEs servant are !ons!iosly
enstran'ed$ Their hmor lies in the ina44ro4riateness. in the dis!re4an!y
between their se and the sitation at hand$ Perha4s %i!kens has here
revealed in 'eneral one o, the essential 'idelines in the se o, eGam4les9 a
sense o, irony shold in,orm their se$ #et me illstrate with two 4roverbs
by Samel9
HThere is nothinE so re,reshinE as slee4. sir. as the servant1'irl said a,ore she drank
the e''1!4,l oE ladanm$H ;!ha4$ (C=
HPoverty and oysters always seem to 'o to'ether$H ;!ha4$ ::=V
Bt I am already be'innin' to ,eel the in,len!e o, this novel9 IEm allowin'
mysel, to be sidetra!ked by e4isode a,ter e4isode. ,or'ettin' the main thrst
o, the essay$ Fhat did -ervantes do nder similar !ir!mstan!esL Fhy. he
interr4ted the a!tion. remindin' the reader o, the 4rota'onist o, the novel
by brin'in' on one o, the kni'htEs sal a!ts o, madness$ So. HThe @ovel o,
the -rios Im4ertinent.H alon' with the -ardenio story in whi!h it is
im4lanted. is interr4ted by %on JiGoteEs ,amos battle with the wine1
skins$ &s I have already said be,ore. this e4isode is taken in all 4robability
,rom <ilets thro'h &4leisE ?olden Ass.
The inn where -ardenio meets Fernando and #!inda later 4lays the role
o, a hovel in Shakes4eareEs <in5 "ear. This is the !rossroads ,or all o, the
leadin' !hara!ters in the novel. whose a!tions are there,ore !onne!ted to
ea!h other only by the ,a!t that they all take 4la!e in this inn at one and the
same time$ However. while in Shakes4eare the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters belon'
V&,ter m!h sear!hin'$ I was still nable to lo!ate the %i!kens ori'inal ,or
ShklovskyEs se!ond ?ote. whi!h reads somethin' like this9 H HFe all have to 'o
sometime.E said the thrsh. as the !at dra''ed him away by his tail$H I have there,ore
sbstitted ,or it another o, SamelEs innmerable sayin's$ U Trans$ noteU
B> Theory of Prose
to one !om4leG o, events. in -ervantes they are related only by their
!ommon lo!ale and by the athorEs desire to introd!e them into his novel$
The relationshi4 obtainin' amon' them is limited to the ,a!t that they are
either sr4rised or enra4tred by ea!h other$ In this they re!all rather the
linka'e o, the ty4e re4resented by A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts with the
di,,eren!e that in -ervantesE novel these !hara!ters !oeGist. as it were.
while in A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts they are !o1narrated$ Bt this is not a
,ndamental distin!tion. sin!e the element o, the storytellerEs HyarnH does
in ,a!t eGist in -ervantes. tho'h 4erha4s only be!ase the whole novel is
in!or4orated within the ,eebly 4er!eived ,ramework o, the H,ond man1
s!ri4tH o, one -ide Hamete Benen'eli. an &rab storyteller$
Into this literary tavern walks a man o, arond ,orty years o, a'e with a
beati,l <oslem woman$ &,ter %on JiGoteEs introd!tory s4ee!h. the
!a4tive relates the story o, his li,e and his adventres$ This is the !ommon
ty4e ;or what later be!ame a !ommon ty4e= o, es!a4e thro'h the hel4 o, a
beati,l native woman$ In this story -ervantes eG4resses his strate'i!
jd'ment !on!ernin' Fort "ol$ One o, the !a4tiveEs !omrades trns ot to
be the brother o, %on Fernando. a ,aint allsion to its !onne!tion with the
main 4lot$ &t this very moment. his brotherEs sonnets are bein' bro'ht in$
The readin' o, the sonnets is ,ollowed by the history o, this !a4tive. whi!h is
told in ,ll detail$ It o!!4ies. at most. abot ,ive !ha4ters$
& literary assessment. so !hara!teristi! in 'eneral o, -ervantes. ,ollows
immediately on the heels o, this inset tale$ I donEt know whether I have
already told yo that these inset lines o, verse. ,or eGam4le. are always
evalated on the s4ot by one o, the 'ests$ So also now9
HTrly. -a4tain. the wonder,l and sr4ri5in' trns o, yor Fortne are not only
entertainin'. bt the 4leasin' and 'ra!e,l manner o, yor Relation is as eGtraor1
dinary as the &dventres themselves9 Fe are all bond to 4ay yo or &!knowled'1
ments and I believe we !old be deli'hted with a se!ond Re!ital. tho'h Etwere to last
till to <orrow. 4rovided it were made by Yo$H ;4art (. !ha4$ 2:=
The literary inn. however. !ontines to over,low with 'ests. as -ervantes
introd!es more and more leadin' !hara!ters. who in trn brin' with them
new stories into the world o, the novel$ & state 4rose!tor enters the inn
with his beati,l siGteen1year1old da'hter$ However. the storyEs inter1
4olation into the novel by 'atherin' the 4rota'onists nder one roo, is not
the only devi!e em4loyed by -ervantes$ &nother new devi!e. tho'h new
only in a relative sense. is introd!ed9 The state 4rose!tor trns ot to be
the brother o, the !a4tive storyteller ;heEs one o, three brothers>a tradi 1
tional ,airy1tale nmber>as is the moti, o, the ,ather 4artitionin' the ,amily
estate amon' three sons. ea!h o, whom !hooses a di,,erent 4ath9 one !hooses
a !areer in the a!ademy. another in the military. a third in !ommer!e=$ The
neGt !ha4ter ;4art (. !ha4$ 20= introd!es a new e4isode by means o, the
same old te!hni?e o, a meetin'$ This is HThe Pleasant Story o, the Yon'
<leteer with Other Stran'e &dventres That Ha44enEd in the Inn$H
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote B1
& yon' man brsts in. dressed like a mle driver$ This is %on #ois.
who is in love with -lara. the da'hter o, the state 4rose!tor$ He sin's a
son' in her honor$ Bt here -ervantes brin's in %on JiGote on!e a'ain$
This is the e4isode in whi!h the servants o, the inn mo!k and s!orn the
Ini'ht o, the Foe,l Fi're. as they bind him by his hands to the 'ratin' o,
the dormer window$ Then ,ollows the !on!lsion o, the %on #ois e4isode.
and. at last. the a!tion retrns on!e more to the main 4lot$
The 4oint is that the barber ,rom whom %on JiGote had on!e taken the
shavin' basin ;mistakin' it ,or <ambrinoEs helmet as San!ho Pan5a was
bsy removin' the harness ,rom his mle= has also arrived at the inn. the
ma'neti! ?alities o, whi!h we have already eG4lained$ Fell. it so ha44ens
that the barber re!o'ni5es his basin$
& !rios ar'ment breaks ot in the tavern in whi!h all the 'ests
4resent take the side o, %on JiGote. assrin' him that the basin is indeed a
helmet$ This !rios hoaG is ,ar ,rom bein' the only hoaG in the novel$ The
e4isodes in the early 4art o, the novel are eG4lained by the delsions o, %on
JiGote. who takes a strm4et ,or a 4rin!ess. a mer!hant who is tortrin'
&ndre ,or a 'allant kni'ht. and his sti!k ,or a lan!e$ Bt towards the end o,
the ,irst 4art. the motivation o, the e4isodes !han'es$ %on JiGote is no
lon'er delded so m!h as he is a vi!tim o, hoaGes$ The whole e4isode in the
dkeEs 4ala!e with its ma'i!al wooden le' and with the eGor!ism ,rom
%l!ineaEs s4ell is an eGam4le o, s!h a 'randiose hoaG$
& series o, hoaGes now be'ins. not to mention the innkee4erEs hilarios
!onse!ration o, %on JiGote into kni'hthood ;here the innkee4er is not the
athor o, the hoaG. bt merely s44orts the delsions o, or hero=$ This
series be'ins with the
il
helmetH e4isode and with the ,i!titios en!hant1
ment. by means o, whi!h %on JiGote is taken home in a !a'e$ &lon' the
way %on JiGote is let ot o, the !a'e on his word o, honor. where4on he
enters into an ar'ment with a !anon !on!ernin' books on !hivalry$ The
!onversation between the !anon and the !rate !onstittes a whole !riti!al
srvey o, the literatre o, !hivalry. the introd!tion o, whi!h at the be'in1
nin' o, the novel was so well1motivated by the eGamination o, %on
JiGoteEs library be,ore it was 4t to the ,lames$ It is also related to the
!onversation on the same sbje!t between the !rate and the innkee4er$
&nd it also resembles the answer 'iven by the !rate 4on eGaminin' %on
JiGoteEs library$ In res4onse to the 4assionate tirade by the innkee4er and
his da'hter !on!ernin' the entertainin' and edi,yin' attribtes o, books on
!hivalry. he !onters with the ,ollowin'9
H I shall do as well with the Books$H said the Barber$ H Tor I !an ,ind the Fay to the
Ba!k1yard. or the -himney. thereEs a 'ood Fire that will do their Bsiness$H
\\BsinessMH said the Inn1kee4er. HI ho4e yo woEd not brn my Books$H EHOnly
two o, them.H said the -rate. Hthis same %on -iron'ilio and his Friend FeliG1
marte$H HI ho4e$ Sir.H said ihe Host. Hthey are neither Hereti!ks nor Fle'mati!ks$H
HS!hismati!ks yo mean.H said the Barber8 HI mean so$H said the Inn1kee4er9 Hand
i, yo mst brn any. let it be this o, "on!alo Hernande5 and %ie'o "ar!ia. ,or yo
B3 Theory of Prose
shold sooner brn one o, my -hildren than the others$H HThese Books. honest
Friend$H said the -rate. Hthat yo a44ear so !on!erned ,or$ are senseless
e
Falsehoods and Folly8 and this whi!h yo so des4ise is a tre elebrated <en8
the ,irst by his Bravery
Bridge against a grttn i-umj. KDVIOK umvi giwai rn,uun.i me i tiaitu m nc !emoirs
o, his #i,e. bt all with so m!h <odesty and nbiassed Trth. that they easily
4ronon!e him his own Historio'ra4her9 and had they been written by any one else
with Freedom and Im4artiality. they mi'ht have e!li4sEd yor He!tors$ &!hillesEs$
and OrlandoEs. with all their Heroi!k EG4loits$H ;4art (. !ha4$ 0:=
Fe see the same in this !onversation with the !anon9
The -rate was very attentive. and believEd him a <an o, a sond Kd'ment. and
m!h in the ri'ht in all he had r'Ed8 and there,ore told him$ That bein' o, the same
O4inion. and an Enemy to Books o, Ini'ht1Errantry. he had brnt all that belon'd
to %on JiGote. whi!h were a !onsiderable @mber$ Then he re!onted to him the
S!rtiny he had made amon' them. what he had !ondemned to the ,lames. and what
s4arEd$ ;4art ($ !ha4$ 2B=
These reminders serve like internal bra!es to bind e4isodes o, the same
ty4e within the ,ramework o, Don Quixote.
The !anon. however. is not satis,ied with dis!ssin' novels o, !hivalry
and be'ins talkin' abot art in 'eneral. es4e!ially abot drama$ This is
,ollowed by %on JiGoteEs s4ee!h whi!h IEve already to!hed 4on brie,ly
drin' my analysis o, his s4ee!hes$
The ,irst 4art o, the novel !on!ldes with an inset e4isode on stray shee4
and with %on JiGoteEs atta!k on a reli'ios 4ro!ession$
I do not intend to analy5e the se!ond 4art o, Don Quixote with the same
de'ree o, !onsisten!y with whi!h I have tried to ,ollow the !orse o, the ,irst
4art$ I only wish to 4oint ot whatEs new in the str!tre o, the se!ond 4art$
IEve already had o!!asion several times be,ore to say that the se!ond
4arts o, novels. or. rather. their se?els. o,ten reveal !han'es in their str!1
tres$ The novel. breakin' o,, sddenly. eGists now only !onditionally as it
sets o,, alon' new 4aths$ So. we ,ind towards the end o, RabelaisEs novel a
transition to a ty4e o, 4i!ares?e novel. where the individal island alle'o1
ries are !onne!ted by the wanderin's o, the heroes$ Str!trally s4eakin'$
the !on!ldin' 4arts o, ?ar5antua and Panla5rueC anti!i4ate. so to s4eak.
the ,inale of ?ulli'er(s Tra'els. Towards the end o, Swi,tEs novel. tho'h.
the satiri!al material be'ins to s44lant the material devoted to adventre
;this was noted by my 44il #$ #nts=$
Fhat distin'ishes !hie,ly the se!ond 4art o, Don Quixote is its
abndan!e o, small inset ane!dotes introd!ed into the novel ,rom withot$
&nother ,eatre whi!h distin'ishes it is the ,a!t that we are witness here to
a de!eived %on JiGote who is now everywhere the obje!t o, a hoaG$ The
,amily o, the dke with its retainers amses itsel, at the eG4ense o, the 4oor
kni'ht. and San!ho Pan5aEs tenre as 'overnor is nothin' bt an ot1and1ot
hoaG$ Frthermore the Ba!helor dismisses the kni'ht ot o, his hose as a
hoaG. and his battles with the Ini'ht o, <irrors and then with the Ini'ht o,
the <oon also !onstitte a hoaG$ %on JiGote is also the btt o, a 4ra!ti!al
joke in Bar!elona. where an ins!ri4tion bearin' a ni!kname is atta!hed to
his !loak$ So. too. in restorin' Falsta,Tto the sta'e ;by order o, the ?een.
they say=$ Shakes4eare had to make Falsta,, an obje!t o, a hoaG in his
%err' $i'es of $indsor.
ItEs worth notin' that in 4art : o, -ervantesE novel$ %on JiGote shows
that he is ,lly !o'ni5ant o, the eGisten!e o, 4art ( by 4olemi!i5in' a'ainst
the s4rios anonymos version o, 4art : ;!ir!latin' in S4ain even be,ore
-ervantesE version=$ & !rios sitation emer'es$ The leadin' !hara!ter o,
the novel ,eels himsel, to be real as s!h bt does not !ome a!ross as a livin'
hman bein'$ This is motivated by the ,a!t that %on JiGote !onsiders his
ille'itimate twin to be !rde and trivial. so that he seems to take o,,ense at
him not as %on JiGote. the literary !hara!ter. bt as %on JiGote the
livin' hman bein'9
HThen withot %is4te$H said %on JiGote. Hyo are the same %on &lvaro Tar,e.
whose @ame ,ills a Pla!e in the se!ond Part o, %on JiGote de la <an!haEs77ly7orr.
that was lately 4blishEd by a new &thorLH HThe very <an$H answerEd the Ini'ht8
Hand that very %on JiGote. who is the 4rin!i4al Sbje!t o, that book. was my intimate
&!?aintan!e8 I am the Person that inti!Ed him ,rom his Habitation so ,ar at least. that
he had never seen the Tornament at Sara'osa. had it not been thro'h <y Persa1
sions. and in <y -om4any8 and indeed. as it ha44enEd. I 4rovEd the best Friend he
had$ and did him a sin'lar Pie!e o, Servi!e8 ,or had I not stood by him$ his intolerable
Im4den!e had bro'ht him to some shame,l Pnishment$H HBt 4ray$ Sir.H said
%on JiGote. Hbe 4leasEd to tell me one Thin'8 &m I any thin' like that %on JiGote
o, yorsLH HThe ,arthest ,rom it in the Forld. Sir.H re4lyEd the other$ H&nd had he.H
said or Ini'ht. Hone San!ho Pan!a,orhis S?ireLH HYes.H said %on &lvaro. Hbt I
was the most de!eived in him that !old be8 ,or by !ommon Re4ort that same S?ire
was a !omi!al. witty Fellow. bt I ,ond him a very 'reat Blo!khead$H ;4art :$ !ha4$ B:=
Fhat enses is an a44eal to the sojorners to !erti,y in writin' that they
have seen the real %on JiGote$
It seems to me that we are dealin' here with an em4hasis. eG4ressed in a
rather low key. on the theatri!al dimension. the !onventionality and mani41
lativeness o, art$ To this ty4e belon's Iin' #earEs address to his da'hters
when they in,orm him that a retine o, ,i,ty kni'hts or even less shold be
more than ade?ate ,or his needs$ Iin' #ear trns to an ele'antly dressed
lady in the adien!e and asks9
Tho art a lady8
I, only to 'o warm were 'or'eos$ Fhy. natre needs
not what tho 'or'eos wearEst$ Fhi!h s!ar!ely kee4s
thee warm$ ;:$2$:C:1CA=
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote
B6 Theory of Prose
In "o'ol. a 'overnor o, a town likewise destroys the ,orth invisible wall
o, the theater. whi!h makes the adien!e. as it were. invisible to the !har1
a!ters on sta'e. by tterin' the words that are now known to everyone9
HFhom are yo la'hin' atL For "odEs sake. !anEt yo see that yo are
la'hin' at nobody bt yorselvesLH
<eanwhile. in OstrovskyEs A ,amily Affair Ris4olo5hensky rshes to
the ,ootli'hts o, the sta'e. where he shows the worn1ot soles o, his shoes to
the adien!e$
In Tie!k and in Ho,,mann ;Prin!ess Brambila= the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters
are at times aware o, the ,a!t that they are the leadin' !hara!ters o, a story
or !a4ri!!io Hwhi!h is at this very moment bein' written$H This devi!e is
!anoni!al ,or vadeville with its ra!y to4i!al verse addressed to the 4bli!$
&s ,ar as the theater is !on!erned. the illsion 4resented on the sta'e
o'ht to have a H,li!kerin'H ?ality to it ;i$e$. it shold alternate with the
other. more realisti! element in the 4lay=$ &s ,or the s4e!tator. he mst
eG4erien!e within himsel, a shi,t in his 4er!e4tion o, the a!tion onsta'e ,rom
the H!ontrivedH to the Hrealisti!H and ba!k$ The awareness o, a ,li!kerin'
illsion serves as a basis ,or #eon!avalloEs Pa5liacci and ,or S!hnit5lerEs
?reen -oc0atoo. The a!tion on the sta'e is 4er!eived either as 4lay or as
li,e$
Bt itEs time ,or s now to retrn to %on JiGote$
In his !onversation with the Ba!helor. San!ho Pan5a tells how his
donkeys were stolen$ This detail was ne'le!ted in the ,irst 4art9
H@ow.H ?oth he. Has to what <aster Sam4son wanted to know9 thai is$ when.
where. and by whom my &ss was stolEn9 I answer. That the very @i'ht that we
mar!hEd o,, to the Sierra <orena. to avoid the He and -ry o, the Holy Brother1
hood. a,ter the re,l &dventre o, the "alley Slaves. and that o, the dead Body that
was !arryin' to Se'ovia. my <aster and I slnk into a Food8 where he leanin' on
his #an!e and I. withot ali'htin' ,rom %a44le. both sadly brisEd and tirEd with or
late Skirmishes. ,ell ,ast aslee4. and sle4t as sondly as i, we had had For Feather1
beds nder s9 bt I es4e!ially was as serios at it as any %ormose9 so that the
Thie,. whoever he was. had #eisre eno'h to !la4 ,or Stakes nder the ,or
-orners o, the Pa!k1Saddle$ and then leadin' away the &ss ,rom between my #e's.
withot bein' 4er!eivEd by me in the least. there he ,airly le,t me monted$H HHThis is
no new thin'.H said %on JiGote. Hnor is it di,,i!lt to be done9 Fith the same
Strata'em Sa!ri4ante had his Steed stolEn ,rom nder him by that notorios Thie,
Brnelo at the Sie'e o, &lbra!a$H ;4art :$ !ha4$ 2=
Here we see that -ervantes has made se in his novel o, a nomadi! 4lot$
This 4henomenon is !ommon eno'h even in the most re!ent literatre$ For
eGam4le. ?ite distin!t Hhistori!al wordsH and a!tions make their way into
the teGt ,or the most 4art by bein' anonymosly as!ribed to the hero o, the
novel$ This devi!e is !ommon. ,or eGam4le. in the works o, &leGandre
%mas$ Fe en!onter it. with a 4arodisti! tin'e. also in #eo Tolstoi ;$ar
and Peace. the !onversation between Petrska. &ndrei Balkonsky s aide.
and @a4oleon=$ Fe see the same thin' in "o'olEs Dead Souls. Re!ontin'
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote
the 4rank 4layed by the !ontrabandists. who had trans4orted Brabant la!e
nderneath shee4skins 4la!ed over their shee4. "o'ol says at ,irst HFe
heard thai$ $ $H &nd then. retellin' the ane!dote. he adds9 HThereEs not a
sin'le Kew in the world who !old have 4lled this o,, withot -hi!hikov$H
That is. "o'ol ado4ts and assimilates a de,inite rovin' ane!dote into his
novel$ I have already s4oken in my !ha4ter !on!ernin' 4lot de4loyment
abot an analo'os 4henomenon in &4leis The ?olden Ass and in
"a=arillo of Tormes.
In the ,ollowin' !ha4ter ;!ha4$ A=. -ervantes 4ts into the words o,
San!ho s!h hi'hly !om4leG senten!es that he himsel, !onsiders them
a4o!ry4hal H$ $ $ be!ase it introd!es San!ho s4eakin' in another Style
than !old be eG4e!ted ,rom his slender -a4a!ity. and sayin' thin's o, so
re,inEd a @atre. that it seems im4ossible he !oEd do it$H
&,ter his s4ee!h on 'lory. %on JiGote 'oes on the road. where San!ho
Pan5a 4lays a hoaG on him by 4assin' o,, a 4easant 4asserby as %l!inella
Tobosa$ E4isodes ,eatrin' %on JiGoteEs meetin' with itinerant a!tors.
another battle motivated by a hoaG. and an en!onter with a ,orest kni'ht
brin' s to the ,amos battle in whi!h the Ini'ht o, the Foe,l Fi're takes
on the lions$ This e4isode interr4ts a lon' series o, deliberations whi!h
%on JiGote !arries on with a !ertain member o, the 'entry o, #a <an!ha$
In the o4enin' o, !ha4ter (). we ,ind orselves in an inset 4astoral on
!nnin'. with the aid o, whi!h a she4herd had wrested a ,ian!ee ,rom her
ri!h 4easant$ This 4astoral in!ldes a des!ri4tion o, the alle'ori!al 4lay
4er,ormed at the weddin'$ &s always in -ervantes. this 4lay is immediately
sbje!ted to a literary assessment by those 4resent9
Fhen all was over. %on JiGote askEd one o, the @ym4hs. who it was tIat
!om4osEd the EntertainmentL She answerEd. that it was a !ertain -ler'yman who
livEd in theirTown. that had a rare Talent that way$ HI dare lay a Fa'er.H said %on
JiGote. Hhe was more a Friend to Basil than to -ama!ho. and knows better what
belon's to a Play than a Prayer1Book9 He has eG4ressed BasilEs Parts and
-ama!hoEs Estate very natrally in the %esi'n o, yor %an!e$H
Fe shall not ,ollow in the ,ootste4s o, %on JiGote$ #et s instead move
on to the set e4isodes$ In !ha4ter :2 we ,ind an ane!dote abot a 4a'e who
was walkin' alon' the road withot his 4ants on in order not to soil them.
while in !ha4ters :A thro'h :B we !ome a!ross an ane!dote !on!ernin'
two villa'ers ?arrelin' over the ,a!t that one o, them had teased the other
by mimi!kin' a donkeyEs bray$ This little story is !onne!ted with the novel
only by the ,a!t that its leadin' !hara!ters end 4 beatin' %on JiGote$
#ater on. the novel trns into a ,airy ballet 'iven at the home o, the dke$
&nalo'os to the HdonkeyEs brayH ty4e o, ane!dote. we ,ind inter4olated
into the novel an e4isode in whi!h two yon' 4eo4le dis!ss whether it is
ne!essary to learn the art o, ,en!in' and how to e?ali5e the wei'ht o, two
,at men who are intent on !om4etin' in a ra!e$
San!ho Pan5aEs 'overnorshi4 is a !om4leG inset e4isode o, major s!o4e$
B7 Theory of Prose
Its ori'in is s,,i!iently nderstood$ In H,ramin' novelsH it is !ommon to
sele!t material in a!!ordan!e with a ni,yin' 4rin!i4le. at times o, a very
s4er,i!ial natre$ For eGam4le. in A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts the stories
are o,ten sele!ted be!ase o, the identi!al injry entailed by their denoe1
ments$ This is the basis ,or the story abot the three im4erial be''ars
;ea!h havin' lost an eye ,or a di,,erent reason=$ O,ten. on the other hand.
these stories are sele!ted be!ase o, their identi!al denoements. as$ ,or
eGam4le. where an enemy amon' the sheiks is !onverted by blood1redeem1
in' stories like those early in A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts. This ty4e o,
!hara!ter did not so m!h endre as insistently brst 4on the s!ene Fe
see this in the ei'hteenth1!entry "eor'ian #oo0 of $isdom and "ies
The tales in Bo!!a!!ioEs Decameron are 4artially arran'ed in this way
This was the same devi!e that Voltaire made se o, in -andide ;!ha4
:C=. where we see a fortuitous 'atherin' o, siG retired monar!hs in the
same inn9
&ll the servants havin' disa44eared. the siG ,orei'ners. -andide. and <arlin
remained in dee4 silen!e$ Finally -andide broke it9
H"entlemen.H he said. Hthis is a sin'larjest$ Fhy are yo all kin'sEL For
mysel,$ I admit that neither <artin nor I am$H
-a!amboEs master then s4oke 4 'ravely and said in Italian9
HEI am not jestin'. my name is &hmed III$ I was "rand Sltan ,or several years9 I
dethroned my brother8 my ne4hew dethroned me8 my vi5iers had their heads !t o,,$
I am endin' my days in the old sera'lio$ <y ne4hew. the "rand Sltan <ahmd$
allows me to travel sometimes ,or my health. and I have !ome to s4end the -arnival
in Veni!e$H
& yon' man who was neGt to &hmed s4oke a,ter him and said9
H<y name is Ivan8 I was Em4eror o, all the Rssias8 I was dethroned in my
!radle8 my ,ather and mother were lo!ked 48 I was bro'ht 4 in 4rison8 I some1
times have 4ermission to travel. a!!om4anied by those who 'ard me$ and I have
!ome to s4end the -arnival in Veni!e$H
The third said9
HI am -harles Edward. Iin' o, En'land9 my ,ather !eded me his ri'hts to the
kin'dom$ I ,o'ht to maintain them9 they tore the hearts ot o, ei'ht hndred o, my
s44orters and dashed them in their ,a!es$ I was 4t in 4rison8 I am 'oin' to Rome to
4ay a visit to the Iin' my ,ather. who is dethroned like my 'rand,ather and me9 and I
have !ome to s4end the -arnival in Veni!e$H
The ,orth then took the ,loor and said9
HI am Iin' o, the Poles8 the ,ortnes o, war have de4rived me o, my hereditary
states9 my ,ather nderwent the same reverses8 I resi'n mysel, to Providen!e like
Sltan &hmed$ Em4eror Ivan. and Iin' -harles Edward. whom "od 'ive lon' li,e9
and I have !ome to s4end the -arnival in Veni!e$H
The ,i,th said9
HI too am Iin' o, the Poles9 I have lost my kin'dom Iwi!e8 bt Providen!e has
'iven me another state. in whi!h I have done more 'ood than all the kin's o, the
Sarmatians to'ether have ever been able to do on the banks o, the Vistla8 I too
resi'n mysel, to Providen!e9 and I have !ome to s4end the -arnival in Veni!e$
It remained ,or the siGth monar!h to s4eak$
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote B@
H"entlemen. I am not as 'reat a lord as yo8 bt even so I have been a Iin' like
anyone else$ I am Theodore8 I was ele!ted Iin' o, -orsi!a8 I have been !alled Yor
<ajesty. and at 4resent I am hardly !alled Sir$ I have !oined money. and I do not
have a 4enny8 I have had two se!retaries o, state. and I have s!ar!ely a valet$ I was
on!e on a throne. and I was in 4rison ,or a lon' time in #ondon. on the straw$ I am
m!h a,raid I shall be treated the same way here. altho'h I have !ome. like Yor
<ajesties. to s4end the -arnival in Veni!e$H
The ,ive other Iin's listened to this s4ee!h with noble !om4assion$ Ea!h o, them
'ave Iin' Theodore twenty se?ins to 'et !lothes and shirts8 and -andide 4resented
him with a diamond worth two thosand se?ins$
HFho is this man.H said the ,ive Iin's. Hwho is in a 4osition to 'ive a hndred
times as m!h as ea!h o, s. and who 'ives itL &re yo a Iin' too. sirLH H@o.
'entlemen. and I have no desire to be$H
&t the moment when they were leavin' the table. there arrived in the same hotel
,or <ost Serene Hi'hnesses. who had also lost their states by the ,ortnes o, war$
and who were !omin' to s4end the rest o, the -arnival in Veni!e$ Bt -andide did
not even take note o, these new!omers8 he was 4reo!!4ied only with 'oin' to ,ind
his dear -ne'onde in -onstantino4le$
-H&PTER :B
The ,aith,l -a!ambo had already obtained an a'reement with the Trkish !a4tain
who was abot to take Sltan &hmed ba!k to -onstantino4le that he wold take
-andide and <artin on his shi4$ Both !ame on board a,ter havin' 4rostrated them1
selves be,ore his miserable Hi'hness$ On the way. -andide said to <artin9
HBtthose were siG dethroned Iin's that we had s44er with. and besides. amon'
those siG Iin's there was one to whom I 'ave alms$ <aybe there are many other
4rin!es still more n,ortnate$ &s ,or me. I have lost only a hndred shee4. and I am
,lyin' to -ne'ondeEs arms$ <y dear <artin. on!e a'ain. Pan'loss was ri'ht. all is
well$H
HI ho4e so.H said <artin$
HBt.H said -andide. Hthat was a most im4lasible adventre we had in Veni!e$
@o one ever saw or heard o, siG dethroned Iin's havin' s44er to'ether in an inn$H
;Frame translation=
Fhat we see here may be less a motivation ,or the devi!e than an attem4t
to inter4ret it or at the very least to s4e!i,y it$ It wold be interestin' to 4oint
to one 4assa'e ,rom -onan %oyle as an analo'os attem4t to motivate
another Hte!hni!al !onvention.H that is$ the !onvention o, the adventre
novel with its ,avorable !on,len!e o, !ir!mstan!es9
For this is 4re !oin!iden!e Holmes. ,ate itsel, smiles 4on yoMH H<y dear
Fatson. I view this in an entirely di,,erent li'ht$ &ny man who 4rses somethin'
with stbbornness. whose tho'hts are ,iGed on one and only one thin'. and whose
desire is r'ently dire!ted to brin' this abot !ome what may. involntarily
,rthers his !ase in everythin' that he ndertakes$ -all this hy4nosis. the
in,leGible ,or!e o, the will. bt thatEs the way it isM Pre!isely the way that a ma'net
attra!ts to itsel, iron and steel ,ilin's ,rom everywhere. so does this will 4ower bend
aU
l o, the 4etty a,,airs and !ir!mstan!es in its 4ath into a !hain whi!h mst lead to a
B; Theory of Prose
revelation o, the !rime$HV
The 4rin!i4le o, sele!tin' material in a!!ordan!e with some eGternal
!riterion is widely a44lied in the novel$ Sometimes. es4e!ially in a more
limited novel. the inset 4arts intera!t in a de,inite way$ For eGam4le. they
re4resent a 4arallel str!tre$ Pan5aEs 'overnorshi4 re4resents a smmary
o, ,olklori! e4isodes !on!ernin' the trials o, wisdom$ Here we also hear an
e!ho o, the trials o, Solomon and o, the Talmd ;the e4isode with the money
in the !ane=$ San!ho himsel, 4oints ot the im4ortant natre o, this wisdom9
&ll the S4e!tators were ama5Ed$ and be'an to look on their "overnor as a se!ond
Solomon$ They askEd him how he !old !onje!tre that the ten -rowns were in the
-aneL He toldEem$ that havin' observEd how the %e,endant 'ave it to the Plainti,, to
hold while he took his Oath. and then swore he had trly retrned him the <oney in
his own Hands. a,ter whi!h he took his -ane a'ain ,rom the Plainti,,9 this !on1
siderEd. it !ame into his Head. that the <oney was lod'Ed within the Reed$ From
when!e may be learnEd. that tho'h sometimes those that 'overn are destitte o,
Sense. yet it o,ten 4leases "od to dire!t Eem in their Kd'ments$ Besides. he had
heard the -rate o, his Parish tell o, s!h another Bsiness8 and he had so s4e!ial a
<emory. that were it not that he was so nl!ky as to ,or'et all he had a mind to
remember. there !old not have been a better in the whole Island. ;4art :$ !ha4$ 2A=
The other e4isodes. ,or instan!e. the e4isode with the woman who had
,alsely a!!sed the swineherd o, ra4e. have many 4arallels elsewhere in
a!!ordan!e with the laws o, 4lot ,ormation$
-ertain e4isodes ,rom San!hoEs 'overnorshi4 in!lde 4i!ares?e
4roverbs and ,ables in!or4orated into the novel$
&4art ,rom this ty4e o, inter4olated e4isode and the di,,erent HtasksH o,
,olklori! ty4e. -ervantes introd!es into his des!ri4tion o, San!hoEs
'overnorshi4 ;as he had done earlier in %on JiGoteEs s4ee!hes= varios
administrative !onsiderations o, his own$ Sometimes. these s4ee!hes o,
San!ho di,,er radi!ally ,rom what we have be!ome a!!stomed to hear
,rom %on JiGoteEs armor1bearer$ In that !ase. -ervantes himsel, 4oints
ot the in!on'rity and thereby lays bare the devi!e9
H@ow.H said he$ Hdo I ,ind in 'ood earnest that Kd'es and "overnors mst be
made o, Brass. or o'ht to be made o, Brass. that they may be 4roo, a'ainst the
Im4ortnities o, those that 4retend Bsiness. who at all Hors. and at all Seasons
wold be heard and dis4at!hed. withot any Re'ard to any body bt themselves. let
what will !ome o, the rest. so their trn is servEd$ @ow i, a 4oor Kd'e does not hear
and dis4at!h them 4resently. either be!ase he is otherways bsy and !annot. or
be!ase they donEt !ome at a 4ro4er Season. then do they 'rmble. and 'ive him
their Blessin' ba!kwards. rake 4 the &shes o, his Fore,athers. and wold 'naw his
very Bones$ Bt with yor #eave. 'ood <r$ Bsy1Body. with all yor Bsiness
yo are too hasty. 4ray have a little Patien!e. and wait a ,it Time to make yor
&44li!ation$ %onEt !ome at %inner1time. or when a <an is 'oin' to slee4. ,or we
VFrom HThe %an!erEs Ini,e.H not by -onan %oyle bt a 4asti!he o, n!ertain
ori'in$ UTrans$ noteE
The %a0in5 o7%on JiGote BB
Kd'es are Flesh and Blood. and mst allow @atre what she natrally re?ires9
nless it be 4oor I. who am not to allow mine any ,ood$ Thanks to my Friend$ <aster
%o!tor Pedro Re5io Tirtea,era here 4resent. who is ,or starvin' me to %eath. and
then swears Etis ,or the 4reservation o, my #i,e$ Heaven 'rant him s!h a #i,e$ I
4ray. and all the "an' o, s!h Physi!kmon'ers as he is8 ,or the 'ood Physi!ians
deserve Palms and #arels$H
&ll thai knew San!ho wonderH d to hear him talk so sensibly. and be'an to think
that O,,i!es and Pla!es o, Trst ins4irEd some <en with Dnderstandin'. as they
st4i,yEd and !on,onded others. ;4art :$ !ha4$ 2)=
In the des!ri4tion o, San!hoEs 'overnorshi4. -ervantes has inserted a
short story. 4oorly eGe!ted. abot a woman who had rn away ,rom her
4arentsV home dressed in a manEs ot,it$
&ll o, these e4isodes are inte'rated in one !om4a!t and motley kaleido1
s!o4e. whi!h is more than jst an a!!mlation o, e4isodes delivered by
San!ho 4on his renn!iation o, the 'overnorshi4$ Fhat is evident here is a
new inter4retation o, old material$ This is already a ste4 ,orward in the
dire!tion o, a new novel$ The writer is !ons!ios at this 4oint o, his o4tion o,
4resentin' his hero not merely as a vi!tim o, a variety o, jokes and 4ranks
bt also as a man who had ,elt them to the ?i!k$
The hmanity o, the novel is introd!ed ;,or eGam4le. in -ervantesE
!ondemnation o, the mo!kery hea4ed on %on JiGote by the dke and
d!hess= as material ,or new str!tres$
Here the e,,e!t !onsists o, a !han'e in %on JiGoteEs two masks and in a
reinter4retation o, old material$
On the way ,rom the island o, Barataria. San!ho Pan5a meets his ,riend
and nei'hbor Ri!ote the <oor. who. nder the 'ise o, a 4il'rim. has been
makin' his way home. where he had on!e bried a treasre ;!ha4$ A2=$
&,ter a brie, !hat. the ,riends 4art$ This e4isode has no inde4endent si'ni,1
i!an!e bt is introd!ed into the novel in order to !onne!t the story abot
the <aritanian woman more ,irmly to the novel ;!ha4$ C0=$ In this !ha4ter
we dis!over that drin' their assalt. the <aritanian 'alleys take into
!stody a yon' <oor. who trns ot later to be a -hristian woman and the
da'hter o, Ri!ote$ By sheer !oin!iden!e. Ri!ote himsel, a44ears on the
s!ene$ The ,a!t is that we have met this Ri!ote earlier. tho'h San!ho draws
the inset tale somehow !loser to the main 4lot$ The des!ri4tion o, %on
JiGoteEs meetin' with Ro?e. the banditsV rin'leader. re4resents a se4arate
story. or rather a story within a story$ In the 4i!tres?e des!ri4tion o, the
noble hi'hwayman. -ervantes has inserted a tale abot a senselessly jealos
woman by the name o, -ladia "eronima. who had killed her sitor on ,alse
'ronds o, ss4i!ion$ These stories are !onne!ted to the novel only by the
,a!t that %on JiGote is 4resent at their tellin'$ This is an almost 4er,e!t
ty4e o, threadin'$ In order to in!lde e4isodes in this manner. it has always
been es4e!ially a44ro4riate to have the !hara!ters 'o on a jorney$ This
jorney has served as a motivation ,or brin'in' abot !onta!t between them
and the hero$
1>> Theory of Prose
The hero inte'rates these e4isodes in eGa!tly the same way that an
observer inte'rates the 4i!tres o, an art 'allery in his mind$
To this ty4e belon' also the eGamination o, hoses by %on -leo4has
and &smodes ;#esa'eEs De'il on T:o Slic0s* by raisin' their roo,s$
&smodesEs remarks. a!!om4anyin' as they do his ins4e!tion o, the 4aint 1
in's. 4lay a role analo'os to the heroEs attitde towards the e4isodes strn'
to'ether on his jorney or to the astonishment shown by the 4rin!esses at
the tales related to them in A Thousand and Ane 2i5hts.
Sometimes we en!onter in stories o, the ,ramin' ty4e not ane!dotes bt
!olle!tions o, s!ienti,i! knowled'e$ In this way. arithmeti! 4roblems have
been in!or4orated into the "eor'ian #oo0 of $isdom and "ies while in
the novels o, Kles Verne we dis!over re,eren!e books on s!ienti,i! matters
and lists o, 'eo'ra4hi!al dis!overies$ The 4oem !alled The Do'e #oo0
drawin' entirely 4on a body o, learnin' !onsidered s!ienti,i! in its own
time. is in!or4orated into a story abot Hthe heavenly book$HV Similarly.
&es!hyls introd!es into his tra'edy a des!ri4tion o, an o4ti!al tele'ra4h$
I have already noted on innmerable o!!asions the inters4ersin' o, this
ty4e o, material in -ervantes$ %on JiGoteEs en!onter in !ha4ter A/ o,
4art : with the 4eo4le !arryin' the states o, the saints immediately a,ter
deliverin' his ,amos s4ee!h on ,reedom is a !ase in 4oint$
In similar ,ashion. -ervantes inter4olates into the novel the des!ri4tion
o, the talkin' head. with details 'alore !on!ernin' its str!tre$ This
ha44ens in !ha4ter C:. in whi!h is related the H&dventre o, the In!hanted
Head with Other Im4ertinen!es @ot to Be Omitted$H
Elsewhere. drin' a !onversation on the baselessness o, omens. whi!h
in!ldes 4arallels ,rom an!ient history and an eG4lanation o, the battle !ry
o, the S4anish and so on. %on JiGote neG4e!tedly notes that he had
be!ome entan'led in a net made o, silk$ It trns ot that !lose by several
yon' men and women have de!ided to !reate their own &r!adia$ This
'ame o, she4herds and she4herdesses is in ,a!t the sor!e ,or all o, the
4astoral s!enes in the novel$ -ervantes himsel, wrote 4astoral novels in this
same !onventional s4irit$ Pastoral s!enes are nmeros thro'hot Don
Quixote and at times we are led to believe that the whole novel is abot to
take o,, on a new tan'ent that will trn into a 4astoral$ In ,a!t. a,ter his
de,eat at the hand o, the Ini'ht o, the Fhite <oon. %on JiGote 'oes
home. intent 4on be!omin' a she4herd$
Bt a44roa!hin' death removes ,rom %on JiGote. the Ini'ht o, the
Foe,l Fi're. the mask o, madness$ In its 4la!e. he 4ts on the new mask
o, the meek -hristian. &lonso the Brave$
V<y thanks to Pro,$ Oinas o, Indiana Dniversity ,or his eG4lanation o, the stran'e
name8 Ori'inally !alled the Book o, %e4ths )?lubo0aya <ni5a* it be!ame known
in time as the Ble Book !?olubaya <ni5a* and. more im4ortantly. the %ove Book
!?olubinaya <ni5a* symboli5in'. o, !orse. the Holy "host$ UTrans$ note6
-hapter F Sherlo!k Holmes and the <ystery
Story
I= & story may be told in s!h a way that the reader sees the n,oldin' o,
events. how one event ,ollows another$ In s!h a !ase. s!h a narration
!ommonly adheres to a tem4oral se?en!e withot any si'ni,i!ant omis1
sions$ Fe may take as an eGam4le o, this ty4e o, narration TolstoiEs $ar
and Peace.
3* & story may also be told in s!h a way that what is ha44enin' is
in!om4rehensible to the reader$ The HmysteriesH takin' 4la!e in the story
are only later resolved$
&s an eGam4le o, the latter ty4e o, narration let me mention HIno!kM
Ino!kM Ino!kMH by Tr'enev. the novels o, %i!kens and dete!tive stories.
o, whi!h I shall have more to say$
-hara!teristi! o, this se!ond ty4e o, narration is tem4oral trans4osition$
&s a matter o, ,a!t. a sin'le tem4oral trans4osition s!h as the omission o, a
4arti!lar in!ident and its a44earan!e a,ter the !onse?en!es o, this
in!ident have already been revealed is o,ten ?ite s,,i!ient to !reate s!h a
mystery$ The mysterios a44earan!e o, Svidri'ailov at the bedside o, the
ailin' Raskolnikov in -rime and Punishment is a !ase in 4oint. tho'h.
admittedly. it had already been 4re4ared ,or by %ostoevsky. who had
4ointed ot in 4assin' that a !ertain man had been eavesdro44in' at the time
the address was 'iven$ Still. the mystery is renewed by RaskolnikovEs
dream$ By the mere omission o, the ,a!t that Svidri'ailov had ,ond ot the
address. the athor a!hieves a mystery in the se!ond meetin'$
In an adventre novel bilt on several 4arallel lines o, narration. the
e,,e!ts o, sr4rise are a!hieved by the ,a!t that while one 4lot line
4ro'resses. the other one may 4ro!eed at the same or even ?i!ker tem4o.
drin' whi!h we !ross over to another narrative line. 4reservin' all the while
the time o, the ,irst line8 that is. we ,ind orselves amon' !onse?en!es
whose !ases are nknown to s$
Ths does %on JiGote !ome 4on San!ho in a montain 'or'e$
This devi!e seems 4er,e!tly natral. bt it is in ,a!t a de,inite a!!om4lish1
ment. tterly nknown to the "reek e4i!$ Nelinsky has demonstrated that
simltaneity o, a!tion is not admissible in the Adyssey. &ltho'h 4arallel
narrative lines do eGist in the story line ;Odysses and Telema!hs=. yet the
events n,old alternately in ea!h line$ Trans4osition in time. as we see. may
serve as a basis ,or a Hmystery$H However. we o'ht not to think that the
1>1
1>3 Theory of Prose
mystery is in the trans4osition itsel,$ For eGam4le. -hi!hikovEs !hildhood.
related a,ter he had already been introd!ed by the athor. wold have
ordinarily been ,ond in the o4enin' 4art o, a !lassi! adventre novel. and
yet even in its trans4osed ,orm it !annot make or hero mysterios$
The late works o, #eo Tolstoi are ,re?ently !onstr!ted :ithout special
resort to this devi!e$ That is. this devi!e is 4resented in s!h a way that the
!enter o, 'ravity shi,ts ,rom the tem4oral trans4osition to the denoement$
In The <reut=er Sonata we ,ind the ,ollowin'9
HYes. no dobt. married li,e is ,illed with !rises.H the attorney said. wishin' to 4t
an end to the inde!ently 4assionate !onversation$
HI see that yo have ,ond ot who I am.H silently and !almly said a 'rey1haired
'entleman$
H@o. I have not had that 4leasre$H
HItEs a small 4leasre$ <y name is Po5dnishev. the man who has 'one thro'h
this !risis that yo have jst allded to. the !risis whi!h ended when he killed his
wi,e$H he said 'lan!in' ?i!kly at ea!h and every one o, s$
In /adMi-%urad a !ossa!k shows Btler the ha!ked1o,, head o, Hadji1
<rad. where4on the drnken o,,i!ers look it strai'ht in the eye and kiss it$
#ater we are 4resent at the s!ene o, the last battle o, Hadji1<rad$ &4art
,rom this. the destiny o, Hadji1<rad. his entire history. is 'iven in the
ima'e o, the broken. !rshed brdo!k. whi!h nevertheless yearns stb1
bornly to live$
HThe %eath o, Ivan Ily!hH be'ins in the ,ollowin' way9
In a lar'e bildin' atta!hed to the instittes o, jris4rden!e. drin' the inter1
mission between the sessions !on!ernin' the <elovinsky !ase. the 4rose!tor and a
member o, the !ort 'ather in the stdy o,lvan Ye'orovi!h Sh!hebek$ & !onversa1
tion had started !on!ernin' the ,amos Irasinsky !ase $ $ $ Pyotr Ivanovi!h. on the
other hand. who had ke4t silent thro'hot the 4ro!eedin's. was eGaminin' the
do!ments that had jst been sbmitted$
In the eGam4les above taken ,rom The <reut=er Sonata( /adMi-%urad
and HThe %eath o, Ivan Ily!hH we witness a str''le with the story line
rather than a !om4li!ation o, it$
&44arently. Tolstoi ,ond it ne!essary to eliminate the 4lot interest o, his
novels$ In its stead. he laid 'reat stress on analysis. on the Hdetails.H as he
sed to say$
Fe know the death date o,lvan Ily!h and the ,ate o, Po5dnishevEs wi,e.
even the reslt o, his trial$ Fe know the ,ate o, Hadji1<rad and we even
know how 4eo4le will jd'e him$
-riosity !on!ernin' this as4e!t o, a literary work is thereby removed$
Fhat Tolstoi needed here was a new nderstandin' o, what a literary
work is. a !han'e in the sal !ate'ories o, tho'ht$ &nd so he renon!ed
4lot. assi'nin' to it a merely 4er,n!tory role$
I have tried in this di'ression to show the di,,eren!e between tem4oral
trans4osition. whi!h may. in !ertain !ases. be sed as a basis ,or the
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 1>4
!onstr!tion o, Hmysteries.H and the mystery itsel, as a de,inite 4lot devi!e$
I believe that even the most !areless reader o, adventre novels !an !ite
the nmber o, mysteries that ,i're in it$
Titles with the word HmysteryH are eG!eedin'ly !ommon in literatre. as
in. ,or eGam4le$ The %ystery of %adrid -ourt The %ysterious Island
The %ystery of Id:in Drood et!$
<ysteries are sally introd!ed into adventre novels or stories ,or the
4r4ose o, hei'htenin' the readerEs interest in the a!tion. thereby makin'
4ossible an ambi'os inter4retation o, the a!tion$
%ete!tive novels. a sbs4e!ies o, the H!rime novel$H have !ome to over1
shadow the H!o4s and robbers novelH in im4ortan!e$ This is de. most
4robably. to the very !onvenien!e a,,orded by the mystery motivation$ &t
,irst. the !rime is 4resented as a riddle$ Then. a dete!tive a44ears on the
s!ene as a 4ro,essional riddle1solver$
-rime and Punishment similarly makes broad se o, the devi!e re4re1
sented by RaskolnikovEs 4re4arations ;the aGEs noose. the !han'e o, hat and
so on are des!ribed be,ore we learn their 4r4ose=$ The motives ,or the !rime
in this novel are revealed a,ter the !rime. whi!h serves as its e,,e!t$
In novels o, the &rsene #4in ty4e the main hero is not a dete!tive bt a
H'entleman !riminal$H Still. there is a dete!tive. a Hdis!loserEV o, the
mystery. whose 4resentation is motivated only by a la4se in time$ Yet even
&rsene #4in o,ten works as a dete!tive$
To illstrate this story bilt on a mystery let s look !losely at one o, the
stories by -onan %oyle devoted to the adventres o, Sherlo!k Holmes$
For my analysis I have sele!ted the story entitled HThe &dventre o, the
S4e!kled Band$H I shall 4oint ot 4arallels ,rom time to time. taken. ,or the
most 4art. ,rom the -ollected $or0s of -onan Doyle ;St$ Petersbr'9
Sojkin. ()*)1((=. vol$ 2$ <y 4r4ose in doin' so is to make it easier ,or the
reader. i, he shold !hoose to do so. to ,ollow my analysis with the book in
his hands$
-onan %oyleEs stories be'in on a rather monotonos note$ & Sherlo!k
Holmes story will o,ten be'in with FatsonEs enmeration o, the ,amos
dete!tiveEs adventres and eG4loits$ &,ter this. Fatson sele!ts a story ,or
the o!!asion$
<eanwhile. hints are dro44ed !on!ernin' !ertain little1known matters$
with some details thrown in ,or 'ood measre$
<ore !ommonly. a story will be'in with the a44earan!e o, a H!lient$H
The sitation that serves as the basis ,or his or her a44earan!e is ?ite
4rosai!$ For eGam4le9
He had risen ,rom his !hair. and was standin' between the 4arted blinds. 'a5in'
down into the dll. netral1tinted #ondon street$ #ookin' over his sholder I saw
that on the 4avement o44osite there stood a lar'e woman with a heavy ,r boa
arond her ne!k. and a lar'e !rlin' red ,eather in a broad1brimmed hat whi!h was
tilted in a !o?ettish %!hess1o,1%evonshire ,ashion over her ear$ From nder this
'reat 4ano4ly she 4ee4ed 4 in a nervos. hesitatin' ,ashion at or windows. while
1>6 Theory of Prose
her body os!illated ba!kwards and ,orwards. and her ,in'ers ,id'eted with her 'love
bttons$ Sddenly. with a 4ln'e. as o, the swimmer who leaves the bank. she
hrried a!ross the road. and we heard the shar4 !lan' o, the bell$
HI have seen those sym4toms be,ore.H said Holmes. throwin' his !i'arette into
the ,ire$ HOs!illation 4on the 4avement always means an affaire du cceur. She
wold like advi!e. bt is not sre that the matter is not too deli!ate ,or !ommni!a1
tion$ &nd yet even here we may dis!riminate$ Fhen a woman has been seriosly
wron'ed by a man she no lon'er os!illates. and the sal sym4tom is a broken bell
wire$ Here we may take it that there is a love matter. bt that the maiden is not so
m!h an'ry as 4er4leGed. or 'rieved$ Bt here she !omes in 4erson to resolve or
dobts$H ;H& -ase o, IdentityH=
Here is another eGam4le9
HHolmes.H said I. as I stood one mornin' in or bow1window lookin' down the
street. Hhere is a madman !omin' alon'$ It seems rather sad that his relatives shold
allow him to !ome ot alone$H
<y ,riend rose la5ily ,rom his arm1!hair. and stood with his hands in the 4o!kets
o, his dressin'1'own. lookin' over my sholder$ It was a bri'ht. !ris4 Febrary
mornin'. and the snow o, the day be,ore still lay dee4 4on the 'rond. shimmerin'
bri'htly in the wintry sn$ %own the !entre o, Baker Street it had been 4lo'hed into
a brown !rmbly band by the tra,,i!. bt at either side and on the hea4ed14 ed'es o,
the ,oot4aths it still lay as white as when it ,ell$ The 'rey 4avement had been !leaned
and s!ra4ed. bt was still dan'erosly sli44ery. so that there were ,ewer 4assen'ers
than sal$ Indeed. ,rom the dire!tion o, the <etro4olitan station no one was
!omin' save the sin'le 'entleman whose e!!entri! !ond!t had drawn my attention$
He was a man o, abot ,i,ty. tall. 4ortly. and im4osin'. with a massive. stron'ly
marked ,a!e and a !ommandin' ,i're$ He was dressed in a sombre yet ri!h style. in
bla!k ,ro!k1!oat. shinin' hat. neat brown 'aiters. and well1!t 4earl1'rey trosers$
Yet his a!tions were in absrd !ontrast to the di'nity o, his dress and ,eatres. ,or he
was rnnin' hard. with o!!asional little s4rin's. s!h as a weary man 'ives who is
little a!!stomed to set any taG 4on his le's$ &s he ran he jerked his hands 4 and
down. wa''led his head. and writhed his ,a!e into the most eGtraordinary !ontor1
tions$ ;HThe &dventre o, the Beryl -oronetH=
&s yo !an see. there is 4re!ios little variety in these eG!er4ts$ &nd letEs
not ,or'et that both 4assa'es !ome ,rom the same volme$
Be,ore re4roa!hin' -onan %oyle. however. let s devote a little time to
the ?estion9 what does %oyle need %r$ Fatson ,orL
%r$ Fatson 4lays a dal role$
First. as the narrator. Fatson tells s abot Sherlo!k Holmes and !onveys
to s his eG4e!tation o, the latterEs de!ision. while he himsel, is not 4rivy to
the dete!tiveEs mental 4ro!ess$ Only ,rom time to time does Sherlo!k
Holmes share some o, his tentative de!isions with his ,riend$
In this way. Fatson serves to retard the a!tion while at the same time
dire!tin' the ,low o, events into se4arate !hannels$ He !old have been
re4la!ed in this !ase by a s4e!ial arran'ement o, the story in the ,orm o,
!ha4ters$
Se!ondly. Fatson is ne!essary as the Heternal ,oolH ;this term is. o,
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 1>F
!orse. rather !rde. and I do not insist on makin' it a 4ermanent 4art o, the
theory o, 4rose=$ In this res4e!t. he shares the ,ate o, Ins4e!tor #estrade.
abot whom more later$
Fatson mis!onstres the meanin' o, the eviden!e 4resented to him by
Sherlo!k Holmes. allowin' the latter to !orre!t him$ Fatson also serves
as a motivation ,or a ,alse resoltion$ In addition. Fatson !arries on a
dialo'e with Holmes. answers the latterEs ?eries. et!$. that is. he 4lays
the role o, a servant boy who 4i!ks 4 a,ter his master$
Fhen a !lient 4ays a visit to Sherlo!k Holmes. he or she sally relates to
him. in 'reat detail. the ,ll !ir!mstan!es o, the !ase$ However. when s!h
a storyteller is absent. that is. when. ,or eGam4le. Holmes is ot on a !all.
then Holmes himsel, relates the details o, the !ase to Fatson$
Holmes loves to dmb,ond his visitors ;and Fatson too= with his
omnis!ien!e$
HolmesEs devi!es o, analysis hardly ever vary9 in three ot o, the twelve
stories nder !onsideration. Sherlo!k Holmes sin'les ot the sleeve9
HThere is no mystery. my dear madam.H said he$ smilin'$ HThe le,t arm o, yor
ja!ket is s4attered with md in no less than seven 4la!es$ The marks are 4er,e!tly
,resh$ There is no vehi!le save a do'1!art whi!h throws 4 md in that way. and then
only when yo sit on the le,t1hand side o, the driver$H ;HThe &dventre o, the
S4e!kled BandH=
Elsewhere Holmes adds9
H <y ,irst 'lan!e is always at a womanEs sleeve$ In a man it is 4erha4s better ,irst to
take the knee o, the troser$ &s yo observe. this woman had 4lsh 4on her sleeves.
whi!h is a most se,l material ,or showin' tra!es$ The doble line a little above the
wrist. where the ty4ewritist 4resses a'ainst the table. was beati,lly de,ined$ The
sewin'1ma!hine. o, the hand ty4e. leaves a similar mark. bt only on the le,t arm$
and on the side o, it ,arthest ,rom the thmb. instead o, bein' ri'ht a!ross the
broadest 4art. as this was$ I then 'lan!ed at her ,a!e. and observin' the dint o, a
4in!e1ne5 at either side o, her nose. I ventred a remark 4on short si'ht and ty4e1
writin'. whi!h seemed to sr4rise her$H ;H& -ase o, IdentityH=
In another story. HThe Red1Headed #ea'e.H Holmes astonds his
!lient by 4ointin' ot that he. the !lient. had been doin' a lot o, writin'
re!ently9
H&h. o, !orse. I ,or'ot that$ Bt the writin'LH
HFhat else !an be indi!ated by that ri'ht !,, so very shiny ,or ,ive in!hes. and the
le,t one with the smooth 4at!h near the elbow where yo rest it 4on the desk$H
This monotonos te!hni?e is eG4lained. most likely. by the ,a!t that
these stories a44eared in 4rint in s!!ession$ The athor !old not !learly
remember. a44arently. that he had already sed this devi!e be,ore$ Yet. we
mst state as a 'enerali5ation that sel,1re4etition is ,ar more !ommon in
literatre than is !ommonly s44osed$
1>7 Theory of Prose
The mystery devi!e is sometimes im4lanted in the body o, a novel in the
way leadin' !hara!ters eG4ress themselves and in the athorEs !omments
on them$ I will endeavor to demonstrate this in %i!kens$
-onan %oyleEs Sherlo!k Holmes eG4resses himsel, mysteriosly on
o!!asion$ This mysteriosness is sometimes a!hieved by obli?eness ;i$e$.
by a sim4le indire!tion=$
The Ins4e!tor asks Holmes whether he 4lans to visit the s!ene o, the
!rime9
HIt was very ni!e and !om4limentary o, yo.H Holmes answered$ HIt is entirely a
?estion o, barometri! 4ressre$H
#estrade looked startled$ HI do not ?ite ,ollow.H he said$ ;HThe Bos!ombe
Valley <ysteryH=
This indire!tion means9 HI, it doesnEt rain$H
-onan %oyle tho'ht this 4assa'e im4ortant eno'h to be in!lded in the
story. even tho'h it has no si'ni,i!an!e in the n,oldin' 4lot$ Yet. in order
to make se o, this devi!e. the athor leaves Sherlo!k Holmes in the hotel$
Holmes. there,ore. has even more reasons than be,ore to ,eel an'ry9 H EOh.
how sim4le it wold all have been had I been here be,ore they !ame like a
herd o, b,,alo. and wallowed all over itE H ;ibid$=$
&4art ,rom %oyleEs desire to show o,, Sherlo!k HolmesEs wit and to
demonstrate his 4rden!e. the awkward delay in the hotel also enables the
athor to introd!e !ertain analyti!al !onversations into his story$
In HThe &dventre o, the S4e!kled BandH the story is told in two 4arts$
The ,irst 4art tells o, the !ase o, the !rime$ This is. so to s4eak. a smmary$
In the se!ond 4art we are 'iven the !rime itsel,. and in 'reat detail. at
that$
I shall now tell the be'innin' o, this story in eG!er4ts$ This is the story o,
the death o, a woman as told by her sister$ Sin!e I am not writin' a mystery
story mysel, in these 4a'es. I shall 4rovide a 4re,a!e to the de4osition$
In the eG!er4ts below yo will ,ind !ertain !les. whose 4r4ose in ea!h
!ase is !learly to !reate a ,alse resoltion$ Other instr!tions are 'iven not
dire!tly bt in 4assin' ;i$e$. in sbordinate !lases. on whi!h the storyteller
does not dwell. bt whi!h are nonetheless o, major im4ortan!e=$ &nd so a
word o, !ation$
EG!er4t (9 <aterial ,or a ,alse resoltion$
EG!er4t :9 & va'e !le as to the method sed by the !l4rit to !ommit
the !rime$
EG!er4t 09 The be'innin' o, this 4assa'e in!ldes an im4ortant !le !on1
!ernin' the !ir!mstan!es o, the !rime$ This !le is intentionally 4la!ed in
the obli?e ,orm o, a sbordinate !lase$
EG!er4t 29 %etails o, the mrder$
EG!er4t A9 Same$
EG!er4t C9 The words o, the de!eased are 'iven in s!h a way as to
s44ort a ,alse resoltion ;as i, the woman were killed by 'y4sies=$
In the o4enin' o, the story we dis!over !ertain 4ie!es o, in,ormation
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 1>@
4ointin'. it seems. to the ste4,ather as the !l4rit$ This 4art is ,lly
motivated$
;(= HHe had no ,riends at all save the wanderin' 'i4sies. and he wold 'ive these
va'abonds leave to en!am4 4on the ,ew a!res o, bramble1!overed land whi!h
re4resent the ,amily estate. and wold a!!e4t in retrn the hos4itality o, their tents.
wanderin' away with them sometimes ,or weeks on end$H
[:= HHe has a 4assion also ,or Indian animals. whi!h are sent over to him by a
!orres4ondent. and he has at this moment a !heetah and a baboon. whi!h wander
,reely over his 'ronds. and are ,eared by the villa'ers almost as m!h as their
master$H
;012= HThe windows o, the three rooms o4en ot 4on the lawn$ That ,atal ni'ht
%r$ Roylott had 'one to his room early. tho'h we knew that he had not retired to
rest. ,or my sister was trobled by the smell o, the stron' Indian !i'ars whi!h it was
his !stom to smoke$ She le,t her room. there,ore. and !ame into mine. where she sat
,or some time. !hattin' abot her a44roa!hin' weddin'$ &t eleven oE!lo!k she rose
to leave me bt she 4ased at the door and looked ba!k$
H ETell me. Helen.E said she. Ehave yo ever heard anyone whistle in the dead o,
ni'htLE
H E@ever.E said I$
H T s44ose that yo !old not 4ossibly whistle yorsel, in yor slee4LE
H E-ertainly not$ Bt whyLE
H EBe!ase drin' the last ,ew ni'hts I have always. abot three in the mornin'.
heard a low !lear whistle$ I am a li'ht slee4er. and it has awakened me$ I !annot tell
where it !ame ,rom>4erha4s ,rom the neGt room. 4erha4s ,rom the lawn$ I tho'ht
that I wold jst ask yo whether yo had heard it$E
H
#
@o. I have not$ It mst be those wret!hed 'i4sies in the 4lantation$E H
;A= H&s I o4ened my door I seemed to hear a low whistle. s!h as
my sister
des!ribed. and a ,ew moments later a !lan'in' sond. as i, a mass o, metal had
,allen$H
;C= H&t ,irst I tho'ht that she had not re!o'ni5ed me. bt as I bent
over her she
sddenly shrieked ot in a voi!e whi!h I shall never ,or'et$ HOh. my "odM HelenM It
was the bandM The s4e!kled bandME$ $ $ It is !ertain. there,ore. that my sister was
?ite alone when she met her end$ Besides. there were no marks o, any violen!e
4on her$H
The 4oint is that in En'lish the word HbandH is a homonym ;i$e$. it has
two meanin's9 a HribbonH and a H'an'H=$ The eGisten!e o, two 4ossible
inter4retations o, this word are evident ,rom the sbse?ent dialo'e$
H&h. and what did yo 'ather ,rom this allsion to a band>a s4e!kled bandLH
HSometimes I have tho'ht that it was merely the wild talk o, delirim. sometimes
that it may have re,erred to some band o, 4eo4le. 4erha4s to these very 'i4sies in the
4lantation$ I do not know whether the s4otted handker!hie,s whi!h so many o, them
wear over their heads mi'iit have s''ested the stran'e adje!tive whi!h she sed$H
Holmes shook his head like a man who is ,ar ,rom bein' satis,ied$
1>; Theory of Prose
This se o, a homonym is !ommon in -onan %oyle$ The ,ollowin' 4as1
sa'e ,rom EHThe Bos!ombe Valley <ysteryH is bilt on the same 4rin!i4le9
\HThe -oroner9 %id yor ,ather make any statement to yo be,ore he diedL
HFitness9 He mmbled a ,ew words. bt I !old only !at!h some allsion to a
Holmes s''ests ?ite a di,,erent meanin' ,or this word9
HFhat o, the rat. thenLH
Sherlo!k Holmes took a ,olded 4a4er ,rom his 4o!ket and ,lattened it ot on the
table$ HThis is a ma4 o, the -olony o, Vi!toria.H he said. HI wired to Bristol ,or it last
ni'ht$H He 4t his hand over 4art o, the ma4$ HFhat do yo readLH he asked$
H&R&T.H I read$
H&nd nowLH He raised his hand$
HB&##&R&T$H
HJite so$ That was the word the man ttered. and o, whi!h his son only !a'ht
the last two syllables$ He was tryin' to tter the name o, his mrderer$ So1and1so o,
Baltarat$H
It wold be easy to !ite several s!h eGam4les ,rom -onan %oyle alone$
The devi!e is !ommon eno'h$ Kles Verne makes se o, the semanti!
di,,eren!es between lan'a'es in -hildren of -aptain ?rant. & mysterios
do!ment. hidden in a bottle and 4artially e,,a!ed by the water. is inter1
4reted in several very di,,erent ways. de4endin' 4on the meanin' that is
assi'ned to the words jotted down by the traveler in his native ton'e$ The
!orre!t resoltion o, this 455le is !om4li!ated by the ,a!t that this traveler
re,ers to the si'ht o, the shi4wre!k by a 'eo'ra4hi! synonym ;the island o,
Tabor=$
Those o, yo who !are to !an easily ,ind 4arallels elsewhere$
&s yo !an see. it all !omes down to this9 Is it 4ossible to lower two
4er4endi!lars ,rom one 4oint onto the same lineL
The writer looks ,or a !ase where two in!on'ros thin's overla4. at least
in one res4e!t$ O, !orse. even in dete!tive stories this !oin!iden!e o,ten
takes the ,orm o, somethin' ?ite other than a word$ In The Innocence of
,ather #ro:n -hesterton em4loys as a devi!e the !oin!iden!e o, a 'entle1
manEs dress !oat with the ni,orm o, a valet$
Bt I di'ress$
S!h hints. warnin' o, a 4ossible resoltion and investin' it with 'reater
verisimilitde when it does take 4la!e. are ?ite !ommon in mystery novels$
In -onan %oyleEs HThe <an with the Twisted #i4.H a man dons the attire
o, a be''ar in order to !olle!t alms$ & series o, none1too1!om4li!ated
!oin!iden!es leads to St$ -lairEs arrest in his 4ro,essional dis'ise$ The
be''ar is !har'ed with his own mrder$
Sherlo!k Holmes investi'ates the !ase bt !omes 4 with a ,alse resol1
tion$ The 4oint is that St$ -lair has been de!lared missin'. while in the !anal
not ,ar ,rom the site o, the alle'ed mrder. a dress !oat is ,ond. whose
4o!kets are !rammed with !oins$
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 1>B
Sherlo!k Holmes !onstr!ts a new hy4othesis9
H@o. sir. bt the ,a!ts mi'ht be met s4e!iosly eno'h$ S44ose that this man
Boone had thrst @eville St$ -lair thro'h the window. there is no hman eye whi!h
!old have seen the deed$ Fhat wold he do thenL It wold o, !orse instantly strike
him that he mst 'et rid o, the tell1tale 'arments$ He wold sei5e the !oat then. and
be in the a!t o, throwin' it ot when it wold o!!r to him that it wold swim and not
sink$ He has little time. ,or he had heard the s!,,le downstairs when the wi,e tried to
,or!e her way 4. and 4erha4s he has already heard ,rom his #as!ar !on,ederate that
the 4oli!e are hrryin' 4 the street$ There is not an instant to be lost$ He rshes to
some se!ret hoard. where he has a!!mlated the ,rits o, his be''ary. and he st,,s
all the !oins 4on whi!h he !an lay his hands into the 4o!kets to make sre o, the
!oatEs sinkin'$ He throws it ot. and wold have done the same with the other
'arments had not he heard the rsh o, ste4s below. and only jst had time to !lose the
window when the 4oli!e a44eared$H
This is a ,alse resoltion$
<eanwhile. the identity o, St$ -lair and Boone is allded to in the ,ollow1
in' manner9 %rin' their sear!h o, BooneEs a4artment. the 4oli!e dis!over
tra!es o, blood on the windowsill as well as on the wooden ,loor$ &t the si'ht
o, blood <rs$ St$ -lair ,aints. and the 4oli!e send her home in a !ab. sin!e
her 4resen!e is o, no hel4 in the investi'ation$ Ins4e!tor Barton sear!hes the
4remises thoro'hly and ,inds nothin'$ He has made a mistake in not arrest1
in' Boone on the s4ot. thereby 'ivin' him the o44ortnity to talk the matter
over with the <alaysian$ Rememberin' their error in time. the 4oli!e
re!ti,y it by arrestin' Boone and sear!hin' him$ However. no
in!riminatin' eviden!e is ,ond on his 4erson$ Tre. they ,ind bloodstains
on the ri'ht sleeve o, his shirt. bt he shows them a ,in'er s4ortin' a
4rominent !t$ In all 4robability. he eG4lains. those bloodstains on the
windowsill !ame ,rom this !t$ &,ter all he was walkin' towards the window
when his ,in'er started to bleed$
Fe see that the !t on BooneEs ,in'er is established indire!tly$ The main
,o!s is on the windowsill with its bloodstains$
On the other hand. <rs$ St$ -lair. s4eakin' o, her dee4 ,eelin's ,or her
hsband. says9
HThere is so keen a sym4athy between s that I shold know i, evil !ame 4on him$
On the very day that I saw him last he !t himsel, in the bedroom. and yet I in the
dinin'1room rshed 4stairs instantly with the tmost !ertainty that somethin' had
ha44ened$H
The athor lays stress on the ,a!t that <rs$ St$ -lair sensed that her
hsband had injred himsel, rather than on the injry itsel,$ <eanwhile. a
motive ,or identi,yin' St$ -lair with Boone is established. sin!e both have
!ts on their ,in'ers$
These elements o, !oin!iden!e. however. are 'iven in in!on'ros ,orms$
Here the athorEs 4r4ose is not so m!h to s44ly a Hre!o'nitionH as to
'ive it verisimilitde a,ter the ,a!t9 -hekhov says that i, a story tells s that
11> Theory of Prose
there is a 'n on the wall. then sbse?ently that 'n o'ht to shoot$
This moti,. 4resented ,or!e,lly. !han'es over into what is !alled
HinevitabilityH ;Ibsen=$ This 4rin!i4le in its sal ,orm !orres4onds in
reality to the 'eneral 4rin!i4le o, art$ In a mystery novel. however. the 'n
that han's on the wall does not ,ire$ &nother 'n shoots instead
It is very !rios to observe the artist as he 'radally 4re4ares his
material ,or jst s!h a denoement$ #et s take a distant eGam4le9 In -rime
and Punishment Svidri'ailov listens in on RaskolnikovEs !on,ession bt
does not in,orm on him$ Svidri'ailov re4resents a threat o, a di,,erent natre$
However. it is ?ite n!om,ortable ,or me to s4eak o, %ostoevsky as a
,ootnote to a !ha4ter on -onan %oyle$
Be,ore di'ressin'. I had observed that the word HbandH ;by virte o, its
dal meanin'= as well as the re,eren!e to the 'y4sies 4re4are s ,or a ,alse
denoement$ Sherlo!k Holmes says9
HFhen yo !ombine the ideas o, whistles at ni'ht. the 4resen!e o, a band o,
'i4sies who are on intimate terms with this old do!tor. the ,a!t that we have every
reason to believe that the do!tor has an interest in 4reventin' his ste4da'hterEs
marria'e. the dyin' allsion to a band. and ,inally. the ,a!t that <iss Helen Stoner
heard a metalli! !lan'. whi!h mi'ht have been !ased by one o, those metal bars
whi!h se!red the shtters ,allin' ba!k into their 4la!e. I think that there is 'ood
'rond to think that the mystery may be !leared alon' those lines$H
Obviosly. the 4erson res4onsible ,or this 4arti!larH,alse resoltionH is
Sherlo!k Holmes himsel,$ This is eG4lained by the ,a!t that an o,,i!ial
dete!tive who sally !onstr!ts the ,alse resoltion is absent ,rom HThe
&dventre o, the S4e!kled BandH ;4re!isely in this way Fatson invariably
mis!onstres the eviden!e=$ Sin!e this is so. it ,alls to Sherlo!k Holmes
himsel, to !ommit the blnder$
The same holds ,or HThe <an with the Twisted #i4$ H
One !riti! has eG4lained the 4erennial ,ailre on the 4art o, the state
investi'ator and the eternal vi!tory o, -onan %oyleEs 4rivate dete!tive by
the !on,rontation eGistin' between 4rivate !a4ital and the 4bli! state$
I do not know whether -onan %oyle had any basis ,or 4ittin' the En'lish
state a'ainst the En'lish bor'eoisie$ Yet I believe that i, these stories were
written by a writer livin' in a 4roletarian state. then. tho'h himsel, a
4roletarian writer. he wold still make se o, an ns!!ess,l dete!tive$
<ost likely. it is the state dete!tive who wold be vi!torios in s!h a !ase.
while the 4rivate dete!tive wold no dobt be ,londerin' in vain$ In s!h a
hy4otheti!al story Sherlo!k Holmes wold no dobt be workin' ,or the
state while #estrade wold be en'a'ed in 4rivate 4ra!ti!e. bt the str!tre
o, the story ;the isse at hand= wold not !han'e$ #et s now retrn to it$
Sherlo!k Holmes and his ,riend Fatson. havin' traveled to the s!ene o,
the alle'ed !rime. ins4e!t the hose$
They ins4e!t the room o, the de!eased. where her sister. ,ri'htened ,or
her li,e. now resides$
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 111
HFhere does that bell !ommni!ate withLH he asked at last. 4ointin' to a thi!k bell1
ro4e whi!h hn' down beside the bed. the tassle a!tally lyin' 4on the 4illow$ HIt
'oes to the hosekee4erEs room$H HIt looks newer than the other thin'sLH HYes.
it was only 4t there a !o4le o, years a'o$H HYor sister asked ,or it. I
s44oseLH
H@o. I never heard o, her sin' it$ Fe sed always to 'et what we wanted ,or
orselves$H
HIndeed. it seemed nne!essary to 4t so ni!e a bell14ll there$ Yo will eG!se me
,or a ,ew mintes while I satis,y mysel, as to this ,loor$H He threw himsel, down 4on
his ,a!e with his lens in his hand. and !rawled swi,tly ba!kwards and ,orwards.
eGaminin' mintely the !ra!ks between the boards$ Then he did the same with the
woodwork with whi!h the !hamber was 4anelled$ Finally he walked over to the bed.
and s4ent some time in starin' at it. and in rnnin' his eye 4 and down the wall$
Finally he took the bell1ro4e in his hand and 'ave it a brisk t'$ HFhy. itEs a
dmmy.H said he$ HFonEt it rin'LH
H@o. it is not even atta!hed to a wire$ This is very interestin'$ Yo !an see now
that it is ,astened to a hook jst above where the little o4enin' o, the ventilator is$H
HHow very absrdM I never noti!ed that be,ore$H
HVery stran'eMH mttered Holmes. 4llin' at the ro4e$ HThere are one or two very
sin'lar 4oints abot this room$ For eGam4le. what a ,ool a bilder mst be to o4en a
ventilator into another room. when. with the same troble. he mi'ht have !ommni1
!ated with the otside airMH HThat is also ?ite modern.H said the lady$ H%one
abot the same time as the bell1ro4e.H remarked Holmes$ HYes$ there were
several little !han'es !arried ot abot that time$H HThey seem to have been o, a
most interestin' !hara!ter>dmmy bell1ro4es. and ventilators whi!h do not
ventilate$H
Fe have three obje!ts be,ore s9 ;(= the bell. ;:= the ,loor. ;0= the venti1
lator$ I wold like to 4oint ot that Sherlo!k Holmes is s4eakin' here only
o, a one in three !han!e. and the third one a44ears more in the ,orm o, a
hint$ See the ,irst story !on!ernin' the !rime. that is. the sbordinate !lase o,
the ,irst 4oint$
There ,ollows an eGamination o, the adja!ent room belon'in' to the
do!tor$
Sherlo!k Holmes eGamines the room and asks. 4ointin' to the sa,e that
has srvived the ,ire9
HThere isnEt a !at in it. ,or eGam4leL
H@o$ Fhat a stran'e ideaMH
HFell. look at thisMH He took 4 a small sa!ero, milk whi!h stood on the to4 o, it$
H@o8 we donEt kee4 a !at$ Bt there is a !heetah and a baboon$H
H&h. yes$ o, !orse$ Fell. a !heetah is jst a bi' !at$ and yet a sa!er o, milk does
not 'o very ,ar in satis,yin' its wants. I daresay$ There is one 4oint whi!h I snoia
wish to determine$H He s?atted down in ,ront o, the wooden !hair. and eGamined
the seat o, it with the 'reatest attention$
HThank yo$ That is ?ite settled.H said he. risin' and 4ttin' his lens in his
G13 Theory of Prose
&s yo !an see. HolmesEs ,indin's are not made known$ He then eGamines
the bed$
The reslts o, this eGamination are also not immediately revealed. while
or attention is ,irst drawn to a 4linth9 HThe obje!t whi!h had !a'ht his eye
was a small do' lash hn' on one !orner o, the bed$H
Sherlo!k HolmesEs !onversation with Fatson ,ollows$
Sherlo!k Holmes brin's ot the as1yet1nem4hasi5ed details !on!ernin'
the ventilator and says what he had not said earlier. that is. that the bed is
s!rewed down$
HI saw nothin' remarkable save the bell1ro4e 3says Fatson6. and what 4r4ose
that !old answer I !on,ess is more than I !an ima'ine$H
HYo saw the ventilator. tooLH
HYes. bt I do not think it is s!h a very nsal thin' to have a small o4enin'
between two rooms$ It was so small that a rat !old hardly 4ass thro'h$H
HI knew that we shold ,ind a ventilator be,ore ever we !ame to Stoke <oran$H
H<y dear HolmesMH
HOh. yes. I did$ Yo remember in her statement she said that her sister !old smell
%r$ RoylottEs !i'ar$ @ow. o, !orse that s''ests at on!e that there mst be a !om1
mni!ation between the two rooms$ It !old only be a small one. or it wold have
been remarked 4on at the !oronerEs in?iry. I ded!ed a ventilator$H
HBt what harm !an there be in thatLH
HFell. there is at least a !rios !oin!iden!e o, dates$ & ventilator is made. a !ord
is hn'. and a lady who slee4s in the bed dies$ %oes not that strike yoLH
HI !annot as yet see any !onne!tion$H
H%id yo observe anythin' very 4e!liar abot that bedLH
H@o$H
HIt was !lam4ed to the ,loor$ %id yo ever see a bed ,astened like that be,oreLH
HI !annot say that I have$H
HThe lady !old not move her bed$ It mst always be in the same relative 4osition
to the ventilator and to the ro4e>,or so we may !all it. sin!e it was !learly never
meant ,or a bell14ll$H
In this way. the new detail is ,irst s''ested and then !onne!ted to the
other details o, the story$
Ventilator. bell. bed$ Fhat remains nknown is what Holmes saw on the
table and what is the si'ni,i!an!e o, the ro4e$
Fatson. as sal slow on the 4take. still does not nderstand$ Holmes
tells him nothin' and !onse?ently. tells s. who are se4arated ,rom him by
the narrator. nothin'$
Sherlo!k Holmes in 'eneral does not bother to eG4lain$ He sim4ly ends
the matter with a ,lorish$ Bt this ,lorish is 4re!eded by or anti!i4ation$
The dete!tive and his ,riend are sittin' in a room where a !rime is anti!i1
4ated$ They have been waitin' ,or a lon' time$
How shall I ever ,or'et that dread,l vi'ilL I !old not hear a sond. not VV
en
P
drawin' o, a breath. and yet I knew that my !om4anion sat
o4en
H
ey
PEKPe shtters ,eet o,
me. in the same state o, nervos tension in whi!h I was myselt$
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 114
and still we sat
Sddenly there
ventilator$ $ $
I donEt want to !riti!i5e -onan %oyle$ However. I mst 4oint ot his
!stom o, re4eatin' not only 4lot s!hemata bt also elements o, their
eGe!tion$
#et me add!e a 4arallel ,rom HThe Red1Headed #ea'eH9
Fhat a time it seemedM From !om4arin' notes a,terwards it was bt an hor and a
?arter. yet it a44eared to me that the ni'ht mst have almost 'one. and the dawn be
breakin' above s$ <y limbs were weary and sti,,. ,or I ,eared to !han'e my 4osi1
tion8 yet my nerves were worked 4 to the hi'hest 4it!h o, tension. and my hearin'
was so a!te that I !old not only hear the 'entle breathin' o, my !om4anions. bt I
!old distin'ish the dee4er. heavier in1breath o, the blky Kones ,rom the thin
si'hin' note o, the bank dire!tor$ From my 4osition I !old look over the !ase in the
dire!tion o, the ,loor$ Sddenly. my eyes !a'ht the 'lint o, a li'ht$
In both !ases the waitin' ;an obvios !ase o, the se o, the devi!e o,
retardation o, a!tion= ends with the !ommission o, the !rime$
The !riminal lets loose a snake$ The snake !rawls alon' the strin' ,rom
the ventilator$ Holmes strikes at the snake. and shortly a,terwards a s!ream
is heard$ Holmes and his assistants rn into the adja!ent room9
It was a sin'lar si'ht whi!h met or eyes$ On the table stood a dark lantern with
the shtter hal, o4en. throwin' a brilliant beam o, li'ht 4on the iron sa,e. the door o,
whi!h was ajar$ Beside this table. on the wooden !hair. sat %r$ "rimesby Roylott.
!lad in a lon' 'rey dressin'1'own. his bare ankles 4rotrdin' beneath. and his ,eet
thrst into red heelless Trkish sli44ers$ &!ross his la4 lay the short sto!k with the
lon' lash whi!h we had noti!ed drin' the day$ His !hin was !o!ked 4wards. and
his eyes were ,iGed in a dread,l ri'id stare at the !orner o, the !eilin'$ Rond his
brow he had a 4e!liar yellow band. with brownish s4e!kles. whi!h seemed to be
bond ti'htly rond his head$ &s we entered he made neither sond nor motion$
HThe bandM the s4e!kled bandMH whis4ered Holmes$
The 4ie!es all be'in to ,all into 4la!e9 the band on the ,a!e and ,inally
the lash im4rovised ,rom the loo4 that had been sed$ Here is HolmesEs
analysis9
HI had.H said he$ H!ome to an entirely erroneos !on!lsion. whi!h shows. my
dear Fatson. how dan'eros it always is to reason ,rom ins,,i!ient data$ The
4resen!e o, the 'i4sies. and the se o, the word Eband.E whi!h was sed by the 4oor
'irl no dobt to eG4lain the aearan! whi!h she had !a'ht a horrid 'lim4se o, by
116 Theory of Prose
be!ame !lear to me that whatever dan'er threatened an o!!4ant o, the room !old
not !ome either ,rom the window or the door$ <y attention was s4eedily drawn. as I
have already remarked to yo. to this ventilator. and to the bell1ro4e whi!h hn'
down to the bed$ The dis!overy that this was a dmmy. and that the bed was
!lam4ed to the ,loor. instantly 'ave rise to the ss4i!ion that the ro4e was there as a
brid'e ,or somethin' 4assin' thro'h the hole. and !omin' to the bed$ The idea o, a
snake instantly o!!rred to me. and when I !o4led it with my knowled'e that the
%o!tor was ,rnished with a s44ly o, !reatres ,rom India. I ,elt that I was 4robably
on the ri'ht tra!k$ The idea o, sin' a ,orm o, 4oison whi!h !old not 4ossibly be
dis!overed by any !hemi!al test was jst s!h a one as wold o!!r to a !lever and
rthless man who had had an Eastern trainin'$ The ra4idity with whi!h s!h a
4oison wold take e,,e!t wold also. ,rom his 4oint o, view. be an advanta'e$ It
wold be a shar41eyed !oroner indeed who !old distin'ish the two little dark
4n!tres whi!h wold show where the 4oison ,an's had done their work$ Then I
tho'ht o, the whistle$ O, !orse. he mst re!all the snake be,ore the mornin' li'ht
revealed it to the vi!tim$ He had trained it. 4robably by the se o, the milk whi!h we
saw. to retrn to him when smmoned$ He wold 4t it thro'h the ventilator at the
hor that he tho'ht best. with the !ertainty that it wold !rawl down the ro4e. and
land on the bed$ It mi'ht or mi'ht not bite the o!!4ant. 4erha4s she mi'ht es!a4e
every ni'ht ,or a week. bt sooner or later she mst ,all a vi!tim$
HI had !ome to these !on!lsions be,ore ever I had entered his room$ &n ins4e!1
tion o, his !hair showed me that he had been in the habit o, standin' on it. whi!h. o,
!orse. wold be ne!essary in order that he shold rea!h the ventilator$ The si'ht o,
the sa,e. the sa!er o, milk. and the loo4 o, whi4!ord were eno'h to ,inally dis4el
any dobts whi!h may have remained$ The metalli! !lan' heard by <iss Stoner was
obviosly !ased by her ,ather hastily !losin' the door o, his sa,e 4on its terrible
o!!4ant$H
O, !orse all these devi!es are masked to one de'ree or another$ Every
novel assres s o, its reality$ It is a !ommon 4ra!ti!e ,or every writer to
!om4are his story with Hliteratre$H
In PshkinEs +uslan and "yudmila #ydmila not only eats the ,rits in
-hernomorEs 'arden. bt she eats them while violatin' literary tradition9
HShe tho'ht abot it and be'an eatin'$H
&ll the more so is this a44li!able to a dete!tive novel. whi!h tries to 4ass
itsel, o,, as a do!ment$
Fatson says9
I walked down to the station with them. and then wandered thro'h the streets o,
the little town. ,inally retrnin' to the hotel. where I lay 4on the so,a and tried to
interest mysel, in a yellow1ba!ked novel$ The 4ny 4lot o, the story was so thin.
however. when !om4ared to the dee4 mystery thro'h whi!h we were 'ro4in'. and I
,ond my attention wander so !onstantly ,rom the ,i!tion to the ,a!t. that I at last
,ln' it a!ross the room. and 'ave mysel, 4 entirely to a !onsideration o, the events
o, the day$ ;HThe Bos!ombe Valley <ysteryH=
To this devi!e o, Hmake1believeH also belon' ;a= an allsion to other
matters not ordinarily 4art o, ,i!tion and ;b= s''estions that the 4bli!ation
of a given novel has been made 4ossible de to the death o, a !ertain woman$
Sherloc0 /olmes and the %ystery Story 11F
The ran'e o, ty4es in -onan %oyle is very limited$ O, !orse. i, we are to
jd'e by the athorEs world renown. then 4erha4s he had no need ,or s!h
diversity$ From the stand4oint o, te!hni?e. the devi!es em4loyed by
-onan %oyle in his stories are. o, !orse. sim4ler than the devi!es we ,ind
in other En'lish mystery novels$ On the other hand. they show 'reater
!on!entration$
-rime and its !onse?en!es all bt dominate the dete!tive novel. while in
Rad!li,,e and %i!kens we always ,ind des!ri4tions o, natre. 4sy!holo'i!al
analyses. and so on$ -onan %oyle rarely 'ives s a lands!a4e and. when he
does o,,er it. it is sally to remind s that natre is 'ood while man is evil$
The 'eneral s!hema o, -onan %oyleEs stories is as ,ollows9
($ &nti!i4ation. !onversation !on!ernin' 4revios !ases. analysis$
:$ The a44earan!e o, the !lient$ The bsiness 4art o, the story$
0$ -les introd!ed into the story$ The most im4ortant !les
take the
,orm o, se!ondary ,a!ts. whi!h are 4resented in s!h a way that the reader
does not noti!e them$ In addition. the athor s44lies s with material ,or a
,alse resoltion$
2$ Fatson misinter4rets these !les$
A$ & tri4 to the site o, the !rime. whi!h very ,re?ently has not
even been
!ommitted yet$ By this devi!e. the story attains narrative vi'or$ The !rime
story is thereby in!or4orated into the dete!tive novel$ Eviden!e 'athered at
the s!ene o, the !rime$
C$ The o,,i!ial dete!tive o,,ers a ,alse resoltion$ I, there is no
o,,i!ial
dete!tive. then the ,alse resoltion is ,rnished by a news4a4er. by a vi!tim$
or by Sherlo!k Holmes himsel,$
B$ The interval is ,illed in by the re,le!tions o, Fatson. who has
no idea
what is 'oin' on$ Sherlo!k Holmes is smokin' or else listenin' to msi!$
Sometimes he !lassi,ies the ,a!ts by 'ro4s withot ha5ardin' a de,initive
!on!lsion$
/$ The denoement is ,or the most 4art neG4e!ted$ For the
denoement.
%oyle makes ,re?ent se o, an attem4ted !rime$
)$ &nalysis o, the ,a!ts made by Sherlo!k Holmes$
This s!hema was not !reated by -onan %oyle. altho'h it was not stolen
by him. either$ It is !alled ,orth by the very essen!e o, the story$ #et s
!om4are it brie,ly with HThe "old B'H by Ed'ar &llan Poe$ ;I assme this
work is well known$ I, one o, yo readers does not know o, it. then I !on1
'ratlate yo on the 4ros4e!t o, readin' another 'ood story$= I mysel, shall
analy5e this story so as not to miss ot on the 4leasre9
($ EG4osition9 a des!ri4tion o, a ,riend$
:$ & !han!e dis!overy o, a do!ment$ The ,riend !alls the
4rota'onistEs
attention to its re'erse side$ ;& !ommon eno'h devi!e even ,or Sherlo!k
Holmes$=
0$ <ysterios a!tions !ommitted by ,riends. related by a
@e'ro
;Fatson=$
2$ & sear!h ,or the treasre$ Failre de to an error on the 4art o, the
117 Theory of Prose
@e'ro$ ;The sal devi!e o, brakin' the 4a!e o, the a!tion$ Com"are the
,alse resoltion$=
A$ The dis!overy o, the treasre$
C$ The ,riendEs story with an analysis o, the ,a!ts$
Everyone intent on stdyin' the role o, 4lot str!tres in #ussian litera-
ture shold 4ay !lose attention to -onan %oyleEs se o, !les and to the way
the denoement emer'es ot o, them$
-hapter 7
%i!kens and the <ystery @ovel
Everyone who has ever worked on riddles has 4robably had o!!asion
to noti!e that a riddle sally allows not one bt several soltions$ A
riddle is not merely a parallelism one part of :hich has been omitted.
+ather it plays :ith the possibility of establishin5 a number of parallel
structures.
I
This is es4e!ially noti!eable in eroti! riddles$
In eroti! riddles. 4lay is evident in the dis4la!ement o, an inde!ent ima'e
by a de!ent one$ In this 4ro!ess. the ,irst ima'e is not eliminated bt sim4ly
re4ressed$
%$ Savodnikov makes the ,ollowin' observation !on!ernin' his riddle
nmber (*:8
@early all o, the riddles havin' to do with a lo!k and a key are very ambi'os$
and !ertain ones !old not be admitted into this antholo'y$ The nmber o, s!h
riddles is ?ite lar'e. and we may boldly state that they are amon' those that are
most widely known$ -hildren tell these riddles withot inhibitions$ Yon' lads tell
them with la'hter. women and 'irls tell them in a whis4er only$ The latter !ase.
however. is rare eG!e4t ,or the kind o, riddle where everythin' is !alled by its own
name bt ,rom whi!h. as in a son'. the word has not been dis!arded$ Instead. the
storyteller warns his adien!e that the riddle is 4oorly told$ The ,ondation ,or many
o, those riddles is most likely ,ormed by mythi! !on!e4ts and 4arallels. whi!h have
lost today their si'ni,i!an!e and meanin'$
IEm in total disa'reement with the latter assertion$ &t any rate. the
ne!essity ,or s!h a hy4othesis is not evident ,rom the eGam4les above$
& s4e!ial ty4e o, riddle is re4resented by a riddle with a sin'le soltion o,
the Samson ty4e9 HFrom a 4oisonos thin' emer'es 4oison and ,rom the
stron' emer'es a sweet thin'$H
In these riddles the soltion is sally 4rovided by a sin'le obje!t known
only to the storyteller$ In ,airy tales s!h a riddle. bein' the most di,,i!lt. is
sally 4osed as the third in a series. or else it serves as an anti4honal riddle$
&t times it is resolved not by a verbal res4onse bt with a showin' o, the
obje!t$ In &ndersen ,or eGam4le. the ?eenEs ,irst ?estion as to Hwhat am I
thinkin' abotH is answered by the sitor when he shows her the !ho44ed1
o,, head o, a troll$
Sometimes the riddle 4ro!ess be'ins with jst s!h a riddle$ Ivan the Fool
4oses the ,ollowin' riddle9
11; Theory of Prose
HI was ridin' on my ,ather. sittin' on my mother. dire!tin' ray brother. and
!hasin' my sister$H The soltion to the riddle9 H<y ,ather 'ave me a horse. and so I
rode my ,ather$ The saddle was 4aid ,or with my motherEs money and the bridle was
4aid with my brotherEs money. and the ridin' !ro4 was 4aid ,or with my sisterEs
money$H )#elo=ero Tales no$ B/=
& similar ty4e o, story abot a sin'le e4isode is 4resented by the riddle o,
SolomonEs wi,e9 HIEm sittin' on the em4eror bt lookin' at the kin'$H
In the well1known nomadi! 4lot HThe Em4eror and the &bbot.H the kin'
asks the third ?estion. HFhat am I thinkin' abotLH to whi!h the res4on1
dent ;a tea!her. worker. or 4salm1reader= says9 HYo think yoEre addressin'
someone. bt in reality yo are talkin' to some thin5.H O, the three tasks.
the third has a sin'le soltion [,alse sbstittion=$
S!h a riddle. by its very essen!e. does not admit a soltion$ ThereEs no
way to 'ess at its meanin'$ There is no ,alse riddle in it$ It is inter4reted
a'ainst the ba!k'rond o, the sal riddle$
One riddle o, this ty4e is already known to s$ This is the riddle abot the
horse that was bo'ht with 4a4aEs money$
#et me o,,er a se!ond riddle9
Fell. a,ter s4endin' the ni'ht at home. Ivan resolved to tell riddles a'ain$ Be,ore
doin' so. Ivan. son o, a 4easant. washed himsel, with the sweat o, a horse. dried
himsel,withthemaneo,ahorse and went o,, to meet her$ She asks9 HSo why did yo
!ome. to tell riddles or to solve themLH HTo tell riddles.H said Ivan9 HI sat on a horse.
washed mysel, bt not with the dew nor with water. and then dried mysel, bt not
with silk nor with a 4ie!e o, !loth$H <artha the ?een was at a loss ,or words$
The se!ond 4art ,ollows with riddles o, a totally di,,erent natre$
I wold like to !all yor attention to the ni?e !hara!ter o, the ,irst 4art
o, the riddle above$ It is not to be ,ond in riddle books$ S!h riddles remind
s o, &rmenian riddles. whi!h also do not admit o, a soltion and whi!h
have srvived in the !ontem4orary oral tradition$ These riddles are nder1
stood a'ainst the ba!k'rond o, the !onventional riddle with a soltion$
Story Based on Error
&s IEve already said. the sim4lest ,orm o, 4lot !onstr!tion is based on a j
4ro'ressive or ste41by1ste4 develo4ment$ In s!h a develo4ment. ea!h 7
s!!eedin' ste4 is distin'ished ,rom the 4re!edin' one both in ?ality and
?antity$ Ste41by1ste4 !onstr!tion sally reslts in a !ir!lar str!tre$
#et s take. ,or eGam4le. Around the $orld in Ii5hty Days by Kles
Verne$ Bilt on de'rees o, adventre. it is a !ir!lar story involvin' an error
o, one day lost when !rossin' the international date line$
In adventre novels the !ir!lar story is very o,ten bilt on re!o'nition$
In ?il #ias one o, the stories serves as a denoement$ It is not distin1
'ished in its str!tre ,rom the others$ Rather. the sense o, the end is
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 11B
a!hieved in this novel by the !han'e in the writerEs attitde towards his hero$
&t the end o, the novel we see "il Bias [as was tre o, #a5arillo in the earlier
4i!ares?e novel "a=arillo of Tornies* married. settled. and evidently
de!eived$ The athor introd!es a note o, irony into his relationshi4 with his
hero$
<!h more ,re?ently. an error. s!h as the one at the heart o, Kles
VerneEs novel above. be!omes the basis ,or a ,ramin' story$ For the sake o,
sim4li!ity. let s ,irst eGamine the HerrorH in the story. and then the HerrorH
in the novel$
& 'reat nmber o, stories are bilt on Herrors$
((
#et s take an eGam4le ,rom the story o, -hekhov9
?i'en. Both 4riests and so!ialists wear their hair lon'$
Tas0. -on,se their identities$
%oti'ation. The bathhose$
In <a4assant. 'enine 4re!ios stones be!ome miGed 4 with !onter1
,eit ones$ Two 4ossibilities arise9
;(= The !onter,eit jewelry is mistaken ,or 'enine$ This is the
story o,
\EThe @e!kla!e$H & yon' woman borrows a ne!kla!e ,rom her ,emale
,riend only to lose it$ She 4r!hases a similar ne!kla!e on !redit and retrns
it$ She then s?anders her yoth in an attem4t to 4ay o,, the debt$ It trns
ot that the ne!kla!e that she had borrowed ,rom her ,riend was !onter,eit$
;:= The 'enine 4re!ios stones are mistaken ,or !onter,eit ones$
This is
the !ase o, HKewels$H & man and his wi,e are livin' ha44ily$ The wi,e s,,ers
,rom one de,e!t9 a love ,or !ostme jewelry$ The wi,e dies$ @eedin' them.
the hsband de!ides to sell the jewelry ,or a son'$ They trn ot to be the
real thin'$ She was 4aid ,or her in,idelities with them$
In ,olklore we o,ten ,ind that a son mistakes his mother and ,ather. whom
he has ,ond in his bed. ,or his wi,e and her lover$ He then kills them ;the
le'end o, Klian=$ In -hekhov. a hsband lands in someone elseEs room and
mistakes the slee4in' residents ,or his wi,e and her lover$
Elsewhere. a brother. a son. or a hsband are taken ,or lovers$
In love one seeks to !on?er while another resists$ The same holds ,or the
battle,ield. ,rom whi!h we 'et the sal ima'e o, the battle o, the seGes9
Oh stair!aseM Yo shall be the 4ath$ &lon'
whi!h my Romeo. handsome and ,air$ Intends to
walk in the ni'hl to or marria'e bed$ "ive me
!onselM How am I to win this battle$ In whi!h I
mst lose my !hastity$
This very same moti, a44ears in #!retisV De re rum natura and in
&4leisE The ?olden Ass.
& reverse meta4hor is !ommon in ,olk 4oetry9 the battle,ield is !om4ared
to love or to a weddin' ;see The Son5 of I5or(s -ampai5n*.
Peo4le ?arrel whether in love or war$ It is 4ossible to !reate 4arallels$ In
<a4assant. a 4arallel is 'iven as a mistake$ This is the short story HThe
13> Theory of Prose
-rime o, "ood Dn!le Bonnard$H The old man mistakes the ?arrelin'
newlyweds ,or mrderers$
& woman mi'ht ,ind hersel, aslee4 with her own !hildren$ This is the
basis ,or the ,ollowin' !ase o, non1re!o'nition9
He arrives at his dwellin'$ He looks thro'h the little windows lo!ated at the ed'e
o, the 4ie!e o, land$ & woman is slee4in' with two yon' ones by her side neGt to a
,riend$ He takes ot a sword and is intent on !ttin' their heads o,,$ HThreaten all
yo want bt do not strike me$H He raises his hand threatenin'ly bt withot strikin'
and enters his dwellin'$ He wakes 4 his wi,e and son. bt she does not re!o'ni5e
him$ He says9 HHoney1dove. how many hsbands do yo haveLH She says. HThese
are my sons$H ;,rom the same On!hkov (AA. HIvan the Dn,ortnate OneH=
-omin' home to his wi,e. the hsband sees her aslee4 with some yon'
man$ It is his own son$
In this way. the stories ,onded on error are similar to stories ,onded on
4ns$ & 4n is bilt on the !stomary meanin' o, a word. to whi!h is added a
new meanin' and a jsti,i!ation ,or jmblin' them 4$
The motivation ,or both !onsists in the 4resen!e o, a verbal si'n that is
shared by two distin!t !on!e4ts$
In the story based on error the !on,sion o, two 'iven !on!e4ts is
motivated by an eGternal resemblan!e in !ir!mstan!e that involves an
ambi'os inter4retation$
&t bottom this is a mystery story and is there,ore to be distin'ished ,rom
the story based on 4arallelism$
The latter variety is ty4i!al. as IEve already said. o, <a4assant$
Story Based on Parallelism
In a story bilt on 4arallel str!tre. we are dealin' with a !om4arison o,
two obje!ts$
For eGam4le. the destiny o, a woman is !om4ared with the destiny o, a
,emale do' or with the destiny o, a doe thatEs been beaten. et!$ This !om1
4arison is sally develo4ed in two se'ments. in two inde4endent stories. as
it were. nited o,ten only by the 4resen!e o, a sin'le narrator or by the 4la!e
o, a!tion$
There is no need ,or eGam4les$ @early the entire body o, <a4assantEs
shorter ,i!tion !learly illstrates this 4rin!i4le o, !onstr!tion$
In the mystery story and mystery novel. on the other hand. weEre dealin'
not with a !om4arison o, obje!ts bt with the dis4la!ement o, one obje!t by j
another$
Fhen a story is eG4anded into a novel. the moment o, denoement
in!reasin'ly loses its meanin'$ Parallel str!tre holds dominan!e over
the str!tre bilt on interse!tin' 4lot lines$
The 4ossibility o, eGtendin' the denoement while sstainin' the mystery
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 131
has led to the ,a!t that mystery stories. in !ontrast to stories bilt on 4ns.
are o,ten !hosen as a ,ramin' devi!e$
In the history o, the mystery novel. the denoement has 'radally lost its
si'ni,i!an!e. be!omin' awkward. hardly noti!ed and s4er,los$
This te!hni?e o, the mystery novel is o44osed by the novel based on a
4rely 4arallel str!tre. where the athor does not resort to the devi!e o,
entan'lement$
Fhile %ostoevsky had re!orse in his 4lots to the te!hni?e o, the
mystery novel. Tolstoi 4re,erred 4re 4arallelism$
Even in !hoosin' a ,ramin' story. Tolstoi ado4ted a 4arallel str!tre
based on a 4aradoGi!al !orrelation between one member o, a 4arallelism
and another$ For eGam4le. let s look at /adMt-%umd.
The tale be'ins with a des!ri4tion o, a ,ield$ The narrator is 'atherin'
,lowers ,or a bo?et$ The tem4o is leisrely on 4r4ose9
I had 'athered a lar'e bo?et o, ,lowers o, all sorts and was now walkin' home
when I noti!ed a wonder,l !rimson brdo!k in ,ll bloom at the bottom o, a dit!h$ It
belon'ed to the s4e!ies !alled amon'st s the Tartar whi!h 4eo4le 'o to 'reat 4ains
to !t down$ Fhen it is inadvertently !t down. it is thrown ot o, the hay wa'on by the
mowers lest they 4ri!k their Fin'ers on it$ Fell. it o!!rred to me that I mi'ht want to
4i!k this ,lower and 4la!e it in the very !enter o, my bo?et$ I lowered mysel, into the
dit!h and !hased away a ,rry bmblebee whi!h had ,allen into a sweet and sl''ish
slee4 within the arms o, a ,lower$ I then set ot to 'et at the ,lower$ However. this
wasnEt easy$ &s i, it werenEt eno'h that the stalk 4ri!ked and stabbed my hand on all
sides a,ter I had wra44ed it in a handker!hie,>it was so in!redibly stron' that even
a,ter ,ive whole mintes and many a ,ilament ri44ed o,,. I was still str''lin' with it$
Fhen I had ,inally mana'ed to 4l!k the ,lower. the stalk was literally in 4ie!es. and
the ,lower no lon'er seemed that ,resh and beati,l$ Besides. on a!!ont o, its !oarse
and dis,i'red state. it was no lon'er sitable ,or a bo?et o, deli!ate ,lowers$ I ,elt
sorry that I had njstly destroyed this ,lower whi!h had looked so handsome in its
4la!e. so I threw it away$ H&nd yet$ what ener'y. what sheer tena!ity.H I tho'ht to
mysel,. as I re!alled the e,,orts whi!h I had eG4ended in 4l!kin' this ,lower$ How
,ier!ely it de,ended itsel,. how dearly it made me 4ay ,or its li,e$
The narrator sees the shrb on!e a'ain on his way home$
Fhen I a44roa!hed nearer. I re!o'ni5ed in the little shrb that same Tartar whose
,lower I had so njstly 4l!ked and abandoned$ The Tartar shrb !onsisted o, three
shoots$ One had been torn o,,$ with the disabled bo'h 4rotrdin' ,rom its base like
an arm whose hand has been ha!ked o,,$ One lonely ,lower remained standin' on
ea!h o, the other shoots$ These ,lowers had on!e been red and were now bla!k$ One
stalk. broken. droo4ed towards the 'rond. and the soiled ,lower han'in' on its ti4
bent alon' with it$ The third stalk. altho'h smeared with ri!h bla!k md$ still
mana'ed to 4rotrde 4ward$ Yo !old see that the whole shrb had been rn over
had been 'o'ed$ &nd still it stands. re,sin' to srrender to the hman bein' who
had sn,,ed ot the li,e o, its siblin's all arond him$
133 Theory of Prose
HFhat ener'y$H I tho'ht to mysel,$ H<an has !on?ered everythin'$ He has laid
low and destroyed millions o, shrbs and yet this shrb re,ses to srrender to him$H
&nd I re!alled a re!ent in!ident ,rom the -a!ass. 4art o, whi!h I had witnessed
with my own eyes. 4art o, whi!h I had 'athered ,rom an eyewitness and 4art o, whi!h
s4ran' ot o, my own ima'ination $ $ $ Here is that story and how it !ame to be$
Fhat ,ollows is the story o, Hadji1<rad !overin' a44roGimately three
hndred 4rinted 4a'es and ,ollowed by the !on!ldin' hal, o, the ,ramin'
devi!e9 HHis death reminded me o, the brdo!k !rshed in the middle o, the
4lowed ,ield$H
The !orrelation between the 4arts ,ormin' this 4arti!lar 4arallel str!1
tre is most nsal$ This 4arallelism is nevertheless very m!h ,elt thanks
to TolstoiEs des!ri4tion o, the brdo!k and thanks also to the 4lay on words
;brdo!k T Tartar=$ The !on!ldin' 4art o, the 4arallel is deliberately
sim4le$ Yet$ it e,,e!tively re!a4itlates the 4rin!i4al elements o, the
4arallel9 one brdo!k stbbornly holdin' ot amidst a 4lowed ,ield. one last
n!om4romisin' -ir!assian amidst his 4a!i,ied !om4atriots$ The stbborn
str''le ,or eGisten!e is not re4eated. bt its 4resen!e !an be ,elt$
The <ystery @ovel
In &nn Rad!li,,e. one o, the ,onders o, the mystery novel. the mysteries
are !onstr!ted in the ,ollowin' way9
The heroine lands in a !astle where she ,inds a hal,1de!om4osed !or4se
behind a !rtain$ Fhile a44aritions roam thro'h the !astle. someone
s4eaks thro'h the !onversations o, drnken !tthroats. et!$ &t the end o,
the novel. at the denoement. we dis!over that the !or4se was really made
o, waG and had been 4la!ed there by the !ontEs 4rede!essor. the 4ro4rietor.
by order o, the 4o4e. as a ,orm o, 4enan!e$ The mysterios voi!e trns ot
to belon' to a 4risoner. who had been wanderin' thro'h the !astle by
makin' se o, se!ret 4assa'eways. et!$
&s yo !an see. these eG4lanations are only 4artially satis,a!tory. as one
o, Rad!li,,eEs !ontem4oraries said$
In the se!ond 4art o, the novel. the story be'ins all over a'ain$ & new
!astle. new mysterios voi!es$ Sbse?ently. we learn that these are the
voi!es o, sm''lers$ The !astle is en'l,ed in msi!$ It trns ot that this
msi! was 4layed at the time by a nn. et!$
I shall not attem4t to list all o, Rad!li,,eEs se!rets. sin!e I do not have her
book at hand$
-riosly. these mysteries initially 4resent ,alse res oltions ;as in
%i!kens. ,or instan!e=$ Fe o,ten ss4e!t somethin' ,ar more Ro,rible than
we a!tally ,ind$ For eGam4le. in the se!ond 4art o, the novel. the athor
s''ests in no n!ertain terms the idea o, in!est$ The whole a,,air n,olds by
means o, inde!ent son's with their inde!ent rhymes. takin' the ,orm. ,or
instan!e. o, the !elebrated bt rarely !ited son' entitled HIn Ino44Es Sho4.
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 134
and so on$ !on!ldin' with the soltion9 H%onEt think the worst$ $ $ yellow
'loves$H
I wold like to remind the reader that this devi!e. as IEve already 4ointed
ot. is !anoni!al ,or Rssian ,olk riddles o, the ty4e9 HIt han's. swin's ba!k
and ,orth$ Everybody tries to 'et his hands on it$H The soltion9 HItEs a
towel$H
Fhen solvin' these riddles. the storyteller sally introd!es a 4ase
s''estin' the H,alse$H obs!ene soltion$ #et me o,,er an eGam4le o, how
s!h a riddle evolves into a 4lot ;,rom Tales and Son5s of the #elo=ero
+e5ion re!orded by Boris and Yri Sokolov=$
The H
#
bylitsaH or tre story 4resented below was re!orded by an old
woman. re!ordin' no$ (0($ This bylitsa is o, interest to s be!ase the
moment o, ,alse resoltion is !learly observable in it$ Its !ontent is a 'ame o,
riddles9
There on!e was a yon' tailor who 4osed the ,ollowin' riddle9 H& !row has
lived two years$ So what ha44ens neGtLH I answer him9 HEHeEll live another year$H
The tailor brsts ot la'hin' at my 'ess$ I then 4ose my own riddle to the tailor
H& man has no trade or o!!4ation. a woman is !overed with ve'etation$H The
yon' tailor thinks o, the worst !ase 4ossible$ @o one seems to 'ess$ So I tell them9
HOn the stri4 o, land even bshes ?i!kly 'row. on the stri4 o, land. on <other .
Earth$H E
8
E
&nd so we see that the ,alse soltion is a very !ommon element in the S
mystery story or mystery novel$ The ,alse soltion is a tre soltion and I ;E
4rovides the te!hni?e or'ani5in' the mystery$ The moment o, transition j
,rom one soltion to another is the moment o, the denoement$ The inter1
3 relationshi4 o, the 4arts !om4osin' the mystery is similar to that in 4lots
$P,onded on 4ns$ pM -hara!teristi! o, the mystery ty4e is its kinshi4 with
the devi!e o, inver1
$ sion. that is. rearran'ement$
.$*V This ty4e o, mystery novel is sally re4resented by a story in reverse
r ;i$e$. in whi!h the eG4osition o, the 4resent state o, a,,airs is ,ollowed by an
a!!ont o, what has 4re!eded it=$ Fe have a 'ood eGam4le o, this in the V
se!ret o, the !lo!ks in "ittle Dorril the mystery o, the doble. and so on$ P
On the other hand. the se!ret o, the hose and the se!ret o, %orritEs love ,or
-lennam and o, -lennamEs love ,or <innie is !onstr!ted withot the E aR1 se
o, inversion$ Here the mystery is !reated by means o, the eG4osition$ & ,a!tal
leitmoti, and a meta4hori!al leitmoti, ,orm a 4arallel$ Fhere. however. the
mysteries are bilt on a trans4osition o, !ase and e,,e!t.. s!h a 4arallel is
a!hieved by introd!in' a ,alse soltion$ \ EE (*PJ 8$ E The or'ani5ation o,
the mystery is very !rios in %i!kensEsjast novel$
P K
(
$ P C R R 9 R R R
h td t
fa
Aur %utual ,riend.
The ,irst se!ret is the se!ret o, Kohn Rokesmith$ The athor 4retends to
!on!eal ,rom s the ,a!t that Kohn Rokesmith is none other than Kohn
Harmon$ The se!ond se!ret is Bo,,inEs se!ret$ Fe see how wealth has
I
136 Theory of Prose
s4oiled the H"olden %stman.H and we do not know that Bo,,in is 4llin'
or le'$ %i!kens himsel, says that he never intended to !on!eal RokesmithEs
real name ,rom the reader$
The mystery o, Kohn Harmon is a dead end$ It does not lead s to a sol1
tion o, the mystery or even hel4 s to noti!e Bo,,inEs se!ret$ The te!hni!al
a44arats o, this novel is eG!eedin'ly !om4leG$
& dire!t heir o, the mystery novel is re4resented by the dete!tive novel in
whi!h the dete!tive is none other than a 4ro,essional solver o, mysteries$
& mystery is 4resented ;e$'$. a !rime=$ This is ,ollowed sally by a ,alse
soltion. ,or eGam4le. investi'ation by the 4oli!e$ Then. the mrder is
eG4osed in its tre li'ht$ In a work o, this ty4e. inversion is mandatory.
involvin' at times. in its more !om4leG ,orms. the omission o, individal
elements$
S!h is the str!tre ;sans dete!tive= o, the mystery in The #rothers
<arama=o'. For a more detailed analysis o, the te!hni?e o, the mystery$ I
have !hosen "ittle Dorrit by %i!kens$
"ittle Dorrit
Str!trally$ %i!kensEs novel moves simltaneosly on several 4lanes o,
a!tion$ The !onne!tion between the 4arallels is established either by involv1
in' the !hara!ters o, one 4lot line in the a!tions o, another 4lot line or by
stationin' them in the same 4la!e$ Ths. we dis!over that the 4rota'onists
live within 4roGimity to ea!h other$ So ,or eGam4le -lennam lives in the
hosin' area !alled Bleedin' Heart Yard. the home also o, Hthe 4atriar!hH
and the Italian Kohn Ba4tist$ The story line of "ittle Dorrit !onsists o, the
,ollowin'9 ;(= the love between %orrit and -lennam$ ;:= the !omin' into
wealth and the sbse?ent rin o, the %orrits$ and ;0= the bla!kmail attem4t
by Ri'ad. who threatens to eG4ose <rs$ -lennam$
Bt a novel o, this sort !an only be told ,rom the end$ Fhile weEre readin'
the novel. we have be,ore s a whole series o, mysteries. not the least o,
whi!h are the relationshi4s amon' the 4rota'onists whi!h are also 4resented
as mysteries$ These mysteries are then interwoven with ea!h other$ Fe
may distin'ish the ,ollowin' mysteries whi!h rn thro'h the entire work9
($ The mystery o, the !lo!k$
:$ The mystery o, the dreams$
These are the ,ndamental mysteries$ They ,rame the 4lot bt are in
essen!e nresolved$
0$ The mystery o, Pan!ks ;inheritan!e=$ This mystery is o,
a 4artial
natre. that is. it does not rn thro'h the entire novel$ It brin's abot an
ine?ality between -lennam and %orrit$ It is based on an inversion$
2$ The mystery o, <erdle 4layin' a similarly sbsidiary role$
A$ The mystery o, noises in the hose$ It 4re4ares the
denoement o, the
,irst two se!rets$
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 13F
C$ The mystery o, the love o, %orrit and -lennam$ It belon's to the
!entral 4lot. bt in its te!hni?e it re4resents the de4loyment o, a ne'ative
4arallelism$
($ The Se!ret o, the Fat!h
-hapters 9/ome9. &rthr -lennam makes an a44earan!e at his motherEs
hose$ Be,ore s we see two or three books. a handker!hie,. steel1rimmed
'lasses. a massive old1,ashioned 'old wat!h with a doble !ase$ Both
mother and son are starin' simltaneosly at the 'old wat!h9
HI see that yo re!eived the 4a!ket I sent yo on my ,atherEs death. sa,ely.
mother$H
HYo see$H
H I never knew my ,ather to show so m!h anGiety on any sbje!t. as that his wat!h
shold be sent strai'ht to yo$H
HI kee4 it here as a remembran!e o, yor ,ather$H
HIt was not ntil the last. that he eG4ressed the wish$ Fhen he !old only 4t his
hand 4on it. and very indistin!tly say to me Eyor mother$E & moment be,ore. I
tho'ht him wanderin' in his mind. as he had been ,or many hors>I think he had
no !ons!iosness o, 4ain in his short illness>when I saw him trn himsel, in his bed
and try to o4en it$H
HFas yor ,ather. then. not wanderin' in his mind when he tried to o4en itLH
H@o$ He was ?ite sensible at that time$H
<rs$ -lennam shook her head8 whether in dismissal o, the de!eased or o44osin'
hersel, to her sonEs o4inion. was not !learly eG4ressed$
H&,ter my ,atherEs death I o4ened it mysel,. thinkin' there mi'ht be. ,or anythin' (
knew. some memorandm there$ However. as I need not tell yo. mother. there was
nothin' bt the old silk wat!h14a4er worked in beads. whi!h yo ,ond ;no dobt= in
its 4la!e between the !ases. where I ,ond and le,t it$H
-hapter A. 9,amily Affairs9. Fe ,ind the ,ollowin'9
HI want to ask yo. mother. whether it ever o!!rred to yo to ss4e!t>H
&t the word Ss4e!t. she trned her eyes momentarily 4on her son. with a dark
,rown$ She then s,,ered them to seek the ,ire. as be,ore9 bt with the ,rown ,iGed
above them. as i, the s!l4tor o, old E'y4t had indented it in the hard 'ranite ,a!e. to
,rown ,or a'es$
H>that he had any se!ret remembran!e whi!h !ased him troble o, mind>
remorseL Fhether yo ever observed anythin' in his !ond!t s''estin' that8 or
ever s4oke to him 4on it. or ever heard him hint at s!h a thin'LH
HI do not nderstand what kind o, se!ret remembran!e yo mean to in,er that yor
,ather was a 4rey to$H she retrned. a,ter a silen!e$ HYo s4eak so mysteriosly$H
HIs it 4ossible. mother$H her son leaned ,orward to be the nearer to her while he
whis4ered it. and laid his hand nervosly 4on her desk. His it 4ossible. mother. that
he had nha44ily wron'ed any one. and made no re4arationLH
#ookin' at him wrath,lly. she bent hersel, ba!k in her !hair to kee4 him ,rther
o,,. bt 'ave him no re4ly$
137 Theory of Prose
\\I am dee4ly sensible. mother. that i, this tho'ht has never at any time ,lashed
4on yo. it mst seem !rel and nnatral in me$ even in this !on,iden!e. to breathe
it Bt I !annot shake it o,,$ Time and !han'e ;I have tried both be,ore breakin'
.<on<l Hn nnthino to wear it ot$ Remember$ I was with mv ,aihPr R4m]$m.$$$ i
$$$$$ 11111111111111111111111111o1 1 \11\$ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$111111111111111E# -----------1o4iniimaii
have. the stron'er the !ir!mstan!es that !old 'ive it any semblan!e o, 4robability
to me$ For HeavenEs sake. let s eGamine sa!redly whether there is any wron'
entrsted to s to set ri'ht$ @o one !an hel4 towards it$ mother. bt yo$H
Towards the end o, the !ha4ter. %i!kens hints that this mystery may have
somethin' to do with the little seamstress of "ittle Dorrit.
-hapter 3B 9%rs. ,lint:inch ?oes on Dreamin59. The riddle o, the
wat!h !ontines to be tan'led 4 with the riddle o, #ittle %orrit$ #ittle
%orrit tells the story o, her li,e to &rthrEs mother9
HHYes$ maEam8 indeed it is$ I have been here many a time when. bt ,or yo and the
work yo 'ave me. we shold have wanted everythin'$H
HFe.H re4eated <rs$ -lennam. lookin' towards the wat!h. on!e her dead
hsbandEs $ $ $
-hapter 4> 9The $ord of a ?entleman9. Ri'ad a44ears at the hose.
obviosly intent on bla!kmail$ He doesnEt say anythin' dire!tly. bt takes
the wat!h into his hands$ H E& ,ine old1,ashioned wat!h.E he said. takin' it in
his hand.H and so ,orth$
-hapters 9The "oc09. -lennam ima'ines that his mother is s4eakin' to
him9 HHe has de!ayed in his 4rison8 I in mine$ I have 4aid the 4enalty$H
-hapter 1F 9%rs. ,lint:inch /as Another Dream9.
H@one o, yor nonsense with me$H said <r$ Flintwin!h. HI wonEt take it ,rom yo$H
<rs$ Flintwin!h dreamed that she stood behind the door. whi!h wasjst ajar. and
most distin!tly heard her hsband say these bold words$
EHFlintwin!h.H retrned <rs$ -lennam$ in her sal stron' low voi!e. Hthere is a
demon o, an'er in yo$ "ard a'ainst it$H
-hapter34 9%achinery in %otion9. H&lone. a'ain. -lennam be!ame a
4rey to his old dobts in re,eren!e to his mother and #ittle %orrit$ and
revolved the old tho'hts and ss4i!ions$H
@atrally. the riddles are inters4ersed thro'hot the novel rather than
bein' develo4ed thro'hot$ In addition. the novel in!ldes H!ha4ters
des!ri4tive o, manners and li,e.H in whi!h se!rets are sed ,or the 4r4ose
o, bindin' the 4arts$
So. ,or eGam4le. !ha4ters C and B. !ontainin' a des!ri4tion o, the %orrit
hosehold. introd!e no new se!rets$ The !om4ositional role of these
!ha4ters is to im4ede the 4ro'ress o, the novel$ I, we insist on seein' PP
!ha4ters as the !ore o, the novel. then we mst insist also that
the
KdP
a
The ,ll
brnt o, the 4lot when s?ee5ed by the ,ramin' vise o, the n
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 13@
des!ri4tive !ha4ters !on!lde with %i!kensEs sal re!a4itlatin' ima'es.
,or eGam4le. the ima'e o, Hthe shadow o, the wall$H
The -ir!mlo!tions O,,i!e and the Poli4s ,amily are similarly
des!ribed$ These 4arts o, the novel wold have been !alled by Tolstoi
Hdetails$H
#et s now trn to the ,ollowin' riddles$
:$ The Riddle o, the %reams
-hapter 6 9%rs. ,lint:inch /as a Dream9
not yet abed$ That she looked at the !andle she had le,t brnin'. and$ measrin' the
time like kin' &l,red the "reat. was !on,irmed by its wasted state in her belie, that
she had been aslee4 ,or some !onsiderable 4eriod$ That she arose there4on.
m,,led hersel, 4 in her wra44er. 4t on her shoes. and went ot on the stair!ase
m!h sr4rised to look ,or Keremiah
th$ Bt what>heyL>#ord ,or'ive
eja!lation to this e,,e!t. and trned 'iddy$
For. <r. Flintwin!h awake. was wat!hin' <r$ Flintwin!h aslee4$ $ $ $ H&nd all
,riends rond Saint PalEs$H He 3i$e$$ the dobleU em4tied and 4t down the wine1
'lass hal,1way thro'h this an!ient !ivi! toast. and took 4 the boG$
In this way. two mysteries are introd!ed9 ;I= the mystery o, the doble
and ;:= the mystery o, the boG$
The end o, the s!ene is very !rios9 &,,ery remains standin' on the stair 1
!ase. ,ri'htened to s!h an eGtent that she !annot resolve to enter the room9
-onse?ently. when he !ame 4 the stair!ase to bed$ !andle in hand. he !ame ,ll
4on her$ He looked astonished. bt said not a word$ He ke4t his eyes 4on her$ and
ke4t advan!in'8 and she$ !om4letely nder his in,len!e. ke4t retirin' be,ore him$
Ths. she walkin' ba!kward and he walkin' ,orward. they !ame into their own
room$ They were no sooner sht in there. than <r$ Flintwin!h took her by the throat.
and shook her ntil she was bla!k in the ,a!e$
HFhy$ &,,ery$ woman>&,,eryMH said <r$ Flintwin!h$ HFhat have yo been
dreamin' o,L Fake 4$ wake 4M FhatEs the matterLH
Sbse?ently. Flintwin!h tries to !onvin!e his wi,e that she has had a
dream$
-om4ositionally s4eakin'. this is the heart o, the matter$ Some o, the
mysterios s!enes are 4resented by %i!kens with the s4e!ial motivation o,
13; Theory of Prose
eavesdro44in' at ni'ht$ Sin!e the dream resembles reality. a doble
!onstr!tion is there,ore 4ossible. that is. HItEs not reality$ ItEs a dream$H
<eanwhile. the tre sitation is 'iven in a ne'ative ,orm$ I !old better
demonstrate this sitation to yo by eG!er4tin' abot twenty 4a'es ,rom
the novel$ Bt the eG4ense o, 4a4er holds me ba!k$ This !onstr!tion
tili5in' the motivation o, a dream. is ?ite !ommon in literatre$ In ,olk1
lore. ,or eGam4le. it takes the ,ollowin' ,orm9 & yon' 'irl lands in the
hose o, hoodlms. sees them !ommit a mrder and !arries o,, the
!ho44ed1o,, hand o, the vi!tim$ The rin'leader o, this 'an' later 4ro4oses
to the yon' 'irl$ %rin' the weddin'. she tells everythin' she knows$
Everyone is !onvin!ed that she is des!ribin' a dream. bt ,inally she shows
the !ho44ed1o,, hand in her 4ossession$ This moti, also a44ears in 4arodi!
,orm in NhkovskyEs HSvetland.H where the dream really trns ot to be a
dream$V
Sbse?ently. &,,ery !on,irms the ,irst 4art o, %i!kensEs ne'ative
4arallel. that is. that the HdreamH was Hreality$H The role o, the H!t1o,,
handH serves as eviden!e ,or Ri'ad$
-hapter 1F 9%rs. ,lint:inch /as Another Dream9. Her dream
re!ords a !onversation between -lennamEs mother and her servant. <r$
Fiintwin!h$ This !onversation !on!erns !ertain se!rets$
In chapter 4> 9The $ord of a ?entleman 9 the riddle is !on,irmed by
the ,a!t that Ri'ad takes <r$ Flintwin!h ,or someone else$
0$ The Riddle o, the Inheritan!e
-hapter 34 9%achinery in %otion9. <ost riddles are 4re4ared ,or by
some ,orm o, motivation$ For eGam4le. in Ed'ar &llan PoeEs HThe "old
B'H we en!onter a man who loves to stdy !odes$ "enerally s4eakin'.
the introd!tion o, the !hara!ter does not !oin!ide with the be'innin' o, the
a!tion$ In this !ase. at the ,irst a44earan!e o, Pan!ks$ we dis!over that he
has an interest in lo!atin' the heirs to es!heated estates9
V-om4are HThe PriestEs Fi,e and the Hi'hway RobbersEH ;On!hkov$ no$ /0=$
& similar story. bt re!o'nition is a!hieved by revealin' a !ho44ed1o,, ,in'er with
a rin' on it9 H&nd itEs as i, she has a ,in'er with a rin' on it nder her bed$H H@oM
@oM <y sweet lady.H says one o, the bri'ands$ She takes ot the ,in'er with the rin'
,rom her 4o!ket and shows it to them$ &t this 4oint the robber tries to ,lee bt is
sei5ed by the 4eo4le$ On!hkov. HThe <er!hantEs %a'hter and the Hi'hway
Robbers.H no$ (09 The bri'ands were sittin' in the !hamber$ The yon' 'irl
des!ribes everythin' that had ha44ened to her in a dream that ni'ht as well as
her en!onter with the bri'ands$ She reveals everythin'. and the bri'ands listen$
&t ea!h word they say9 HHow wonder,l. my lass$ Yor dream has trned into
reality$H The whole a,,air ends with a re!o'nition that is bro'ht abot by a
!ho44ed1o,, ear$
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 13B
H<r$ -lennam.H he then be'an. HI am in want o, in,ormation. sir$H
H-onne!ted with this ,irmLH asked -lennam$ H@o.H said Pan!ks$
HFith what then. <r$ Pan!ksL That is to say. assmin' ihat yo want it o, me$H
HYes. sir8 yes. I wani it o, yo.H said Pan!ks. Hi, I !an 4ersade yo to ,rnish it$
&. B. -. %$ %&. %E. %I. %O$ %i!tionary order$ %orrit$ ThatEs the name. sir$H
Pan!ks 4oses a nmber o, ?estions to -lennam withot revealin' his 4r4ose
)chap. 36 9,ortune-Tellin59*. Pan!ks arrives at the hose o, -lennamEs mother
and s4eaks with #ittle %orrit$ He tells her ,ortne by eGaminin' her hand. s4eaks
to her abot her 4ast. abot her ,ather and abot her n!le$ He tells her that he sees
himsel, involved in her destiny and !alls himsel, a 'y4sy and a ,ortne1teller$ 7P DK V
EE T ( ( ( L U EE V ((-( S!h 4redi!tions and 4resentiments eGtend thro'hot the
novel$ -ft.f( (<-IAGW -om4are. ,or instan!e.. the 4resentiments in Stendhal and in
Da'id _. ,rah]$ -opperfiel d. The riddle srrondi n' the inheritan!e i s
devel o4ed wit h PP s,,i!ient !onsisten!y and !ontinity. in !ontrast to the riddle o, the
,ramin'E i
tx
U story ;the se!ret identit y o, &rthrEs mother=$ The sbse?ent
!ha4ter. $ ,$ UiVS 9-onspirators and Athers 9 o,,ers s a 'lim4se o, a !onsltation by
R''. a soli!itor9
HThereEs a -hr!h in #ondon8 I may as well take that$ &nd a Family Bible8 I may
as well take that. too$ ThatEs two to me$ Two to me.H re4eated Pan!ks. breathin'
hard over his !ards$ HHereEs a -lerk at %rham ,or yo. Kohn. and an old sea,arin'
'entleman at %nstable ,or yo. <r$ R''.H et!$
Pan!ks a44ears momentarily in !ha4ter :) and tters. at most. jst a ,ew
words9 H EPan!ks the 'i4sy. ,ortne1tellin'$E H
The mystery srrondin' the inheritan!e is resolved in chapter 43
9%ore ,ortune-Tellin59.
HYo are to nderstandH>snorted Pan!ks. ,everishly n,oldin' 4a4ers. and
s4eakin' in short hi'h14ressre blasts o, senten!es. HFhereEs the Pedi'reeL
FhereEs S!hedle nmber ,or$ <r$ R''L OhM all ri'htM Here we are$ > Yo are to
nderstand that we are this very day virtally !om4lete$ Fe shanEt be le'ally ,or a
day or two$ -all it at the otside a week$ FeEve been at it. ni'ht and day. ,or I donEt
know how lon'$ <r$ R''. yo know how lon'L @ever mind$ %onEt say$ YoEll only
!on,se me$ Yo shall tell her. <r$ -lennam$ @ot till we 'ive yo leave$ FhereEs
that ro'h total. <r$ R''L OhM Here we areM There. sirM ThatEs what yoEll have to
break to her$ That manEs yor Father o, the <arshalseaMH
The eG!er4t above is 4re!eded by a storm o, joy whi!h breaks 4on
Pan!ks. the sor!e o, whi!h is not yet known to s$
The 4r4ose o, this se!ret is to !reate an ine?ality between -lennam and
#ittle %orrit9 %orrit is ri!h. -lennam is. relatively s4eakin'. 4oor$ The role
o, the se!ret in the n,oldin' o, the details o, the novel lies in this. that the
des!ri4tions o, the <arshalsea Prison are interwoven with it$
14> Theory of Prose
2$ <erdleEs Se!ret
-hapter 44 9%rs. %erdle(s -omplaint9. <r$ <erdle is ,ilthy ri!h$ The
novel n,olds in his shadow$ He ins4ires a 4assion both in %orrit. who has
re!ently !ome into a ,ortne. and also in the hearts o, the indi'ent residents
o, Bleedin' Heart Yard$ Fe ,ind <erdle s,,erin' ,rom a !ertain mysterios
illness$ &t ,irst. the matter seems to be rather sim4le. bt 'radally a
mystery emer'es9
H%o I ever say I !are abot anythin'EVH asked <r$ <erdle$
EHSayL @oM @obody wold attend to yo i, yo did$ Bt yo show it$H
HShow whatL Fhat do I showLH demanded <r$ <erdle hrriedly$
-hapter 13 )boo0 3* 9In $hich a ?reat Patriotic -onference Is
/o/den9. H<r$ <erdle. his eyes ,iGed !owardly on the -hie, BtlerEs boots
and hesitatin' to look into the mirror o, this terri,yin' !reatreEs sol.
in,orms him o, his intention$H
-hapter 17 9?ettin5 An9. H EYo know we may almost say we are
related. sir.H said <r$ <erdle. !riosly interested in the 4attern o, the
!ar4et. Eand$ there,ore. yo may !onsider me at yor servi!e$
(
H
-hapter 36 9The I'enin5 of a "on5 Day9. Fe a'ain hear <erdleEs
eni'mati! 4hrases$ Fanny asks him whether her 'overness will re!eive
anythin' at all ,rom her ,atherEs will9 H (She wonEt 'et anythin'.E said <r$
<erdle$H He asks Fanny to hand him the 4enkni,e9
HEdmnd.H said <rs$ S4arkler. Ho4en ;now. very !are,lly. I be' and besee!h.
,or yo are so very awkward= the mother o, 4earl boG on my little table there. and
'ive <r$ <erdle the mother o, 4earl 4enkni,e$H
HThank yo.H said <r$ <erdle9 Hbt i, yo have 'ot one with a darker handle$ I
think I shold 4re,er one with a darker handle$H
HTortoise1shellLH
HThank yo$H said <r$ <erdle9 Hyes$ I think I shold 4re,er tortoise1shell$H $$$
HI will ,or'ive yo$ i, yo ink it$H
HIEll ndertake not to ink it.H said <r$ <erdle$
The sbse?ent chapter 3F bears the title 9The -hief #utler +esi5ns the
Seals of Affice. 9 The !ha4ter is taken 4 with <erdleEs si!ide$ His se!ret
is revealed9 he was a s4e!lator. a bankr4t who had bro'ht thosands o,
4eo4le to rin9
The room was still hot$ and the marble o, the bath still warm9 bt$ the ,a!e and ,i're
were !lammy to the to!h$ The white marble at the bottom o, the bath was veined
with a dread,l red$ On the led'e at the side. were an em4ty ladanm1bottle and a
tortoise1shell handled 4enkni,e>soiled. bt not with ink$
&nd so the little mystery o, the kni,e. soiled not with ink bt with blood>
a ne'ative 4arallelism>!loses the !ir!le o, <erdleEs se!ret$
<erdleEs se!ret serves the ,ollowin' 4r4ose9 by means o, it. the athor
s!!eeds in !om4arin' the !ir!mstan!es o, his 4rota'onists$ %orrit is js
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 141
as 4oor as -lennam$ Her role in relation to the details o, the novel !onsists
o, Hti'htenin'H the des!ri4tive 4assa'es$
A$ & @oise in the Hose
-hapter 1F 9%rs. ,lint:inch /as Another Dream9.
On a wintry a,ternoon at twili'ht$ <rs$ Flintwin!h. havin' been heavy all day$
dreamed this dream9
She tho'ht she was in the kit!hen 'ettin' the kettle ready ,or tea$ and was
warmin' hersel, with her ,eet 4on the ,ender and the skirt o, her 'own t!ked 4$
be,ore the !olla4sed ,ire in the middle o, the 'rate. bordered on either hand by a dee4
!old. bla!k ravine$ She tho'ht that as she sat ths. msin' 4on the ?estion.
whether li,e was not ,or some 4eo4le a rather dll invention. she was ,ri'htened by a
sdden noise behind her$ She tho'ht that she had been similarly ,ri'htened on!e
last week. and that the noise was o, a mysterios kind>a sond o, rstlin'. and o,
three or ,or ?i!k beats like a ra4id ste49 while a sho!k or tremble was !ommni 1
!ated to her heart. as i, the ste4 had shaken the ,loor. or even as i, she had been
to!hed by some aw,l hand$ She tho'ht that this revived within her$ !ertain old
,ears o, hers that the hose was hanted8 and that she ,lew 4 the kit!hen stairs.
withot knowin' how she 'ot 4$ to be nearer !om4any$
-hapter 1F 9%rs. ,lint:inch /as Another Dream9. 9 EThere.
KeremiahM @owM FhatEs that noiseMH H &,terwards the noise. i, indeed it was
a noise. !omes to a sto4$
-hapter 3B 9%rs. ,lint:inch ?oes on Dreamin59. Ri'ad enters the
hose9
H@ow. my dear madam.H he said. as he took ba!k his !loak and threw it on$ Hi, yoEll
have the 'oodness to> what the devilEs thatMH
The stran'est o, sonds$ Evidently !lose at hand ,rom the 4e!liar sho!k it !om1
mni!ated to the air$ yet sbded as i, it were ,ar o,,$ & tremble. a rmble. and a ,all
o, some li'ht dry matter$
-hapter 1@ )boo0 3* 9%issin59.
&t that moment. <istress &,,ery ;o, !orse. the woman with the a4ron= dro44ed
the !andlesti!k she held. and !ried ot. HThereM O 'ood #ordM there it is a'ain$ Hark$
KeremiahM @owMH
I, there were any sond at all. it was so sli'ht that she mst have ,allen into a
!on,irmed habit o, listenin' ,or sonds9 bt$ <r$ %orrit believed he did hear a
somethin'. like the ,allin' o, dry leaves$
-hapter 34 )boo0 3* 9%istress Affery %a0es a -onditional Promise
+espectin5 /er Dreams9. H Til tell yo then.V said &,,ery. a,ter listenin'.
Ethat the ,irst time he 3 Ri'ad6 ever !ome he heard the noises his own sel,$E H
On the ,ollowin' 4a'e. weEre 'iven a hint. tho'h as yet we donEt nder 1
stand it. to the e,,e!t that the door to the hose will not o4en. as i, someone
were holdin' it ba!k$
143 Theory of Prose
#ike the majority o, se!rets. the mystery o, the hose at ,irst has a ,alse
resoltion$ The mystery o, the wat!h isjst now be!omin' !lear. tt trns ot
that <rs$ -lennam is most de,initely not &rthrEs mother$ &rthr is the
ille'itimate son o, his ,atherEs mistress. who was sbse?ently 4t away in a
mental instittion by <rs$ -lennam and her hsbandEs n!le$ The wat!h
served as a reminder o, the need ,or re!ti,yin' a wron'$ &,,ery thinks that it
was &rthrEs mother who was 4t away in the madhose$ She says in
-hapter 4> )boo0 3* -(-losin5 In9.
HOnly 4romise me. that. i, itEs the 4oor thin' thatEs ke4t here se!retly. yoEll let me
take !har'e o, her and be her nrse$ Only 4romise me that. and never be a,raid o,
me$H
<rs$ -lennam stood still ,or an instant. at the hei'ht o, her ra4id haste. sayin' in
stern ama5ement9
HIe4t hereL She has been dead a s!ore o, years and more$ &sk Flintwin!h>ask
him. They !an both tell yo that she died when &rthr went abroad$H
HSo m!h the worse.H said &,,ery. with a shiver. H,or she hants the hose. then$
Fho else rstles abot it. makin' si'nals by dro44in' dst so so,tlyL Fho else
!omes and 'oes. and marks the walls with lon' !rooked to!hes. when we are all a1
bedL Fho else holds the door sometimesLH
&s yo !an see. the s!ene havin' to do with the HnoisesH has already been
set 4$ Fe are now !lose to the real soltion o, the se!ret9 The hose. slowly
sbsidin' to the 'rond. threatens to !olla4se$ Bt the reader doesnEt know
that as yet$
%enoements
The !hie, mystery o, the novel. that is. the mystery o, the wat!h. has already
been revealed$ #ikewise. the se!ret o, &rthrEs birth has also been dis!losed$
The se!ondary mysteries are now bein' resolved one by one$ First on the
a'enda is the mystery o, the hose$ In one stroke the novelist eliminates
Ri'ad. who has essentially been 4layin' the aGiliary role o, the man who
knows the se!ret$ Fhen the se!ret is eG4osed. Ri'ad is no lon'er needed$
<rs$ -lennam rns home with #ittle %orrit$ They enter the 'ate$
-hapter 41 )boo0 3* 9-losed9.
vith a 4ier!in' !ry. held her ba!k$
n' between them and the 4la!id sky. 4arted ,or a moment and show$
irs$ &s they looked 4. wildly !ryin' ,or hel4. the 'reat 4ile
o, !himne8 men was then alone le,t standin'. like a tower in a
whirlwind. ro!ked. broke. aim liled itsel, down 4on the hea4 o, rin.
as i, every tmblin' ,ra'ment were intent on tryin' the !rshed
wret!h dee4er$ $ $ $ The mystery o, the noises was ot now8
whi!h
hailed itsel, do
b
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 144
&,,ery. like 'reater 4eo4le. had always been ri'ht in her ,a!ts. and always wron' in
the theories she ded!ed ,rom them$
It is !rios that the devi!e o, the se!ret is 4rolon'ed by %i!kens thro'hot
"ittle Dorrit. This devi!e is even eGtended to the events. the be'innin' o,
whi!h take 4la!e in or 4resen!e$ They too are 'iven as mysteries$
%orritEs love ,or-lennam and-lennamEs love ,or <innie are not 4resented
in the ,orm o, sim4le des!ri4tion$ Rather. they are 4resented as Hmysteries$H
%i!kens s4eaks o, this love. and yet he also seems to deny it$
-lennam is overjoyed at the ,a!t that he is not in love at the very same
time that he is. in ,a!t. in love$
-hapter 17 92obody(s $ea0ness9. the ,ollowin' !ha4ter tili5es the
same devi!e$
-hapter 1@ 92obody(s +i'al9 !on!ldes in the ,ollowin' way9
The rain ,ell heavily on the roo,. and 4attered on the 'rond. and dri44ed amon'
the ever'reens. and the lea,less bran!hes o, the trees$ The rain ,ell heavily.
drearily$ It was a ni'ht o, tears$
I, -lennam had not de!ided a'ainst ,allin' in love with Pet8 i, he had had the
weakness to do it8 i, he had. little by little. 4ersaded himsel, to set all the earnestness
o, his natre. all the mi'ht o, his ho4e. and all the wealth o, his matred !hara!ter. on
that !ast8 i, he had done this. and ,ond that all was lost8 he wold have been. that
ni'ht. ntterably miserable$ &s it was>
&s it was. the rain ,ell heavily. drearily$
The te!hni?e in this eG!er4t !onsists o, the ,ollowin'9 a ,alse inter4reta1
tion o, -lennamEs a!tion is 4rovided by %i!kens$ He is not in love. and his
tre attitde is 'iven thro'h the meta4hor o, the rain$
-hapter 36 9,ortune-Tellin59. #ittle %orritEs love ,or &rthr -lennam
is also 4resented in the ,orm o, a riddle$ #ittle %orrit tells <a''y a tale
abot a tiny little woman. who loved the shadow and who died withot ever
revealin' the se!ret$
%i!kens !onne!ts the riddle o, %orritEs love with the riddle o, Pan!ks by
the very title o, the !ha4ter9
HFhoEs he$ #ittle <otherLH said <a''y$ She had joined her at the window and
was leanin' on her sholder$ HI see him !ome in and ot o,ten$H
HI have heard him !alled a ,ortne1teller$H said #ittle %orrit$ HBt I dobt i, he
!old tell many 4eo4le. even their 4ast or 4resent ,ortnes$H
H-oldnEt have told the Prin!ess hersLH said <a''y$
#ittle %orrit. lookin' msin'ly down into the dark valley o, the 4rison. shook her
head$
H@or the tiny woman hersLH said <a''y$
H@o.H said #ittle %orrit. with the snset very bri'ht 4on her$ HBt let s !ome
away ,rom the window$H
This devi!e is similar to the one in the 4revios eG!er4t9 the Hsnset
,lshH on #ittle %orritEs ,a!e is 4resented as i, it meant Hblshin' with the
eG!itement o, ho4e$H &nd the ?ote HletEs move away ,rom the windowH is
146 Theory of Prose
a ,alse soltion$ HFlshH really means Htrnin' redH be!ase o, the !han'e
in the li'ht$
<a''y re!alls the 4rin!essEs se!ret in the 4resen!e o, -lennam in chapter
43 9%ore ,ortune-Tellin5. 9 -lennam is !onversin' with #ittle %orrit9
H So yo said that day$ 4on the brid'e$ I tho'ht o, it m!h a,terwards$ Have yo
no se!ret yo !old entrst to me. with ho4e and !om,ort. i, yo woldMH
HSe!retL @o. I have no se!ret.H said #ittle %orrit in some troble$
They had been s4eakin' in low voi!es9 more be!ase it was natral to what they
said. to ado4t that tone. than with any !are to reserve it ,rom <a''y at her work$ &ll
o, a sdden <a''y stared a'ain. and this time s4oke9
HI sayM #ittle <otherMH
HYes. <a''y$H
HI, yo anEt 'ot no se!ret o, yor own to tell him. tell him that abot the Prin!ess$
She had a se!ret. yo know$H
-lennam nderstands nothin' and tortres #ittle %orrit by tellin' her
that someday she will ,all in love9
HIt was the little woman as had the se!ret. and she was always a s4innin' at her
wheel$ &nd so she says to her. why do yo kee4 it thereL &nd so. the tEother one says
to her$ no I donEt8 and so the tEother one says to her. yes yo do8 and then they both
'oes to the !4board. and there it is$ &nd she woldnEt 'o into the Hos4ital. and so
she died$ Nou know$ #ittle <other8 tell him that$ For it was a re'Elar 'ood se!ret. that
wasMH !ried <a''y. h''in' hersel,$
-lennam is at a loss to nderstand$ FeEre dealin' here with a 'ame that
resembles the 'ame o, 4eri4etia in !lassi!al tra'edy$ The resoltion o, the
mystery has already been 4re4ared. bt is not yet re!o'ni5ed by the
4rota'onists$
O, real interest to s is the re!o'nition tili5ed in The -ric0et on the
/earth. The ,irst hint at the old manEs !han'e o, !lothes a,ter the hostessEs
,aintin' s4ell is 'iven in the in!oherent words o, the nanny and o, <omma9
H%id its mothers make it 4 a Beds thenMH !ried <iss Slowboy to the Baby8 Hand
did its hair 'row brown and !rly. when its !a4s was li,ted o,,. and ,ri'hten it$ a
4re!ios Pets. a1sittin' by the ,iresMH
Fith that na!!ontable attra!tion o, the mind to tri,les. whi!h is o,ten in!idental
to a state o, dobt and !on,sion. the -arrier. as he walked slowly to and ,ro. ,ond
himsel, mentally re4eatin' even these absrd words. many times$ So many times
that he 'ot them by heart. and was still !onnin' them over and over. like a lesson.
when Tilly. a,ter administerin' as m!h ,ri!tion to the little bald head with her hand
as she tho'ht wholesome ;a!!ordin' to the 4ra!ti!e o, nrses=. had on!e more tied
the BabyEs !a4 on$
H&nd ,ri'hten it. a 4re!ios Pets. a1sittin' by the ,ires$ Fhat ,ri'htened %ot. I
wonderMH msed the -arrier. 4a!in' to and ,ro$
Here the resoltion ;!han'e o, dress= is 4resented. bt not re!o'ni5ed$
The in!oheren!e o, ,orm ;the 4lral nmber. et!$= serves as the motivation
,or the non1re!o'nition$
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 14F
On the sta'e and in the novel. it is the sal 4ra!ti!e. indeed. it is always
the 4ra!ti!e. ,or the se!ret or re!o'nition to be ,irst allded to in the ,orm o, a
hint$ For eGam4le. in Aur %utual ,riend the 4resen!e o, the Bo,,in !o4le
at the weddin' o, Kohn Harmon and Bella is intimated by %i!kens when he
s4eaks o, a !ertain noise in the anneG to the !hr!h$
It is the !stom in the theater ,or the man who has had a !han'e o, dress to
reveal himsel, ,irst to the adien!e and only then to the sta'e !hara!ters$
Very !rios indeed is -ha4linEs reversal o, this devi!e$
& !rowd o, 4eo4le had been waitin' ,or his a44earan!e on sta'e. where he
had 4romised to 4er,orm$ One o, the a!ts on the 4ro'ram !alled ,or a yon'
man in tails to read a !ertain banal 4oem$ & !ertain 'entleman read the
4oem with im4e!!able taste and a4lomb$ Only when he trned his ba!k to
the adien!e and moved o,, sta'e. sh,,lin' his ,eet in his inimitable way.
did the adien!e re!o'ni5e -ha4lin$
This is very m!h analo'os to the devi!e o, the s4rios resoltion$
& resoltion is o,,ered in the !onversation !arried on between Kohn. who
is in love with %orrit. and -lennam. who has landed in debtorsE 4rison$
-hapter 3@ )boo0 3* 9The Pupil of the %arshalsea9D
H<r$ -lennam. do yo mean to say that yo donEt know
(
LH
HFhat. KohnLH
H#ord$H said Yon' Kohn. a44ealin' with a 'as4 to the s4ikes on the wall$
#l
He
says$ FhatMH
-lennam looked at the s4ikes. and looked at Kohn8 and looked at the s4ikes. and
looked at Kohn$
HHe says FhatM &nd what is more$H eG!laimed Yon' Kohn. srveyin' him in a
dole,l ma5e. Hhe a44ears to mean itM %o yo see this window. sirLH
EHO, !orse. I see this window$H
HSee this roomLH
\HFhy$ o, !orse I see this room$H
HThat wall o44osite. and that yard down belowL They have all been witnesses
o, it$ ,rom day to day. ,rom ni'ht to ni'ht. ,rom week to week. ,rom month to
month$ For. how o,ten have I seen <iss %orrit here when she has not seen
meMH
HFitnesses o, whatLH said -lennam$
HO, <iss %orritEs love$EH
HFor whomLH
HYo$H said Kohn$
Bt the semanti! resoltion does not yet nlo!k the verbal riddle9 The
e?ation9 %orrit1-lennam ;little woman1shadow= has not yet been
solved$ The HshadowH theme rea44ears in the words o, <a''y$
#ove has been o4enly de!lared. bt -lennam reje!ts it$ The ine?ality
between them ;as in the !ase o, E'ene One'in1Tatiana= has tilted in ,avor
o, %orrit9
<a''y. who had ,allen into very low s4irits. here !ried$ HOh 'et him into a
hos4ital8 do 'et him into a hos4ital. <otherM HeEll never look like hissel, a'ain. i, he
anEt 'ot into a hos4ital$ &nd then the little woman as was always a s4innin' at her
147 Theory of Prose
wheel. she !an 'o to the !4board with the Prin!ess and say. what do yo kee4 the
-hi!kin' there ,orL ;book :. !ha4$ :)=
Here the theme is !om4li!ated by %i!kensEs introd!tion o, <a''yEs
delirim ;she had been nder'oin' treatment in the hos4ital. and both the
hos4ital and the !hi!kens are her 4aradise=$ & similar devi!e is sed in The
-ric0et on the /earth.
The resoltion o, the 4lot line. whi!h may be !alled HThe #ove o, &rthr
and %orrit and the Obsta!les to Their <arria'e.H is 4resented. as yo !an
see. in a rather trivial way by means o, <erdleEs se!ret$ Old <an %orrithad
entrsted his entire ,ortne to this <erdle. and now #ittle %orrit is rined$
&nd so by means o, this trn o, events their 4ositions in so!iety have
be!ome e?al$ &nd herein lies the resoltion$ Fhat still remains to be
solved is the ,ramin' mystery o, the wat!h$
In Tr'enevEs A 2est of the ?entry the ine?ality is eG4ressed in the
,ollowin' way9 #avretsky !annot love #i5a. be!ase heEs already married$
He is released ,rom his vows by the news4a4erEs re4ort o, his wi,eEs death$
His wi,eEs retrn ;the rmor o, her death was ,alse= restores the !om4li!a1
tion to the 4lot$ Sin!e the !om4osition is not resolved. a s4rios endin' is
re?ired$ &n endin' is s4rios. in my o4inion. when it introd!es a new
!on!ldin' moti, as a 4arallel to the old one$ The s4rios endin' o, A 2est
of the ?entry lies in the ,a!t that #avretsky is sittin' on a ben!h. while Hthe
yon' tribe is 'rowin' 4$H
In the !ase o, Int Hamsn. ,ailre at love is 4resented entirely within
the !onteGt o, a 4sy!holo'i!al motivation$ #ietenant "lahn and Edvarda
in Pan trly love ea!h other. bt whenever one says Hyes.H the other says
Hno$H I do not mean to say$ o, !orse. that HamsnEs motivation or even
that his entire !om4osition is s4erior or more eG4ertly done than that o,
&riostovsky or Pshkin$ It is sim4ly di,,erent$ Perha4s HamsnEs devi!e
will a44ear ldi!ros with the years$ Kst as today. ,or instan!e. the attem4t
on the 4art o, !ertain artists o, the nineteenth !entry to !on!eal their
te!hni?e a44ears e?ally odd to s$
The Relationshi4 amon' <embers o, a Parallelism
&s a <ystery
The devi!e o, several simltaneos 4lanes o, a!tion. the relationshi4 amon'
whi!h is not 'iven immediately by the athor. may be nderstood as a
!om4li!ation. as a 4e!liar !ontination o, the te!hni?e o, the mystery$
So be'ins "ittle Dorrit. Fe are immediately !on,ronted by two 4lot lines
in this novel. the line o, Ri'ad and the line o, -lennam. ea!h o, whi!h is
develo4ed into a ,ll !ha4ter$
In the ,irst !ha4ter. entitled HSn and Shadow$H we en!onter <r$
Ri'ad and the Italian Kohn Ba4tist$ They are in 4rison>R]'a
d

on

a
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 14@
!har'e o, mrder and Kohn ,or sm''lin'$ Ri'ad is led ot to ,a!e trial$ The
!rowd. 'athered arond the 4rison hose. is in an 4roar and wants to tear
him to 4ie!es$ #ike his 4rison1mate. Ri'ad himsel, is not a 4rin!i4al
!hara!ter in the novel$
This manner o, be'innin' a novel with a minor !hara!ter instead o, with
the !hie, 4rota'onist is ?ite !ommon in %i!kens. and !an be ,ond in
2icholas 2ic0leby Ali'er T:ist Aur %utual ,riend and %artin
-hu==le:it.
Perha4s this devi!e is !onne!ted with the te!hni?e o, the riddle$ The
se!ond 'ro4 o, !hara!ters is 'iven in the se!ond !ha4ter. entitled
HFellow1Travellers$H This !ha4ter is !onne!ted with the ,irst !ha4ter by the
,ollowin' 4hrase9 H E@o more o, yesterdayEs howlin'. over yonder. to1day.
sir8 is thereLE H
"ittle Dorrit is a novel bilt on mlti4le levels$ In order to !onne!t these
varios 4lanes. it was ne!essary ,or %i!kens to !onne!t the 4rota'onists
in some !ontrived way at the otset o, the novel$ %i!kens sele!ts ,or this
4r4ose a 4la!e o, ?arantine$ This ?arantine !orres4onds to the tavern
or monastery o, story antholo'ies ;see the /eptameron o, <ar'aret o,
@avarre and the inn in The -anterbury Tales*. &t this ?arantine we ,ind
'athered to'ether <r$ and <rs$ <ea'les. their da'hter <innie ;Pet= and
the servant Tatty!oram ;her story is abot to be told=. <r$ -lennam and
<iss Fade$
The same holds ,or Aur %utual ,riend. Fe have be,ore s the ,irst
!ha4ter. entitled HOn the #ook1ot$H %i!kens introd!es s here to "a,,er
and to his da'hter. who are towin' a !or4se atta!hed to their boat$ This
!ha4ter makes se o, the devi!e o, the mystery. that is. we do not know
4re!isely what these 4eo4le on the boat are sear!hin' ,or. and the des!ri41
tion o, the !or4se is 4resented obli?ely9
#i55ie shot ahead. and the other boat ,ell astern$ #i55ieEs ,ather. !om4osin'
himsel, into the easy attitde o, one who had asserted the hi'h moralities and taken
an nassailable 4osition. slowly li'hted a 4i4e. and smoked. and took a srvey o,
what he had in tow$ Fhat he had in tow ln'ed itsel, at him sometimes in an aw,l
manner when the boat was !he!ked. and sometimes seemed to try to wren!h itsel,
away. tho'h ,or the most 4art it ,ollowed sbmissively$ & neo4hyte mi'ht have
,an!ied that the ri44les 4assin' over it were dread,lly like ,aint !han'es o, eG4res1
sion on a si'htless ,a!e8 bt "a,,er was no neo4hyte. and had no ,an!ies$
It is worth !om4arin' this des!ri4tion with the ,ishin' s!ene in A Tale of
T:o -ities.
In the se!ond !ha4ter. HThe <an ,rom Somewhere$H %i!kens des!ribes
the home o, the Veneerin's and introd!es s to the attorney <ortimer and
to a whole so!ial !ir!le. whi!h serves as a "reek !hors thro'hot the
novel$ &nna PavlovnaEs salon does the same ,or $ar and Peace.
&t the end o, the se!ond !ha4ter. we dis!over its !onne!tion with the ,irst9
we dis!over that a !ertain 4erson who is heir to a h'e ,ortne has drowned.
14; Theory of Prose
and we there,ore !onne!t his ,ate with the !or4se towed by the boat$
In the third !ha4ter. entitled H&nother <an.H %i!kens introd!es a new
!hara!ter by the name o, Klis Hand,ord$ In the ,i,th !ha4ter he brin's in
the Bo,,in ,amily. and in the siGth !ha4ter the Fil,!r ,amily$ These 4lot lines
are maintained all the way to the end o, the novel. and they do not so m!h
interse!t as o!!asionally to!h ea!h other$
The 4lot lines o, A Tale of T:o -ities interse!t even less$ Fe 4er!eive in
this novel a transition ,rom one 4lot line to another that is evidently ,orei'n
to it. as i, it were a kind o, riddle$ The identi,i!ation o, the !hara!ters o, the
varios 4lot lines is de,erred to the middle o, the novel$
&t the 4resent time. weEre on the eve o, a revival o, the mystery novel$
Interest in !om4leG and entan'lin' 4lot str!tres has 'rown 'reatly$ For an
eGam4le o, a 4e!liarly distorted te!hni?e o, the mystery. let s look at
&ndrei Bely$
It is interestin' to observe in &ndrei Bely a novel rein!arnation o, the
te!hni?e o, the riddle$ I shall limit mysel, here to an eGam4le ,rom <oli0
"etae'.
This work 4resents the two 4lanes o, HswarmH and H,orm$H Fhile
HswarmH stands ,or the e,,erves!ent !ommP1into1bein' o, li,e. H,ormH
stands ,or the a!tal li,e that has already H!ome into bein'$H
This swarm is ,ormed either by a series o, meta4hor leitmotivs or by
4ns$ Fe be'in ,irst with swarm and 4ro!eed on to ,orm. that is. weEre
dealin' here with an inversion$ The 4n is 4resented as a riddle$ &t times we
also ,ind in Bely the te!hni?e o, the mystery in its 4re ,orm$
See ,or eGam4le. HThe #ionH9
&mon' the stran'est illsions whi!h have 4assed like a ha5e be,ore my eyes. the
stran'est one o, all is the ,ollowin'9 a sha''y m' o, a lion looms be,ore me. as the
howlin' hor strikes$ I see be,ore me yellow moths o, sand. ,rom whi!h a ro'h
woolen !oat is !almly lookin' at me$ &nd then I see a ,a!e. and a shot is heard9
H#ion is !omin'$H
In this stran'e in!ident. all o, the sllenly ,lowin' ima'es are !ondensed ,or the
,irst time9 like a sha,t o, li'ht. illminatin' my labyrinths. they !t thro'h the
illsoriness o, the darkness that had loomed over me$ In the midst o, the yellow areas
o, snli'ht I re!o'ni5e mysel,$ ItEs a !ir!le8 alon' its ed'es are ben!hes8 on them are
dark ima'es o, women. like the ima'es o, ni'ht$ ItEs nannies. and arond them in the
li'ht are !hildren. hands !las4ed to the dark hems o, their dresses$ There is a !riosity
o, many noses in the air. and in midst o, it all there is #ion$ ;Sbse?ently. I saw the
yellow !ir!le o, sand between &rbat and %o' S?are. and to this day yo will see a
!ir!le o, 'reenery. as yo 4ass ,rom %o' S?are$ YoEll see nannies sittin' in silen!e
while !hildren ,roli! all over the 4la!e$=
This is BelyEs ,irst hint o, a resoltion$ #ionEs ima'e a44ears on!e a'ain9
HThe h'e head o, a wild beast. a lion. starts !rawlin' towards s ,rom one
!ir!le o, li'ht to another$ &nd on!e a'ain everythin' has disa44eared$
&nd now the resoltion$ Twenty years later. the athor is talkin' o a
,riend at the niversity9
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el 14B
HI am des!ribin' my !hildhood9 the old woman and the re4tilian monsters$ I am
s4eakin' o, the little !ir!le and o, the lion and o, his yellow m' $H H-ome
on. now$ This lionEs m' o, yors is 4re ,antasy$H <y ,nend la'hs$
HFell. yes$ It was a dream$H
1@o. itEs not a dream$ ItEs a ,antasy$ ItEs a !o!k and bll story $ $$H
HBt I did see this in a dream.H I insisted$
HThe 4oint is that yo didn(t have the dream$ Fhat yo saw. sim4ly. was a St$
Bernard$H
H@o. I saw E#ion.E H I insisted a'ain$
HFell. all ri'ht. so yo saw a lion$ Bt donEt yo mean #ion. the St$ BernardLH my
,riend 4ressed on$
HFhat do yo meanLH I asked$
H I remember #ion$ I remember that yellow m' $ $ $ It wasnEt a lion. bt a do'.H he
hesitated$ HYor lionEs m' was a ,antasy.H he lan!hed on an eG4lanation$ HIt
belon'ed to a St$ Bernard by the name o, #ion$H
HBt how do yo knowLH I asked$
HFhen I was a !hild.H he re!olle!ted. HI sed to live arond %o' S?are$ They
sed to take me ,or a walk$ There I saw #ion$ $ $ $ He was a 'ood. kind do'$ Some1
times he wold rn onto the 4lay'rond. !arryin' a sti!k in his moth$ Fe were.
a,raid o, him and ran in all dire!tions. s!reamin'$H
H&nd do yo remember that shot. E#ion is !omin'ELH
HO, !orse I do$H
#ater. Bely !on,irms the mysti!al sense o, H#ion$H That devi!e is also not
so eGtraordinary$
Bely !ommonly states the meta4hori!al or the ,antasti! leitmotiv a,ter
,irst brin'in' ot the story line$
Sometimes this is ,ollowed by a se!ond. de,initive resoltion$
#et me illstrate with two eGam4les ,rom Tr'enev$
The resoltions o, H-lara <ili!hH are !onstr!ted alon' the ,irst ty4e ;a
lo!k o, hair in the hand=9 this is an irred!ible remnant$ The denoementEs
sel, denial$
The se!ond !ase is re4resented by HIno!kM Ino!kM Ino!kMH The ,irst
riddle o, the Hkno!kH is eG4lained. bt the riddle o, the HnameH remains
nsolved$V
In &ndrei Bely. we are dealin' with the te!hni?e o, the mystery in its
4rest ,orm. as ,or eGam4le. in his Petersbur5.
In the s!!essors and imitators o, Bely. 4arti!larly in Boris Pilnyak$ we
,ind the devi!e o, 4arallelism widely em4loyed$ However in this ty4e o,
4arallelism the relationshi4 between the 4arallel 4lanes is toned down and7
or s44ressed$ These novels 4rod!e an im4ression o, !om4leG str!tre$
VOne o, the 4rota'onists has heard someoneEs voi!e !allin' him$ Then ,ollows a
se!ond resoltion. where Ilya. the 4eddler. a namesake o, the 4rota'onist. hears the
voi!e o, his 'irl,riend !allin' him ,rom the kit!hen 'arden. i$e$$ the mysterios H!allH
to Ilya. the o,,i!er now dead. ,rom the woman he had on!e jilted. trns ot to be 4re
,antasy$ 3Trans. note6
16> Theory of Prose
while in ,a!t theyEre ?ite elementary$ The relationshi4 amon' the 4arts is
4resented either thro'h the most elementary o, devi!es ;the kinshi4 bond
amon' the leadin' !hara!ters= or thro'h an e4isodi! 4arti!i4ation o, a
leadin' !hara!ter o, one 4lane in the a!tion o, another 4lane$ See H & Tale o,
Petersbr'$H HRya5an1&44le.H HThe Bli55ard$H It is interestin'to ,ollow in
Pilnyak the !oales!en!e o, the individal stories into a novel$
I am 4lannin' to write a se4arate work !on!ernin' !ontem4orary Rssian
4rose. and at this 4oint I wish only to assert that in all 4robability the te!h1
ni?e o, the mystery will o!!4y an otstandin' role in the novel o, the
,tre. sin!e it already has made dee4 inroads into those novels that are
!onstr!ted on the 4rin!i4le o, 4arallelism$
The interest in 4lot kee4s 'rowin'$ The time when a #eo Tolstoi !old
be'in a story with the devi!e o, death ;HThe %eath o, Ivan Ilyi!hH= and not
tell the reader Hwhat ha44ens neGtH is evidently over$
Tolstoi himsel, loved the works o, &leGandre %mas and nderstood
the bsiness o, 4lot very well indeed. bt his literary orientation was
elsewhere$
In the mystery novel. the soltion is as im4ortant as the riddle itsel,$
The riddle makes it 4ossible ,or the writer to mani4late the eG4osition.
to enstran'e it. to !a4tre the readerEs attention$ The main thin' is not to
allow the reader to ,ind ot what is in ,a!t 'oin' on. be!ase. on!e re!o'1
ni5ed. s!h a sitation loses its horror$ For this reason. in <atrinEs novel
%elmoth the $anderer we are ke4t in the dark thro'hot the eG4osition
abot <elmothEs se!ret 4ro4osals to varios 4eo4le in dire straits9 to
4risoners o, the In?isition. to 4eo4le who. to stave o,, death ,rom starva1
tion. sell their own blood. to inmates o, an insane asylm. to 4eo4le who had
strayed into sbterranean !aves. and so on$ Every time the a!tion
a44roa!hes the a!tal moment o, the 4ro4osal. the teGt !omes to an abr4t
halt ;the novel !onsists o, several se!tions. !on,sedly !onne!ted with ea!h
other=$
For many novelists. the dty o, solvin' the mystery is a brdensome
tradition. bt ,or the most 4art they do not resort to ,antasti! resoltions$ I,
,antasy is introd!ed. then it is only at the very end. as the denoement
nravels$ The ,antasti! is then 4resented as a dire!t or. on rare o!!asions. as
an attendant !ase o, the a!tion$ &nd. i, so. then in a s4e!ial ,orm. ,or
eGam4le. as a 4redi!tion that 4ermits the novel to develo4 a'ainst the ba!k1
dro4 o, a ne!essity ths 4osited$
Fe en!onter the devi!e o, the ,antasti! in #ewisEs The %on0. &mon'
its 4rota'onists are a devil a!!om4anied by a lietenant s4irit and the
a44arition o, a nn$ In the last 4art o, the book. the devil !arries o,, the monk
and reveals the entire intri'e to him$
This revelation o, the intri'e is no a!!ident in the novel$ Fith his
!om4leG 4lot str!tres. not nraveled by a!tion. %i!kens has re!orse all
the time to these devi!es$
Ths is the se!ret o, the wat!h eG4osed in "ittle Dorrit. In addition
Dic0ens and the %'stery 2o'el 161
a'ain very ty4i!al that in order to el!idate it. %i!kens 'athers everyone in
one room$ This devi!e is !ommon to many novelists and has been 4arodied
by Veniamin Iaverin in his HThe -hroni!le o, the -ity o, #ei45i' ,or the
Year (/>$EV
In %i!kens. the 4rota'onists are bro'ht to'ether ?ite literally a'ainst
their will$ So. ,or eGam4le. Ri'ad is dra''ed be,ore -lennamEs mother.
Pan!ks and Kohn Ba4tist in chapter 4> )boo0 3* 9-losin5 In9.
H&nd now.H said <r$ Pan!ks. whose eye had o,ten stealthily wandered to the
window1seat. and the sto!kin' that was bein' mended there. HIEve only one other
word to say be,ore I 'o$ I, <r$ -lennam was here>bt n,ortnately. tho'h he has
so ,ar 'ot the better o, this ,ine 'entleman as to retrn him to this 4la!e a'ainst his
will. he is ill and in 4rison>ill and in 4rison. 4oor ,ellow>i, he was here.H said <r$
Pan!ks. takin' one ste4 aside towards the window1seat. and layin' his ri'ht hand
4on the sto!kin'8 Hhe wold say. E&,,ery. tell yor dreamsME H
The denoement is bro'ht abot by havin' &,,ery tell her dreams$
%reams are a new ironi! motivation with an enstran'ement o, the old devi!e
o, eavesdro44in'$
In %i!kens. eavesdro44in' is !arried on by !lerks !2icholas 2ic0leby*
and o!!asionally by the leadin' !hara!ters$
In %ostoevskyEs The Adolescent eavesdro44in' is 4resented as ,ort1
itos$ This is a renewal o, the devi!e$
The arti,i!iality o, the denoement in "ittle Dorrit lies in this. that it takes
4la!e withot any otside witnesses$ -hara!ters tell ea!h other what they
already know all too well$ Fe !annot !onsider &,,ery to be an adien!e ,or
the other !hara!ters$
The denoement in Aur %utual ,riend is more s!!ess,lly or'ani5ed$
&'ain. everyone is bro'ht to'ether here$ They all reveal a se!ret. the se!ret
o, the bottle$ They throw Fe'' ot. and then they tell the story to Kohn
HarmonEs wi,e all over a'ain ,rom the be'innin'$
The denoement o, %artin -hu==le:it is similarly or'ani5ed$ &ll the
leadin' !hara!ters are assembled$ Old man <artin ;a hoaGer and dire!tor
o, his own novel= eG4lains all the riddles he himsel, has been res4onsible
,or$
#et me now 4resent the denoement of "ittle Dorrit also ,rom chapter
SA 9-losin5 In9.
The determined voi!e o, <rs$ -lennam e!hoed HSto4MH Keremiah had sto44ed
already$ HIt is !losin' in. Flintwin!h$H
The 4ro!ess o, dis4osin' o, the riddles now be'ins$
First o, all. we do not know what Ri'ad needs ,rom -lennamEs hose
and why he had disa44eared when he did. ,or!in' everybody to sear!h ,or
him$ It trns ot that he had a se!ret. im4osed a 4ri!e on the se!ret. and
when he was not 4aid ,or it he le,t the hosehold ,or 4r4oses o, bla!kmail$
Ri'ad takes <rs$ -lennam by the wrist and tells her the se!ret abot a
163 Theory of Prose
!ertain hose$ Dn,ortnately. Ri'adEs story and <rs$ -lennamEs revela1
tion o, the se!rets o, the hose take a44roGimately twenty1,or 4a'es o,
4rinted teGt and !annot be ?oted in their entirety$
<rs$ -lennamEs story is motivated by the ,a!t that she does not want to
hear her st ory ,rom the moth o, a s!ondrel$
#et me now t rn to the anal ysis o, t he denoement $
Fi rst to be resol ved are the dreams o, <rs$ Fl intwin!h$
Ri'ad tells the story o, Ha !ertain stran'e marria'e. a !ertain stran'e
mother. H and so on$
Flintwin!h is interr4ted by &,,ery9
HKeremiah. kee4 o,, ,rom meM IEve heerd in my dreams. o, &rthrEs ,ather and his
n!le$ HeEs a talkin' o, them$ It was be,ore my time here8 bt IEve heerd in my
dreams that &rthrEs ,ather was a 4oor. irresolte. ,ri'htened !ha4. who had every1
thin' bt his or4han li,e s!ared ot o, him when he was yon'. and that he had no
voi!e in the !hoi!e o, his wi,e even. bt his n!le !hose her$H
Ri 'ad !ont i nes$ & ha44y ni on i s !on!l ded$ $ $
HSoon. the lady makes a sin'lar and eG!itin' dis!overy$ There4on ,ll o, an'er.
,ll o, jealosy. ,ll o, ven'ean!e. she ,orms>see yo. madameM>a s!heme o,
retribtion. the wei'ht o, whi!h she in'eniosly ,or!es her !rshed hsband to bear
himsel,. as well as eGe!te 4on her enemy$ Fhat s4erior intelli'en!eMH
HIee4 o,,. KeremiahMH !ried the 4al4itatin' &,,ery. takin' her a4ron ,rom her
moth a'ain$ HBt it was one o, my dreams that yo told her. when yo ?arrelled
with her one winter evenin' at dsk>there she sits and yo lookin' at her>that she
o'htnEt to have let &rthr when he !ome home. ss4e!t his ,ather only8$ $ $H
Yo see now the te!hni?e o, interr4tion$ Several se!rets are woven
to'ether into one and resolved as one$
<rs$ -lennam s4eaks ,irst$ It trns ot that &rthr is not her son. bt the
son o, her hsbandEs mistress$ The mystery o, the wat!h is revealed9
She trned the wat!h 4on the table. and o4ened it. and. with an nso,tenin' ,a!e.
looked at the worked letters within$ HThey did not ,or'et$H
She Hdid not ,or'et$H
Simltaneosly #ittle %orritEs se!ret is revealed$
It trns ot that the wat!h was sent to <rs$ -lennam as a reminder$
&rthrEs ,atherEs n!le re4ented on his deathbed and le,t. Ri'ad says.
H EOne thosand 'ineas to the little beaty yo slowly hnted to death$
One thosand 'ineas to the yon'est da'hter her 4atron mi'ht have at
,i,ty. or ;i, he had none= brotherEs yon'est da'hter. on her !omin' o,
a'e.
This brother was Frederi!k %orrit. #ittle %orritEs n!le$ W P
I shall not !ontine to retell the novel and shall limit myseI, on yP
4ointin' ot that the se!ret o, the doble is also resolved$ The do ot to
be <r$ Flintwin!hEs brother$
Fe !an now make the ,ollowin' observations$
&s yo !anTee. #ittle %orritEs !onne!tion with &rthrEs se!ret .s tenos
at best She is the nie!e o, the 4rote!tor o, &rthrEs mother$ Her 4arti!i4a1
tion in the se!ret was 4rely ,ormal. and not an a!tive one$ The very will and
testament was !onter,eit$
The se!ret in essen!e does not ,orm a 4art o, the 4lot$ It is a s44lement to
the 4lot$ The ?estion o, who &rthr is is. o, !orse. very im4ortant to
&rthr. bt he never ,inds ot abot it$
-hapter 46 )boo0 3* 9?one9. <rs$ -lennam hands over to #ittle %orrit
do!ments !ontainin' in,ormation that wold reveal the se!ret$ #ittle
%orrit brns them by way o, her hsband9
HI want yo to brn somethin' ,or me$H
HFhatLH
HOnly this ,olded 4a4er$ I, yo will 4t it in the ,ire with yor own hand. jst as it
is. my ,an!y will be 'rati,ied$H
HS4erstitios. darlin' #ittle %orritL Is it a !harmLH
HIt is anythin' yo like best. my own.H she answered. la'hin' with 'listenin'
eyes and standin' on ti4toe to kiss him. Hi, yo will only hmor me when the ,ire
brns 4$H $ $ $
H%oes the !harm want any words to be saidLH asked &rthr. as he held the 4a4er
over the ,lame$ HYo !an say ;i, yo donHt mind= EI love yoME H answered #ittle
%orrit$ So he said it. and the 4a4er brned away$
The se!ret is woven into the entire novel. bt it does not serve as a basis
,or the a!tion itsel,$ In essen!e. it is not revealed to the one 4erson who is
most ni?ely !on!erned with it. that is. &rthr -lennam$
In essen!e. what %i!kens needs here is not a se!ret bt somethin'
mysterios to slow down the a!tion$
Ri'adEs se!ret is interwoven with the ,ndamental se!ret o, Hbirth$H
Ri'ad is the bearer o, a se!ret$ In a!!ordan!e with the athorEs desi'ns. he
is involved in all the a!tion$ Yet even this is more a !ase o, intention than
reali5ation$
Ri'ad a44ears in the novel in the most varied sitations. and it is inter1
estin' to see how %i!kens em4hasi5es his !onne!tion with all o, tne leadin'
!hara!ters$
-hapter I )boo0 3* 9,ello:-Tra'ellers9.
Throwin' ba!k his head in em4tyin' his 'lass. he !ast his eyes 4on the travellersE
book. whi!h lay on the 4iano. o4en. with 4ens and ink beside it. as i, the ni'htEs names
had been re'istered when he was absent$ Takin' it in his hand. he read these entries9
Filliam %orrit. Es?ire P
Frederi!k %orrit. Es?ire
Edward %orrit. Es?ire
<iss %orrit
<iss &my %orrit
<rs$ "eneral <r$ and <rs$
Henry "owan$ From Fran!e to Italy$
&nd site$
From
Fran!e to
Italy$
166 Theory of Prose
To whi!h he added. in a small !om4li!ated hand. endin' with a lon' lean ,lorish.
not nlike a lasso thrown at all the rest o, the names9
Blandois$ Paris$ From Fran!e to Italy$
&nd then. with his nose !omin' down over his mosta!he. and his mosta!he 'oin'
4 nder his nose. re4aired to his allotted !ell$
This 'rima!e is none other than a Hs4ers!ri4tionH made by the writer$
Ri'ad sim4ly ado4ted a new srname$ Brin'in' him onto the sta'e. the
athor !ontines ea!h time to a44ly the te!hni?e o, the se!ret in every
4assa'e o, the novel$ It is as i, he were a44lyin' make4 to the novel$ Bt we
re!o'ni5e Ri'ad either by the little ditty that he had 4i!ked 4 in 4rison.
HFho Passes by This Road So #ateLH or by his smile$ The son' is intro1
d!ed in the ,irst !ha4ter o, book (9
Fho 4asses by this road so lateL
-om4a'non de la <ajolaineM
Fho 4asses by this road so lateL
&lways 'ayM
&t ,irst this son' is sn' by the 4rison1kee4er to his yon' daughter. $ohn
Ba4tist joins in9
O, all the kin'Es kni'hts Etis the ,lower.
-om4a'non de la <ajolaineM O,
all the kin'Es kni'hts Etis the ,lower.
&lways 'ayM
#ater. this son' be!omes Ri'adEs son'$ Fe re!o'ni5e him by it$ The
athor has sele!ted this son' be!ase it was H!hildlikeH and at the same
time Hboast,l$H The bra''ado!io o, the !ontent !orres4onds to Ri'adEs
!hara!ter. while the !hildlike !hara!ter o, the son'. em4hasi5ed still ,rther
by the ,a!t that it is ,irst sn' to a !hild. is ne!essary ,or !ontrast$
I ,ear makin' this analysis o, the novel too eGa!tin'. o, interest only to
s4e!ialists$ It is di,,i!lt ,or a nons4e!ialist ;like mysel,= to illstrate the
'eneral laws o, art in s!h minte detail$ For I am not a showman bt a
sho:er.
@onetheless. I will tell yo one more detail$ Fhen Ri'ad a44ears in his
new role. the athor at ,irst shows his Hse!ondary si'n$H @o one !an say
whether he is handsome or 'ly. and it is only later that the se!ond si'n is
de4loyed. and it is at this moment o, the se!ond si'n that re!o'nition takes
4la!e ;!ha4ter ((=$
Here we see the eG4ression o, the !stomary law o, ste41by1ste4 !on1
str!tion in art$
<!h the same !an be said ,or the Hnoises in the hose$H By not allowin'
s time ,or a real resoltion and !on,sin' s with &,,eryEs 4r4ose,lly
misleadin' resoltion. %i!kens 4rod!es new details9 at ,irst. sim4ly a
noise. then in s!!ession the noise o, somethin' ,ra'ile ,allin'. the rstlin'
o, dry material and the Hnoise o, somethin' reminis!ent o, ,allin' leavesH
Dic0ens and the %ystery 2o'el
;book :=$ Sbse?ently. when the door ,ails to o4en. &,,ery o,,ers her a
,alse resoltion9 HTheyEre hidin' someone in the hose$H &t the same time.
tho'h. new te!hni!al instr!tions are 'iven in her own words that are very
4re!ise9EH$ $ $ who is$ $ $ drawin' lines on the wallLH This 4assa'e has to do
with a des!ri4tion o, the !ra!ks on the wall$
#et s retrn to Ri'ad. whom we have ,or'otten in or analysis o, the
novelEs ste41by1ste4 !onstr!tion$ Ri'ad himsel, is nothin' more than a
thie, o, do!ments$ He is a 4assive bearer o, a se!ret$ He does not have Hhis
own 4lot.H as does Svidri'ailov. who 4lays a similar role in -rime and
Punishment.
&n even more sbsidiary role is 4layed by <iss Fade$
Fhat is the eG4lanation ,or the s!!ess o, the mystery novel. ,rom &nn
Rad!li,,e to %i!kensL
This is the way I see the matter$ The adventre novel had be!ome
obsolete$ It was revived by satire$ There are elements o, the adventre novel
in Swi,t )?ulli'er(s Tra'els* that 4lay a 4rely an!illary role in the novel$
& time o, !risis ,ollowed$
Fieldin' 4arodied the old novel in Tom Gones by 4resentin' a hero o,
amoral !hara!ter$ Instead o, the traditional loyalty eG4ressed by the lover
embarkin' on his adventres. we witness the merry es!a4ades o, Tom Kones$
Sterne !om4osed a 4arody that was even more radi!al$ He 4arodied the
very str!tre o, the novel by reviewin' all o, its devi!es$ Simltaneosly. a
new. yon'er 'eneration. as4irin' to !anoni5ation. be'an its as!ent$
It was Ri!hardson who !anoni5ed the latter$ &!!ordin' to le'end.
Ri!hardson wanted to write a new manal o, letter writin' bt ended 4
writin' an e4istolary novel instead$
&t the same time. horror stories emer'e on the s!ene. alon' with the
Pinkertons o, that a'e$ Fe also meet with &nn Rad!li,,e and the mystery
novel ;<atrin=$
The old novel tried to in!rease the ran'e o, its devi!es by introd!in'
4arallel intri'es$
In order to !onne!t several intri'es. it was ,ond !onvenient to se the
te!hni?e o, the mystery novel$
The ,inal reslt was the !om4leG 4lot str!tres o, %i!kens$ The mystery
novel allows s to inter4olate into the work lar'e !hnks o, everyday li,e.
whi!h. while servin' the 4r4ose o, im4edin' the a!tion. ,eel the 4ressre o,
the 4lot and are there,ore 4er!eived as a 4art o, the artisti! whole$ Ths are
the des!ri4tions o, the debtorsE 4rison. the -ir!mlo!tion O,,i!e. and
Bleedin' Heart Yard in!or4orated into "ittle Dorrit. That is why the
mystery novel was sed as a Hso!ial novel$H
&t the 4resent time. as IEve indi!ated. the mystery te!hni?e is sed by
s!h yon' Rssian writers as Pilnyak. Slonimsky )$arsa:* and by
Veniamin Iaverin$ In Iaverin we witness a H%i!kensianH denoement
167 Theory of Prose
with a list o, all o, the 4rin!i4al !hara!ters$ However. this is not so m!h
reminis!en!e as 4arody9
1Eno'h.H I said. enterin'. at lon' last. into the sho4$ HFhat nonsense are yo
babblin' here$ I !anEt make heads or tails$ &nd is there any sense in 'ettin' so
eG!ited over s!h a 4etty thin'LH
I 4i!ked 4 a lar'e lam4 with a dark ble lam4shade and lit its bri'ht name. so that
I !old look intently at those 4resent one last time be,ore sayin' 'ood1bye$
HYoEll 'et what yo deserve ,or thisM yo ha!kMH Fra Ba!h 'rmbled$ HFhat
'ives yo the idea that yo !an a!t as i, yo were at homeLMH
HPi4e down. Fra Ba!hMH I said with ,ll !om4osre$ HI need to say a ,ew words to
all o, yo be,ore biddin' ,arewell$H
I 'ot 4 on the !hair. waved my arms and said9 H&ttention. 4leaseMH Instantly. the
,a!es o, all 4resent trned to me9
H &ttentionM This is the ,inal !ha4ter. my dear ,riends$ Soon we shall have to 4art$ I
have !ome to love ea!h and every one o, yo. and this se4aration shall be very hard
on me$ Bt time 'oes on. the 4lot is sed 4. and nothin' !old be more borin' than
to revive the state. to trn it arond. and then to marry him to the virtos$$$H
H<ay I be so bold as to observe.H a stran'er interr4ted me. Hthat it wold be very
hel4,l. my dear writer. to eG4lain a nmber o, thin's ,irst$H
HYesLH I said. li,tin' my eyebrows in sr4rise$ H%id anythin' seem n!lear to yo
at the endLH
HI, I may be so bold as to in?ire.H the stran'er !ontined with a !orteos bt
!nnin' smile$ HI mean. what abot the !harlatan. who$ $ $H
HTshMH I interr4ted him with a !atios whis4er$ HPlease. not a word abot the
!harlatan$ <m is the word$ In yor 4la!e. my dear ,riend. I wold have asked why
the 4ro,essor ,ell silent$H
HYo threw into the envelo4e some kind o, a 4oisonos dr'.H said Bor$
H How sillyMH I re4lied. HYo are a tedios yon' man. Robert Bor$ The 4ro,essor
,ell silent. be!ase $ $ $ H &t this very instant. Ba!hEs old wi,e 4t ot the lam4$ In the
darkness I !are,lly !limbed down ,rom the !hair. shook tenderly the hands o, all
4resent and walked ot$ ;HThe -hroni!le o, the -ity o, #ei45i' ,or the Year (/>E=
Fe see here the layin' bare o, the %i!kensian devi!e$ &s in the !ase o,
the En'lish writer. all o, the 4rota'onists are bro'ht to'ether$ It is not.
however. the !hara!ters who eG4lain the a!tion bt the athor himsel,$
Fhat we have be,ore s is not a denoement. as s!h$ Instead. the devi!e
,or its resoltion is 4ointed ot$ There is no real denoement be!ase the
sor!e o, motivation here is 4arody$
-hapter @
The @ovel as Parody9
SterneEs Tristram Shandy
I do not intend in this !ha4ter to analy5e #aren!e SterneEs novel$ Rather.
I shall se it in order to illstrate the 'eneral laws 'overnin' 4lot str!tre$
Sterne was a radi!al revoltionary as ,ar as ,orm is !on!erned$ It was
ty4i!al o, him to lay bare the devi!e$ The aestheti! ,orm is 4resented
withot any motivation whatsoever. sim4ly as is$ The di,,eren!e between
the !onventional novel and that o, Steme is analo'os to the di,,eren!e
between a !onventional 4oem with sonoros instrmentation and a Ftrist
4oem !om4osed in transrational lan'a'e )=aumnyi ya=y0*. @othin' has
as yet been written abot Sterne. or i, so. then only a ,ew trivial !omments$
D4on ,irst 4i!kin' 4 SterneEs Tristram Shandy we are overwhelmed by
a sense o, !haos$
The a!tion !onstantly breaks o,,. the athor !onstantly retrns to the
be'innin' or lea4s ,orward$ The main 4lot. not immediately a!!essible. is
!onstantly interr4ted by do5ens o, 4a'es ,illed with whimsi!al delibera1
tions on the in,len!e o, a 4ersonEs nose or name on his !hara!ter or else
with dis!ssions o, ,orti,i!ations$
The book o4ens. as it were. in the s4irit o, atobio'ra4hy. bt soon it is
de,le!ted ,rom its !orse by a des!ri4tion o, the heroEs birth$ @evertheless.
or hero. 4shed aside by material inter4olated into the novel. !annot. it
a44ears. 'et born$
Tristram Shandy trns into a des!ri4tion o, one day$ #et me ?ote
Sterne himsel,9
I will not ,inish that senten!e till I have made an observation 4on the stran'e
state o, a,,airs between the reader and mysel,. jst as thin's stand at 4resent11111111an
observation never a44li!able be,ore to any one bio'ra4hi!al writer sin!e the
!reation o, the world. bt to mysel,111111and I believe will never hold 'ood to any
other. ntil its ,inal destr!tion111111and there,ore. ,or the very novelty o, it alone. it
mst be worth yor worshi4s attendin' to$
I am this month one whole year older than I was this time twelve1month9 and
havin' 'ot. as yo 4er!eive. almost into the middle o, my ,orth volme11111111and no
,arther than to my ,irst dayEs li,e111111Etis demonstrative that I have three hndred and
siGty1,or days more li,e to write jst now. than when I ,irst set ot8 so that instead o,
16; Theory of Prose
advan!in'. as a !ommon writer. in my work with what I have been doin' at it>Pon
the !ontrary. I am jst thrown so many volmes ba!k> ;:/A1/C=V
Bt when yo eGamine the str!tre o, the book more !losely. yo
4er!eive ,irst o, all that this disorder is intentional$ There is method to
SterneEs madness$ It is as re'lar as a 4aintin' by Pi!asso$
Everythin' in the novel has been dis4la!ed and rearran'ed$ The dedi!a1
tion to the book makes its a44earan!e on 4a'e :A. even tho'h it violates the
three basi! demands o, a dedi!ation. as re'ards !ontent. ,orm. and 4la!e$
The 4re,a!e is no less nsal$ It o!!4ies nearly ten ,ll 4rinted 4a'es.
bt it is ,ond not in the be'innin' o, the book bt in volme 0. !ha4ter :*.
4a'es ():1:*0$ The a44earan!e o, this 4re,a!e is motivated by the ,a!t that
&ll my heroes are o,, my hands811111Etis the ,irst time I have had a moment to
s4are$11111 and IEll make se o, it. and write my 4re,a!e$
Sterne 4lls ot all the sto4s in his in'enios attem4t to !on,ond the
reader$ &s his !rownin' a!hievement. he trans4oses a nmber o, !ha4ters in
Tristram Shandy ;i$e$. !ha4ters (/ and () o, volme ) !ome a,ter !ha4ter
:A=$ This is motivated by the ,a!t that9 H&ll I wish is. that it may be a lesson
to the world. (to let people tell their stories their o:n :a'9 H ;C00=$
However. the rearran'ement o, the !ha4ters merely lays bare another
,ndamental devi!e by Sterne whi!h im4edes the a!tion$
&t ,irst Sterne introd!es an ane!dote !on!ernin' a woman who inter1
r4ts the seGal a!t by askin' a ?estion ;A=$
This ane!dote is worked into the narrative as ,ollows9 Tristram ShandyEs
,ather is intimate with his wi,e only on the ,irst Snday o, every month. and
we ,ind him on that very evenin' windin' the !lo!k so as to 'et his domesti!
dties Hot o, the way at one time. and be no more 4la'ed and 4esterEd with
them the rest o, the monthH ;/=$
Thanks to this !ir!mstan!e. an irresistible asso!iation has arisen in his
wi,eEs mind9 as soon as she hears the windin' o, the !lo!k. she is immedi1
ately reminded o, somethin' di,,erent. and vi!e versa ;:*=$ It is 4re!isely
with the ?estion 9Pray my dear . . . ha'e you not for5ot to :ind up the
cloc0H9 ;A= that TristramEs mother interr4ts her hsbandEs a!t$
This ane!dote is 4re!eded by a 'eneral dis!ssion on the !arelessness o,
4arents ;21A=. whi!h is ,ollowed in trn by the ?estion 4osed by his mother
;A=. whi!h remains nrelated to anythin' at this 4oint$ FeEre at ,irst nder
the im4ression that she has interr4ted her hsbandEs s4ee!h$ Sterne 4lays
with or error9
?ood ?ES !ried my ,ather. makin' an eG!lamation. bt takin' !are to moderate
his voi!e at the same time$ 1>1 9Did e'er :oman since the creation of the :orld.
VPa'e re,eren!es are to Kames &$ ForkEs edition ;Odyssey Press.
l)2O=
3;6e oPnal sed a
Rssian translation o, Tristram Shandy that a44eared in Panleon literatury
in (/):$
The 2o'el as Parody 16B
interrupt a man :ith such a silly 8uestionH Pray. what was yor ,ather sayin'L
> @othin'$ ;A=
This is ,ollowed ;A1C= by a dis!ssion o, the homn!ls ;,ets=. s4i!ed
4 with ane!dotal allsions to its ri'ht o, 4rote!tion nder the law$
It is only on 4a'es /1) that we re!eive an eG4lanation o, the stran'e
4n!tality 4ra!ti!ed by or heroEs ,ather in his domesti! a,,airs$
So. ,rom the very be'innin' o, the novel. we see in Tristram Shandy a
dis4la!ement in time$ -ases ,ollow e,,e!ts. the 4ossibilities ,or ,alse
resoltions are 4re4ared by the athor himsel,$ This is a 4erennial devi!e in
Sterne$ The 4aronomasti! moti, o, !oits. asso!iated with a 4arti!lar day.
4ervades the entire novel$ &44earin' ,rom time to time. it serves to !onne!t
the varios 4arts o, this nsally !om4leG master4ie!e$
I, we were to re4resent the matter s!hemati!ally. it wold take on the
,ollowin' ,orm9 the event itsel, wold be symboli5ed by a !one. while the
!ase wold be symboli5ed by its a4eG$ In a !onventional novel. s!h a
!one is atta!hed to the main 4lot line o, the novel 4re!isely by its a4eG$
In Sterne. on the !ontrary. the !one is atta!hed to the main 4lot line by
its base$ Fe are ths immediately thrst into a swarm o, allsions and
insinations$
S!h tem4oral trans4ositions are ,re?ently met with in the 4oeti!s o, the
novel$ #et s re!all. ,or eGam4le. the tem4oral rearran'ement in A 2est of
the ?entry whi!h is motivated by #avretskyEs reminis!en!e$ Or then a'ain
HOblomovEs %ream$H Similarly. we en!onter tem4oral trans4ositions
withot motivation in "o'olEs Dead Souls ;-hi!hikovEs !hildhood and
TentetnikovEs 4brin'in'=$ In Sterne. however. this devi!e 4ervades the
entire work$
The eG4osition. the 4re4aration o, a 'iven !hara!ter !omes only a,ter we
have already 455led lon' and hard over some stran'e word or eG!lamation
already ttered by this same !hara!ter$
Fe are witnessin' here a layin' bare o, the devi!e$ In The #el0in Tales
;e$'$. HThe ShotH=. Pshkin makes eGtensive se o, tem4oral trans4osition$
&t ,irst we see Silvio 4ra!ti!in' at the shootin' ran'e. then we hear SilvioEs
story abot the n,inished del. then we meet the !ont. SilvioEs adversary.
and this is !limaGed by the denoement$ The varios se'ments are 'iven in
the ,ollowin' se?en!e9 :1(10$ Yet this 4ermtation is !learly motivated.
while Sterne. on the !ontrary. lays bare the devi!e$ &s I have already said.
SterneEs trans4osition is an end in itsel,9
Fhat I have to in,orm yo. !omes. I own. a little ot o, its de !orse8 >>,or it
shold have been told a hndred and ,i,ty 4a'es a'o. bt that I ,oresaw then Etwold
!ome in 4at herea,ter. and be o, more advanta'e here than elsewhere$ ;(22=
In addition. Sterne lays bare the devi!e by whi!h he stit!hes the novel ot
o, individal stories$ He does so. in 'eneral. by mani4latin' the str!tre
o, his novel. and it is the !ons!iosness o, ,orm thro'h its violation that
!onstittes the !ontent o, the novel$
1F> Theory of Prose
In my !ha4ter on Don Quixote I have already noted several !anoni!al
devi!es ,or inte'ratin' tales into a novel$
Sterne makes se o, new devi!es or. when sin' old ones. he does not
!on!eal their !onventionality$ Rather. he 4lays with them by thrstin' them
to the ,ore$
In the !onventional novel an inset story is interr4ted by the main story$
I, the main story !onsists o, two or more 4lots. then 4assa'es ,rom them
,ollow alternately. as in Don Quixote where s!enes o, the heroEs adven1
tres at the dkeEs !ort alternate with s!enes de4i!tin' San!ho Pan5aEs
'overnorshi4$
Nelinsky 4oints ot somethin' !om4letely !ontrary in Homer$ He never
de4i!ts two simltaneos a!tions$ Even i, the !orse o, events demands
simltaneity. still they are 4resented in a !asal se?en!e$ The only siml1
taneity 4ossible o!!rs when Homer shows s one 4rota'onist in a!tion.
while alldin' to another 4rota'onist in his ina!tive state$
Steme allows ,or simltaneity o, a!tion. bt he 4arodies the de4loyment
o, the 4lot line and the intrsion o, new material into it$
In the ,irst 4art o, the novel we are o,,ered. as material ,or develo4ment. a
des!ri4tion o, Tristram ShandyEs birth$ This des!ri4tion o!!4ies :BC
4a'es. hardly any o, whi!h deals with the des!ri4tion o, the birth itsel,$
Instead. what is develo4ed ,or the most 4art is the !onversation between the
,ather o, or hero and Dn!le Toby$ This is how the develo4ment takes
4la!e9
111 I wonder whatEs all that noise. and rnnin' ba!kwards and ,orwards ,or.
above stairs. ?oth my ,ather. addressin' himsel,. a,ter an hor and a hal,Es silen!e.
to my n!le Toby.111111who yo mst know. was sittin' on the o44osite side o, the
,ire. smokin' his so!ial 4i4e all the time. in mte !ontem4lation o, a new 4air o,
bla!k14lsh1bree!hes whi!h he had 'ot on8111111Fhat !an they be doin' brotherL
?oth my ,ather.11111we !an s!ar!e hear orselves talk$
I think. re4lied my n!le Toby. takin' his 4i4e ,rom his moth. and strikin' the
head o, it two or three times 4on the nail o, his le,t thmb. as he be'an his senten!e.
1 1I think. says he9111111Bt to enter ri'htly into my n!le TobyEs sentiments 4on
this matter. yo mst be made to enter ,irst a little into his !hara!ter. the ot1lines o,
whi!h I shall jst 'ive yo. and then the dialo'e between him and my ,ather will 'o
on as well a'ain$ ;C0=
& dis!ssion !on!ernin' in!onstan!y be'ins immediately therea,ter$
This dis!ssion is so whimsi!al that the only way to !onvey it wold be to
literally trans!ribe it verbatim$ On 4a'e CA Sterne remembers9 HBt I ,or'et
my n!le Toby. whom all this while we have le,t kno!kin' the ashes ot o,
his toba!!o 4i4e$H
-onversations !on!ernin' Dn!le Toby. alon' with a brie, history o, &nt
%inah ,ollow$ On 4a'e B: Sterne remembers9 HI was jst 'oin'. ,or eGam4le.
to have 'iven yo the 'reat ot1lines o, my n!le TobyEs most whimsi!al
!hara!ter.111111when my ant %inah and the !oa!hman !ame a1!ross s. and
led s a va'ary$ $ $ $H
The 2o'el as Parody 1F1
Dn,ortnately I !annot ?ote all o, Sterne and shall there,ore lea4
over a lar'e 4art o, the teGt9
,rom the be'innin' o, this. yo see. I have !onstr!ted the main work and
the adventitios 4arts o, it with s!h interse!tions. and have so
!om4li!ated and involved the di'ressive and 4ro'ressive movements. one
wheel within another. that
the whole ma!hine. in 'eneral. has been ke4t a1'oin'81111111and. whatEs more. it
shall
be ke4t a1'oin' these ,orty years. i, it 4leases the ,ontain o, health to bless
me so lon' with li,e and 'ood s4irits$ ;B01B2=
So ends !ha4ter ::$ It is ,ollowed by !ha4ter :09 HI have a stron'
4ro4ensity in me to be'in this !ha4ter very nonsensi!ally. and I will not
balk
my ,an!y$11111&!!ordin'ly I set o,, ths$H
Fe have be,ore s new di'ressions$
On 4a'e BB the athor reminds s that9 HI, I was not morally sre that
the reader mst be ot o, all 4atien!e ,or my n!le TobyEs
!hara!ter.$ $ $H
& 4a'e later be'ins a des!ri4tion o, Dn!le TobyEs HHobby1HorseH
;i$e$. his mania=$ It trns ot that Dn!le Toby. who was wonded in
the 'roin at the sie'e o, @amr. has a 4assion ,or bildin' model
,ortresses$ Finally. however. on 4a'e )). Dn!le Toby ,inishes the task
he had started on 4a'e C09
I think. re4lied my n!le Toby.>1takin'. as I told yo. his 4i4e ,rom his
moth.
and strikin' the ashes ot o, it as he be'an his senten!e81111111( think. re4lied
he.>1it
wold not be amiss. brother. i, we rn' the bell$
This devi!e is !onstantly sed by Sterne and. as is evident ,rom
his ,a!etios reminders o, Dn!le Toby. heEs not only aware o, the
hy4erboli! natre o, s!h develo4ment bt 4lays with it$
This method o, develo4in' the a!tion is. as IEve already said. the norm
,or Sterne$ HereEs an eGam4le ,rom 4a'e (229 HI wish.$ $ $ yo had
seen what 4rodi'ios armies we had in Flanders$H This is immediately
,ollowed by a develo4ment o, the material !on!erned with the ,atherEs
mania$ The ,ollowin' manias are woven into the !hara!ter o,
Tristram ShandyEs ,ather9 the sbje!t o, the harm,l e,,e!t o, the
4ressre eGerted on the babyEs head by the motherEs !ontra!tions
drin' labor ;(2)1A2=. the in,len!e o, a 4ersonEs name on his !hara!ter
;this moti, is develo4ed in 'reat detail=. and the e,,e!t o, the si5e o, the
nose on a 4ersonEs ,a!lties ;this moti, is develo4ed with nsal
ma'ni,i!en!e ,rom 4a'e :(B on=$ &,ter a brie, 4ase be'ins the
develo4ment o, the material !on!erned with the !rios stories abot
noses$ Es4e!ially remarkable is the story o, Slawkenber'is$
TristramEs ,ather knows a ,ll ten do5en stories by this man$ The
develo4ment o, the theme o, noseolo'y !on!ldes on 4a'e :B:$
<r$ ShandyEs ,irst mania also 4lays a role in this develo4ment$ That
is. Sterne di'resses in order to s4eak abot it The main 4lot retrns
on 4a'e (AB9
1F3 Theory of Prose
HI wish$ %r$ Slo4.H ?oth my n!le Toby ;re4eatin' his wish ,or %r$ Slo4 a
se!ond time. and with a de'ree o, more 5eal and earnestness in his manner o,
wishin'. than he had wished it at ,irst=111111H I wish$ %r$ Slo4.H ?oth my n!le Toby
9'ou had seen :hat prodi5ious armies :e had in ,landers. 9
&'ain. the develo4mental material intrdes$
On 4a'e (C0 we a'ain ,ind9 H EFhat 4rodi'ios armies yo had in
FlandersME H
This !ons!ios. eGa''erated develo4ment o,ten takes 4la!e in Sterne
even withot the se o, a re4etitive. !onne!tive 4hrase9
The moment my ,ather 'ot 4 into his !hamber. he threw himsel, 4rostrate a!ross
his bed in the wildest disorder ima'inable. bt at the same time. in the most lamen1
table attitde o, a man borne down with sorrows. that ever the eye o, 4ity dro44Ed a
tear ,or$ ;:(A1(C=
There ,ollows a des!ri4tion o, a bodily 4ostre. very !hara!teristi! o,
Sterne9
The 4alm o, his ri'ht hand. as he ,ell 4on the bed. re!eivin' his ,orehead. and
!overin' the 'reatest 4art o, both his eyes. 'ently snk down with his head ;his elbow
'ivin' way ba!kwards= till his nose to!hEd the ?ilt911111his le,t arm hn' insensible
over the side o, the bed. his kn!kles re!linin' 4on the handle o, the !hamber 4ot$
whi!h 4ee4Ed ot beyond the valan!e.11111his ri'ht le' ;his le,t bein' drawn 4
towards his body= hn' hal, over the side o, the bed. the ed'e o, it 4ressin' 4on his
shin1bone$
<r$ ShandyEs des4air is !alled ,orth by the ,a!t that the brid'e o, his sonEs
nose was !rshed drin' delivery by the midwi,eEs ton's$ This o!!asions
;as I have already said= a whole e4i! on noses$ On 4a'e :B0 we retrn
on!e more to the bedridden ,ather9 H<y ,ather lay stret!hed a!ross the bed as
still as i, the hand o, death had 4shed him down. ,or a ,ll hor and a
hal,. be,ore he be'an to 4lay 4on the ,loor with the toe o, that ,oot. whi!h
hn' over the bed1side$H
(
I !annot restrain mysel, ,rom sayin' a ,ew words abot SterneEs 4ostres
in 'eneral$ Sterne was the ,irst writer to introd!e a des!ri4tion o, 4oses into
the novel$ TheyEre always de4i!ted by him in a stran'e manner. or rather
they are enstran'ed$
Here is another eGam4le9 HBrother Toby. re4lied my ,ather. takin' his
wi' ,rom o,, his head with his ri'ht hand. and with his left 4llin' ot a
stri4ed India handker!hie, ,rom his ri'ht !oat 4o!ket.$ $ H ;(A/=$
#et s move ri'ht on to the neGt 4a'e9 HIt was not an easy matter in any
kin'Es rei'n. ;nless yo were as lean a sbje!t as mysel,= to have ,or!ed
yor hand dia'onally. ?ite a!ross yor whole body. so as to 'ain the
bottom o, yor o44osite !oat14o!ket$H
SterneEs method o, de4i!tin' 4ostres was inherited by #eo Tolstoi
;Eikhenbam=. bt in a weaker ,orm and with a 4sy!holo'i!al motivation$
#et s now retrn to the develo4ment$ I shall o,,er several eGam4les of
The 2o'el as Parody 1F4
develo4ment in Sterne. and I shall sele!t a !ase in whi!h the devi!e trns
4on itsel,. so to s4eak. that is. where the reali5ation o, the ,orm !onstittes
the !ontent o, the work9
Fhat a !ha4ter o, !han!es. said my ,ather. trnin' himsel, abot 4on the ,irst
landin'. as he and my n!le Toby were 'oin' down stairs111111what a lon' !ha4ter o,
!han!es do the events o, this world lay o4en to sM ;:B)=
& dis!ssion with an eroti! tin'e. o, whi!h I shall s4eak more later9
Is it not a shame to make two !ha4ters o, what 4assed in 'oin' down one 4air o,
stairsL ,or we are 'ot no ,arther yet than to the ,irst landin'. and there are ,i,teen more
ste4s down to the bottom8 and ,or a'ht I know. as my ,ather and my n!le Toby are
in a talkin' hmor. there may be as many !ha4ters as ste4s$ ;:/(=
This entire !ha4ter is dedi!ated by Sterne to a dis!ssion o, !ha4ters$
&ol. 6 chap. 11. Fe shall brin' all thin's to ri'hts. said my ,ather. settin' his ,oot
4on the ,irst ste4 ,rom the landin'$ $ $ $ ;:/0=
-hap. 13.-----&nd how does yor mistressL !ried my ,ather. takin' the same ste4
over a'ain ,rom the landin'. $ $ $ ;:/2=
-hap. 14. HollaM11111yo !hairmanM>hereEs siG4en!e111111do ste4 into that
booksellerEs sho4. and !all me a day-tall !riti!k$ I am very willin' to 'ive any one o,
Eem a !rown to hel4 me with his ta!klin'. to 'et my ,ather and my n!le Toby o,, the
stairs. and to 4t them to bed$ $ $ $
I am this month one whole year older than I was this time twelve1month8 and
havin' 'ot. as yo 4er!eive. almost into the middle o, my ,orth volme1111111and no
,arther than to my ,irst dayEs li,e111111Etis demonstrative that I have three hndred and
siGty1,or days more li,e to write jst now. than when I ,irst set ot8 so that instead o,
advan!in'. as a !ommon writer. in my work with what I have been doin' at it11111111on
the !ontrary$ I am jst thrown so many volmes ba!k$ $ $$ ;:/A1/C=
This orientation towards ,orm and towards the normative as4e!t o, that
,orm reminds s o, the o!taves and sonnets whi!h were ,illed with nothin'
bt a des!ri4tion o, the ,a!t o, their !om4osition$
I wold like to add one ,inal eGam4le o, SterneEs develo4ment9
<y mother was 'oin' very 'in'erly in the dark alon' the 4assa'e whi!h led to the
4arlor. as my n!le Toby 4ronon!ed the word :ife.->ETis a shrill. 4enetratin'
sond o, itsel,. and Obadiah had hel4ed it by leavin' the door a little a1jar. so that
my mother heard eno'h o, it. to ima'ine hersel, the sbje!t o, the !onversation9 so
layin' the ed'e o, her ,in'er a!ross her two li4s>1holdin' in her breath. and
bendin' her head a little downwards. with a twist o, her ne!k>;not towards the
door. bt ,rom it. by whi!h means her ear was bro'ht to the !hink=1111111she listened
with all her 4owers9>the listenin' slave. with the "oddess o, Silen!e at his ba!k$
!old not have 'iven a ,iner tho'ht ,or an inta'lio$
In this attitde I am determined to let her stand ,or ,ive mintes9 till I brin' 4 the
a,,airs o, the kit!hen;as Ra4indoes those o, the!hr!h= to the same 4eriod$ ;0AB1A/=
1F6 Theory of Prose
&ol. F chap. 11.1 am a Trk i,l had not as m!h ,or'ot my mother. as i, @atre
had 4laistered me 4. and set me down naked 4on the banks o, the river @ile.
withot one$
However. these reminders are ,ollowed a'ain by di'ressions$ The
reminder itsel, is ne!essary only in order to renew or awareness o, the
H,or'otten mother.H so that its develo4ment wold not ,ade ,rom view$
Finally. on 4a'e 0B*. the mother !han'es her 4ostre9 HThen. !ried my
mother. o4enin' the door. $ $ $H
Here Sterne develo4s the a!tion by resortin' to a se!ond 4arallel story$
Instead o, bein' 4resented dis!rsively. time in s!h novels is tho'ht to
have !ome to a sto4 or. at least. it is no lon'er taken into a!!ont$ Shake1
s4eare ses inset s!enes in 4re!isely this way$ Thrst into the basi! a!tion
o, the 4lot. they de,le!t s ,rom the ,low o, time$ &nd even i, the entire inset
!onversation ;invariably. with new !hara!ters= lasts ,or only a ,ew mintes.
the athor !onsiders it 4ossible to !arry on the a!tion ;4resmably withot
lowerin' the 4ros!enim !rtain whi!h in Shakes4eareEs theater most likely
did not eGist=. as i, hors had 4assed or even an entire ni'ht ;Silverswan=$
By mentionin' them and by remindin' s o, the ,a!t that his mother has been
le,t standin' bent over. Sterne ,l,ills the devi!e and !om4els s to eG4eri1
en!e it$
It is interestin' in 'eneral to stdy the role o, time in SterneEs works$
H#iteraryH time is 4re !onventionality whose laws do not !oin!ide with the
laws o, ordinary time$ I, we were to eGamine. ,or eGam4le. the 4lethora o,
stories and in!idents 4a!ked into Don Quixote we wold 4er!eive that the
day as s!h hardly eGists at all. sin!e the !y!le o, day and ni'ht does not
4lay a !om4ositional role in the alternation o, events$ Similarly in &bbe
PrevostEs narration in %anon "escaut. the -hevalier de "rieG relates the
,irst 4art o, the novel in one ,ell swoo4. and then a,ter takin' a breather. he
relates the remainder$ S!h a !onversation wold last abot siGteen hors.
and only i, the -hevalier read them thro'h ?i!kly$
I have already s4oken abot the !onventionality o, time onsta'e$ In
Sterne this !onventionality o, HliteraryH time is !ons!iosly tili5ed as
material ,or 4lay$
Volme :. !ha4ter /9
It is abot an hor and a hal,Es tolerable 'ood readin' sin!e my n!le Toby rn'
the bell. when Obadiah was orderH d to saddle a horse. and 'o ,or %r$ Slo4 the man1
midwi,e811111so that no one !an say. with reason. that I have not allowed Obadiah
time eno'h. 4oeti!ally s4eakin'. and !onsiderin' the emer'en!y too. both to 'o and
!ome811111thoa morally and trly s4eakin'. the man. 4erha4s. has s!ar!e had time to
'et on his boots$
I, the hy4er!riti!k will 'o 4on this8 and is resolved a,ter all to take a 4endlm.
and measre the tre distan!e betwiGt the rin'in' o, the bell. and the ra4 at the door$
111and. a,ter ,indin' it to be no more than two mintes. thirteen se!onds. and three
,i,ths.>>shold take 4on him to inslt over me ,or s!h a brea!h in the nity. or
rather 4robability. o, time8111111( wold remind him. that the idea o, dration and o,
The 2o'el as Parody 1FF
its sim4le modes. is 'ot merely ,rom the train and s!!ession o, or ideas.1111111and is
the tre s!holasti!k 4endlm$11111and by whi!h. as a s!holar. I will be tried in this
maiter.111111abjrin' and detestin' the jrisdi!tion o, all other 4endlms what
ever$
I wold. there,ore. desire him to !onsider that it is bt 4oor ei'ht miles ,rom
Shandy1Hall to %r$ Slo4. the man mid1wi,eEs hose8111111and that whilst Obadiah
has been 'oin' those said miles and ba!k. I have bro'ht my n!le Toby ,rom
@amr$ ?ite a!ross all Flanders. into En'land9111111That I have had him ill 4on
my hands near ,or years8111111and have sin!e travelled him and -or4oral Trim.
in a !hariot and ,or. a jorney o, near two hndred miles down into Yorkshire81111111
all whi!h 4t to'ether. mst have 4re4ared the readerEs ima'ination ,or the entran!e
o, %r$ Slo4 4on the sta'e.111111as m!h. at least. ;I ho4e= as a dan!e. a son'. or a
!on!erto between the a!ts$ I, my hy4er!riti!k is intra!table. alled'in'. that two
mintes and thirteen se!onds
are no more than two mintes and thirteen se!onds.111111when I have said all I !an
abot them811111and that this 4lea. thoE it mi'ht save me dramati!ally. will damn me
bio'ra4hi!ally. renderin' my book. ,rom this very moment. a 4ro,essEd RO<&@-E.
whi!h. be,ore was a book a4o!ry4hal9>I, I am ths 4ressed1111111( then 4t an end
to the whole obje!tion and !ontroversy abot it all at on!e.1111111by a!?aintin' him.
that Obadiah had not 'ot above threes!ore yards ,rom the stable1yard be,ore he met
with %r$ Slo4$ ;(*012=
From the old devi!es. and with hardly a !han'e. Sterne made se o, the
devi!e o, the H,ond mans!ri4t$H This is the way in whi!h Yori!kEs sermon
is introd!ed into the novel$ Bt the readin' o, this ,ond mans!ri4t does
not re4resent a lon' di'ression ,rom the novel and is !onstantly interr4ted
mainly by emotional otbrsts$ The sermon o!!4ies 4a'es ((B12( bt it is
vi'orosly 4shed aside by SterneEs sal inter4retations$
The readin' be'ins with a des!ri4tion o, the !or4oralEs 4ostre. as
de4i!ted with the deliberate awkwardness so ty4i!al o, Sterne9
He stood be,ore them with his body swayed. and bent ,orwards jst so ,ar$ as to
make an an'le o, /A de'rees and a hal, 4on the 4lain o, the hori5on8>whi!h
sond orators. to whom I address this. know very well. to be the tre 4ersasive
an'le o, in!iden!e8 $ $ $ ;(::=
#ater he a'ain writes9
He stood.11111,or I re4eat it. to take the 4i!tre o, him in at one view. with his body
swayEd. and somewhat bent ,orwards.>1his ri'ht le' ,irm nder him. sstainin'
seven1ei'hths o, his whole wei'ht.111111the ,oot o, his le,t le'$ the de,e!t o, whi!h was
no disadvanta'e to his attitde. advan!ed a little.1>not laterally. nor ,orwards. bt
in a line betwiGt them9 $ $ $
&nd so on$ The whole des!ri4tion o!!4ies more than a 4a'e$ The sermon
is interr4ted by the story o, -or4oral TrimEs brother$ This is ,ollowed by the
dissentin' theolo'i!al inter4olations o, the -atholi! listener ; (:A. (:C.
(:/. (:). et!$= and by Dn!le TobyHs !omment on ,orti,i!ations ;(00$ (02.
et!$=$ In this way the readin' o, the mans!ri4t in Sterne is ,ar more !losely
linked to the novel than in -ervantes$
1F7 Theory of Prose
The ,ond mans!ri4t in Sentimental Gourney be!ame SterneEs ,avorite
devi!e$ In it he dis!overs the mans!ri4t o, Rabelais. as he s44oses$ The
mans!ri4t breaks o,,. as is ty4i!al ,or Sterne. ,or a dis!ssion abot the art
o, wra44in' mer!handise$ The n,inished story is !anoni!al ,or Sterne. both
in its motivated as well as nmotivated ,orms$ Fhen the mans!ri4t is
introd!ed into the novel. the break is motivated by the loss o, its !on!l1
sion$ The sim4le break whi!h !on!ldes Tristram Shand' is !om4letely
nmotivated9
#11dM said my mother. what is all this story abotL>1
& !o!k and a bll. said Yori!k11 1 1&nd one o, the best o, its kind$ I ever heard$
Sentimental Gourney ends in the same way9 H$ $ $ So that when I stret!hEd
ot my hand$ I !a'ht hold o, the Fille de -hambreEs>1H
This is o, !orse a de,inite stylisti! devi!e based on di,,erential ?alities$
Sterne was writin' a'ainst a ba!k'rond o, the adventre novel with its
eGtremely ri'oros ,orms that demanded. amon' other thin's. that a novel
end with a weddin' or marria'e$ The ,orms most !hara!teristi! o, Sterne are
those whi!h reslt ,rom the dis4la!ement and violation o, !onventional
,orms$ He a!ts no di,,erently when it is time ,or him to !on!lde his novels$
It is as i, we ,ell 4on them9 on the stair!ase. ,or instan!e. in the very 4la!e
where we eG4e!t to ,ind a landin'. we ,ind instead a 'a4in' hole$ "o'olEs
HIvan Fyodorovi!h Sh4onka and His &ntieH re4resents jst s!h a
method o, endin' a story. bt with a motivation9 the last 4a'e o, the man1
s!ri4t 'oes ,or the wra44in' o, baked 4ies$ ;Sterne. on the other hand. ses
the endin' o, his mans!ri4t to wra4 bla!k !rrant 4reserves$= The notes ,or
Ho,,mannEs <ater %urr 4resent m!h the same 4i!tre. with a motivated
absen!e o, the endin'. bt they are !om4li!ated by a tem4oral trans4osition
;that is. they are motivated by the ,a!t that the 4a'es are in disarray= and by
a 4arallel str!tre$
The tale o, #e Fever is introd!ed by Sterne in a thoro'hly traditional
way$ TristramEs birth o!!asions a dis!ssion !on!ernin' the !hoi!e o, a
ttor$ Dn!le Toby 4ro4oses ,or the role the 4oor son o, #e Fever. and ths
be'ins an inset tale. :hich is carried on in the name of the author.
Then. brother Shandy. answered my n!le Toby. raisin' himsel, o,, the !hair. and
layin' down his 4i4e to take hold o, my ,atherEs other hand$1111111( hmbly be' I may
re!ommend 4oor #e FeverEs son to yo8111111a tear o, joy o, the ,irst water s4arkled
in my n!le TobyEs eye.111111and another. the ,ellow to it$ in the !or4oralEs as the
4ro4osition was made8>>yo will see why when yo read #e FeverEs story9>>
,ool that I wasM nor !an I re!olle!t. ;nor 4erha4s yo= withot trnin' ba!k to the
4la!e. what it was that hindred me ,rom lettin' the !or4oral tell it in his own words8
11111bt the o!!asion is lost$>>I mst tell it now in my own$ ;2(A1(C=
The tale o, #e Fever now !ommen!es$ It !overs 4a'es 0B)1)A$ & des!ri41
tion o, TristramEs jorneys also re4resents a se4arate nit$ It o!!4ies 4a'es
The 2o'el as Parod' 1F@
20C1)0$ This e4isode was later de4loyed ste4 ,or ste4 and moti, ,or moti, in
SterneEs SentimentalGourney. In the des!ri4tion o, the jorney Sterne has
inter4olated the story o, the &bbess o, &ndoillets ;2A)1CA=$
This hetero'eneos material. wei'hed down as it is with lon' eGtra!ts
,rom the works o, a variety o, 4edants. wold no dobt have broken the ba!k
o, this novel. were it not that the novel is held to'ether ti'htly by leitmotivs$
& s4e!i,i! moti, is neither develo4ed nor reali5ed8 it is merely mentioned
,rom time to time$ Its ,l,illment is de,erred to a 4oint in time whi!h seems to
be re!edin' ,rther and ,rther away ,rom s$ Yet. its very 4resen!e thro'h1
ot the len'th and breadth o, the novel serves to link the e4isodes$
There are several s!h moti,s$ One is the moti, o, the knots$ It a44ears in
the ,ollowin' way9 a sa!k !ontainin' %r$ Slo4Es obstetri!al instrments is
tied in several knots9
Tis "odEs mer!y. ?oth he 3%r$ Slo4j. ;to himsel,= that <rs$ Shandy has had so bad
a time o, it.11111else she mi'ht have been bro'ht to bed seven times told. be,ore one
hal, o, these knots !old have 'ot ntied$ ;(CB=
In the !ase o, 0nots>1by whi!h. in the ,irst 4la!e$ I wold not be nderstood
to mean sli41knots.111111be!ase in the !orse o, my li,e and o4inions.1111111my
o4inions !on!ernin' them will !ome in more 4ro4erly when I mention$ $ $ $ ;neGt
!ha4ter=
& dis!ssion !on!ernin' knots and loo4s and bows !ontines ad na1
seam$ <eanwhile. %r$ Slo4 rea!hes ,or his kni,e and !ts the knots$ %e to
his !arelessness. he wonds his hand$ He then be'ins to swear. where4on
the elder Shandy. with -ervantes?e seriosness. s''ests that instead o,
!arryin' on in vain. he shold !rse in a!!ordan!e with the rles o, art$
In his !a4a!ity as the leader. Shandy then 4ro4oses the -atholi! ,ormla
o, eG!ommni!ation$ Slo4 4i!ks 4 the teGt and starts readin'$ The ,ormla
o!!4ies two ,ll 4a'es$ It is !rios to observe here the motivation ,or
the a44earan!e o, material !onsidered ne!essary by Sterne ,or ,rther
develo4ment$ This material is sally re4resented by works o, medieval
learnin'. whi!h by SterneEs time had already a!?ired a !omi!al tin'e$ ;&s
is tre also o, words 4ronon!ed by ,orei'ners in their 4e!liar diale!ts$=
This material is inters4ersed in TristramEs ,atherEs s4ee!h. and its a41
4earan!e is motivated by his manias$ Here. tho'h. the motivation is
more !om4leG$ &4art ,rom the ,atherEs role. we en!onter also material
!on!ernin' the in,antEs ba4tism be,ore his birth and the lawyersE !omi!al
ar'ment !on!ernin' the ?estion o, whether the mother was a relative o,
her own son$
The HknotsH and H!hambermaidsH moti, a44ears a'ain on 4a'e 0C0$ Bt
then the athor dismisses the idea o, writin' a !ha4ter on them. 4ro4osin'
instead another !ha4ter on !hambermaids. 'reen !oats. and old hats$
However the matter o, the knots is not yet eGhasted$ It resr,a!es at the
very end on 4a'e C(B in the ,orm o, a 4romise to write a s4e!ial !ha4ter on
them$
7A]S Theory of Prose
I
Similarly. the re4eated mention o, Kenny also !onstittes a rnnin' moti,
thro'hot the novel$ Kenny a44ears in the novel in the ,ollowin' way9
$ $ $ it is no more than a week ,rom this very day. in whi!h I am now writin' this book
,or the edi,i!ation o, the world.111111whi!h is <ar!h ). (BA).111111that my dear. dear
Kenny observin' ( lookEd a little 'rave. as she stood !hea4enin' a silk o, ,ive1and1
twenty shillin's a yard.111111told the mer!er. she was sorry she had 'iven him so
m!h troble811111and immediately went and bo'ht hersel, a yard1wide st,, o,
ten14en!e a yard$ ;22=
On 4a'e 2/ Sterne 4lays with the readerEs desire to know what role Kenny
4lays in his li,e9
I own the tender a44ellation o, my dear. dear Kenny.1111111with some other strokes
o, !onj'al knowled'e. inters4ersed here and there. mi'ht. natrally eno'h. have
misled the most !andid jd'e in the world into s!h a determination a'ainst me$
111&ll I 4lead ,or. in this !ase. <adam. is stri!t jsti!e. and that yo do so m!h
o, it. to me as well as to yorsel,.111111as not to 4rejd'e or re!eive s!h an im4res
sion o, me. till yo have better eviden!e. than I am 4ositive. at 4resent. !an be
4rod!ed a'ainst me9>>@ot that I !an be so vain or nreasonable. <adam. as
to desire yo shold there,ore think. that my dear. dear Kenny is my ke4t mistress8
111no$111111that wold be ,latterin' my !hara!ter in the other eGtream. and 'ivin'
it an air o, ,reedom. whi!h. 4erha4s. it has no kind o, ri'ht to$ &ll I !ontend ,or. is
the tter im4ossibility ,or some volmes. that yo. or the most 4enetratin' s4irit
4on earth. shold know how this matter really stands$1111111It is not im4ossible. bt
that my dear. dear KennyM tender as the a44ellation is. may be my !hild$1111111
-onsider.1>I was bora in the year ei'hteen$1111111@or is there any thin' nnatral
or eGtrava'ant in the s44osition. that my dear Kenny may be my ,riend$111111FriendM
111<y ,riend$ Srely. <adam. a ,riendshi4 between the two seGes may sbsist.
and be s44orted withot>>FyM <r$ Shandy9111111Fithot any thin'. <adam. bt
that tender and deli!ios sentiment. whi!h ever miGes in ,riendshi4. where there is
a di,,eren!e o, seG$
The Kenny moti , a44ears a'ain on 4a'e 00B9
I shall never 'et all thro'h in ,ive mintes. that I ,ear111111and the thin' I hope is.
that yor worshi4s and reveren!es are not o,,ended111111i, yo are$ de4end 4onEt
IEll 'ive yo somethin'. my 'ood 'entry. neGt year. to be o,,ended at1111111thatEs
my dear KennyEs way111111bt who my Kenny is111111and whi!h is the ri'ht and whi!h
the wron' end o, a woman. is the thin' to be concealed------it will be told yo the
neGt !ha4ter bt one. to my !ha4ter o, btton1holes.1111111and not one !ha4ter
be,ore$
&nd on 4a'e 2)0 we have the ,ollowin' 4assa'e9 HI love the Pytha'oreans
;m!h more than ever I dare to tell my dear Kenny=$ H
Fe en!onter another reminder on 4a'e AA* and on 4a'e C(*$ The latter
one ;I have 4assed over several others= is ?ite sentimental. a 'enine rarity
in Sterne9
I will not ar'e the matter9 Time wastes too ,ast9 every letter I tra!e tells me with
what ra4idity #i,e ,ollows my 4en8 the days and hors o, it. more 4re!ios. my dear
KennyM than the rbies abot thy ne!k. are ,lyin' over or heads like li'ht !lods o, a
windy day. never to retrn more111111every thin' 4resses on11111whilst tho art
twistin' that lo!k.11111seeM it 'rows 'rey8 and every time I kiss thy hand to bid adie.
and every absen!e whi!h ,ollows it. are 4reldes to that eternal se4aration whi!h we
are shortly to make$11111
1 1Heaven have mer!y 4on s bothM
-hapter B
@ow. ,or what the world thinks o, that eja!lation11111( wold not 'ive a 'roat$
This is all o, !ha4ter ). volme )$
It wold be interestin' to take 4 ,or a moment the sbje!t o, senti1
mentality in 'eneral$ Sentimentality !annot !onstitte the !ontent o, art. i,
only ,or the reason that art does not have a se4arate !ontent$ The de4i!tion
o, thin's ,rom a Hsentimental 4oint o, viewH is a s4e!ial method o, de4i!1
tion. very m!h. ,or eGam4le. as these thin's mi'ht be ,rom the 4oint o, view
o, a horse ;TolstoiEs HIholstomerH= or o, a 'iant ;Swi,t=$
By its very essen!e. art is withot emotion$ Re!all. i, yo will. that in ,airy
tales 4eo4le are shoved into a barrel bristlin' with nails. only to be rolled
down into the sea$ In or version o, HTom Thmb.H a !annibal !ts o,, the
heads o, his da'hters. and the !hildren who listen ra4trosly to every
detail o, this le'end never let yo ski4 over these details drin' the tellin'
and retellin' o, the story$ This isnEt !relty$ ItEs ,able$
In Sprin5 +itual Son5 Pro,essor &ni!hkov 4resents eGam4les o,
,olklori! dan!e son's$ These son's s4eak o, a bad1tem4ered. ?erlos
hsband. o, death. and o, worms$ This is tra'i!. yes. bt only in the world o,
son'$
In art. blood is not bloody$ @o. it jst rhymes with H,lood$H It is material
either ,or a str!tre o, sonds or ,or a str!tre o, ima'es$ For this reason.
art is 4itiless or rather withot 4ity. a4art ,rom those !ases where the ,eelin'
o, sym4athy ,orms the material ,or the artisti! str!tre$ Bt even in that
!ase. we mst !onsider it ,rom the 4oint o, view o, the !om4osition$ Simi 1
larly. i, we want to nderstand how a !ertain ma!hine works. we eGamine its
drive belt ,irst$ That is. we !onsider this detail ,rom the stand4oint o, a
ma!hinist and not. ,or instan!e. ,rom the stand4oint o, a ve'etarian$
O, !orse. Sterne is also withot 4ity$ #et me o,,er an eGam4le$ The elder
ShandyEs son. Bobby. dies at 4re!isely the moment when the ,ather is va!il1
latin' over whether to se the money that had ,allen into his hands by
!han!e in order to send his son abroad or else to se it ,or im4rovements on
the estate9
\ m y n!le Toby hmmed over the letter$
17> Theory of Prose
'oneM said my n!le Toby$>Fhere111111FhoL !ried my ,ather$><y ne4hew.
said my n!le Toby$11111Fhat11111withot leave11111withot money11111withot
'overnorL !ried my ,ather in ama5ement$ @o9111111he is dead. my dear brother. ?oth
my n!le Toby$ ;0A*=
%eath is here sed by Sterne ,or the 4r4ose o, !reatin' a Hmisnder1
standin'.H very !ommon in a work o, art when two !hara!ters are s4eakin'
at !ross14r4oses abot. a44arently. the same thin'$ #et s !onsider
another eGam4le9 the ,irst !onversation between the mayor and Ihlestakov
in "o'olEs The Inspector ?eneral.
%ayor EG!se me$
<h.. Oh. itEs nothin'$
%ayor It is my dty. as mayor o, this !ity. to 4rote!t all 4assersby and hi'hborn
,olk ,rom ,lee!ers like yo $ $ $
<h. ;stammerin' at ,irst. then s4eakin' lod towards the latter 4art o, his s4ee!h=9
Fhat !an I1I$ $$ doL $ $ $ ItEs not my ,alt$ $ $ IEll 4ay ,or it. reallyM IEm eG4e!tin' a
!he!k ,rom home any day now$ ;Bob!hinsky 4ee4s ,rom behind the door$= ItEs his
,altM He is to blameM Yo shold see the bee, heEs sellin'. as hard as a lo'$ &nd that
so4 o, his. 'hM Fho knows where he dred'ed it 4$ I dm4ed it ot o, the window$
-oldnEt hel4 it$ He kee4s me on the very ed'e o, starvation ,or days at a time $ $ $
&nd while yo are at it. why not 'et a whi,, o, his>'hM>tea$ Smells more like
rotten ,ish than tea$ Fhy the hell shold I$ $ $ ItEs nheard o,M
%ayor ;timidly=9 EG!se me. sir$ IEm really not to blame$ The bee, I sell on the
market is always ,irst !lass. bro'ht into town by mer!hants ,rom Iholmo'orsk$
sober. res4e!table 4eo4le. i, ever s!h eGisted. I assre yo$ sir$ I, only I knew where
heEs been 4i!kin' 4 s!h $ $ $ Bt i, anythin' is amiss. sir$$ $ $ Permit me to trans,er
yo to other ?arters$
<h.. @o. I wonEt 'oM I know what yo mean by Hother ?artersHM PrisonM thatEs
what yo mean. isnEt that ri'htM By what ri'htL How dare yoL $ $ $ Fhy$ I$ $ $ I am
in the em4loy o,$ $ $ in Petersbr'$ %o yo hearL ;with vi'or= I. I. I$ $ $
%ayor ;aside=9 Oh. my "odM He is in a ra'eM HeEs ,ond me ot$ ItEs those
damned bsybody mer!hants$ They mst have told him everythin'$
<h. ;bravely=9 I wonEt 'oM @ot even i, yo brin' the whole 4oli!e ,or!e with yoM
IEm 'oin' strai'ht to the to4$ Yes. ri'ht 4 to the Prime <inisterM ;He 4onds his ,ist
on the table= How dare yoLM How dare yoLM
%ayor ;tremblin' all over=9 Have mer!y. 4lease s4are me. kind sirM I have a wi,e
and little ones $ $ $ %onEt brin' me to rinM
<h.. @o. I wonEtM @o wayM &nd whatEs moreM Fhat do I !are i, yo have a wi,e and
kids$ So I have to 'o to 4rison ,or their sakeE$E Kst s4lendidM ;Bob!hinsky$ 4eekin'
thro'h the door. hides in ,ear$= @o. sirreeM Thanks bt no thanksM
%ayor )tremblin'=9 ItEs not my ,alt. sir$ ItEs my ineG4erien!e. my "od$ thatEs all$
jst 4lain ineG4erien!e$ &nd$ yo know. I am really anythin' bt ri!h$ Kd'e ,or
yorsel,9 The salary o, a!ivil servant will hardly !overtea and s'ar$ Fell. maybe I
did take some bribes. Yor EG!ellen!y. bt. mind yo$ sir$ jst a rble here and
there. and only o1nn!e or t1wwi!e. i, yo know what I mean $ $ $ Kst somethin' ,or
the table or maybe a dress or two$ &s ,or that @-OEs widow. who rns a sho4 $ $ $
I assre. sir. I never. I assre yo$ Yor EG!ellen!y. never stoo4ed so low as to ,lo'
her. as some 4eo4le have been sayin'$ ItEs slander. nothin' bt slander. ,abri!ated
The 2o'el as Parody 171
by s!ondrels with evil in their heartsM They wold stoo4 to anythin' to do me inM I
assre yo$ Yor @oble EG!ellen!y. sirM $ $ $
<h.. So whatL Fhat does all this have to do with meL $ $ $ ;re,le!tin'= I !anEt
ima'ine why yo are dra''in' in these s!ondrels or the widow o, a non!ommis1
sioned o,,i!er$ $ $ $ The @-OEs wi,e is one thin'. bt donEt yo dare try to ,lo' me$
YoEll never 'et away with it$ $ $ &nd. besides. $ $ $ jst look hereM IEll 4ay the bill. I
assre yo. sir$ IEll 'et the money i, it kills me. bt not jst now$ ThatEs why I am
sittin' here. be!ase I am broke$ Really. sir$ I am !lean broke$
Here is another eGam4le ,rom "riboedovEs $oe from $it.
Qa5orests0y. So -hatsky is res4onsible ,or the hbbbE$E -ountess Do:a5er.
FhatL -hatsky has been horribly !lbbedL Qa5orests0'. Fent mad in the
montains ,rom a wond in the head$ -ountess Do:a5er. How is thatL He
wond 4 with a bonty on his headL
Fe see the same devi!e sed ;with the same motivation o, dea,ness= in
Rssian ,olk drama$ However. be!ase o, the looser 4lot str!tre. this
devi!e is sed there ,or the 4r4ose o, !onstr!tin' a whole 4attern o, 4ns$
The old 'rave1di''ers are smmoned be,ore Iin' <aGimilian9
%ax.. "o and brin' me the old 'rave1di''ers$ ,ootman.
Yes. Yor <ajesty. I shall 'o and ,et!h them$
;Footman and "rave1di''ers=
,ootman. &re the 'rave1di''ers home. sirL
1st ?ra'e-di55er. Fhat do yo wantL
,ootman. Yor 4resen!e is re?ested by His <ajesty$
1st ?ra'e-di55er By whomL His <odestyEL
,ootman. @o. His <ajestyM
1st ?ra'e-di55er. Tell him that no one is home$ Today is a holiday$ Fe are
!elebratin'$
,ootman. Vasily Ivanovi!h$ His <ajesty wishes to reward yo ,or yor servi!es$
1st ?ra'e-di55er. Reward me ,or my versesL Fhat versesL
,ootman. @oM @ot verses. servi!esM
1st ?ra'e-di55er ;to :nd 'rave1di''er=9 <okyM
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. Fhat. PatrakL
ht ?ra'e-di55er. #etEs 'o see the kin'$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. Fhat ,orL
1st ?ra'e-di55er For the reward$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. For what 'ordL ItEs winter$ Fhere in the world will yo ,ind
a 'ord in winterL
I-it ?ra'e-di55er. @o. not 'ord. rewardM
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. &nd I tho'ht yo were talkin' abot a 'ord$ I, itEs reward
yoEve in mind. then by all means. letEs 'oM
1st ?ra'e-di55er. Fell. letEs 'o$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. Tell me$ what kind o, rewardE$E
1st ?ra'e-di55er. #etEs jst 'o$ IEll tell yo when we 'el there$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. @oM Tell me nowM
1st ?ra'e-di55er. #etEs 'o$ IEll tell yo on the way$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. &bsoltely notM I, yo wonEt tell me now. I wonEt 'o$
173 Theory of Prose
1st ?ra'e-di55er. &ll ri'ht$ %o yo remember how we distin'ished orselves in
the Battle o, Sevasto4olL
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. Yes$ I remember very well$
1st ?ra'e-di55er. Fell. there yo areM ThatEs what His <ajesty 4robably has in
mind$ ItEs 4robably the ,ortieth anniversary o, the -rimean Far$
3nd ?ra'e-di55er. I see$ Fell. in that !ase. letEs 'et 'oin'$ $ $ $ ;On!hkov.
,ol0 Drama of the 2orth*
This devi!e. !anoni!al ,or ,olk drama. !om4letely s44lants. at times.
novelisti! 4lot str!tres$ This sbje!t has been analy5ed by Roman
Kakobson and Pyotr Bo'atyrev in their stdies o, the Rssian ,olk theater$
However. SterneEs own 4n on death ;see above= does not sr4rise s hal,
so m!h ;or does not sr4rise s at all= as do the ,atherEs 4ns$ Bobby
ShandyEs death serves ,or Sterne. above all. as a motivation ,or develo41
ment9 HFill yor worshi4s 'ive me leave to s?ee5e in a story between
these two 4a'esLH ;0A(=$
Sterne inter4oses an eG!er4t ,rom a letter o, !ondolen!e written by
Servis Sl4i!is to -i!ero$ Its in!or4oration into the teGt is motivated by
the ,a!t that it is delivered by <r$ Shandy himsel,$ This is ,ollowed by a
sele!tion o, ane!dotes ,rom the !lassi!s on the sbje!t o, !ontem4t ,or
death$ It is worth notin' what Sterne himsel, has to say !on!ernin' <r$
ShandyEs elo?en!e9
<y ,ather was as 4rod o, his elo?en!e as <&R-DS TD##IDS -I-ERO !old be ,or
his li,e. and ,or a'ht I am !onvin!ed o, to the !ontrary at 4resent. with as m!h
reason9 it was indeed his stren'th11111and his weakness too$ >> His stren'th1111111,or
he was by natre elo?ent.111111and his weakness>>,or he was horly a d4e to it9
and 4rovided an o!!asion in li,e wold bt 4ermit him to shew his talents. or say
either a wise thin'. a witty. or a shrewd one111111;batin' the !ase o, a systemati!k
mis,ortne=11111he had all he wanted$111111& blessin' whi!h tied 4 my ,atherEs
ton'e. and a mis,ortne whi!h set it loose with 'ood 'ra!e. were 4retty e?al9 some1
times. indeed. the mis,ortne was the better o, the two8 ,or instan!e. where the
4leasre o, the haran'e was as ten and the 4ain o, the mis,ortne bt asMi'e-------my
,ather 'ained hal, in hal,. and !onse?ently was as well a'ain o,,. as it never had
be,allen him$ ;0A:=
The di,,eren!e between hman ;i$e$. a!tal= Hha44inessH or Hnha44i1
nessH on the one hand. and Hha44inessH and Hnha44inessH as material ,or
ajt is nders!ored here with eGtraordinary !larity$
It remains ,orthe motherto learn o, her sonEs death$ This is a!!om4lished
by havin' <rs$ Shandy eavesdro4 by the door. as a 4arallel a!tion n,olds
in the kit!hen$ In doin' this. Sterne asked himsel, the solemn ?estion9 How
lon' !an a 4oor mother stand in s!h an n!om,ortable 4oseL
& !onversation is takin' 4la!e at this moment in the stdy abot the sonEs
death$ This death has already be!ome woven into the dis!ssions !on!ern1
in' death in 'eneral$ &,ter the deliberations !on!ernin' the 4ossible ways o,
disseminatin' knowled'e o, the !lassi!s ;0C)=. it is im4er!e4,ibly woven
into So!ratesE s4ee!h at his trial$
The 2o'el as Parody 174
tho'h my mother was a woman o, no dee4 readin'. yet the abstra!t o, So!ratesE
oration. whi!h my ,ather was 'ivin' my n!le Toby. was not alto'ether new to her$
YY'ne Ujstened to it with !om4osed intelli'en!e. and wold have done so to the end
o, the !ha4ter. had not my ,ather 4ln'ed ;whi!h he had no o!!asion to have done=
into that 4art o, the 4leadin' where the 'reat 4hiloso4her re!kons 4 his !onne!1
tions. his allian!es. and !hildren8 bt renon!es a se!rity to be so won by workin'
4on the 4assions o, his jd'es$ > HI have ,riends111111( have relations.111111( have
three desolate !hildren.H>says So!rates$1>
>Then. !ried my mother. o4enin' the door.111111yo have one more. <r$
Shandy. than I know o,$
By heavenM I have one less.111111said my ,ather. 'ettin' 4 and walkin' ot o, the
room$ ;0B*=
& very im4ortant sor!e ,or develo4ment in Steme is re4resented by
eroti! enstran'ement. takin' the ,orm. ,or the most 4art. o, e4hemisms$ I
have already dis!ssed this 4henomenon in !ha4ter ($ In Sterne we
en!onter an eGtraordinary variety o, s!h !ases o, eroti! enstran'ement$
There are nmeros eGam4les to draw ,rom$ Here are a ,ew o, them$ #et
s be'in with the identi,i!ation o, ty4es o, !hara!ter9
I am not i'norant that the Italians 4retend to a mathemati!al eGa!tness in their
desi'nations o, one 4arti!lar sort o, !hara!ter amon' them. ,rom the forte or piano
o, a !ertain wind instrment they se.111111whi!h they say is in,allible$1>>I dare not
mention the name o, the instrment in this 4la!e81111111Etis s,,i!ient we have it
amon'st s.11111bt never think o, makin' a drawin' by it81111111this is aeni'mati!al.
and intended to be so. at least. ad populum.E&nd there,ore I be'. <adam. when
yo !ome here. that yo read on as ,ast as yo !an. and never sto4 to make any
in?iry abot it$ ;BA1BC=
Or. ,or eGam4le9
@ow whether it was 4hysi!ally im4ossible. with hal, a do5en hands all thrst into
the na4kin at a time1>bt that some one !hestnt. o, more li,e and rotndity than
the rest. mst be 4t in motion11111it so ,ell ot. however. that one was a!tally sent
rollin' o,, the table9 and as Phtatoris sat straddlin' nder>1it ,ell 4er4endi!larly
into that 4arti!lar a4ertre o, PhtatorisEs bree!hes. ,or whi!h. to the shame and
indeli!a!y o, or lan'a'e be it s4oke. there is no !haste word thro'hot all
KohnsonEs di!tionary11111let it s,,i!e to say11111it was that 4arti!lar a4ertre.
whi!h in all 'ood so!ieties. the laws o, de!orm do stri!tly re?ire. like the tem4le o,
Kans , i n 4ea!e at least= to be niversally sht 4$ ;0:*=
Very ty4i!al o, this eroti! enstran'ement and the 4lay 4rovoked by it are
two e4isodes in Tristram Shandy that very m!h resemble ea!h other$ Yet.
while one e4isode is really no more than an e4isode. the other is develo4ed
into a 4lot line and ,orms one o, the !riss1!rossin' 4lot lines o, the novel$
-hie, amon' these 4lot lines is Dn!le TobyEs wond$ Dn!le Toby had
s,,ered a severe wond in the 'roin$ He is bein' wooed by a widow. who
wold very m!h like to know whether or not he had in ,a!t been !astrated
by that wond$ Yet. at this time she !annot brin' hersel, to ask the ,ate,l
?estion$ This 'reatly !om4li!ates the novel9
176 Theory of Prose
There is not a 'reater di,,eren!e between a sin'le1horse !hair and madam
Pom4adorEs 'is-a-S(is than betwiGt a sin'le amor. and an amor ths noble
dobled. and 'oin' 4on all ,ors. 4ran!in' thro'hot a 'rand drama$ ;:*)=
The novel is !ontinally interr4ted and takes on the ,orm o, innendos
and allsions$ Finally. these allsions be'in to !onsolidate ;i$e$. arond
volme C. !ha4ter 02=$
&t this 4oint. tho'h. we en!onter an intrsion o, the HtravelH moti,$
This new material seems to have rea!hed a dead end at the !on!lsion o,
volme B9
I dan!ed it alon' thro'h @arbonne$ -ar!asson. and -astle @adairy$ till at last I
dan!ed mysel, into PerdrilloEs 4avillion. where 4llin' a 4a4er o, bla!k lines. that I
mi'ht 'o on strai'ht ,orwards. withot di'ression or 4arenthesis. in my n!le TobyEs
amors11111;A0/=
&nd so the 'roin wond. with the widowEs rel!tan!e to !on,ront this
isse dire!tly. is introd!ed into the teGt as a devi!e ,or the 4r4ose o,
im4edin' the Toby1widow roman!e$
I shall now demonstrate in several eG!er4ts jst how Sterne brin's abot
this retardin' o, the a!tion$
&,ter a solemn 4romise to tell the story o, TobyHs amoros adventres
withot di'ression. Sterne brakes the a!tion by introd!in' di'ressions into
di'ressions. whi!h are then linked to ea!h other by the re4etition o, one and
the same 4hrase9 HIt i s wi th love as wit h -!kol domH ;A2*$ A2:=$
This is ,ollowed by meta4hors o, love$ #ove is a warm hat. love is a 4ie
;A*21A=$ Then ,ollows a history o, the widow FadmanEs atta!ks on Dn!le
Toby$ Yet. this des!ri4tion is a'ain interr4ted by a lon'. Him4ortnate
story.H told by Trim. !alled HThe Story o, the Iin' o, Bohemia and His
Seven -astles$H
This tale is similar to the one told by San!ho Pan5a to his lord. %on
JiGote. on the ni'ht o, his adventre with the teGtile mill. when he tied 4
Ro!inante by its le's$ It is !ontinall y interr4ted by Dn!le TobyEs
!omments on military a,,airs. te!hnolo'y and literary style$ IEve already
analy5ed this devi!e o, -ervantesE inDon Quixote. #ikeeveryHim4ortnate
story.H it is based on its !ons!ios se as a brakin' devi!e and mst there1
,ore be interr4ted by a listener$ In this 4arti!lar !ase. its role is to im4ede
the main 4lot line o, the novel$ & little later$ Trim abandons the story o, the
Iin' o, Bohemia and takes 4 the story o, his love ;AC/1BA=$ Finally. the
widow Fadman makes her a44earan!e on!e a'ain$ This is o!!asioned by
the wond moti,9
I am terribly a,raid. said widow Fadman. in !ase I shold marry him Brid'et
>that the 4oor !a4tain will not enjoy his health. with the monstros wond 4on
his 'roin11111
It may not. <adam. be so very lar'e. re4lied Brid'et. as yo think111111and E
believe besides. added she11111that Etis dried 4>
> I wold like to know111111merely ,or his sake. said <rs$ Fadman
The 2o'el as Parody 17F
> FeEll know the lon' and the broad o, it. in ten days111111answered <rs$
Brid'et. ,or whilst the !a4tain is 4ayin' his addresses to yo1111111IEm !on,ident <r$
Trim will be ,or makin' love to me>and IEll let him as m!h as he will1111111added
Brid'et>YYto 'et it all ot o, him111111 ;A/(1/:=
On!e a'ain. the athor introd!es new material. in this !ase. in the ,orm
o, a reali5ed meta4hor ;whi!h. 'enerally s4eakin'. is ?ite !ommon in
Sterne=9 ;a= he reali5es the leGi!al ;lin'isti!= meta4hor HhobbyhorseH ; i n
the sense o, Hwhim. !a4ri!eH= and s4eaks o, it as i, it were a real horse8 and
;b= he reali5es the meta4hor HassH ; i n the sense o, the btto!ks=$ The sor!e
,or this meta4hor may well be St$ Fran!is o, &ssisPs !hara!teri5ation o, his
body as Hmy brother. the ass$H The ass meta4hor is also develo4ed$
Besides. it is also the basis ,or a misnderstandin'$
Fhen Shandy Senior asks Dn!le Toby abot the ass. the latter thinks
that the 4osterior 4art o, the body is e4hemisti!ally meant ;A0)=$ & detail
,rom the develo4ment that ,ollows is o, some interest$ Shandy SeniorEs
s4ee!h to Dn!le Toby is nothin' less than a 4arody o, %on JiGoteEs
s4ee!h to San!ho Pan5a on 'overnorshi4$
I shall not 4arody them in trn by ?otin' these two s4ee!hes in 4arallel
teGts. all the more so sin!e weEd thereby be kee4in' the widow Fadman
waitin'$ Dn!le Toby and Trim are 'oin' to see her$ Shandy Senior and his
wi,e are also on their way there$ They are observin' the ,irst 4air ,rom the
!orners o, their eyes. meanwhile !hattin' abot the ,orth!omin' marria'e$
&'ain. we en!onter the leitmotiv o, the im4otent hsband. who slee4s
with his wi,e only on the ,irst Snday o, every month$ This moti,. a44earin'
,irst in the very o4enin' o, the novel. now emer'es on!e a'ain ;vol )$ !ha4$
((=9
Dnless she shold ha44en to have a !hild111111said my mother11111
>> Bt she mst 4ersade my brother Toby ,irst to 'et her one>1
>To be sre. <r$ Shandy. ?oth my mother$
Tho'h i, it !omes to 4ersation111111said my ,ather> #ord have mer!y
4on them$
&men9 said my mother. piano.
&men9 !ried my ,ather. fortissime.
&men9 said my mother a'ain111111bt with s!h a si'hin' !aden!e o, 4ersonal 4ity
at the end o, it. as dis!om,ited every ,ibre abot my ,ather111111he instantly took ot
his almana!k8 bt be,ore he !old ntie it. Yori!kEs !on're'ation !omin' ot o,
!hr!h. be!ame a ,ll answer to one hal, o, his bsiness with it>and my mother
tellin' him it was a sa!rament day>le,t him as little in dobt. as to the other 4art
1He 4t his almana!k into his 4o!ket$
The ,irst #ord o, the Treasry thinkin' o, :ays and means !old not have
retrned home. with a more embarrassed look$ ;C(01(2=
IEve 4ermitted mysel, this len'thy eG!er4t in order to show that SterneEs
inset material does not 4lay a merely 4eri4heral role in the novel$ On the
!ontrary. every 4assa'e belon's to one o, the novelEs !om4ositional lines$
On!e a'ain. we en!onter di'ressions ,rom other 4lot lines. e$'$. the knot
177 Theory of Prose
moti, ;C(B=$ Finally. the wond moti, takes the sta'e$ It is 4resented. as is
sal in Sterne. in medias res9
I
>Yo shall see the very 4la!e. <adam8 said my n!le Toby$
<rs$ Fadman blshEd111111lookEd towards the door111111trnEd 4ale>>blshEd
sli'htly a'ain>>re!overed her natral !olor>blshEd worse than ever8 whi!h
,or the sake o, the nlearned reader. I translate ths1111111
9"EdC I cannot loo0 at it-----
$hat :ould the :orld say if I loo0(d at itH
I should drop do:n if I loo0(d at it------
7 :ish I could loo0 at it------
There can be no sin in loo0in5 at it. EI
:i ll loo0 at it 9 ;C:0=
Yet . somet hin' ?ite di,,erent takes 4la!e$
Dn!le Toby thinks that the widow wants to know the 4la!e where he was
wonded ;i$ e$. the 'eo'ra4hi!al lo!ality= when. in ,a!t. she seems to have in
mind the anatomi!al 4la!e on his body$ By the way. neither is the reader
?ite sre at this jn!tre what is meant$ The whole 4oint o, this shi,t in the
4lot. however. i s !learl y to im4ede t he a!tion$
Fell . so Trim bri n's t he di sa44oi nted wi dow a ma4 o, @amr ;the
lo!alit y where Dn!le Toby was in ,a!t wonded=$ On!e a'ain. we are
witnessin' a 4lay on Dn!le TobyEs wond$ This time Sterne himsel, 4i!ks
4 the theme in his di'ressions ;C:A1:)=$ Then !omes the ,amos trans1
4osition o, time$ -ha4ter :A ;o, volme )= is s!!eeded by the 4reviosly
mi ssi n' !ha4t ers (/ and ()$ The a!t i on resmes onl y wi t h !ha4ter :C9
It was jst as natral ,or <rs$ Fadman$ whose ,irst hsband was all his time
a,,li!ted with a S!iati!a. to wish to know how ,ar ,rom the hi4 to the 'roin9 and how
,ar she was likely to s,,er more or less in her ,eelin's. in the one !ase than in the
other$
She a!!ordin'ly read %rakeEs anatomy ,rom one end to the other$ She had 4ee4ed
into Fhanon on the brain. and had borrowed "raa, 4on the bones and ms!les9
bt !old make nothin' o, it$ $ $ $
To !lear 4 all$ she had twi!e asked %o!tor Slo4. Hi, 4oor !a4tain Shandy was
ever likely to re!over o, his wond1111111LH
> He is re!overed$ %o!tor Slo4 wold say111111
FhatM ?iteL
111Jite9 madam111111
Bt what do yo mean by a re!overyL <rs$ Fadman wold say$
%o!tor Slo4 was the worst man alive at de,initions$ ;C0C10B=
The 2o'el as Parody 17@
<rs$ Fadtnan interro'ates -a4tain Shandy himsel, abot the wond9
\ \ YYYYFas it withot remissionL11111
YY1Fas it more tolerable in bed
(
L
YY1-old he lie on both sides alike
LH
o
YYY1Fas he able to mont a horseLH ;C0B=
Finally. the matter is resolved in the ,ollowin' manner9 Trim is s4eakin'
to the widowEs servant 'irl ;Brid'et= !on!ernin' -a4tain ShandyEs wond9
and in this !rsed tren!h. <rs$ Brid'et. ?oth the -or4oral. takin' her by the
hand. did he re!eive the wond whi!h !rshEd him so miserably here-------In
4ronon!in' whi!h he sli'htly 4ressEd the ba!k o, her hand towards the 4art he ,elt
,or>and let it ,all$
Fe tho'ht$ <r$ Trim. it had been more in the middle111111said <rs$ Brid'et111111
That wold have ndone s ,or ever111111said the -or4oral$
1 11&nd le,t my 4oor mistress ndone too11111said Brid'et$ $ $ $
-ome11111!ome11111said Brid'et>\>,oldin' the 4alm o, her le,t1hand 4arallel to
the 4lane o, the hori5on. and slidin' the ,in'ers o, the other over it. in a way whi!h
!old not have been done. had there been the least wart or 4rotberan!e1111111ETis
every syllable o, it ,alse. !ried the -or4oral. be,ore she had hal, ,inished the
senten!e1>1 ;C0)=
It is worth !om4arin' this hand symbolism with the same devi!e o,
e4hemisti! eroti!ism ,ond elsewhere in Tristram Shand'.
& brie,. 4reliminary !omment$
For the 4rota'onists o, this novel. this e4hemisti! manner o, s4eakin'
re4resents 4ro4er s4ee!h$ For Sterne tho'h>when this same 4henomenon
is !onsidered ,rom an artisti! 4oint o, view>this be!omes material ,or
enstran'ement$
It is a !rios 4oint that this same devi!e o, hand symbolism is en!on1
tered in the s4e!i,i!ally mas!line. Hobs!eneH ane!dotes o, ,olklore. where$
as is well known. there are no rles o, de!en!y. other than. o, !orse. the
desire to s4eak as obs!enely as 4ossible$ Yet. even here we en!onter
material o, a e4hemisti! !hara!ter. in 4arti!lar hand symbolism. tho'h
em4loyed as a devi!e o, enstran'ement$
#et s now retrn to Sterne$ I mst a'ain ?ote nearly an entire !ha4ter$
Fortnately. it is rather short9
>ETwas nothin'.1> I did not lose two dro4s o, blood by it111111Etwas not worth
!allin' in a sr'eon. had he lived neGt door to s$ $ $ $ The !hamber1maid had le,t no
VVVVVVV VVV nder the bed9>>-annot yo !ontrive. master. ?oth Ssannah. li,tin'
4 the sash with one hand. as she s4oke. and hel4in' me 4 into the window seat with
VVV
Othetv
>1!annot yo mana'e. my dear. ,or a sin'le time to VVVV VVV VV VVV
I was ,ive years old$11111Ssannah did not !onsider that nothin' was well hn' in
or ,amily.111111so sla4 !ame the sash down like li'htenin' 4on s8111111@othin' is
le,t
E_11111!ried Ssannah.11111nothin' is le,t11111,or me$ bt to rn my !ontry$ ;0BC=
She ,lees to Dn!le TobyEs hose and he takes the blame. ,or his servant
ith itL
17; Theory of Prose
Trim had removed the sash wei'hts ,rom the window to make some model
!annons$
On!e a'ain we en!onter a devi!e ty4i!al o, Sterne9 the e,,e!ts are
4resented 4rior to the !ases$ The des!ri4tion o, this !ase o!!4ies 4a'es
0BB1B/$ The in!ident is related with the aid o, the hand symbolism9
Trim. by the hel4 o, his ,ore,in'er. laid ,lat 4on the table. and the ed'e o, his hand
strikin' a1!ross it al ri'ht an'les. made a shi,t to tell his story so. that 4riests and
vir'ins mi'ht have listened to it8111111and the story bein' told. the dialo'e went on as
,ollows$ ;0B)=
This is ,ollowed by a develo4ment o, the rmors !on!ernin' the in!ident.
then by di'ressions and by dis!ssions !on!ernin' di'ressions. et!$
Interestin'ly eno'h$ Shandy Senior rns to see his son the moment he
,inds ot abot the in!ident>with a book in his hands. where4on be'ins a
dis!ssion !on!ernin' !ir!m!ision in 'eneral$ It is worth notin' at this
4oint how Sterne 4arodies the motivation ,or inter4olated 4assa'es9
> was Obadiah enabled to 'ive him a 4arti!lar a!!ont o, it. jst as it had ha4
4ened$11111( tho'ht as m!h. said my ,ather. t!kin' 4 his ni'ht1'own81111111and so
walked 4 stairs$
One wold ima'ine ,rom this11111;tho'h ,or my own 4art I somewhat ?estion it=
1 1that my ,ather be,ore that time. had a!tally wrote that remarkable !ha4ter in
the Tristrapaedia whi!h to me is the most ori'inal and entertainin' one in the whole
book811111and that is the chapter upon sash- :indo:s with a bitter Phili44i!k at the
end o, it. 4on the ,or'et,lness o, !hamber1maids$>>I have bt two reasons ,or
thinkin' otherwise$
First. Had the matter been taken into !onsideration. be,ore the event ha44ened.
my ,ather !ertainly wold have nailed 4 the sash1window ,or 'ood anH all81111111
whi!h. !onsiderin' with what di,,i!lty he !om4osed books$1111111he mi'ht have done
with ten times less troble. than he !old have wrote the !ha4ter9 this ar'ment I
,oresee holds 'ood a'ainst his writin' the !ha4ter. even a,ter the event8 bt Etis
obviated nder the se!ond reason. whi!h I have the honor to o,,er to the world in
s44ort o, my o4inion. that my ,ather did not write the !ha4ter 4on sash1windows
and !hamber14ots. at the time s44osed.1111111and it is this$
>That. in order to render the Tristrapaedia !om4lete.111111( wrote the !ha4ter
mysel,$ ;0/01/2=
I have not the sli'htest desire to !ontine this stdy o, SterneEs novel to
the very end$ This is so be!ase I am ,ar less interested in the novel itsel,
than in the theory o, 4lot str!tre$
I shall now say a ,ew words !on!ernin' the abndan!e o, !itations in my
book$ @atrally. I !old have made ,ller se o, every 4assa'e and eG!er4t
in this book. sin!e there is hardly a devi!e that a44ears anywhere in its 4re
,orm$ However. this wold have trans,ormed my work into a H4ony.
whi!h. by obstr!tin' the teGt with 'rammati!al annotations. wold have
hindered the reader ,rom inter4retin' it on his own$
@onetheless. in analy5in' this novel. I !onsider it my dty to demonstrate
its thoro'h'oin' Hla!k o, !onsisten!y$H It is 4re!isely the nsal order o,
The 2o'el as Parody 17B
even !ommon. traditional elements that is !hara!teristi! o, Sterne$
&s an end14ie!e and at the same time as 4roo, o, SterneEs !ons!ios
mani4lation and violation o, traditional 4lot s!hemata. IEd like to !ite his
own 'ra4hi! illstration o, the story line in Tristram Shandy.
I am now be'innin' to 'et ,airly into my work8 and by the hel4 o, a ve'itable diet.
with a ,ew o, ihe !old seeds$ I make no dobt bt I shall be able to 'o on with my
n!le TobyEs story. and my own$ in a tolerable strai'ht line$ @ow$
These were the ,or lines I moved in thro'h my ,irst. se!ond. third. and ,orth
volmes$11111In the ,i,th volme I have been very 'ood$111111the 4re!ise line I have
des!ribed in it bein' this9
By whi!h it a44ears. that eG!e4t at the !rve. marked &$ where I took a tri4 to
@avarre.>>and the indented !rve B$ whi!h is the short airin' when I was there
with the #ady Bassiere and her 4a'e$>1I have not taken the least ,risk o, a
di'ression. till Kohn de la -asseEs devils led me the rond yo see marked %$111111,or
as ,or ! ! ! ! ! they are nothin' bt 4arentheses. and the !ommon ins and outs
in!ident to the lives o, the 'reatest ministers o, state8 and when !om4ared with what
men have done$>>or with my own trans'ressions at the letters & B %1111111they
vanish into nothin'$ ;2B01B2=
SterneEs s!hemata are more or less a!!rate. bt he ,ails to take into
a!!ont the interr4tion o, the moti,s$
1@> Theory of Prose
The !on!e4t o, 4lot )syu=het* is too o,ten !on,sed with a des!ri4tion o, the
events in the novel. with what IEd tentatively !all the story line ifabula*.
&s a matter o, ,a!t. tho'h. the story line is nothin' more than material
,or 4lot ,ormation$
In this way. the 4lot o, Iu5ene Ane5in is not the love between E'ene
and Tatiana bt the a44ro4riation o, that story line in the ,orm o, di'ressions
that interr4t the teGt$ One shar41witted artist. Vladimir <ilashevsky. has
4ro4osed to illstrate this novel in verse by ,o!sin' !hie,ly on the di'res1
sions ;the Hlittle ,eet.H ,or instan!e= and. ,rom a 4rely !om4ositional 4oint
o, view. this wold be ?ite a44ro4riate$
The ,orms o, art are eG4lained by the artisti! laws that 'overn them and
not by !om4arisons with a!tal li,e$ In order to im4ede the a!tion o, the
novel. the artist resorts not to wit!hes and ma'i! 4otions bt to a sim4le
trans4osition o, its 4arts$ He thereby reveals to s the aestheti! laws that
nderlie both o, these !om4ositional devi!es$
It is !ommon 4ra!ti!e to assert that Tristram Shandy is not a novel$
Those who s4eak in this way re'ard o4era alone as tre msi!. while a
sym4hony ,or them is mere !haos$
Tristram Shandy is the most ty4i!al novel in world literatre$
-hapter ;
Bely and Ornamental Prose
%
The 4arti!lar elements !onstittin' literary ,orm are more likely to !lash
than to work in !on!ert$ The de!line or de!ay o, one devi!e brin's in its train
the 'rowth and develo4ment o, another devi!e$
The !elebrated 4ro'ression in literary history ,rom the e4i! to the lyri!
and. ,inally. to the drama is not so m!h a s!!ession o, or'ani! ,orms as a
s!!ession o, !anoni5ations and dis4la!ements$
& writerEs 4hiloso4hi!al worldview is his workin' hy4othesis$ However.
i, we address the isse more 4re!isely. we mi'ht wish to add that a writerEs
!ons!iosness is nonetheless determined by literary ,orm$ The !rises o, a
writer !oin!ide with the !rises o, literary 'enres$ & writer moves within the
orbit o, his art$
Fhen an ideolo'y. lyin' as it mst otside the bondaries o, the work o,
art. invades the writerEs domain withot that !ra,tsmanshi4 whi!h alone !an
jsti,y it. then the reslts !annot be !onsidered art$
S!h was the !ase when &ndrei Bely set ot to !reate his anthro1
4oso4hi!al e4o4ee. or e4i!$ The attem4t to !reate a literary work whi!h
wold !orres4ond to some eGtrinsi! worldview !an s!!eed only with m!h
di,,i!lty. i, at all$ This is so be!ase a work o, art distorts s!h a !orre1
s4onden!e in a!!ordan!e with its own laws$
@ot sr4risin'ly. the athor himsel, may have a hard time re!o'ni5in' his
own work$
Blok$ on the other hand. be'an The T:el'e with street talk and ra!y
do''erel and ended 4 with the ,i're o, -hrist$ Dna!!e4table to many. this
-hrist was ,or Blok ri!h in !ontent$ Tho'h taken aba!k himsel,. Blok
insisted to the end o, his days that The T:el'e !ame o,, eGa!tly as it was
s44osed to$
The H-hristH ,inale serves as a kind o, !losin' e4i'ra4h. in whi!h the
riddle o, the 4oem is neG4e!tedly solved$
HI donEt like the endin' o, The T:el'e either.H said Blok$ HI wanted a
di,,erent endin'$ &,ter ,inishin' it. I was mysel, astonished and wondered9
Fhy -hrist. a,ter allL %o I really need -hrist hereL Yet. the more I looked
at it. the more !learly I saw -hrist$ &nd so I jotted down in my notebook9
#ooks like IEll have to 'o with -hrist$ Fith -hrist and none other$H
1@1
1@3 Theory of Prose
Is this an ideolo'i!al -hristL
Here is an eG!er4t ,rom a letter by Blok to Yry &nnenkov9
-on!ernin' -hrist9 He is no small. !owerin' ,i're brin'in' 4 the rear o, a
4arade like a do'$ He is not the kind to !arry a ,la' at the ba!k o, a 4arade and then to
be seen no more$ H-hrist -arryin' a Fla'H>that both is and isnEt the -hrist I have
in mind$ %o yo know that when a ,la' is whi44ed abot by the wind. we inevitably
ima'ine someone h'e and enormos standin' in some relationshi4 to it$ That is. he
doesnEt jst hold the ,la' or !arry it$ ;Oh. how words ,ail meM=
In other words. we may nderstand the -hrist theme in the ,ollowin'
way9 Find$ The wind ri4s the banners$ The wind in trn !alls ,orth the ,la'.
and the ,la'. ,inally. !alls ,orth someone enormos bearin' a !ertain rela1
tionshi4 to it$ It is 4re!isely at this 4oint that -hrist a44ears on the s!ene$
O, !orse. there is no denyin' that Hhe is -hrist and none otherH by virte
o, the 4oetEs sto!k o, ima'ery. bt the ,a!t remains that he was !alled ,orth
by the !om4ositional 4attern o, these ima'es ;i$e$. by the wind and by the
,la'=$
It is hard. indeed. to write any 4ie!e o, literatre that !orres4onds to
anythin' as s!h. whatever it be$ This is so be!ase art is not the shadow
o, a thin' bt the thin' itsel,$ & work o, art makes ,or a 4oor
a!!om4anist$
One o, the 4e!liar ,eatres o, the anthro4oso4hi! theory to whi!h Bely
sbs!ribed is its tea!hin' o, the mltilayered natre o, all 4henomena$ For
eGam4le. a 'ro4 o, ,ive anthro4oso4hs ;any ,ive will do= headed by Steiner
is not only a 'ro4$ It is. in addition. a rose$ & rose that !orres4onds in all its
4arts to a real rose$ &nd so the world trns ot. a,ter all. to be mltileveled.
re4li!atin' itsel, in ea!h o, its 4arts$ In its anthro4oso4hi! version. it
resembles a series o, shadows !ast by one obje!t 4la!ed be,ore several
sor!es o, li'ht$
In his e4o4ee. &ndrei Bely ndertook the task o, !reatin' a mltileveled
str!tre that wold vindi!ate the tea!hin's o, anthro4oso4hy$ The
HswarmH and the H,orm
(
EE in <oti0 "etae' the !r!i,iGion servin' as a
se!ondary level in The #apti=ed -hinamanEall o, this ,l,ills the anthro1
4oso4hi! 4ro'ram$
BelyEs works trned ot well eno'h ;tho'h only in 4art=. bt the anthro1
4oso4hi! bsiness. on the other hand. ,ared ?ite 4oorly$ Feelin' a need ,or
se!ondary motivation. Bely ses lin'isti! te!hni?es and the !ons!ios1
ness o, a !hild to !onne!t the two 4lanes o, swarm and ,orm. world and
!ons!iosness. in <oti0 "etae'. Over4owered by the literary material. the
anthro4oso4hi!al theory only served to intensi,y and !onsolidate the
meta4hor leitmotivs$
Instead o, a mltileveled anthro4oso4hi! work. what reslts is ornamental
4rose$ The relationshi4 between the two 4lanes be!omes thoro'hly !om1
4li!ated. and a Hrealisti! resoltionH is there,ore introd!ed$ ;See the !ase
o, H#ionH below$= &t times Bely himsel, takes a rather hmoros view oi
the !ollision o, these two 4lanes$
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1@4
In the eGam4le later. where &nt %ottie re4resents both hersel, and
HEternity.H she is de4i!ted with a !ar4et1beater in her hand$ Eternity. there1
,ore. is re4resented by this !ar4et1beater. too$ In doin' this. Bely does not
'ive meanin' to eternity nor does he symboli5e it$ Instead. he trans,ers the
attribtes ,rom one meta4hor leitmotiv to another$ By means o, this devi!e
he establishes a semanti! dis4arity$ In the str''le between anthro4oso4hy
and the devi!e !alled ,orth by it. the devi!e has devored the theory$ The
ornamental 4rose o, &ndrei Bely has taken its 4la!e beside similar works by
#eskov. Remi5ov. et al$. that arose ot o, !ir!mstan!es ni?e to them$
&ndrei Bely is the most ,as!inatin' writer o, or times$ &ll o, !ontem1
4orary Rssian ,i!tion bears the stam4 o, his work$ I, we were to !om4are
Bely to smoke. then we !old 'o one ste4 ,rther and !om4are Boris Pilnyak
to the shadow o, smoke$
&ndrei Bely was a 4roli,i! athor who wrote in a wide variety o, 'enres$
He is the athor o, The Sil'er Do'e Petersbur5 and <oti0 "etae' the ,irst
volme o, his e4o4ee$ I donEt think that he himsel, knowsjst what this e4o4ee
!onsists o,$ Sometimes he says that the Symphonies Petersbur5 The Sil'er
Do'e and 2otes of an Iccentric are all Hmedallions o, an immense tale$H He
adds that 2otes of an Iccentric is merely a 4re,a!e to this e4i!$ @ow &ndrei
Bely tells s that he. &ndrei Bely. wants to write like a sim4le !obbler$
Havin' renon!ed the novel. he asks himsel, the ,ollowin' ?estion in the
name o, the reader9 Kst what is this thin' that yo are o,,erin' sL ItEs neither
a tale nor a diary. bt dis!onne!ted bits o, memories and EHlea4s$H
@onetheless. there is no need to eGa''erate the validity o, an athorEs
4ronon!ements !on!ernin' himsel,$ O,ten on s!h o!!asions. a writer
addresses not his !ra,tsmanshi4 bt the ideolo'i!al 4osition to whi!h he is
sym4atheti!$ For eGam4le. in dis!ssin' his literary in,len!es. an athor
will o,ten 4oint not to his own tea!her bt to some other writer. someone.
yo 'essed it. who resembles him the least$ Pilnyak. ,or instan!e. dedi!ates
his work not to &ndrei Bely bt to &leGei Remi5ov$
%resden. my ,riends. is absoltely 'or'eos$
Hi'h ato4 a montain overlookin' the ,ields o, SaGony. !herry trees
blossom ea!h s4rin'$ The trees are ble. as ble in the brilliant snshine as
,orest s!enery in the theater$ S!h sta'e sets are sally 4ainted ble
instead o, 'reen$ &nd the ble ,ields o, "ermany are also ble in the s4rin'
air1 Or. rather. they a44ear ble. while the viewer remembers them 'reen$
#ea4in' o,, ,rom the montainEs wall o, limestone below. the Elba River
rshes on to Hambr'. dll as a kit!hen kni,e$
&nd on that very montain. whi!h 'oes by the name o, -herry <ontain.
or. then a'ain. 4erha4s %eer <ontain ;be sre to look it 4. i, yo are ever
in %resden=. there is a 'arden$
1@6 Theory of Prose
Every tree in this 'arden rests a'ainst a ,orm ,ashioned ot o, iron rods$
The tree is bond ,irmly to this ,orm by its bran!hes$ The ,orms in ?estion
de4i!t either a woman in a skirt or a soldier saltin' in a 4eakless !a4$ The
tree too is saltin'. atta!hed as it is to the iron ,orm$ & man mi'ht s!ream
,rom the sheer horror o, it all$ &t times this re!alls &ndrei Bely. who. like
the saltin' tree. is bond to the theory o, anthro4oso4hy$ Bely ,eels dty1
bond to write abot Rdol, Steiner$ his mentor. to dis!ard his own mask
and 4oint ot all o, the anthro4oso4hi! hes in Blok$
Bely ,elt !om4elled to bind Blok to the iron trellis too$ &nd yet Blok was a
,ree man$ Be'innin' his 4oeti! !areer by ?otin' ,rom Solovyov$ Blok in de
!orse !ame to write The ,air Sho: #ooth where he took an ironi! view o,
his own mysti!ism$
For Blok$ mysti!ism and snrises. satiri!al do''erel and 'y4sy revelry1
all o, these are ,air 'ame ,or art$
Bely$ tho'h. re4roa!hes Blok severely ,or his betrayal and laments the
,a!t that he$ Bely. a stran'er to anthro4oso4hy at the time. had been nable
to show Blok how to live and write$
&nd yet Bely himsel, wrote his Symphonies ,rom an ironi! 4oint o, view$
&nd even as we s4eak. Bely is ada4tin' !ertain 4arts o, his Petersbur5 ,or
the vadeville sta'e$
#ev Trotsky said somewhere that when en'a'in' in 4olemi!s a man
shold maintain his emotional distan!e$ He shold know$ He has been
4olemi!i5in' ,or a lon' time$
&n artist mst maintain an emotional distan!e$ He mst not allow him1
sel, to be arm1twisted$ He mst ado4t an ironi! attitde toward his material
and not let it 'et to him$ Same as in boGin' or ,en!in'$
In my o4inion. the reason ,or &ndrei BelyEs !rrent ,ailre lies in his
nironi!. in!oherent eG!lamations on behal, o, Rdol, Steiner$ Peo4le are
sayin' that SteinerV s Kohannes Bildin'. whose !olmns were !arved by
&ndrei Bely himsel,. has brned to the 'rond. and that the Kesits are to
blame$ Tt is also rmored that Steiner is rebildin' this Kohannes Bildin'
on a ,ondation o, !on!rete$ I, it were 4 to me. IEd roll abot ,or hndred
4onds o, dynamite into the basement o, the bildin'. !over the eG4losives
with stone. rn a Bi!k,ord ,se ,rom it and show Steiner how to blow a
bildin' to smithereens$ FhyL Be!ase a writer shold never be yoked to a
trellis and ,or!ed to salte$
#et Steiner have his Kohannes Bildin'$ Still. art itsel, does not admit any
tethers. and &ndrei Bely sim4ly wasted his time in %orna!h$
O, !orse. i, Steiner has re!overed. then lon' live %orna!hM
The art o, the novel re,ses to swallow the bait o, anthro4oso4hy$ Bely s
work re4resents an attem4t on the 4art o, anthro4oso4hy to devor !ra,ts1
manshi4$ Fell. it was !ra,tsmanshi4 instead that devored anthro4oso4hy
and !ontines to ,eed o,, it as i, it were dn'$
From his 4oint o, view. &ndrei Bely wants to dis!ard his mask. to make
a !lean break with the devi!e itsel,. to renon!e ,orm. even while writin' his
#ely and Arnamental Prose I BA
e4o4ee$ & more obje!tive assessment. tho'h ;and he himsel, has s''ested
it=. wold !all ,or him to renon!e his /&oles of an Iccentric and to retrn to
the novel ,orm$
Still. donEt ,all ,or theatri!al 4ostrin's$ Beneath an a!torEs mask yoEll
,ind 'rease4aint$
&ndrei Bely was no sim4le !obbler when he wrote 2otes of an Iccentric. @o
sirreeM On the !ontrary. he even
4layed
s!h
tri!ks
de4i!tin' a
"erman
mine
abot to eG4lode a'ainst the side o, the shi4 on whi!h he was travelin'
home$ & !obbler is hardly !a4able o, s!h art$
2otes of an Iccentric !ontains one o, BelyEs most !om4leG str!tres$
The !om4ositors who set this H!obblerEsH an'lar 4atterns. !olmns. and
5i'5a's in ty4e said that they had never ,a!ed s!h a !om4leG task o, !om 1
4osin' in their li,e and demanded overtime 4ay$
In 2otes of an Iccentric we observe a !om4leG str!tre$ Based on
atobio'ra4hi!al materials with time shi,ts. this tale involves whole series
o, !om4arisons>meta4hor leitmotivs !onne!ted to the ori'inal meta4hor
by means o, 4ns$
For eGam4le. it trns ot that &ndrei Bely had never !rossed Hthe
,rontiers o, Swit5erland$H @o. he had only !rossed the H,rontiers o, his own
sel,9
-latterin' alon' and kno!kin' a'ainst ea!h other. the train !ars rshed alon'
the Fren!h lands!a4e$ The wind blew into the window. and my head s4n as it
str!k the seat be,ore me$ The 'leams o, ele!tri! lam4s ,lew in and ot o, the !ar$
and my wakin' !ons!iosness ,ell a4art8 The bondary o, my !ons!iosness shi,ted$ I
had !rossed the ,rontiers o, Swit5erland. that is$ the ,rontiers o, my !ons!ios ness$
The meta4hor leitmotivs. we may a,,irm. eGist 4rior to their reali5ation in
the world$
iiiviii!P. #DD . areammaysim4iyivtemvmm$1$H>$ \ 1111111111
bother with eGam4les$ Kst look in %ostoevsky$ There is no 4oint in
be!omin' enamored o, the bio'ra4hy o, an artist$ He
ntly. this is motivated by havin' re!orse to a devi!e that has
ition in the history o, novels>the dream$ &s a novelisti!
1@7 Theory of Prose
writes ,irst and looks ,or motivations later$ &nd least o, all shold one be
enamored o, 4sy!hoanalysis$ Psy!hoanalysis stdies the 4sy!holo'i!al
tramas o, one 4erson. while in trth. an athor never writes alone. &
s!hool o, writers writes thro'h him$ & whole a'e$
#et s try to ,ormlate what it is that we see in BelyEs works o, the 4ast siG
or seven years$
These works are atobio'ra4hi! in ori'in or. rather. they are written as
atobio'ra4hies$ Plot develo4ment is rdimentary$ In ,a!t. yo !old say
that. in reality. there is no 4lot at all$ There is only the story line o, a man
who lives. rea!hes matrity. and 'rows old$
On this ,ondation the athor has ere!ted meta4hor leitmotivs that serve
as s4erstr!tres. as hi'h1rise bildin's$ These str!tres>letEs ima'ine
them as bildin's>are !onne!ted to ea!h other by means o, little ss4en1
sion brid'es$ &s the story moves alon'. it !reates 4reteGts ,or the !reation o,
new meta4hori!al leitmotivs whi!h are !onne!ted. the moment they !ome
into bein'. with the leitmotivs already in 4la!e$ This is tre o, 2otes of an
Iccentric <oti0 "etae' and The #apti=ed -hinaman.
The de4artres ,rom this ,ndamental str!tre are e,,e!ted somewhat
di,,erently in the !ase o, BelyEs +ecollections of #io0.
The ,ra'mentary H&rbatH ;4blished in 2o'aya +ossiya* is !onstr!ted
alon' sim4ler lines$ Yet. BelyEs to!h is evident here. too. in the way he
standardi5es his ima'ery$ So m!h so that in the latter 4art o, the work Bely
treats these ima'es as i, they were a kind o, terminolo'y$
The most !onsistent develo4ment o, the two1tiered str!tre is to be
,ond in <oti0 "etae'.
<oti0 "etae' was !om4leted by Bely in ()(B and was evidently intended to
,orm a 4art o, the e4o4ee$ This e4o4ee !onsists. ,irst and ,oremost. o,
memoirs$ This memoirist as4e!t o, BelyEs work has risen in 4rominen!e
with ea!h new work$
+ecollections of#lo0 illstrates this memoiristi! 'enre in its 4re ,orm$
In s4e!ial !ha4ters devoted to an anthro4oso4hi! eGe'esis. Bely a44lies the
devi!es sed by inter4reters o, the !hr!h ,athers to 4assa'es ,rom Blok$
H&rbatH is 4re memoir$ Fhat distin'ishes this memoir. ,or eGam4le.
,rom that o, Ioni$ is BelyEs 4e!liar se o, ima'es$ Even in those 4assa'es
where he most earnestly 4rses his anthro4oso4hi! 4ro'ram. Bely ,ails to
!reate an anthro4oso4hi! arti,a!t$ He s!!eeds only in !reatin' a s4e!ial
ima'isti! str!tre$
In <oti0 "etae' whi!h is almost entirely devoid o, 4lot. the ima'e holds
!om4lete sway$ For this reason. the atobio'ra4hi!al works o, Bely stand in
shar4 !ontrast to %i!kensEs e?ally atobio'ra4hi!al Da'id -opperfield.
In the latter we ,ind a de,inite 4lot that involves two se!rets9 "randmotherEs
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1@@
se!ret )i$e$. that her hsband is alive= and Driah Hee4Es se!ret ;the ,or'in'
o, do!ments=$ EmElyEs destiny is 4redi!ted by the se o, 4remonitions$
Da'id -opperfield is very well14lotted$ O, !orse. traditional novelisti!
te!hni?es o, 4lot ,ormation do a44ear in <oti0 "etae' and in The #apti=ed
-hinaman. Bt. like the !stoms o, the British Parliament>where a !ertain
#ord o, the EG!he?er sits on a leather ba' lined with ,r>literary ,orms
may otlive their se,lness$ &nd whatEs the reason ,or these holdovers
,rom the 4astL There is only one way to ,ind ot9 -onslt a re,eren!e bookM
<oti0 "etae' is a story abot a little boy$ Tho'h told in the ,irst 4erson. it
be'ins be,ore the boyEs birth$ For that reason Bely has sele!ted a 4assa'e
,rom Tolstoi as his e4i'ra4h ,or this work$ It may serve as a kind o, !aveat9
HYo know.H said @atasha in a whis4er. HI think that when yo start remember1
in'. yo really remember. yo remember everythin'. even thai whi!h took 4la!e
be,ore yo were born$H ; $ar and Peace*
These remembran!es o, the 4renatal 4ast are !arried ot in the ,ollowin'
manner9 & series o, ima'es is ,irst 4resented$ Then its 4oint o, de4artre
,rom and !onta!t with the story line is indi!ated$ Finally. the ,ormation o,
the boyEs !ons!iosness is eG4ressed as the ravin's o, an in,ant in the throes
o, 'rowth$
&nd now ,or some eGam4les9
Ea!h o, or tho'hts is like a vorteG9 the o!ean o, eGisten!e. movin' in ea!h
tho'ht. 4ors into the body like a !osmi! storm$ #ea4in' 4. a !hildEs tho'ht
brin's to mind a !omet$ There it 'oes. bloodyin' its tail as it ,alls into a body and then
4orin' itsel, ot in a rain o, blood1red !arbn!les into the o!ean o, sensations$
Between the body and the tho'ht. the watery vorteG and the ,ire. someone has ,ln'
a baby$ &nd the baby is terri,ied$
HHel4MH
HIt !anEt be hel4edMH
HSave meMH
H<adam. heEs 'rowin' 4$H
There it is9 the ,irst e4isode o, eGisten!e$ The athor ,iGes it ,irmly in his memory
and des!ribes it with 4re!ision$ I, it is as des!ribed ;and it is=. then we have been
allowed a ,leetin' 'lim4se o, 4re1!or4oreal li,e thro'h memory$
In the eG!er4t above. the devi!e o, HillminationH ;see below= is only
hinted at$
#et me ?ote ,rther ,rom the middle o, the !ha4ter entitled HOn Fire$H
This title !ontains the motivation ,or ima'es o, delirim9
&t First there were no ima'es to s4eak o,. tho'h a 4la!e had been set ,or them
ss4ended be,ore me$ Soon therea,ter a !hildEs nrsery o4ened 4 be,ore me$
Behind me. a 'a4in' hole was !oales!in'$ It then trned into the moth o, a stove
Ethe stove was a memory o, somethin' that had 4erished lon' be,ore. o, somethin'
old$ #ook thereM The wind is whistlin' thro'h the 4i4e o, 4re1tem4oral !ons!ios
ness=11111&n eG!e4tionally lon' re4tile. Dn!le Vasya. was !rawlin' towards me
1@; Theory of Prose
<y motherEs voi!e ,or!ed its way into my ears9 HHe is on ,ireMH <!h later they
told me that I had been ill with dysentery. s!arlet ,ever and measles 4re!isely at the
time my mother ttered that 4hrase$
S!h also is the ima'e o, the H#ionH whi!h Bely saw one day on %o'
S?are9
&mon' the stran'e ima'es ,lashin' be,ore me ,rom the ha5e o, early !hildhood the
oldest by ,ar is that o, the loomin' ,i're o, the sha''y m' o, a lion$ The noisy hor
had already str!k$ &rond me I saw yellow moths o, sand$ From them the sha''y
m' and jaws are observin' me !almly$ & shot9 HHere !omes #ionMH
The Hyellow moths o, sandH is the ,irst detail to be HillminatedH8 H<!h
later I dis!overed the yellow !ir!le o, sand between &rbat and %o' S?are$H
Then ,ollows the HillminationH o, the #ion. a St$ Bernard ni!knamed
H#ionH who sed to han' arond the s?are$ This HillminationH took 4la!e
twenty years later9
Twenty years later the ,ra'ments o, my stran'e dreams be!ame wakin' reality$
Perha4s the labyrinth o, or rooms was the ori'inal wakin' reality. while Dn!le
Vasya was the re4tilian monster$ &nd. 4erha4s. too. that alter!ation with &4hrosynia
the !ook was in reality the in!ident with the old woman$ &nd the hrri!anes o, the
red world were the stove in the kit!hen. while the whirlin' tor!hes were only
s4arks$ I really donEt know$ Perha4s$
#ater. tho'h. in a !ha4ter entitled H@evertheless.H Bely reje!ted this
4arti!lar resoltion$ He asserted ne?ivo!ally that no s!h do' ever
eGisted$ &ll he had ever heard then was the !ry9 HHere !omes #ionMH
&nd H#i on !ame$ H
Frther on. he a,,irms the reality o, the ,antasti!al in the 4erson o, the
Hol d woman and her rooms$ H
This 'ame shold not sr4rise s$ It is !stomary in works o, ,antasy to
leave behind an nresolved detail !a4able o, s4rrin' on the ,la''in'
mystery line$
So in Tr'enevEs H-lara <ili!hH the hero is !red o, his no!trnal
visions. whi!h are attribted to an obvios !ase o, delirim$ Yet. on his
deathbed. we ,ind him holdin' a lo!k o, hair in his hand. and this lo!k is
introd!ed by the athor withot any resoltion$
It is im4ortant ,or a writer to !reate a wide ran'e o, inter4retations ,or his
work. to introd!e the 4ossibility ,or Hobs!rityH ;the very thin' Blok was
re4roa!hed ,or i$e$. his work was both this and that=$ For this reason the
,antasti! natre o, a literary work is simltaneosly a,,irmed and denied by
the athor$
&ndrei Bely arrived at this devi!e by way o, anthro4oso4hy$ Yet. the
hioed yon' snake. he later s4lit in two$ One hal, o, him wold
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1@B
re'lar a44earan!e o, &nna Pavlovna ShererEs salon in $ar and Peace 4lays
m!h the same role o, introd!in' an inter4retation o, the isse o, war and
4ea!e that is at odds with that o, the athor$ Dnlike Bely. Tolstoi arrived at
this devi!e thro'h !onsiderations o, a moral natre$ Bt this bsiness
reminds me a lot o, love a,,airs$ Ea!h !ase is ni?e$ One man loves a woman
,or her ble eyes. while another man loves a woman ,or her 'rey eyes$ The
end reslt is one and the same9 The earth is never short o, !hildren$
The world !omes into bein' ,or Iotik #etaev$ %reams whi!h ntil then had
stret!hed ot to in,inity now !lin' like wall4a4er to the walls o, his room$ Ot
o, the sonds HTi1da1do1di1ton1tyH emer'es the name o, H&nt %ottie$H
& little later Iotik hears %ottie 4lay the 4iano$ She ta4s melodi!ally at
the resonant. !old white keyboard9
Ton1ti
Ton1ti To-tin-
ton-ti-to.
Sbse?ently. H&nt %ottieH was !onstr!ted ot o, a wave o, sond$
This is the way thin's are ,ashioned ,rom sonds$
The real story line is indi!ated only by means o, a dotted line$ Peo4le and
thin's are !onne!ted on!e a'ain by sond waves$
&nd i, &nt %ottie is a sond wave. then IotikEs ,ather. Pro,$ #etaev. is a
Hrmblin' wave$H He is !onne!ted to &nt %ottie by sond$
<eanwhile$ &nt %ottie !rystalli5es into layers o, bein'$ This 4ro!ess o,
strati,i!ation be'an !onsiderably earlier9
&nd &nt %ottie dwindled be,ore my eyes$ She was not yet ,lly ,ormed$ She was
not yet ,lly in the ,lesh. ,lly real$ Rather. she rose silently be,ore me like a mist
,rom amon'st the mirrors and sli4!overs$ She hovered over me $ $ $
&nd she was takin' sha4e be,ore me in severe majesty and in tter. em4ty !alm1
ness. movin' ,orward with a !ar4et1beater raised hi'h in her hand and with a ,amiliar
re,le!tion in the mirrors and a no less ,amiliar 4ensive look on her ,a!e9 the thin.
mte. tall. wret!hed. nsteady ,i're o, my relative$ &nt %ottie. or$ rather.
Yevdokaya Ye'orovna $ $ $ that is$ Eternity$
&nd that is how a relative o, Iotik !ame to re4resent eternity$ Somewhat
later. Bely 4lls the word ,rom nder the ima'e and !on!ldes with a 4n9 HI
have a relative in Eternity$H
Even as she assmes her real identity$ &nt %ottie. it trns ot$ is still
asso!iated in IotikEs mind with a dro4 o, water in the washstand$ She
!ontines to be He'elEs HBad In,inity$H
It is my ,irm belie, that a literary work. es4e!ially a lon' one. is not bro'ht
into bein' by ,l,illin' its task$
Yes. a task eGists all ri'ht. bt this task is !om4letely altered by the
te!hni!al means at the athorEs dis4osal$
1;> Theory of Prose
The nity o, a work o, literatre is more likely than not a myth$ &t least
that is how I see it$ &nd. as yo know. I have written a 4ie!e o, ,i!tion or
two in my time and have observed others o, my 'eneration at their
!ra,t$
Set 4ie!es 4re4ared in advan!e enter easily and !onveniently into the
!om4osition o, a 4oem$ This eG4lains the in!lsion o, !ertain set 4ie!es in
PshkinEs Iu5ene Ane5in.
& monolithi! literary work is 4erha4s 4ossible in isolated !ases$ It seems
to me that Bely !ame to nderstand his devi!e o, materiali5in' the ima'e
while en'a'ed in the !reative 4ro!ess itsel,$ He inter4reted it in the ,ollow1
in' way9 &t ,irst. he sim4ly jotted down at the end o, ea!h !ha4ter a note to
the e,,e!t that he had been ill or that he was 'rowin' at the time$ Then he
!onsolidated the devi!e by introd!in' the !on!e4ts o, HswarmH and
HE,orm$H
Obje!tively s4eakin'. HswarmH desi'nates a leitmotiv o, meta4hors.
while H,ormH stands ,or an obje!t inherin' in a leitmotiv se!red to the story
line$
Sbje!tively s4eakin'. ,orm stands ,or the world already ,ormed. while
swarm desi'nates the !omin' into bein' o, the world$ Swarm always
4re!edes ,orm$
The swarm is motivated by IotikEs in,antile !ons!iosness. by his
illness. et!$ It is also motivated by anthro4oso4hy. whi!h serves to re4la!e
the Hs4riosH motivation o, !hildhood$
The a44earan!e o, the swarm. the loosenin' o, 4lot str!tre. and a shi,t
in ,avor o, the ima'e have bro'ht into bein' a s!hool o, writers known as
the Ornamentalists$
-ontem4orary Rssian 4rose is to a lar'e eGtentornamental in !hara!ter$
That is. the ima'ery 4revails over the 4lot$ -ertain Ornamentalists like
Namyatin or Pilnyak show BelyEs dire!t in,len!e. while others like
Vsevolod Ivanov show no in,len!e at all$ Still others show the in,len!e o,
Pilnyak and Namyatin$ Yet. this Ornamentalism has emer'ed on the
literary s!ene less as a reslt o, literary in,len!es than in res4onse to the
'eneral ,eelin' that the old ,orm has lost its resilien!e$
So!ial 4ressres and ideolo'ies may be bene,i!ial to the artist by s4rrin'
him on to !han'e his ,orm and to 'ive it artisti! eG4ression in his sbse?ent
work$
&nd now !on!ernin' the swarm and ,orm in Bely9
The very ,irst moments o, my eGisten!e were a Hswarm$H HSwarm. swarm every1
where>the whole world is a swarmH be!ame my ,irst 4hiloso4hy$ I was swe4t 4 in
a swarm ,irst and only later did I be'in des!ribin' wheels with the old woman$ The
wheel and the s4here were the ,irst to !rystalli5e ot o, the swarm$
That whi!h had !rystalli5ed had be!ome ,or me ,orm9 Fheelin' rond and rond
I !ame ot eventally thro'h a hole leadin' into a 4i4e. and so on$
Fhile Pa4a is emer'in' ot o, the swarm. the bllheaded man trns into
%o!tor %ornovov and &nt %ottie arises ot o, her sond wave$
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1;1
Obje!ts arise ot o, words$ Sometimes the swarm is 4resented as a 4n
motivated by a !hildEs 4er!e4tion$ For instan!e9
<ama ke4t re4eatin'9 HYe5heshikhinsky$H
1FhatEs thatLH
HHeEs ended 4 in the 'tter$H
This is !on,irmed by someoneEs voi!e9 H H Ye5heshikhinsky is s4illin' his
'ts$E H
The mis,ortnes o, Ye5heshikhinsky. who had wandered o,, into some
tnnels and was still wanderin' thro'h them to this day. o!!asioned BelyEs
,irst re,le!tion on the vi!issitdes o, ,ate9
EG4lanation is the re!olle!tion o, e4hony$ Dnderstandin' is their dan!e$ Ed!a1
tion is the ability to ,ly on words$ The harmony o, words is a siren$
&s always. we are dealin' here with one o, BelyEs 4ns$ The word
obra=o'anie ,or eGam4le. has two meanin's9 ;a= ed!ation ;the a!?isition
o, knowled'e=. and ;b= the ,ormation ;o, somethin'=$
Bely is astonded by the sond o, the word <re-mi ;Iremlin=9
The HIremlinHL FhatEs thatL I remember that I had on!e tasted a sweet !reme1
briile$ It was served in the ,orm o, a !ookie mold with 4roje!tin' led'es$ I also
remember that someone on!e showed me a HIremlinH at SevostjanovEs Pastry
Sho4$ These were 4roje!tin' led'es o, 4ink trrets made o, ,rit1dro4$ &nd I
sddenly reali5ed that the 0re stood ,or the stren'th o, the 4roje!tin' led'es in the
Iremlin S<reml(J in !ream 3Ore7nU and ,ortress S0repost(J while the m and ml stood
,or so,tness 3 mMa50ost(J and sweetness Ssladost(S and only then did they show me in
the distant ble sky the rosy. ,irm. sweet towers o, the Iremlin$
&t times Bely ses the reali5ed meta4hor or the literal meanin' o, the
word9
HValerian Valerianovi!h Blesh!hensky $ $ $H
HFhatEs thatLH
HHeEs a brned1ot drnkMH
&nd Valerian Valerianovi!h Blesh!hensky stands be,ore me $ $ $ !onsmed in
,lames$ He is no better than a lo'. a 444et made o, wood9 the wooden 444et starin'
ot o, the barbersho4 window$
The swarm dominates the ,irst two !ha4ters o, <oti0 "etae'. On!e the
leitmotivs are ,irmly established. the athor trns to the story line$ The
ima'es here do not a44ear ot o, nothin'$ Rather. ea!h 4rota'onist1
Pa4a. %o!tor P,e,,er. the nanny>has its own leitmotiv$ IotikEs habits1
s?intin'. the sensation arosed in him by the 'rel and even his sittin'
on a s4e!ial baby arm!hair>are ea!h ,rnished with its own leitmotiv$
The moment they are mentioned in the teGt. they !all ,orth their leit1
motivs$ &s events in the domain o, ,orm. they are merely hooks to wh$!h
the swarm is se!red$ The moment a new detail be!omes swarm. it eG1
tends thro'h the entire novel$ &!!om4anyin' the leitmotivs in the
1;3 Theory of Prose
story line. the swarm s44orts the literary work like a linin'9
I know how to s?int my eyes. to look at my nose$ &nd the 4atterns sli4 away I
look ot ,rom my bed at the bo?ets o, ,lowers on the wall4a4er$ I know how to
s?int my eyes. and the walls. ,lyin' over to my nose. sli4 away$
I know how to s?int my eyes. to look at my nose$ The walls sli4 away$
S?intin' is no ,rivolos 'ame$ Rather. it is a dis4la!ement o, thin's. an
overthrowin' o, ,orm. a transition. a retrn to swarm$ &t times. the relation1
shi4 between swarm and ,orm is intentionally 4aradoGi!al$ The in,ant on
the !hamber4ot is really an an!ient Or4hist$ His meal has betrayed him.
and so he !ontem4lates the an!ient ser4ents and beholds the meta1
mor4hoses o, the niverse$
Bely is !on!erned here with the se!ond motivation ,or his work ;the ,irst
one bein' anthro4oso4hy=. bt he ,ails to sstain its verisimilitde$ His little
boy sees. in 'reat detail. the inner str!tre o, a hman skll$ He sees
hemis4heres and !onstr!ts leitmotivs that. instead o, reali5in' the
meta4hor. de4rive the word o, sbstan!e$
The 'eneral str!tre o, a literary work allows one and only one o, its
tasks to 'ain dominan!e$ The anthro4oso4hi! work written by Bely at the
very hei'ht o, his anthro4oso4hi! obsession trned more and more into
atobio'ra4hy$
&
The #apti=ed -hinaman !ontines <oti0 "etae' and 4artly d4li!ates it$
I, we look at the story line. then the be'innin' o, one work seems to overla4
with the end o, the other$ From this 4oint o, view The #apti=ed -hinaman
may be !onsidered a se!ond edition of <oti0 "etae'. &ndrei BelyEs ,eelin's
!on!ernin' this work were. in ,a!t. ?ite ambivalent$
The #apti=ed -hinaman a!!ordin' to Bely$ is a ,orm o, s4irital milk. o,
H,ood ,or the neo4hyte$H Bt donEt believe a writer$ His worldview is ?ite
se4arate ,rom his literary work and shold be !onsidered as no more than an
a44endiG to it$ & 4oet o,ten renon!es verse in verse. while a novelist
renon!es ,i!tion in ,i!tion$ Even in the !inema a hero will re4ly on the
s!reen ;I mysel, have seen this=. HHow beati,lM Kst like in the movies$H
The !reation o, an illsion. its !onsolidation. and its dismantlin' are all
devi!es o, art$ Obje!tively s4eakin'. we may s44ose that The #apti=ed
-hinaman 4artially re4la!ed 2otes of an Iccentric and 4artially dis4la!ed
<oti0 "etae' in the athorEs inner str''le$ One thin' is !ertain9 The
#apti=ed -hinaman !on!edes nothin' to the Hneo4hyte$H
By its str!tre. The #apti=ed -hinaman !a4tres or attention by the
,a!t that its memoirist !hara!ter is even more 4ronon!ed than be,ore9 il
is ri!her in events$ IotikEs 4arents. develo4ed a4art ,rom and eGistin'
I S4
inde4endently o, their son$ now dominate the sta'e$ The swarm has been
dis4ersed$ Perha4s it is in !onne!tion with this that the lan'a'e o, this work
has !han'ed its !hara!ter9 the ima'isti! di,,i!lties asso!iated with <oii0
"etae' yield 4la!e here to di,,i!lties asso!iated merely with the se o,
diale!t$ It is no lon'er the ima'e bt the word that is enstran'ed$
In order to brin' ot this density. let me o,,er some eGam4les taken ,rom
two di,,erent 4a'es9
Beyond the window. where the ,o' is$ a 4ewter ha5e ,ell like a ,lrry o, snow,lakes$
welded into dro4s. and a dri55le ,ell9 Yes$ a dri55le$ & thaw is whirlin' down ,rom the
water1drinkin' 'tters$
&nd he wold hrl obs!enities. 'rin ,rom ear to ear and show his 'ms ;o, !orse
"randma !alled them by a di,,erent name=$ He wold !a!kle. 'r'le. !o'h and
tter a wild inde!en!y$
Bely himsel, nderstands the di!tionary meanin' o, his lan'a'e
4er,e!tly well$ For eGam4le. !onsider the ,ollowin'9
I on!e overheard "randma say9 HHe wore a barley !a4MEH &nd jst what is a
Hbarley !a4HL Fell. yo !an s!rat!h yor head all yo want. bt yoEll never ,ind it
there$ Try an nabrid'edM
It is !rios how seriosly the athor relates to the word and with what
s4e!i,i!ity he ses it$
Iotik is bein' !r!i,ied$ The ?arrel ra'in' between ,ather and mother
assmes !osmi! 4ro4ortions$ Still. the word is bro'ht into relie, be!ase it
is 4art o, the 'ame o, !ra,tsmanshi4. that is$ it is taken seriosly$ &nd here
no mira!le will hel4$
The swarm is 'one. re4la!ed by the world that has !ome into bein'$ Yet.
as an artist intent on maintainin' the dis4arity o, thin's$ Bely needed a
di,,erent version o, or world$ This di,,erent world is 4resented in this work
by a 'enerali5in' o, 4henomena$
In <oti0 "etae' the ,ather 'rows to be!ome a So!rates. a <oses. and the
?arrel between 4a4a and mama be!omes an eternal ?arrel$ The tra'edy
o, the 4rota'onists is that ea!h is str''lin' over HEsomethin' ni?ely his or
her own$H This at ,irst seems a joke bt. m!h later. it trns ot to be ?ite
,ndamental$ B'aev ;BelyEs ,ather= is 4resented in his ordinary. !omi!
state. and there,ore so m!h the more !onvin!in'ly does the Hsomethin'
ni?ely his ownH in him la' behind the leitmotiv o, So!rates and -on,!is
with whom he is asso!iated$
@onetheless. this Hsomethin' ni?ely oneEs ownH was ,irst s4oken by
Henrietta <artinova. the ba!kward "erman nanny. in re,eren!e to a
!ertain "erman$
This nonsensi!al 4hrase seemed. like a si'n. to !ontain some hidden
meanin'$ In ,a!t. tho'h. it has no meanin'$ Its alle'ed se!ret trns ot not
to eGist at all. even tho'h it is a44lied to IotikEs ,ather and mother and to
&4hrosim ;who has a tenden!y to trn into Immortality=$ To !om4lete the
#ely and
Arname
1;6 Theory of Prose
leitmotiv and dee4en the mystery. it is even a44lied. ,inally. to two 'ri,,ins
on someoneEs doorway$
The me!hani!al a44li!ation o, an eG4ression to a leitmotiv or !on!e4t by
means o, 'ri,,ins is bond 4 with traditional mysteries$ Here the mystery is
'iven nder the 'ise o, nonsense or Hobs!rity
((
;i$e$. a 4rely verbal
!on,sion=. ,or whi!h Blok was re4roa!hed ;by Bely himsel,=$ This !on,1
sion was. 4erha4s. ne!essary ,or art. bt it did not lead to anthro4oso4hy$
The !anoni5ation o, the ima'e leitmotivs and e4ithets rnnin' thro'hot
BelyEs works already be'ins in The #apti=ed -hinaman. The 4rota'onists
are 4erse!ted by their !orres4ondin' leitmotivs$ O,ten an ima'e is
!omi!ally reali5ed and not on!e bt several times. !han'in' ea!h time
thro'h the se o, 4ns9
Dn!le Vasya owns a medal and a !o!kade !on,erred 4on him ,or bravery in
battle$ He has been nominated ,or a medal$ Instead. ,or ,ive years now he has been
s!reamin' and hollerin'. and to this day he is still tryin' to 'et his ,oot in the ,ront
door o, the Im4erial Treasry %e4artment$
HHow is thatLH Fell. itEs not so sim4le i, yo are a ro!k. bt ?ite easy i, yo are a
stri4 o, ,elt$
HHow is thatL Yo mean bent over like a hn!hba!kLH
Bely then 4ro!eeds to reali5e the meta4hor Hbent overH by des!ribin'
how Dn!le Vasya bent over three times. shoved his head between his le's
and 4lled his handker!hie, ,rom nder his !oattails with his teeth$ In order
to !om4lete the reali5ation o, this meta4hor. this entire eG!er4t is set by
Bely in an an'lar !olmn in the middle o, the 4a'e$ The !olmn bends like
a hn!hba!k$
Dn!le VasyaEs revolt and drnkenness is de4i!ted by denyin' this se!ond
leitmotiv. by a re4diation o, the reali5ed ima'e9
&nd <ama 4layed>
&nd the events o, li,e. dislod'ed and swe4t away. ,lttered in the nothin'ness o,
the sonds$ On!e a'ain a tall man !omes towards s a!ross the years$ ItEs Dn!le$ He
rises on his thin stilts. on his le's and walks ,orever away ,rom s alon' the white
roo,s$ He disa44ears into the sky and ,rom there he be'ins railin' at s ,rom heaven9
HYes. I am tired o, bendin' over like a hn!hba!k$ Eno'h is eno'hMH
HI am tired o, tryin' to 'et my ,oot in the ,ront door o, the Treasry %e4artmentMH
HHere is the stri4 o, ,elt and here are some stones$ #et others try to shove their
way inMH
HIEm tired o, wearin' ot my li,e as a !lerk$ ItEs a seless 4ro,essionMH
HIEm leavin' yoMH
IEve deliberately eGtended this eG!er4t in order to show the relationshi4 that
eGists between the ima'es9 the 4layin' o, IotikEs mother is asso!iated with
her HroladeH leitmotiv. while the ,inal 4hrase 'enerali5es HDn!le Vasya$
The 4layin' itsel, is 4resented later in the ,orm o, a little 'irl. bt still later
she trns into Dnderstandin'$
In the !onventional novel the 4rota'onistsE asso!iation with obje!ts in
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1;F
the story line takes the limeli'ht$ I, the hero was a!!om4anied by anythin'.
it was sally by an obje!t. and at times this obje!t 4layed a role in the 4lot.
servin' as one o, the !onne!tin' threads in the 4lot$
In &ndrei Bely. tho'h. it is not obje!ts bt ima'es that are !onne!ted$
The e4o4ee is an enter4rise o, major s!o4e$
+ecollections of#lo0 may not be an e4o4ee. bt it is not ,ar o,,$ <ost likely.
it is material ,or an e4o4ee$
This work evolves by means o, both individal e4isodes as well as by the
introd!tion o, se4arate !ha4ters devoted to BelyEs anthro4oso4hi! inter1
4retation o, Blok$ The latter !ha4ters. !onsistin' eG!lsively o, 4assa'es
?oted ot o, !onteGt. ,ail to take into !onsideration the !han'es in the
meanin' o, words e,,e!ted by their relationshi4s with other words in the
4oem$ These !ha4ters 4r4ort. ,or eGam4le. to eG4lain BlokEs evoltion in
terms o, the !olor modlations in his verse$ This idea seems to be sel,1
evident. bt jst the same it is wron'$ One o'ht never to !onstre the works
o, a 4oet as a series o, 4ersonal !on,essions held to'ether by a kind o,
s!otsE honor$ Even a writer as 'iven to the !on,essional mode as Bely is
!annot s!!eed in nbrdenin' his sol$ That whi!h Bely !laims as a
4ersonal tteran!e is. in the ,inal analysis. a new literary 'enre$
Even less so shold we believe in the do!mentary !hara!ter o, a 4oetEs
!on,essions and in the earnestness o, his worldview$
& 4oetEs worldview is distorted>when the 4oet is indeed a 4ro,essional
one>by the ,a!t that it serves as a sor!e o, material ,or his 4oems$
For that reason there is m!h irony in a 4oetEs belie,s$ They are. a,ter all.
,ll o, mis!hie,$ The bondaries se4aratin' the serios ,rom the hmoros
are blrred in a 4oet 4artly by the ,a!t that the hmoros ,orm. bein' the
least !anoni5ed and at the same time the most o4en to semanti! dis4arities.
lays the 'rond ,or new ,orms o, serios art$ The relationshi4 between. on
the one hand. the ,orms o, the jornal Satiri0on and <ayakovskyEs ,orms.
and. on the other hand. between the do''erel o, Rssian vadeville and
the verse o, @ekrasov has been bro'ht ot on nmeros o!!asions by
Formalists !riti!s ;Osi4 Brik. Boris Eikhenbam$ Yry Tynyanov=$ t1
Gam4les ,rom &ndrei Bely are less well known$ His Symphonies border
on hmor. that is. the serios inter4retation !ame later$ Kst the same. the
new Rssian literatre is in!on!eivable withot the Symphonies. Even
those who s!old Bely do so nder the in,len!e o, his less than ,lly !on1
s!ios style$ &s a matter o, ,a!t. Bely himsel, ; i , memory serves me ri'ht=
on!e assred me o, the HhmorosH !hara!ter o, his Symphonies. He had
e
ooko, a man who had sddenly !ome a!ross an astonishin' illstration
EHthe (/)0 edition o, 2i'a.
4art ,rom the anthro4oso4hi! !ha4ters with their 4assa'es devoted to
1;7 Theory of Prose
! the lila! and 'old !olor s!heme. +ecollections of#lo0 reverberates with the
?arrels between Blok and Bely$ These ?arrels were most likely ?ite real
and !old not be red!ed to a mere matter o, style$ Yet. we mst make !ertain
!on!rete reservations$ In the 'ood old days a writer wold not have washed
his dirty linen in 4bli! ;#vov1Ro'a!hevsky believes that this is be!ase
writers in the old days wold never have stoo4ed that low=$ From the ,a!ts
available to him. ea!h writer de!ides ,or himsel, whi!h ones heEll se in his
novel and whi!h ones heEll ,ore'o$ For eGam4le. -hekhov never 4blished his
notebooks drin' his li,etime. and yet ,or s they are interestin' in and o,
themselves$ "orky. on the other hand. is 4blishin' his notebooks. while
-hekhovEs tales now seem rather stale$ There is a tale abot a 4easant and a
bear who worked as a team$ S4littin' their yield ,i,ty1,i,ty. they a'reed that
one o, them wold 'et the roots. while the other took the 'reen leaves$ Fell.
the !nnin' 4easant otsmarted the bear9 Fhen he sowed rye. he o,,ered the
bear the roots. and when he sowed trni4s. he o,,ered the ss4i!ios bear the
'reen leaves$ #iteratre. too. has its root1lovers as well as its leaves1lovers.
and the ,o!s o, the literary moment shi,ts !ontinally ,rom one !am4 to the
neGt$ @owadays writers are sowin' their trni4s. as memoir literatre8 Hthe
raw material o, writersE notebooksH is ridin' hi'h in the 4bli!Es esteem$
This ?arrel between Blok and Bely ;a4art ,rom !ertain ,a!tors nknown
to s that have not been el!idated in this book= is des!ribed in these +ecol-
lections in a way that im4lies that Bely was always a %resden tree. while
Blok never was$ Tre. Bely$ &leksandr and #ybov Blok and S$ < Solov1
yov ,ormed a !ommnity that !laimed the ri'ht to install a H<amaH on the
throne o, OrthodoGy as a !onter4art to the -atholi! HPa4aH in Rome$ The
!harter o, this so!iety. however. was meant as a kind o, joke. as a 4arody$ It
is also tre that Bely !onsidered the weddin' o, &leksandr and #ybov Blok
an event o, e4o!hal si'ni,i!an!e. with !ontroversy ra'in' as to whom
#ybov really re4resented9 Some said Beatri!e8 others said So4hia$ <ean1
while. the very ,ormation o, this !oterie. whi!h Bely views anthro4os1
o4hi!ally$ was a deliberate a!t o, 4arody$
The sessions o, this !oterie were re4eatedly interr4ted by jokes$
im4rovisational skits and 4re !ari!atre9
Fe !old have sed the ?olden -arpet o, &4ollo8 Fe 4layed the ,ool as we a!ted
ot what we wold 4robably have looked like to the ninitiated$ S$ <$ Solovyov
wold sally be'in the b,,oonery$ &nd we wold a44ear in these 4arodies
4er,ormed in or 4resen!e like a se!t o, HBlok a!olytes$H nder the sear!hin' eye o,
the !ons!ientios Pro,essor o, -ltre ,rom the thirteenth !entry$ "iven the name
o, #a4an by Solovyov$ this ,i!titios 4ro,essor raised the abstrse ?estion o,
whether a se!t s!h as ors had ever really eGisted at all$V
VBely may be 4layin' on po0ro' ;root meanin'9 Hto !overH=. the Symbolist ima'e
,or the !over or veil ;s''ested by K$ Hellie=$ H&44olonovH may re,er not only to
&4ollo bt also to the &4ollonian hedonisti! se!t ;s''ested by K$ Finston=$ The
Fink re4rint o, BelyEs works has nu=hem ,or mu=hem. HThirteenthH may be ty4o ,or
Htwenty1se!ond$H 3Trans. note6
#ely and Arnamental Prose 1;@
&nd so the 4hiloso4hi!al idea eGisted in this milie in a ,orm borderin' on
4arody$ BlokEs retreat ,rom #a4anEs !ommandments. as de4i!ted by Bely.
never took 4la!e in reality bt rather between the !overs o, these +ecollec-
tions. For the Bely o, ()::. #a4an was the ,ontain he ad o, trth$
BlokEs ironi!. 4lay,l treatment o, mysti!ism in The ,air Sho: #ooth
was inter4reted by Bely as an a!t o, betrayal$ Blok sed his raw material
m!h more ,reely than Bely ;that is. ntil the writin' o, The T:el'e*. He
sim4ly !oldnEt bear BelyEs ,riends ;s!h as Ellis. ,or instan!e=. not to
mention the whole anthro4oso4hi!al bsiness itsel,$ Trnin' away ,rom the
book to address the 4bli! dire!tly. Bely re4roa!hes ,ate in tra'i! tones9
#ater I told Blok9 Thro'h anthro4oso4hy I dis!overed the very thin' whi!h had
been !losed to s drin' those years$ Bt it was too late$ Blok had been sin'ed
be!ase he stood be,ore the "ates earlier than anyone else$
Sometime later. Bely said9
Fe 'ave orselves over to the ray o, li'ht$ Fe rea!hed ot and 'ras4ed the li'ht
like !hildren. bt the li'ht trned ot to be a ,lame$ &nd we were brned by it$ $ $ $
Blok is now aslee4 ,orever. while I hobble alon' like a !ri44le alon' a 4ath o,
redem4tion that has o4ened 4 too late ,or me$
BelyEs habit o, sin' nearly every word as a s4rin'board ,or the In,inite
a44ears to the !ontem4orary reader to belon' to the 'eneration o, ()*($ It
!old be read as a new inter4retation o, swarm. bt in the dosa'es 4resented
here it is intolerable$ How many times is it ne!essary ,or Bely to mention
that HhmanityH !omes ,rom EHhmsHL
& ,ar more interestin' !om4ositional devi!e is em4loyed by Bely thro'h1
ot the +ecollections of #lo0. Obje!ts are 4resented ,rom two 4oints o,
view. that o, Bely and that o, Blok$ This 4roves es4e!ially e,,e!tive in
the 4assa'e in whi!h Bely. a,ter des!ribin' his meetin' with Blok in 'reat
detail. ,ollows it with a hy4otheti!al des!ri4tion o, the sel,same s!ene by
Blok$
In addition. the devi!e o, an ima'e leitmotiv has eG4erien!ed a renewal.
!om4ositionally s4eakin'. and es4e!ially so in the !ha4ters devoted to %$ S$
<ere5hkovsky$ It is here that we meet with <ere5hkovskyEs !elebrated
H4om4omH sli44ers as well as with Prio5hkov ;the 4blisher with whom
<ere5hkovsky was !arryin' on ne'otiations at the time=$ Piro5hkov is ,irst
des!ribed. then !on,irmed. then sim4ly mentioned. and sddenly he has
be!ome Han ima'eH9 HIind and ever so worldly. <ere5hkovsky makes his
entran!e$ Yo wold have tho'ht it was Piro5hkov who has jst arrived$H
The work is ,ar ,rom 4er,e!t$ Bely kee4s lookin' ,or ^E ,antasti!al lands!a4es
heard silently ,rom behind the word$H However. it is the memoirs that are
most s!!ess,l. and amon' them it is the hmoros 4a'es bristlin' with
o!!asional !ari!atre that are most a!!essible$
I !annot say ,or sre what relationshi4 H &rbatH bears to +ecollections of
#lo0. In a44earan!e a se?el to +ecollections this work nevertheless
1SS Theory of Prose
evin!es a totally di,,erent tone9 It is !learly do!mentary in its orientation
&nd yet H&rbatH !annot easily be rele'ated to the 'enre o, memoirs$ It is
artisti!ally !on!eived ,rom be'innin' to end$ Pro4er names are tili5ed to
!reate a di,,i!lt ,orm$ The work seems to have been written in diale!t a
diale!t with solid motivation behind it$ <oreover. written in 4eriods that
roll on ,or two 4a'es at a time. it teems with re,eren!es to ,a!ts that trn into
ima'e leitmotivs$
The hi'her level o, the work is 4resented by inter4retin' the ha44enin's
on &rbat &vene as a mi!ro!osm o, the world$
Ths. Hthe li'ht ,rom Vy'od!hikH re,ers to the li'ht in the Vy'od!hik
store$ Seein' this li'ht$ B'aev ;BelyEs ori'inal name= tters his ,irst word9
HFire$H Yet. Hthe li'ht ,rom Vy'od!hikH re4resents at the same time Hli'ht
in 'eneral$H while the 4ro4er names on the &rbat are nothin' less than a
4e!liar ,orm o, sbstittion ,or the ima'e leitmotivs$
#ike a ra!e o, 4eo4le divided into those with lon' heads and those with
short heads. the Symbolist movement was s4lit down the middle by an old
!ontroversy$ Essentially. it involved the ,ollowin' ?estion9 Fas Symbolism
merely an aestheti! method or was it somethin' moreL
&ll o, his li,e$ Bely !ham4ioned the se!ond alternative ;i$e$$ that
Symbolism is m!h more than jst art=$
This !ontroversy is a44arently bein' laid to rest$ Fe hear little in this
latest work by Bely abot anthro4oso4hy$ &nthro4oso4hy has 4layed itsel,
ot a,ter !reatin' a new attitde to the ima'e and a,ter introd!in' an
ori'inal two1tiered !on!e4tion o, a literary work$
Poin!are. I believe. on!e said that mathemati!ians rotinely remove the
s!a,,oldin' whi!h enables them to bild their str!tres in the ,irst 4la!e$
Fell. Bely has be'n to remove his s!a,,oldin'$ His 4rose today is not
sim4ler than yesterdayEs. bt its new ,orm is now !on!eived alon' thoro'hly
aestheti! lines$ It will take its honored 4la!e in the Rssian 4rose o, today$
BelyEs attem4t to live in a!!ordan!e with the 4rin!i4les o, anthro4oso4hy
shall ,orever !ast a shadow over his 4ersonal li,e$ Yet. it sometimes ha44ens
that hman !ltre has need o, s!h mis,ortnes in the same way that a
novel may need to se4arate its heroes in order to brake the a!tion o, its 4lot$
-hapter B
#iteratre withot a Plot9 Ro5anov
l
In "oetheEs $ilhelm %eister we !ome a!ross HE& -on,ession o, a Beati,l
Sol$H The heroine o, this work says that there was a time when the beaty
o, an artistEs work wold a,,e!t her in the same way that the beaty o,
a bookEs ty4e a,,e!ts others9 H& beati,lly 4rinted book is 4ositively
'or'eos. bt who reads a book ,or its ty4eLH
Both the heroine and "oethe knew that anyone who s4oke this way nder1
stood nothin' abot art$ &nd yet s!h an attitde is as !hara!teristi! o, the
majority o, !ontem4orary art s!holars as slanted eyes are ,or the -hinese$
This view. already la'hed o,, the msi!al sta'e and re!o'ni5ed as
4rovin!ial in the ,ine arts. still !ases ?ite a stir in the literary world$
In !onsiderin' the so1!alled ,orm o, a literary work as a kind o, !overin'
whi!h we mst 4enetrate. the !ontem4orary theoreti!ian o, literatre reminds
s o, the man who tried to mont a horse bt ended 4 overshootin' it$
& literary work is 4re ,orm$ It is neither thin' nor material. bt a
relationshi4 o, materials$ &nd. like every relationshi4. this one too has little
to do with len'th or width or any other dimension$ ItEs the arithmeti!
si'ni,i!an!e o, its nmerator and denominator ;i$e$. their relationshi4= that
is im4ortant$
Hmoros works. tra'i! works. world1en!om4assin' or intimate works.
!on,rontations o, worlds or o, !ats and stones>are all e?al in the eyes o,
literatre$
It is ,rom this that !omes the ino,,ensive !hara!ter o, art. its sense o, bein'
sht 4 within itsel,. its ,reedom ,rom eGternal !oer!ion$ The history o,
literatre 4ro'resses alon' a broken 4ath$ I, we were to arran'e all o, the
literary saints !anoni5ed sin!e the seventeenth !entry alon' one line. we
wold still ,ail to 4rod!e a sin'le line o, des!ent that mi'ht allow s to tra!e
Ehe history o, literary ,orm$ On the one hand. what Pshkin wrote abot
er5havin I that he Htho'ht in Tartar.H not Rssian>Trans$6 is neither
Fl
`y nor tre$ On the other hand. @ekrasov does not take the Pshkin tradi1
^+n as his 4oint o, de4artre$ &mon' 4rose writers Tolstoi ?ite obviosly
not

take
His !e ,rom Tr'enev or ,rom "o'ol. while -hekhov. most
take .
y
E
did
not have his ori'in in Tolstoi$ These r4tres in literary history
PEa!e ,or reasons that have nothin' to do with !hronolo'y$
1;B
1B> Theory of Prose
@o$ the real 4oint is that the le'a!y that is 4assed on ,rom one literary
'eneration to the neGt moves not ,rom ,ather to son bt ,rom n!le to ne4hew
#et s at ,irst develo4 this ,ormla$ In ea!h literary e4o!h there eGists not one
bt several literary s!hools$ They eGist in literatre in a state o, simltan!itv
However. one o, them re4resents a !anoni5ed !rest in its evoltion. while the
other s!hools !oeGist withot s!h !anoni5ation in a state o, obs!rity$ &t
the time o, Pshkin. ,or eGam4le. the tradition o, %er5havin lived on in the
verse o, Iykhelbeker$ and similarly. the tradition o, "riboedov eGisted
alon'side the tradition o, Rssian vadeville verse and other s!h traditions
as that o, the adventre novel in Bl'arin$
PshkinEs tradition did not srvive him$ Instead. his eGam4le was ,ollowed
by the disa44earan!e o, hi'hly 'i,ted !hildren and 'enises ,rom the literary
s!ene$
&t this very same time. however. new literary ,orms are emer'in' ot o,
the lower stratm o, so!iety to re4la!e the old ones$ The old ,orms. no more
!ons!iosly ,elt than 'rammati!al ,orms are in s4ee!h. have lost their
artisti! !hara!ter to assme an o,,i!ial stats that 4re!ldes sensation$ The
new line o, develo4ment breaks in on the old and the vadeville showman
Belo4yatkin be!omes @ekrasov ;work o, Osi4 Brik=. Tolstoi. a dire!t
des!endant o, the ei'hteenth !entry. !reates a new novel ;Boris Eikhen1
bam=$ Blok !anoni5es the themes and the rhythms o, the H'y4sy son'.H
while -hekhov introd!es the alarm !lo!k into Rssian literatre$ Finally$
%ostoevsky raises the devi!es o, the !hea4 novel to the level o, a literary
norm$ Ea!h new literary s!hool is a new revoltion. somethin' in the natre
o, a new !lass$
O, !orse. this is only an analo'y$ The de,eated HlineH is not annihilated. it
does not !ease to eGist It is only dethroned. 4shed aside ,rom its dominant
4osition on the !rest and sbmer'ed beneath it$ Still. it !ontines to move ,or1
ward. always 4oised ,or a resrre!tion as the eternal !laimant to the throne$
In reality. the matter is made m!h more !om4leG by the ,a!t that the new
rler does not sally re4resent a 4re restoration o, the 4revios ,orm bt
rather in!ldes ,eatres o, other yon'er s!hools as well as the ,eatres
inherited ,rom its 4rede!essor on the throne$ Bt now in an o,,i!ial !a4a!ity$
@ow let s trn to Vasily Ro5anov ,or more di'ressions$ In my earlier
essay on Ro5anov I to!hed only 4on his three latest books9 Sotitaria
and the two volmes o, ,allen "ea'es ;,irst and se!ond HbndlesH=$
Intimate to the 4oint o, o,,ense. these works natrally re,le!t the sol o,
their athor$ Bt I shall endeavor to 4rove that the sol o, a literary work is
none other than its str!tre or ,orm$ Dsin' my ,ormla to the e,,e!t that the
H!ontentH ;the sol is meant here= o, a literary work is e?al to the sm o, its
stylisti! devi!es. 4ermit me to trn to a 4assa'e ,rom Ro5anov9
Everyone ima'ines the sol is a kind o, bein'$ Bt why !oldnEt il be msi!L &nd
so they look ,or its 14ro4ertiesH ;the 4ro4erties o, an obje!t=$ Bt why !oldnEt it jst
have ,ormL $ $ $ ),allen "ea'es*
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 1B1
&n arti,a!t has a sol that is very m!h like a ,orm. like the 'eometri!
relationshi4 o, masses$ The !hoi!e o, material ,or a work o, art is also
a!!om4lished alon' ,ormal lines$ This material is !hosen ,or its si'ni,i!ant.
,elt dimensions$ Every e4o!h has its own IndeG. its own list o, themes
,orbidden be!ase o, their obsoles!en!e$ For eGam4le$ Tolstoi im4oses his
own IndeG. whi!h ,orbids him to write abot the romanti! -a!ass or
abot the moonli'ht$ Here we meet with a ty4i!al bannin' o, Romanti!
themes$ In -hekhov we see somethin' ?ite di,,erent$ In his jvenile work
entitled HFhat Fe En!onter <ost O,ten in @ovels and in Tales and so
on.H -hekhov enmerates stereoty4i!al venes9
Ri!h n!le. liberal or !onservative de4endin' 4on !ir!mstan!es9 His
eGhortations are not ?ite as se,l ,or the hero as death$ &ntie is
in Tambov$
& do!tor with a worried ,a!e o,,erin' ho4e in a !risis o,ten !arries a !ane with a
knob and is also o,ten bald$ The da!has on the ed'e o, <os!ow and the
mort'a'ed estate in the soth$
&s yo !an see. a 4rohibition is im4osed on !ertain ty4i!al. everyday
Hsitations$H This 4rohibition is made. not be!ase there is a shorta'e o,
do!tors to annon!e that the !risis has 4assed. bt be!ase this sitation
has be!ome stereoty4i!al$
It is 4ossible to renew a !li!he by em4hasi5in' its !onventionality$ &nd
here s!!ess is 4ossible by 4layin' with banality$ Bt s!h s!!ess is
ni?e$ #et me illstrate ,rom Heine9
The rose. the lily. the sn
all o, whom I on!e loved in loveEs e!stasy
;There is ,rther a 4lay on rhymes9 alleine1eine1kleine1seine1reine T kro,1
lybo,. radostE1mladostE$=
Bt the otlawed themes !ontine to eGist otside the literary !anon in
the same way that the eroti! ane!dote eGists to this very day or in the way
that re4ressed desires eGist in the 4sy!he. revealin' themselves neG4e!tedly
in dreams$ %omesti!ity as a theme. the domesti! attitde toward thin's. and
the theme o, in,idelity were never or almost never bro'ht 4 in Hhi'h
so!ietyH literatre$ Still. it eGisted elsewhere. s!h as in the 'enre o, letters9
EIEm kissin' yo in the !hildrenEs room behind the s!reen$ Yo are wearin' a
'rey bonnet>H Tolstoi writes his wi,e ;:) @ovember (/C2=$ In another
4assa'e he says9
&nd so Seroyosha 4t his ,a!e on the oil!loth and !ried Ha'
(
$EH I shall 'o and see$
Yo astonished me by sayin' that yo slee4 on the ,loor$ Bt #ybo, &leGandra
said that she tooHsle4ton the ,loor$H and I nderstood$ I like it and then a'ain I donEt
Hke it when yo imitate her$ I wold like ,or yo to be essentially as 'ood a 4erson as
she is$
%ay a,ter tomorrow on the nrsery oil!loth ,loor. I shall embra!e yo. my slender.
4rom4t. sweet wi,e$ ;%e!ember (*. (/C2=
1B3 Theory of Prose
&s time 4assed. TolstoiEs material and devi!e lost their lster and
de'enerated into a !li!he$ Bein' a 'enis. Tolstoi had no dis!i4les$ &nd
withot 4ostin' a new list o, ,orbidden themes. his art went ot o, se$ &t
that moment ensed what ha44ens in marital li,e when the ,eelin' o, distin!1
tion between hsband and wi,e is blrred$ In the words o, Ro5anov9
The !o's rb a'ainst ea!h other withot en'a'in'$ The sha,t sto4s. and the work
'rinds to a halt. be!ase the ma!hine as a system o, re!i4ro!atin' nits has !eased to
eGist$
This love. whi!h has. o, !orse. died. !an never be resrre!ted$ From this it
,ollows that be,ore the midni'ht hor has tolled. a!ts o, in,idelity ,lare 4 as in a ,inal
attem4t to revive love$ @othin' so di,,erentiates. estran'es lovers as betrayal$ The
other !o'. not yet e,,a!ed. !omes to li,e and en'a'es with a !o' lyin' o44osite it$
),allen "ea'es*
The shi,tin' movements re4resent jst s!h a betrayal in literatre$
It is a well1known ,a!t that the 'reatest works o, literatre ;IEm s4eakin'
here only o, 4rose= do not ,it into the ,ramework o, a 4arti!lar 'enre$ It is
di,,i!lt to determine 4re!isely what Dead Souls re4resents ;i$e$. what
!ate'ory to !lassi,y it nder=$ $ar and Peace and Tristram Shandy in
s4ite o, their nearly total la!k o, a ,ramin' story. may be !alled novels ,or the
very reason that they violate the laws o, a novel$ The 4rity o, a 'enre ;,or
eGam4le. o, the 'enre o, H4sedo1!lassi!al tra'edyH= is nderstood only in
o44osition to a 'enre that has not yet been !anoni5ed$ Bt the !anoni5ed
novel lends itsel, to sel,14arody and modi,i!ation 4erha4s more than any
other 'enre$ In a!!ordan!e with the !anon o, the ei'hteenth1!entry novel. I
wold like to 4ermit mysel, a di'ression$
-on!ernin' di'ressions$ There is a !ha4ter in ,ieldin5(s Goseph Andre:s
that is 4la!ed by the athor a,ter a des!ri4tion o, a ,i'ht$ In it Fieldin'
des!ribes a !onversation between himsel, and an a!tor$ This !ha4ter is
annon!ed as bein'
ik
o, no other se in this history. bt to divert the readerH
;book 0. !ha4$ (*=$
"enerally s4eakin'. di'ressions 4lay three roles9
The ,irst role !onsists o, 4ermittin' the introd!tion o, new material into
the novel$ So. ,or eGam4le. the s4ee!hes o, %on JiGote 4ermit -ervantes
to introd!e into the novel a variety o, !riti!al and 4hiloso4hi!al materials$
O, ,ar 'reater si'ni,i!an!e is the se!ond role 4layed by di'ressions. that
is. o, brakin' the a!tion. o, holdin' it ba!k$ This devi!e is widely sed by
Sterne$ In SterneEs hands this devi!e !onsists essentially o, a 4lot moti,
develo4ed by either one o, the !hara!ters or by the introd!tion o, a new
theme ;as ,or eGam4le the story o, the heroEs ant and her !oa!hman=$
Toyin' with the readerEs im4atien!e. the athor re4eatedly reminds him
o, the deserted hero$ @onetheless. he does not retrn to him a,ter trie
di'ression. and remindin' the reader serves only to renew the readers
eG4e!tation$ .
In a novel involvin' 4arallel intri'es. as in Vi!tor H'oEs "es %.serables
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 1B4
or in the novels o, %ostoevsky. the interr4tion o, one a!tion by another is
tili5ed as material ,or di'ression$
Thirdly. di'ressions in literatre also serve the ,n!tion o, !reatin'
!ontrast$
This is what Fieldin' has to say abot it9
&nd here we shall o, ne!essity be led to o4en a new Vein o, Inowled'e. whi!h. i,
it hath been dis!overed. hath not. to or Remembran!e. been wro'ht on by any
antient or modern Friter$ This Vein is no other than that o, -ontrast. whi!h rns
thro'h all the Forks o, the -reation. and may. 4robably. have a lar'e Share in
!onstittin' in s the Idea o, all Beaty. as well natral as arti,i!ial9 For what
demonstrates the Beaty and EG!ellen!e o, any Thin' bt its ReverseP Ths the
Beaty o, %ay. and that o, Smmer. is set o,, by the Horrors o, @i'ht and Finter$
&nd$ I believe. i, it was 4ossible ,or a <an to have seen only the two ,ormer. he
wold have a very im4er,e!t Idea o, their Beaty$ )Tom Gones book A. !ha4$ (=
I believe that the above 4assa'e s,,i!iently el!idates the third role
4er,ormed by di'ressions. that is. the !reation o, !ontrasts$
In 'atherin' his book. Heine sele!ted his !ha4ters with 'reat !are.
!han'in' their order when ne!essary. in order to !reate jst s!h a !ontrast$
"
#et s now retrn to Ro5anov$
The three volmes by Ro5anov eGamined here re4resent a totally new
'enre. an eGtraordinary a!t o, betrayal$ So!ial and to4i!al essays. 4resented
as atonomos ,ra'ments. !ontradi!t ea!h other at every 4oint$ & bio'ra4hy
o, Ro5anov and s!enes ,rom his li,e as well as 4hoto'ra4hs. et!$. have also
been in!lded$
These books are not entirely ,ormless. sin!e we see in them a !ertain
!onstan!y in the devi!e sed in their ,ormation$ For me these books
re4resent a new 'enre. a 'enre that resembles. above all. the 4arodisti!
novel. that is. with the weakly eG4ressed ,ramin' story ;the main 4lot= and
withot a !omi! tin'e$
Ro5anovEs work re4resents a heroi! attem4t to 'o beyond the !on,ines
o, literatre. Hto s4eak withot words. withot ,orm.H and the work has
trned ot s4lendidly. be!ase it has 'iven birth to a new literatre. a new
,orm$
Ro5anov introd!es !linary themes into literatre ,or the very ,irst time$
S!h domesti! themes had. admittedly. made their a44earan!e earlier9 the
si'ht o, #otte !ttin' bread in $erlher was ,or its time a revoltionary
4henomenon. jst as the name HTatianaH was in PshkinEs novel$ Bt the
,amily hearth. the ?ilt. the kit!hen and its smells ;i$e$. aside ,rom satire=
had never a44eared in literatre be,ore$
Ro5anov introd!es these themes withot reservation. ,or eGam4le. in an
entire series o, ,ra'ments9
1B6 Theory of Prose
<y kit!hen a!!ont1book rivals Tr'enevEs letters to Viardot$ This book. o,
!orse. is a very di,,erent kind o, thin'. bt the aGis o, the world rns thro'h this
book jst as m!h as thro'h Tr'enevEs. and. basi!ally. it is jst as 4oeti!al$
Fhat e,,ort and what !are has 'one into this kit!hen led'erM &nd with what
tre4idation has the writer made his entries. lest the 4en ste4 over the linesM &nd what
a sense o, satis,a!tion when all o, the !olmns tally 4er,e!tly$
&nd here is another 4assa'e9
I love tea. and I love to mend a !i'arette ;where it has been torn=$ I love my wi,e
and my 'arden on my da!ha$ !,allen "ea'es*
Or !onsider. ,or eGam4le. the ,ollowin' 4assa'e motivated by nostal'ia9
Kst the same I shake ot the !i'arette btts$ @ot always. bt i, one hal, o, the
!i'arette or even less has been le,t nsmoked$ I will shake them$ HYo have to make
se o, them. yo have to se the le,tover toba!!o$H Bt I earn twelve thosand rbles
a year and so natrally I donEt need this$ So why do I smokeL <aybe itEs my old
slo44y way o, sin' my hands ;as a !hild=. or maybe it has somethin' to do with my
boyhood years$ Fhy do I love my !hildhood so m!hL <y tormented and dis'ra!ed
!hildhood$ ;Fhile !olle!tin' !i'arette btts ,rom my ashtray. shakin' ot the
toba!!o. and then miGin' it with ,resh toba!!o$= ),allen "ea'es bndle :=
&mon' the thin's !reated in the new way we witness a new ima'e o, the
4oet9 H#i!kin' my li4s I stare at the world with 'o''led eyes$ ThatEs me$
IsnEt that 4rettyL Oh well. what is one to doLH Or a'ain9 HThese are 'olden
,ish 4layin' in the sn bt they are 4la!ed in an a?arim ,illed with slimy
dn'$ &nd yet IEm not s,,o!atin'$ This may not seem tre to li,e$ &nd yet it
isH )Solitaria*.
Ro5anov introd!es new themes$ Bt whyL @ot be!ase he was a s4e!ial
4erson. altho'h he was a man o, 'enis and there,ore s4e!ial$ Fith the
death o, the old ,orms and in a!!ordan!e with the diale!ti!al 'eneration o,
new ,orms and a!?isition o, new materials$ Ro5anov was ,a!ed with a
va!m$ The artist in him yearned ,or new themes$
Ro5anov ,ond his theme$ & whole !ate'ory o, themes. themes o, every1
day li,e and o, ,amily li,e$ Obje!ts sta'e 4eriodi! 4risin's$ In #eskov$ ,or
eGam4le. a H'reat. 4ower,l. trth,lH lan'a'e emer'ed. a thoro'hly new
Rssian. the ,an!i,l lan'a'e o, the 4etty bor'eois and han'ers1on$
Ro5anovEs revolt was broader in natre$ The obje!ts demanded a halo$
Ro5anov 'ave them a halo and 'lory to boot9
O, !orse there had never been an eGam4le o, this be,ore $ $ $ and I think it in!on1
!eivable ,or it to ever re!r in the history o, the niverse$ So that at the very instant
when tears rolled down my !heeks and my sol was rent asnder$ I 4er!eived with
the nmistakable ear o, a listener that they roll in a literary way$ msi!ally$ "o
ahead and re!ord them$ I tho'ht. and so ,or that reason only I re!orded them$
)Solitaria*
I wold like to elaborate on two related 4assa'es9
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 1BF
I, yo 'ive somethin'. bt !ome 4 short. yo ,eel de4ressed$ Even i, it is a 'i,t$
;S4oken to the little 'irl at the railroad station in Iiev. whom I wanted to honor with
a 'i,t o, a 4en!il$ I waited too lon' and the little 'irl and her 'randma le,t$= Bt the
little 'irl did retrn and I 'ave her a 4en!il. whi!h she had never seen be,ore. as a 'i,t$
&nd I !old hardly eG4lain to her that this was in eG!han'e ,or the Hmira!le$H I ,elt
so 'ood and so did she$ !Solitaria*
The ventilator in the little !orridor whistled tediosly. i, not !rdely$ I almost
broke down in tears$ Yes. I want to 'o on livin' jst so I !an hear it$ Fhat really
matters is ,or someone. a ,riend. to live$ &nd the tho'ht o!!rred to me9 Is it really
tre that he 3 a ,riendU will not be able to hear the ventilator in the neGt worldL &nd the
lon'in' ,or immortality sei5ed me so violently by my hair that I nearly ,ell on the
,loor$ )Solitaria*
It is the very !on!reteness o, his horror that !onstittes Ro5anovEs
literary devi!e$
In order to demonstrate the !ons!ios se o, domesti!ity as a literary
devi!e in Ro5anov. I shall !all yor attention to one 'ra4hi! detail ,rom his
books$ Srely yo remember the ,amily 4hotos inserted in the two volmes
o, Ro5anovEs ,allen "ea'es. These 4i!tres 4rod!e a stran'e. nsal
im4ression on the reader$
I, we look !losely at these 4i!tres. it will be!ome !lear to s why this is
so9 the 4hotos are 4rinted withot any border. nlike the !stom in book
illstrations o, the 4ast$ The 'rey ba!k'rond o, the 4hotos eGtends to the
very ed'e o, the 4a'e withot any ins!ri4tion above or below the 4i!tre$
Taken to'ether. all this 4rod!es the im4ression not so m!h o, a book
illstration as o, a 'enine 4hoto'ra4h 4la!ed in a book$ That this re4ro1
d!tion was arrived at !ons!iosly is 4roven by the ,a!t that only !ertain
,amily 4hoto'ra4hs have been re4rod!ed by this s4e!ial means$ On the
other hand. illstrations o, an o,,i!ial !hara!ter are 4rinted in the sal way
with mar'ins$
It is tre that the 4hoto'ra4h de4i!tin' the athorEs !hildren is 4rinted
with mar'ins$ However. we ,ind here a !rios ins!ri4tion9
<ama and Tayna ;standin' on her knees= in the ,ront 'arden on PavlovEs street in
St$ Petersbr' ;PeterEs side=$ @eGt to them stands little @esvetevi!h$ a nei'hbor$
Y,emovEs hose. a4artment two$
Fhat is !hara!teristi! o, this ins!ri4tion is the 4re!ise. do!mentary
natre o, the ,amilyEs address. in the manner o, the 4oli!e$ This. too. re4re1
sents a de,inite stylisti! devi!e$
Dnder no !ir!mstan!es shold the reader in,er ,rom my !omments on
Ro5anovEs domesti!ity that Ro5anov was H4orin' otH his sol to the
reader$ @o. he had assmed the H!on,essional modeH as a devi!e$
I WE. BRISTOL LIBRAE" SER'.'iC
7
1B7 Theory of Prose
In The Dar0 ,ace The People of the %oonli5ht and in The ,amily
Question in +ussia Ro5anov !ame ot as a so!ial jornalist on the
o,,ensive. as an enemy o, -hrist$
S!h were his 4oliti!al views$ Tre. he wrote in one news4a4er as a bla!k
man and in another news4a4er as a red one$ Bt this was done nder two
di,,erent srnames. and ea!h ty4e o, arti!le was stron'1willed and dynami!
and demanded its own s4e!ial ener'y$ The !oeGisten!e o, these two ty4es in
one sol was known to him alone and re4resented a 4rely bio'ra4hi!al
,a!t$
In his three latest books. Ro5anov has nder'one a major !han'e$ In ,a!t
he has !han'ed thoro'hly ,rom to4 to bottom$
HYesH and H@oH !oeGist simltaneosly on the same 4a'e$ & 4rely
bio'ra4hi!al ,a!t is raised to a matter o, style$ Bla!k and red Ro5anov;s=
!reate an artisti! !ontrast similar to that o, dirty and divine Ro5anov;s=$ His
very H4ro4he!yH has !han'ed its tone. has lost its 4ro!lamatory !hara!ter$
@ow his 4ro4hesy has taken on a domesti! tone 'oin' nowhere9
<y 4ro4he!y is not meant ,or the Rssians. and my domesti! a,,airs !on!ern me
and no one else$ Besides. they are o, no si'ni,i!an!e to anyone. bein' in ,a!t nothin'
more than a detail ,or my bio'ra4hy$ %e!ember (2. ()(($
From this ;its literary !hara!ter=. the HI do not want toH re4resents an
absen!e o, will to a!tion on the 4art o, Ro5anov$ The 4hysi!al dimensions
have be!ome 4art o, his artisti! material. 'ood and evil have be!ome the
nmerator and denominator o, a ,ra!tion. and the vale o, this ,ra!tion is
5ero$
I wold like to o,,er a nmber o, eGam4les ,rom ,allen "ea'es to illstrate
this HI do not want toH o, Ro5anov9
I have no interest in sel,1reali5ation$ I ,eel an absen!e o, any and all eGternal
ener'y. o, the Hwill to live$H I am the least sel,1reali5in' 4erson in the world$
%o I want to 4lay a roleL @ot in the sli'htest$
%o I want my tea!hin's to be widely disseminatedL @o$ It wold 4rovoke a 'reat
deal o, a'itation. and I love 4ea!e and ?iet so m!h $ . $ and snset and the silent
evenin' !himes$
I !old ,ill the world with !rimson 4,,s o, smoke $ $ $ bt I donEt want to$ OPeople
of the %oonli5htEif you insistCJ <ar!h ::nd. ()(:$ &nd everythin' wold 'o 4
in ,lames $ $ $ bt I do not want to$ <ay my 'rave be 4ea!e,l and away ,rom every1
body elseEs$ !People of the %oonli5ht same date=
There was one thin' he ,elt like doin'. one thin' he never dobted in all o,
this. and that was to Hre!ord itHM
Every movement o, my sol is a!!om4anied by an utterance. &nd every
tteran!e I want to n,ailin'ly record. That is an instin!t$ Is it not jst s!h an
instin!t that literatre s4ran' ,romL
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 1B@
4la!it
!all attentiontomeiai8i iai meHiPiiatitai mPP DK wWVE W `$$`V DVIEWI
"ea'es ;both volmes= is !om4iled in the manner o, the Symphony an
antholo'y o, 4assa'es ,rom the Old and @ew Testaments arran'ed in
al4habeti!al order9
.2Rraham was !alled ,orth by "od. bt I mysel, !alled ,orth "od$ )Solitaria 4$ (:)=
And I !old not shake the 4etty sho4kee4er ,rom my sol$ ),allen "ea'es 4$ 2*=
Pwtonomy o, the niversity$ ),allen "ea'es bndle (. 44$ :2* ,,$=
I have taken 4ains to show that these three books o, Ro5anov !onstitte a
literary work$ I have also indi!ated the natre o, one o, its 4redominant
themes ;i$e$. the theme o, the everyday world. o, ordinary li,e. the hymn to
4rivate li,e=$ This theme is not sed in its 4re ,orm. bt rather it is tili5ed to
!reate !ontrasts$
The 'reat Ro5anov. dashin' o,, his holy s!ri4tre like a ,irebrand
envelo4ed by ,lames. also loves to smoke a !i'arette a,ter a bath and to write
a !ha4ter on the theme o, HOne Rble. Fi,ty Io4eks$H Here we enter into
the domain o, a !om4leG literary devi!e$
HKst look. she deli'hts in sorrow. bein' so ele'antly naked.H writes
&nna &khmatova$ In this 4assa'e it is im4ortant to note the !ontradi!tion
between the words Hdeli'htsH and HsorrowH and a'ain Hele'antlyH and
HnakedH ;not ele'antly dressed bt ele'antly naked=$
In <ayakovsky. we ,ind whole works !onstr!ted on this devi!e. as ,or
eGam4le. HThe For. Heavy as a Blow$H Here are a ,ew ,ra'ments9
I, I were 4oor as a billionaire
I, I were as little as the 'reat o!ean$
This devi!e is known as an oGymoron$ Fe may attribte to it a broader
ran'e o, meanin'$
The title o, one o, %ostoevskyEs tales. HThe Honest Thie,.H is ndobt 1
edly an oGymoron. bt the content o, this tale is also an oGymoron as it is
deployed in the plot.
In this way we arrive at an nderstandin' o, the oGymoron in the 4lot$
&ristotle says ;tho'h IEm not ?otin' him as Holy Frit=9
Bt the 4oet shold seek a 4lot whi!h involves the s,,erin's that arise amon'
,amily or ,riends. ,or eGam4le. when a brother kills a brother or a son a ,ather. or
when a mother kills a son or a son a mother. or when he intends to kill. or does some 1
thin' else o, that alon' these lines$
The oGymoroni! !hara!ter o, this 4assa'e lies in the 4aradoGi!al o44osi 1
tion o, kinshi4 and enmity$
<any 4lots are !onstr!ted on the basis o, an oGymoron. ,or eGam4le9 the
tailor kills the 'iant. %avid kills "oliath. a ,ro' kills an ele4hant$ The 4lot in
these !ases 4lays the role o, jsti,yin'. motivatin' and develo4in' the
oGymoron$
1B; Theory of Prose
This role o, Hjsti,yin' li,eH a44ears also in %ostoevsky$ I have in mind
<armeladovEs 4ro4he!y !on!ernin' the drnkards at the stran'e trial$
The !reative work and 4ea!e,l words s4oken by Ro5anov a'ainst the
ba!k'rond o, HOne Rble$ Fi,ty Io4eksH and his o4inion on how to sht
the dam4er re4resent one o, the most beati,l eGam4les o, an oGymoron$
This e,,e!t is a'mented by yet another devi!e$ In this !ase. !ontrasts are
a!hieved not only by a !han'e o, theme bt also by an incon5ruity
bet:een a thou5ht or experience and the place :hich ser'es as its
bac05round. There are two ,ndamental ways o, !reatin' a literary
lands!a4e9 a lands!a4e that is attned to the a!tion o, the 4lot or a
lands!a4e that !on,li!ts with it$
EGam4les o, lands!a4es in harmony with the 4lot are le'ion amon' the
Romanti!s$ & 'ood eGam4le o, a !on,li!tin' lands!a4e may be ,ond in the
des!ri4tion o, natre in HValerikH by #ermontov or in the des!ri4tion o, the
sky above &sterlit5 by Tolstoi$ "o'olEs lands!a4e ;in his later works=
re4resents a somewhat di,,erent 4henomenon9 PlyshkinEs 'arden doesnEt
!on,li!t dire!tly with Plyshkin himsel,$ Rather it enters as an element into
the lyri!al and lo,ty as4e!t o, the work. and this entire lyri!al as4e!t serves
as a !onter4oint to the H\satiri!alH as4e!t o, the work$ Besides. "o'olEs
lands!a4es are H4honeti!.H that is. they serve as a motivation ,or 4honeti!
str!tres$
Ro5anovEs Hlands!a4eH belon's to the se!ond. !on,li!tin' ty4e$ IEm
s4eakin' o, those notes lo!ated at the end o, his entries. where Ro5anov
in,orms s o, their 4la!e o, !om4osition$
Some o, these 4assa'es were written in a bathroom$ Tho'hts o, 4rosti1
ttes wold !ome into his head as he walked behind SvorinEs !o,,in. the
arti!le on "o'ol was tho'ht ot in the 'arden eG4erien!in' stoma!h 4ains.
while many other entries were either HwrittenH in a !oa!h. or else were
as!ribed by Ro5anov to s!h a time$
This is what Ro5anov himsel, has to say abot this matter9
The 4la!e and !ir!mstan!es !on!ernin' the newly 'iven tho'ht are indi!ated
everywhere with absolte 4re!ision in order to re,te the ,ndamental idea o,
sensalism that nihil est in intellectu 8uod nonfuemt in sensu UHthere is nothin'
in the intelle!t that was not ,irst known thro'h the sensesH U$ On the !ontrary$ I have
observed in my li,e that what takes 4la!e in the intelle!t is in stark. !om4lete !ontrast
with what is eG4erien!ed thro'h the senses$ Frthermore. I have observed in
'eneral that the mind and the ,low o, sensations do natrally !ollide. re4el. and work
a'ainst ea!h other$ &ltho'h they !oin!ide and ,low 4arallel to ea!h other at times.
this ha44ens only o!!asionally$ &s a matter o, ,a!t. the li,e of the mind has its own
!hannel. its own inde4endent !hannel. and !hie,ly. it has its own sor!e. its own
im4ets ni?e to itsel,$
&nd where does this im4ets !ome ,romL
From "od and ,rom birth$
The dis!re4an!y between the inner and oter li,e is known o, !orse to everyone$
bt. in the ,inal analysis. I have ,elt this dis!re4an!y ,rom my earliest years ;thirteen1
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano'
,orteen= with s!h ,or!e ;and distressin'ly. and inso,ar as my HworkH and H!areerH
are !on!erned. so tterly harm,l and destr!tive= that I remained in a state o, 4er1
4etal astonishment in the ,a!e o, this 4henomenon ;the eGtent o, this 4henomenon=$
&nd bein' in the habit. at that 4oint in my li,e. o, writin' down 4retty m!h every1
thin' that Hstr!k and astonished me$H as well as everythin' that I liked or didnEt
like$ I 4ro!eeded to re!ord this one$ too$
Have made no !han'es whatsoever !on!ernin' the time or !ir!mstan!es o, these
re!ordin's that mi'ht have 'one a'ainst the Hnatre o, thin's$H
So m!h ,or the intelle!tal view o, the matter$ These re!ordin's o, time and
4la!e. however. also have a moral motivation behind them$ O, this. later$
&ll o, this !ommentary is 4rinted in ,allen "ea'es after the list o, errata$
Here we see a devi!e !ommonly sed by Ro5anov9 the 4la!in' o, material in
an nsal 4la!e$
Fhat interests me here is Ro5anovEs view o, the 4ossible !ontradi!tion
between the 4la!e o, a!tion and the a!tion itsel,$ His instr!tions re'ardin'
the athenti!ity o, 4la!e are less interestin'. be!ase it was he who made the
de!ision !on!ernin' indi!ations o, lo!ality in the ,irst 4la!e ;not all ,ra'1
ments have been ths do!mented8 rather. only the majority=$ The mere
a,,irmation o, the do!mentary !hara!ter o, somethin'. already sed by
&bbe Prevost in %anon "escaut is another devi!e ,re?ently sed by
Ro5anov$ It is 'iven its most 4o4lar ,orm in the ,ollowin' !omment9 VE I, I
had written a novel. then the hero wold have done this and that. bt sin!e
IEm not writin' a novel$ $ $H and the novel moves ,orward$ I s''est a !om1
4arison with <ayakovsky9
It is im4ossible to say in verse Fhether
we !an li!k the ,iery 4ans with the well1
'roomed ton'e o, a 4oet$
&nd so on and so on$
"enerally s4eakin'. when an athor s''ests that he is abandoning
literatre. he is a!tally introd!in' a motivation ,or a new literary device.
@ow I shall endeavor brie,ly to delineate the 4lot s!hemata o, Ro5anovH s
Soliiaria and o, the two volmes o, ,allen "ea'es.
Several themes are 4resented$ O, these the most im4ortant are9 ; (= the
theme o, Hthe ,riendH ;!on!ernin' his wi,e=$ ;:= the theme o, !osmi! seG.
;0= the theme o, the o44osition news4a4er and o, the revoltion. ;2= a
literary theme with arti!les on "o'ol. ;A= bio'ra4hy$ ;C= 4ositivism.
;B= Kdaism. and ;/= a major introd!tory e4isode !ontainin' letters and
other thin's$
S!h a wealth o, themes is not ni?e$ Fe know o, novels with ?adr4le
and even ?int4le intri'es$ The mere devi!e o, breakin' u" a "lot into a
3>> Theory of ,rose
nmber o, interweavin' themes had been sed as early as the ei'hteenth
!entry by Sterne$
O, the three books$ Solitaria re4resents a 4er,e!tion entirely nto it1
The introd!tion o, new themes is !arried ot as ,ollows9 & ,ra'ment o, a
'iven sitation is 4resented withot any eG4lanation whatsoever$ Fe do not
nderstand what is 'oin' on be,ore or eyes$ Then ,ollows its n,oldin'. as
i, we were wat!hin' the soltion to a riddle$ The theme o, Ethe ,riendH
;!on!ernin' Ro5anovEs wi,e= is very !hara!teristi! o, this 4ro!edre$ &t
,irst mentioned only in 4assin'. it is sbse?ently woven into the heart o, the
work by nan!es o, varios sorts$ & hman bein' emer'es be,ore s 4ie!e
by ,amiliar 4ie!e. bt only m!h later do these ,ra'ments !oales!e to brin'
,orth a !oherent bio'ra4hy o, Ro5anovEs wi,e$ This bio'ra4hy may be
re!onstr!ted by !o4yin' ot all o, the notes !on!ernin' her in the theme o,
Hthe wi,e$H The ns!!ess,l dia'nosis by Bekhterev also a44ears ,irst as a
sim4le re,eren!e to the srname HIar4inskyH9
Fhy didnEt I !all Iar4insky$
Fhy didnEt I !all Iar4insky$
Fhy didnEt I !all Iar4insky$ $ $
Only later are we 'iven an eG4lanation ,or this in the story o, the nero1
lo'i!al dia'nosis that ,ailed to take into a!!ont the Hre,leG o, the 44ils$H
So also with HBy5ov$H First weEre 'iven his srname8 then his ima'e is ,lly
develo4ed$ By resortin' to this devi!e. Ro5anov introd!es a theme not ot
o, a va!m. as in a !olle!tion o, a4horisms. bt by a 'radal 4re4aration or
bild14. and the !hara!ter or his sitation runs li0e a thread throu5h the
entire plot.
These interweavin' themes !onstitte those threads that. a44earin' and
then disa44earin'. !reate the war4 and woo, o, this literary work$ In
develo4in' the se!ond 4art o, Don Quixote -ervantes ses the names o,
4eo4le mentioned in the ,irst 4art. ,or eGam4le. Ri!ote the <oor. a nei'hbor
o, San!ho$
Fe observe in !ertain themes a !rios a!!mlation o, ,ra'ments$ For
eGam4le. in the literatre theme there is. in addition to some ,ra'ments. a
,lly develo4ed essay on "o'ol$ &nd so at the end o, the se!ond 4art all o,
Ro5anovEs jGta4osed allsions are !on!entrated in one ,ll entry$ It is
written injomalese and set a'ainst the bookEs !osmi! ,inale !on!ernin' the
niversal breast$
In 'eneral. the ,ra'ments in Ro5anov ,ollow ea!h other in a!!ordan!e
with the 4rin!i4le o, jGta4osition ;i$e$. 4layin' o,, one theme a'ainst
another. settin' o,, one 4lane a'ainst another=$ <ore s4e!i,i!ally. this
means that everyday eGisten!e alternates with the theme o, the !osmi!$ Ths.
,or eGam4le. the theme o, the Hwi,eH alternates with the theme o, &4is$
Fe ths see that the three books o, Ro5anov re4resent a !ertain !om4osi1
tional nity o, the novelisti! ty4e. bt withot the !onne!tin' 4art 4layed by
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 3>1
motivations$ #et me o,,er an eGam4le$ @ovelists ,re?ently introd!e
4oems into their works. as$ ,or instan!e. in -ervantes. in A Thousand and
Ane 2i5hts in &nn Rad!li,,e and o!!asionally in "orky$ These 4oems
re4resent s4e!i,i! material that bears a !ertain relationshi4 to the 4rose o,
the work$ In order to introd!e them into the teGt. di,,erent kinds o, motiva1
tion are em4loyed9 they are either e4i'ra4hs. or else they are the !reations o,
the leadin' or se!ondary 4rota'onists o, the novel$ The ,irst one lays bare
the devi!e. while the se!ond one re4resents a 4lot motivation$ In essen!e.
however. it is one and the same devi!e$
Fe know. ,or eGam4le. that PshkinEs HThe D4as TreeH and HThere on!e
lived a wret!hed kni'htH !old have served as e4i'ra4hs to individal
!ha4ters o, %ostoevskyEs Idiot. Fhen we en!onter these 4oems in the
body o, the work. we ,ind them re!ited by !hara!ters o, the novel$ In one o,
<ark TwainEs novels we dis!over e4i'ra4hs taken ,rom the sayin's o, the
leadin' !hara!ter o, the work. Pudd(nhead $ilson(s -alendar. So too in
Vladimir SolovyovEs Three -on'ersations where it is stressed that the
e4i'ra4h on Pan1<on'olism was written by the athor himsel, ;as bro'ht
ot in a !ertain 'entlemanEs answer to a ?estion 4osed by a !ertain lady=$
In 4re!isely the same way. the 'enealo'i!al relationshi4s amon' the
!hara!ters o, the novel. o,ten 4oorly established and tterly !a4ri!ios ;see
FertherEs 4atrimony or <i'nonEs ,amily ties in $ilhelm %eister* are
merely a motivation ,or the !onstr!tion o, the novel. ,or the devi!e o, its
!om4ositional jGta4osition$ &t times. what is to be motivated is established
only with 'reat di,,i!lty. s!h as a dream$ &nd at times it is established
hmorosly$ The dream motivation is ty4i!al ,or Remi5ov$ In Ho,,mannEs
<ater %urr the 4lot1shi,ts and the entan'lement o, the 4arodisti! story o,
the !at with the story o, the man are motivated by the ,a!t that the !at 4issed
on its masterEs 4a4ers$
Solitaria and ,allen "ea'es may be !alled novels withot motivations$
&nd so. what is !hara!teristi! o, them. themati!ally. is the !anoni5ation o,
new themes. while. !om4ositionally. they are !hara!teri5ed by a layin'
bare o, the devi!e$
#et s !onsider the sor!es ,or these new themes in Ro5anov and new tone$
On the ,irst level. as I have already said. we ,ind the 'enre o, letters$ This rela1
tionshi4 is em4hasi5ed by Ro5anov himsel, in his individal instr!tions9
Instead o, nonsense in the ,orm o, tales it wold be better to dis!ard ,rom the
jornal this latest ,orm o, ,i!tion and instead $ $ $ Fell. it wold be better to 4blish
some deed or cause. a work o, s!ien!e. deliberations ;o, some so!iety= or 4hiloso4hy$
However. it is o,ten better to re4rod!e a sit!ase o, old letters in individal books$
Tsvetkov and "ershen5on wold have ,ond them 'ood ,ishin'$ &nd a reader. at least
a ,ew serios 4eo4le. wold have read it dee4ly and tho'ht,lly$ ),allen "ea'es*
3>3 Theory of Prose
Ro5anov did in ,a!t make an attem4t at introd!in' letters Hin the rawH
into literatre by 4blishin' the letters o, his s!hoolmates in the se!ond 4art$
They re4resent the most im4ressive se!tion in the book and 'o on ,or ,orty
4a'es$
The se!ond sor!e ,or the themes is the news4a4er. and. in s4ite o,
Ro5anovEs !onvention o, intima!y. we !ome a!ross news4a4er arti!les
?oted in their entirety$ His very a44roa!h to 4oliti!s is jornalisti!$ These
little ,eilletons ,eatre the ty4i!al ,eilleton devi!e o, eG4andin' an
individal ,a!t into a ,a!t o, niversal si'ni,i!an!e$ This eG4ansion is
4resented by the athor in its !om4leted ,orm$
Bt the !hie, ,eatre attestin' to Ro5anovEs de4enden!e on news4a4er
style is the ,a!t that hal, o, his book is taken 4 with so!ial jornalisti!
material$
Perha4s the very abr4tness o, transition in Ro5anov. the la!k o, motiva1
tion ,or the relationshi4 o, the 4arts. o!!rred ,irst as a reslt o, news4a4er
te!hni?e and only later was a44re!iated ,or its stylisti! 4ossibilities$ &4art
,rom the !anoni5ation o, the news4a4er as s!h. it is interestin' to observe
in Ro5anov a stron' awareness o, himsel, as a s!!essor to a yon'er
'eneration o, Rssian writers$
I, #eskovEs 'enealo'y has its sor!e in %al and Veltman. then Ro5anovEs
'enealo'y is even more !om4leG$
First o, all. he makes a !om4lete break with the o,,i!ial tradition o,
Rssian so!ial jornalism and s4rns the le'a!y o, the (/B*s$ &nd yet$ at
the same time. Ro5anov is a dee4ly literary man$ In his three books he
mentions one hndred and twenty1three writers$ Still. the ,a!t remains that
he is !onstantly drawn to yon'er. lesser1known writers. to Rtsy. to Sh4erk$
to "avarkhe1Otrok$ He even says that ,ame interests him mainly be!ase
it 'ives him the o44ortnity to brin' ,ame to these obs!re writers9
How vast is my literary a!tivity in !om4arison with Rtsy and Sh4erkM How many
books indeed have I not already 4blishedM
Bt no ladatory reviews in the 4ress. no words o, 4raise in the news4a4ers have
ever 'iven me the kind o, ?iet. 'ood sense o, 4ride as ,riendshi4 has ;and I ,elt it= o,
these three men ;and ,rom Sh4erk I re!eived love=$
Bt how Ti!kle is the destiny o, literatre9 Fhy are they so nknown. reje!ted.
,or'ottenL Havin' a 4remonition o, his ,ate$ Sh4erk sed to say9 HSo have yo read
;a44arently= "rberL @oL I wold des4erately love to ,ind somethin' by him$ I am
in 5eneral dra:n to writers who are obs!re. who have remained nnoti!ed$ Fhat
sort o, 4eo4le were theyL &nd yoEre overjoyed when yo en!onter in them an
nsal idea ahead o, its time$H How sim4le and dee4 and tre this is$
There is no dobt abot Ro5anovEs relationshi4 with this yon'er o,, 1
shoot o, writers$ The very title o, his book ,allen "ea'es re!alls RtsyEs The
,allin5 of the "ea'es.
Ro5anov was the Pshkin o, this movement. bt. instead o, !omin'
be,ore them. he !ame a,ter them ;Pshkin. too. in the o4inion o, Stasov and
Ro5anov. ,ollowed rather than 4re!eded his s!hool=9
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 3>4
PshkinEs !onne!tion with the literatre that s!!eeded him was in 'eneral
4roblemati!$ There is one little1noti!ed ,eatre in Pshkin. and that is that by the
natre o, his s4irit his ,a!e was trned to the 4ast and not to the ,tre$ The 'reat
harmony o, his sol and 4re!o!ios intelle!t. whi!h had already shown its !larity in
his earliest works. !ame ,rom the ,a!t that he essentially re4resented the !lmination
in himsel, o, a 'i'anti! intelle!tal and s4irital movement be'innin' with Peter
the "reat and endin' with himsel,$ $ $
In his s4lendid /&otes on Push0in Strakhov demonstrates by an analysis
o, the 'reat 4oetEs style that. ,or the most 4art. no Hnew ,ormsH make their
a44earan!e in Pshkin$ He attribtes this to PshkinEs modesty and
Hhmility.H to his re,sal to seek ori'inality in matters o, ,orm$
Pshkin bilt anew$ There was as yet no need to overthrow a !anon. sin!e
there was as yet no !anon stron' eno'h to be overthrown$ This is 4roven by
the literatre dominant in Rssia in his time and in the 'eneration immedi1
ately be,ore him$
The same holds tre ,or Sterne$ @o one nderstood the En'lish novelistEs
way o, !om4li!atin' the 4lot str!tre nor the way he 4lay,lly ndermined
it$ Iaram5in HimitatedH Sterne by writin' works whose str!tre was
sim4le. indeed downri'ht in,antile$ Sterne :as appreciated in +ussia only
thematically while "ermany saw a stron' a,,inity between his 4rin!i4les o,
!om4osition and its own Romanti! movement8 that is$ it dis!overed that its
new Romanti! literatre. however inde4endent. HrhymedH with SterneEs
a!hievement$
Ro5anov be!ame the !anoni5er o, the yon'er s!hool o, writers at a time
when the older s!hool was still mi'hty$ In short he re4resents an 4risin'$
It is worth notin' that not all the ,eatres o, this older art. whi!h had been
4layin' a 4iti,l. n!anoni5ed role be,ore Rosanov. were raised by him to
artisti! 4rominen!e$ Ro5anov borrowed ,rom everywhere. even ,rom the
ar'ot o, thieves9
I have not distrbed Yor EG!ellen!y. Sir. 4re!isely be!ase I wanted to !at!h
them red1handed$ I really like this ,olklore$ I believe there is somethin' artisti! in the
lan'a'e o, thieves and 4oli!emen$
Ro5anov is ra4tros over jar'on like Hbrandlyas$H Finally. he introd!es
the theme o, the dete!tive novel. s4eakin' lovin'ly and in 'reat detail abot
the Pinkertons$ On the basis o, this material he bilds the themes o, HThe
Peo4le o, the <oonli'htH and ,allen "ea'es.
There are terribly interestin' and lovely details$ In one little book the matter !on
!erns 1the ,irst thie, o, Italy$H The athor evidently bro'ht his mans!ri4t to the
4blisher$ Bt the 4blisher. ,indin' that The <in5 of Thie'es was not s,,i!iently
enti!in' and ,as!inatin' ,or 4r4oses o, sale. !rossed it ot and wrote over ms
4blisherEs title The Queen of Thie'es. &nd so I read and read in anti!i4anon$
wonderin' when the Queen wold make her a44earan!e in The Queen o/i
R
@owhere in the book is there any mention o, her$ The only thin' we have
re,eren!e to a 1'entleman thie,$H
3>6 Theory of Prose
Here the 4blisherEs tri!k is taken ,or an artisti! detail$ There are many
!omments !on!ernin' Sherlo!k Holmes. es4e!ially in the se!ond volme9
<y !hildren. ii is harm,l ,or yo to read Sherlo!k Holmes$ &nd$ removin' the
bndle !landestinely$ I set abot to 'reedily devor Sherlo!k Holmes mysel,$ Ea!h
volme !omes in ,orty1ei'ht little 4a'es$ @ow the Syversky1Petersbr' EG4ress is
,lyin' 4ast like a dream$ Still$ I !anEt hel4 ,eelin' that ( am sinnin' as I read these
tales o, the 'reat sleth till three or ,or in the mornin'$ Horri,yin' storiesM
&s yo !an see. the theme here too is ,irst named withot bein' develo4ed$
It is develo4ed in the se!ond volme. where whole e4isodes are 4resented
!on!e4tally$ There is an e4isode in the ,irst 4art of ,allen "ea'es that is very
!hara!teristi! o, Ro5anov9 here Sherlo!k Holmes is not so m!h 4resented
as admbrated$ The whole meanin' o, this devi!e lies in the hei'htenin' o,
the material and in the enstran'ement o, the marria'e ?estion$
For instan!e. !onsider the ,ollowin' 4assa'e9
EHFi!ked. envios wit!h. that kee4s lovers a4art$ Yo horrible wit!hM &nd yo
dare to bless marria'eLH
$ $ $ a domesti! story in Sherlo!k HolmesEs HThe Ble TattooH and HIn the Sb1
terranean Vein$H & bride is nder obli'ation to retrn to the hooli'an who had !t
her hsbandEs throat. taken 4ossession o, his do!ments and abandoned her ,or
&meri!a$ By a stroke o, ill l!k. this hooli'an also bears a strikin' resemblan!e to his
vi!tim$ In a!!ordan!e with -hr!h law$ the r,,ian is ,or!ed to 'ive 4 the bottle.
while the aristo!rati! lady rel!tantly be!omes his wi,e$V
It is not the ideas that are im4ortant here bt the devi!e$ Every man sees
thin's di,,erently$
Bt not all o, the material has nder'one. as I have already said. a trans1
,ormation$ Part o, it has remained n4ro!essed$ There are elements in
Ro5anovEs works whi!h e!ho the sentimental verses o, @adson. a de!adent
4oet o, an earlier 'eneration$ These elements do not lend themselves well to
modi,i!ation$ S!h. ,or eGam4le. are the ,ollowin' hal,1verses9
Silent. dark ni'hts$
The ,ear o, a !rime$
The an'ish o, loneliness
The tears o, des4air. ,ear and the sweat o, work$
It is yo. oh Reli'ion $ $ $
Fho are a hel4 to the hn!hba!ked. hel4 to the weary$
The ,aith o, the si!k man$
These are yor roots. oh Reli'ion$
Eternal. mira!los$
Or
bThese stories are not by &rthr -onan %oyle bt are 4asti!hes o, n!ertain ori'in$ -,
4$ )/$ note$ UTrans$ noteU
"iterature :ithout a Plot. +o=ano' 3>F
%im little star. 4ale little star
Yo brn be,ore my eyes !ontinally alone
Yo are ill and yo tremble.
Soon yo will trn intodarkness tterly ,orever$
HereEs an eGam4le ,rom 4rose9
Fhat do yo likeL
I like my no!trnal dreams. I love to whis4er to the ,a!in' wind$
These themes. no less than the !om4osition. are ,elt as banal$ Evidently
the time o, their resrre!tion has not yet !ome$ They are not yet HbadH
eno'h to be!ome 'ood$ Fe are dealin' here with a !ontinal !han'e in
4ers4e!tive. with the 4resentation o, thin's anew. a'ainst the ba!kdro4 o,
new material and a new settin'$ Ro5anovEs ima'es are or'ani5ed in 4re!isely
the same way$
The ima'e1tro4e re4resents an nsal way o, namin' an obje!t. that is.
namin' it with an nsal name$ The 4r4ose o, this devi!e is to 4la!e the
obje!t in a new semanti! !ate'ory. a !ate'ory o, !on!e4ts o, a di,,erent
order ;e$'$. a star is an eye or a woman is a 'rey d!k=$ Ths. the ima'e is
eG4anded by a des!ri4tion o, the obje!t nder !om4arison$
Fe may !om4are the ima'e with a syn!retisti! e4ithet ;i$e$$ an e4ithet
de,inin'. ,or instan!e. sond !on!e4ts by means o, aditory !on!e4ts and
vi!e versa>,or eGam4le. the mellow !hime. the brilliant sonds=$ This
devi!e is o,ten ,ond in the works o, the Romanti!s$
&ditory sensations are miGed 4 with visal ones$ Yet I do not think that
there is any real !on,sion here$ Fhat we have instead is a devi!e that
4la!es an obje!t in a new !ate'ory by eG4ellin' it ,rom an old one$ It is
interestin' to eGamine Ro5anovEs ima'ery ,rom this 4oint o, view$ Here. ,or
eGam4le. is what he has to say !on!ernin' this 4henomenon$ Ro5anov s
brie, !omment ,ollows Sh4erkEs analysis9
-hildren are distin'ished ,rom s by the ,a!t that they 4er!eive everythin' with a
kind o, 4ower,l realism whi!h is ina!!essible to adlts$ For s 1!hairH is a 4ie!e o,
\,rnitreH bt a !hild knows nothin' o, the !ate'ory 1,rnitre.H and H!hair is
s!h a h'e and livin' obje!t ,or him as it !annot be ,or s$ From this it ,ollows that
!hildren deli'ht in the world in,initely more than we do$
<!h the same !an be said ,or the writer who violates the !ate'ory by
withdrawin' the H!hairH ,rom the H,rnit re$ H
-hapter 1>
Essay and &ne!dote
"ree!e has not le,t s a theory o, the novel. altho'h it has le,t s both
novels and novelisti! s!hemata. 4art o, whi!h is still alive to this very day$
Still. little res4e!t was 4aid to this 'enre$ &ltho'h in eGisten!e ,or !entries
be,ore. the novel was deemed otside the s!o4e o, theory$
The same was tre o, Rssian literatre. where the only theory o, the
novel available. 4erha4s. was to be ,ond in the translatorEs 4re,a!e$ The
novel and tale were lon' !onsidered to be a 'enre otside the s!o4e o,
theory$
This is the 4osition in whi!h 4lotless 4rose ,inds itsel, today$ Its s4e!i,i!
'ravity today and its histori! si'ni,i!an!e are very 'reat$ @early the entire
work o, the En!y!lo4edists. o, Rssian so!ial jornalism. o, the essay and
o, a whole array o, works by the so1!alled Rssian belletrists lies otside the
s!o4e o, the 4lotted 'enre$
@evertheless. even withot a 'enealo'y. this 'enre eGists$ Tre. ?anti1
tatively s4eakin'. the 4rely aestheti! 4art 4redominates over its novelisti!
4art$ Still. this 'enre !alls ,or new dis!overies$
& 4lot is a 4i!klo!k. not a key$ Plot s!hemata !on,orm !losely to the
so!ial reality that they 4t into sha4e$ The 4lot distorts the material by the
very ,a!t that it sele!ts it. and on the basis o, rather arbitrary !riteria$ This is
es4e!ially noti!eable in the history o, "reek literatre. whose themes ,o!s
on the !on,li!ts obtainin' in a s4e!i,i! nmber o, ,amilies$ The ,ormal
!ases ,or this ,o!s were already 4ointed ot by &ristotle$ The ane!dotes
whi!h we shall now relate !on!ernin' or !ontem4oraries have their ori'ins
in the de4ths o, the a'es$
Fhen -ont von Rant5a died. I='estiya re!alled one o, his s!!ess,l
re4artees$ Someone had a44arently alle'ed that his ,amily had des!ended
,rom an ille'itimate line o, the Borbons$ Parryin' this !har'e. he re4lied
sim4ly that it was his ,ather. and not his mother. who had !arried on a
,riendly liaison with the Borbons ;i$e$$ im4lyin' that his a!!sers are. in
a!tal ,a!t. his ille'itimate relatives=$ This s!hema re4eats with 4re!ision
the ele'ant !onversation whi!h the immortal "eor'e. the En'lish <ilord.
had !arried on at the home o, HEli5abethEs mother$H
The ane!dotes that ,riends tell ea!h other are o, a similarly honorable
ori'in$ The ane!dotes re!orded by Pshkin !ame ot later nder the title o,
H Dkrainian &ne!dotes.H while the ,amos ane!dote abot the Kew who had
3>7
Issa' and Anecdote 3>@
obli'ated himsel, to tea!h the ele4hant how to s4eak>ho4in' that either the
ele4hant will die$ or the shah will die. or the Kew himsel, will die>was told$
a!!ordin' to Bolotov. by -atherine the "reat. who$ however. did withot
the Kew$
& 4lot s!hema with a resoltion is a rare thin' in ane!dotes$ This is an
a!!idental a,,li!tion o, the material itsel,. whi!h !onne!ts with the s!hema
only at one 4oint$ S!h a resoltion is as rare as 'old,ish with trans4arent
tails and teles!o4i! eyes$
Sometimes a histori! ,a!t has nothin' whatsoever to sbstantiate it and
immediately be!omes an ane!dote$ There is. ,or eGam4le. the story by #eo
Tolstoi !alled HFhat ForLH !on!ernin' the Pole who ,led ,rom Siberia in a
!o,,in. in whi!h the bones o, his !hildren alle'edly were ,ond$ -onnoissers
o, Tolstoi 4oint to <aksimovEs Siberia and ,orced "abor as the sor!e o,
that story$ &s a matter o, ,a!t on 4a'e 0AC o, that book yo will ,ind an
a!!ont o, that story indi!atin' the srname o, the woman who was the
sbje!t o, this story$ <i'rskaya$ There is also a re,eren!e to the ,a!t that
the story is told in 'reater detail by %al in his story HThe Fantasti! in the
Real and the Real in the Fantasti!$H
S!h stories do eGist in the !om4lete works o, %al$ The in!ident !on!ern1
in' the Pole is 4rinted in the se!ond volme ;it was 4blished be,orehand in
Patriotic 2otes in (/2C=$ Yo will ,ind it on 4a'e )2$ The s!hema ,or this
ane!dote is eGa!tly the same as in Tolstoi ;i$e$. the !o4le is betrayed by the
!ossa!k=$ The hero has no srname and the entire !onversation ends in the
,ollowin' way9 HSo yo are sayin' that yo witnessed that in!ident$ $ $H
This is remarkable not only be!ase this in!ident is stran'e. bt also
be!ase it involves someone elseEs s4e!lation$ Fho has read the little
book by Iot5ebe$ The %ost +emar0able Near of %y "ifeH Iot5ebe
tells all this in the ,orm o, s4e!lation as to how his wi,e shold !art him
ba!k with her$
I, yo look in Iot5ebeEs little book. yo will ,ind this entire story in it$
bt in the ,orm o, s4e!lation. in the 'ise o, a dream o, ,li'ht9
I wanted to bild a wooden 4artition in my bi' room and to set 4 a makeshi,t ward1
robe in the !orner behind it$ I then wanted to live ?ietly and !ontentedly with my
wi,e$ &,ter abot two months o, this a44arent tran?ility$ I was to 'radally ,ei'n
illness and$ at lon' last. madness$ This too wold have lasted several months$ &nd
I wanted one dark evenin' to 4t on my shee4skin !oat and hat on the shore o, Tbla$
by an i!ehole$ and then silently to steal away home and hide in the wardrobe whi!h
wold be o4en at the to4$ <y wi,e wold raise the alarm$ They wold look ,or
me$ I hey wold ,ind my !oat$ Obviosly he has drowned in an i!ehole. they wold
say$ he letter I wold leave behind wold !on,irm this ,a!t$ <y wi,e wold be in
des4air$ She wold lie awake in bed by day and ,eed me at ni'ht$ This in!ident
wold be re4orted to Tabalsk and ,rom there to Petersbr'$ On!e there. this re4ort
wold be
ai
d aside and they wold ,or'et abot me$ &,ter a !ertain 4eriod o, time
my wi,e wold re!over a bit and ask ,or travel eG4enses ,or 4assa'e to #i,lyandia.
whi!h !old not be re,sed her$ She wold then by a bi' rollin' 0ibit0a wa'on in
whi!h a
3>; Theory of Prose
man !old lie at leisre$ &nd itEs really tre$ This is the only vehi!le whi!h !old
a!!ommodate this darin' eG4loit$
This story by Iot5ebe. whi!h makes no mention o, a !o,,in. has not yet
been 4layed ot$ Fhen we !onsider !ertain details. tho'h. s!h as the
,li'ht that takes 4la!e 4re!isely in the winter. the shee4skin !oat by the
i!ehole and so ,orth. we reali5e that what we have be,ore s is not the
workin' over by the writer ;Tolstoi= o, eGtra1literary ,a!t bt rather the
ada4tin' o, a literary invention ;by Iot5ebe. ,or instan!e= to a !ertain
lo!ality sin' a di,,erent srname. the re!ordin' o, this le'end and the
renewal o, its literary li,e$
This !ase is very ty4i!al$ Even i, we take into a!!ont the re'ister o,
!riminal a!ts. we see that the same in!idents are worked over !ontinally by
writers$ For eGam4le. I know o, an ane!dote ,rom the ei'hteenth !entry
!on!ernin' a jeweler who was bro'ht to a 4sy!hiatrist$ This ane!dote
makes the 4sy!hiatrist the !stomer and the jeweler the 4atient who rants
and raves !onstantly abot diamonds$ Be!ase it sha4es and sele!ts. the
4lot 4lays a de,ormational role$ Similarly. in order to !reate a ty4e. it is also
ne!essary to assi'n eGistin' ,a!ts to a s4e!i,i! hero in a di,,erent !onteGt$
&nd a'ain we de,orm these ,a!ts$
&t the 4resent time the inertia asso!iated with the 4lot has been bro'ht
to li'ht with s4e!ial ,or!e while the de,ormation o, the material has rea!hed
new eGtremes$ Or notion o, the !lass str''le takes the aty4i!al ,orm o, a
str''le within the bosom o, a ,amily. altho'h. 'enerally s4eakin'. the
,amily is more o,ten than not homo'eneos in or literatre$
The s!hema o, HTwo Brothers.H motivated by HFhite and RedH instead o,
H"ood and Evil.H 4er4etates the rather worn1ot ane!dote abot -ain$ Bt
we sim4ly !annot re4diate the 4lot. in!ldin' the story line based on the
!ir!lar 4attern o, the heroEs ,ate$ The hero 4lays the role o, a 'odson in a
4hoto'ra4h or as !hi4s o, wood ,loatin' on the river !rrent$ That is. he
vastly sim4li,ies the me!hanism ,or ,o!sin' attention$ In !inemato'ra4hy.
,or eGam4le. the ,eatre movie 4lot ses its material more intensively than
the do!mentary movie$ O, !orse. we !old also say in reverse that 4lot
s?ee5es ot material$
The ?estion arises today9 Fhat shold re4la!e the role o, 4lot in 4roseL
& ,ndamental !han'e wold be bro'ht abot by shi,tin' the 4oint o,
narration. either s4atially. as in the !ase o, jorneys. or tem4orally. as in
the !ase o, memoirs$ There is in or literatre. however. a 4re interest in
material and in the !onventional method o, movin' ,rom ,a!t to ,a!t$
O, !orse. we mst sti4late that even memoirs have been sbje!t to the
4ower,l de,ormational in,len!e o, the devi!es o, art$ The be'innin' o,
BalaktovskyEs memoirs shows more than a tra!e o, ?il #ias while VinskyEs
memoirs with his dire!t re,eren!e to Shandyism show. o, !orse. the in,l1
en!e o, Sterne$ The in,len!e o, the En'lish writer on Nhikharev s memoirs
is very 'reat$
Issay and Anecdote 3>B
The !ontem4orary ,eilleton re4resents an attem4t to inte'rate the
material not by means o, the hero bt by means o, the narrator$ This is a
,orm o, denoveli5ation o, the material$ The ,eilletonist does this by trans1
,errin' his work to a di,,erent 4lane. that is. not by mani4latin' his 4lot. bt
rather by !om4arin' bi' thin's with little thin's. by lo!atin' the 4oint o,
interse!tion between them in a !ertain word or by relatin' a !ertain in!ident
that has ha44ened in the Fest and !om4arin' it with a similar in!ident here$
The ,eilletonist does in his work what o'ht to be done by every ideal
editor$ O, !orse. not only by an ideal editor bt also by a real one$ Fhen
we say that the novel will be s?ee5ed ot by the news4a4er. we are not
s4eakin' o, individal arti!les in the news4a4er as s!h$ @o. we mean the
news4a4er as a 'enre. so to s4eak$ The jornal re4resents a !ertain literary
,orm already in eviden!e in the early days o, En'lish jornalism. when the
editorEs athorshi4 was !learly ,elt$
TodayEs jornal has lost its literary ,orm and this is es4e!ially tre o, the
Hthi!kH jornals$ &n or'ani! 4ersonality !an. however. be ,elt in a news1
4a4er. 4rovided it is not overbrdened with material o, an in,ormational
natre$ & news4a4er s!h as the +ed ?a=ette ;drin' its ,irst 4eriod o,
eGisten!e= !an de,initely be a44re!iated as literary ,orm$ In addition. the
'eneral orientation o, a news4a4er is to be ,ond not only in its arti!les bt
also bet:een them$
It is easier nowadays ,or a writer o, do!mentary 4rose to work with
eG!er4ts than with whole works$
The essayist o, today. n,ortnately. has a habit o, sim4ly !olorin' his
material in the manner o, ,i!tion ;i$e$. he in!ldes a des!ri4tion o, the !olor
o, the sky=$ Yet. this is done in a seless ,ashion. all the more so when we
!onsider that this !olor is a44lied ,rom memory withot any real s!ienti,i!
nderstandin' o, what !lods are and what they desi'nate$ Bt the 'ood
essayist has his standard o, !om4arison$ So "on!harov des!ribes the eGoti!
a'ainst the to!hin' tho'h ,eebly eG4ressed ba!k'rond o, @atre and the
everyday li,e o, ordinary Rssians$ This dis!overy o, a ,ndamental 4oint o,
view that drives the material ,orward. enablin' the reader to reassemble it
on!e a'ain. is a ,ar more or'ani! devi!e ,or the essayist to se than !om1
4arisons that rarely hit the mark$
The develo4ment o, a literatre o, ,a!t shold not attem4t to emlate hi'h
hteratre bt rather to 4art !om4any with it$ One o, its !hie, !onditions
shold in!lde a str''le with the traditional ane!dote. whi!h !arries in its
+wn n!les all o, the virtes and all o, the vi!es o, the old aestheti! method$
Forks -ited
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&ni!hkov$Ev'eny$ &esennaya obryado'aya pesnya 3S4rin' Rital Son'6$
&ttaya. <ikhail. trans$ <ni5a <alilah i Dimnah 3The Book o, Ialilah and
%imnah6$ <os!ow9 #a5arev Institte o, Eastern #an'a'es. (//)$
Beilin. Solomon$ Stranst'uyushchie /i 'syomimye po'esti i s0a=aniya '
dre'nei-ra''ins0oi pis(mennosti 3@omadi! or Dniversal Tales and
#e'ends in &n!ient Rabbini!al #iteratre6$ Irktsk. ()*B$ Brik. Osi4$
HNvkovye 4ovtoryH 3Sond Re4etitions6$ ()(B$ Brnetiere. Ferdinand$
%anuel de &histoire de la litte(rature francaise.
Paris. (/)/$ Bii!her$ +abota i ritm 3Fork and Rhythm6$ St$ Petersbr'.
(/))$ Perha4s
a translation o, Brno Bii!herEs Die <unst im /and:er0. Vienna. (/B:$
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and Stories6$ +us0ii 'estni0 3Rssian Herald6. <ay (/B2$ %er5havin.
@ikolai$ Sborni0 stat(ei pos'yashchenny0h &. 2. "aman-
s0omy 3-olle!tion o, Essays in Honor o, V$ @$ #amansky6$ Part ($ St$
Petersbr'. ()*B$
%ie5. Friedri!h$ "eben und $er0e der Troubadours. Nwi!ka. (/:)$
%ovnar1Na4olsky. <itro,an$ Pesni Pinchu0o' 3Son's o, the Pin!hks6$
Iiev. (/)A$ Eikhenbam. Boris$ %olodoi Tolstoi 3The Yon'
Tolstoi6$ Petro'rad.
()::$ "il,erdin'. &leksandr$ Ane=hs0ie byliny 3Olonetsian Folk
Rha4sodies6$
(/B0$
Ihristiansen. S$ V$ ,ilosoflya iss0ust'a 3Philoso4hy o, &rt6$ St$ Peters1
br'. ()(($ Ihdyakov. Ivan$ 3HRssian Riddles.H in96
Itno5rafiches0ie sborni0i
3Ethno'ra4hi! -olle!tions6. Rssian Im4erial "eo'ra4hi!al So!iety.
(/C2$
Iireevsky. Pyotr$ Pesni sobrannye P. &. <iree's0im 3Son's -olle!ted by
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Iot5ebe. &'st von$ Dostopamyatnyi 5od moei =hi=ni ;The <ost
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<aikov. &4ollon$ Sborni0pos'yashchenny &. 2. "amans0omy 3-olle!1
311
I
313 Theory of Prose
tion in Honor o, V$ @$ #amansky6$ ()*/$
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br'. ()**$ <andelshtam. Iosi,$ A 0hara0tere 5o5oles's0o5o slil('a 3The
@atre o,
"o'olEs StyleU$ Helsinki. ()*:$ <ere5hkovsky. %mitry$ &echnye
spulni0i 3Eternal -om4anions6$ St$
Petersbr'. (/)B$ <iller. Vsevolod$ HVsyomimaya ska5ka v kltmo1
istori!heskom osve1
sh!heniiH 3The Dniversal #e'end in the #i'ht o, -ltre and History6$
+uss0aya mysl( 3Rssian Tho'ht6. @ovember (/)2. :*B1:)$
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St$ Petersbr'. ()(($
111$ Se'emye s0a=0i 3#e'ends o, the @orth6$ St$ Petersbr'. ()*)$
*str4. Kohannes$ Issledo'anieo 1>>1 nochi 3&Stdyo,$2 Thousand and
Ane 2i5hts trans. ,rom the %anish Studier o'er 9Tusind o5 en 2at9
;-o4enha'en. (/)(=6$ <os!ow9 #a5arev Institte o, Eastern #an'a'es
()*2$
Ovsyaniko1Ilikovsky. %mitry$ Na=y0 i iss0ust'o 3#an'a'e and &rt6$
Peretts. Vladimir$ Istochni0 s0a=0i 3Ori'in o, the Tale6$ Po'odin.
&leksandr$ Na=y0 0a0 t'orchest'o 3#an'a'e as &rt6$ Iharkov
()(0$ Potebnya. &leksandr$ I= le0tsy po teorii slo'emosti
3#e!tres on the
Theory o, #an'a'e6. Iharkov. ()(2$
11111$ I= =apiso0 po teorii slo'esnosti 3@otes on the Theory o, #an'a'e6.
Iharkov. ()*A$ Py4in. &leksandr$ Istoriya dre'nei russ0oi literaturi
3History o, Early
Rssian #iteratre6$ :d ed$ ()*:10$ Romanov. E$ R$ &eli0oruss0ie
s0a=0i 3"reat Rssian Tales6$ Qapis0i
Impers0o'o +uss0o'o ?eo5raflches0o'o Abschest'a 2:. no$ A:9 #elo-
russ0y sborni0 3Belorssian &ntholo'y6. (//C1()(:$ Rybnikov.
Pavel$ Pesni sobrannye P. 2. +ybni0o'ym 3Son's -olle!ted
by P$ @$ Rynikov6$ Edited by &$ E$ "r5insky$ <os!ow. ()*)1(*$
111$ Pis(ma 3#etters6. vol$ 0$
Savodnikov. %mitry$ Qa5ad0i russ0o5o naroda 3Riddles o, the Rssian
Peo4le6$ St$ Petersbr'. ()*($ Sera4ion Brothers$ Serapiono'ye
#rat(ya. Qa5ranichnyi a&mana0h
3Sera4ion Brothers9 &lmana! ,rom &broad6$ Berlin. ()::$ Shklovsky.
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J
$or0s -ited 314
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&leksandr$ HBelletristika drevnykh 'rekovH 3Belles #ettres
in &n!ient "ree!e6$ I'ropeis0y 'estni0 3Ero4ean Herald6. %e!ember
(/BC. C/0$
11 1 1$ Sobranie sochinenii 3-om4lete Forks6$ &!ademy o, S!ien!es. ()*/
,,$ Yakbinsky. #$ P$ HO 5vkakh 4oeti!hesko'o ya5ykaH 3On the Sonds o,
Poeti!al #an'a'e6$ Sborni0i ( ;()(C=9 0/ ,,$
11 1 1$ HSko4leniye odinakovykh 4lavnykh v 4rakti!heskom i 4oeti!heskom
ya5ykakhH 3The &!!mlation o, Identi!al #i?ids in Pra!ti!al and
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S0a=0i so0r. =ab. u5ol0a sobr. s0. i le5end
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#e'ends6$ <os!ow9 Sytin. ()*:$ Nelenin. %mitry$ &eli0oruss0ie
s0a=0iperms0oi5ubernii 3"reat Rssian
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n$d$
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&es!hyls. 22$ (**
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&ndersen$ Hans -hristian. 2C$ C/$ ( (B
&ni!hkov. Ev'eny$ (A)
&nnenkov$ Yry. (B:
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&4leis$ #!is$ 0A. C). /). )A. (()
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&riostovsky. (0C
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&venaris. Ri!hard. 2
Balaktovsky. :*/
Baratynsky. Ev'eny. 2
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Beksler$ &leksandra. B2
Bely. &ndrei. :. 0. 2$ C/. B($ B2. %'(-
0)$ (B(1//. ()B Blok. &leksandr$
C:. (B( B:. (B2$ (BC$
(B/. (/2$ (/A1/B. ()*
Blok. #ybov$ (/C
Bo!!a!!io. "iovanni. (:. 0/10)$ CC. )C
Bo'atyrev. Pyotr. (C: Boiardo$
<atteo. A0 Bolotov. &ndrei$ :*B
#oo0 of $isdom and "ies. The CA. )C.
(**
Brik. Osi4. :2$ 0:. (/A. ()*
Brnetiere$ Ferdinand$ A (
Bii!her$ BrnoL :: B'aev.
@ikolai$ (/0 Bl'arin$
Faddei. ()* Bslaev. Fyodor.
A*
-arlyle$ Thomas. ::
-ervantes. <i'el de. C. 0/$ CC. CB$ B*$
B:1(**$ (*(. (A2. (C2. (CA$ ():$
:**$ :*( -ha4lin.
-harlie. (0A
-hateabriand. Fran!ois de. C0
-ha!er. "eo,,rey$ CC. (0B -hekhov.
&nton. AB1C:. (*)1(*. (()
(/C. (/)1)*. ()(
-hesterton. "$ I$. (*/
%al. Vladimir. :*:. :*B
%aniel. &rnad. (0
dE&nnn5io. "abriele. 0A
%er5havin. "avrila$ (0$ C/. (/)1)*
%er5havin. @ikolai. ()1:*
%i!kens. -harles. ::$ BA. /). (*(. (*0.
((A. (:012A. (BC1BB %ido. (/1()
%ostoevsky. Fyodor. (*(. (*0. ((*.
(:($ (:2$ (2(. (2A$ (BA. ()*. ()0.
()B1)/. :*( Do'e #oo0 The (**
%ovnar1Na4olsky. <itro,an$ ::
%oyle. Sir &rthr -onan. )B1)/$ (*01
(C. :*2 %mas. &leGandre. 0A. A:.
)2. (2*
Idda 20
Eikhenbam. Boris. (A:$ (/A. ()*
Ellis. #$ #$. (/B
Enstran'ement$ Gviii1GiG. C1(: and
4assim
Esenin$ Ser'ei$ (0 Eri4ides$
20$ 22. 2A. B:
,abula (B*
Fedorovsky. 0(
Fieldin'. Henry. CA$ CC$ (2A. ():. ()0
Flabert. "stave$ AB
Fonvi5in$ %enis$ BC
Fortnatov$ Fili44$ AB
"avarkhe1Otrok. :*:
"il,erdin'. &leksandr. :0
316
Index 31F
"oethe. Kohann Fol,'an' von. (/).
()0.:*(
"o'ol. @ikolai. (. (*. :0. 0:. AC. AB.
B01B2. /). )21)A. (*:. (2). (AC.
(C*1C(. (/). ():. ()/. :**
"on!harov. Ivan. AB. (2). :*)
"orbnov. Ivan. AB
"orky. <aksim. (0. /2. (/C. :*(
"riboedov. &leksandr. (C(. ()*
"rimm Brothers. (B
Hamsn. Int. (*. (A. (0C
Hansli!k. Edard. A*
He'el. "eor' Filhelm. (B)
Heine. Heinri!h. /*. ()(. ()0
Herodots. 0A. A2
/itopadesa. 2:. CA
Ho,,mann. E$ T$ &$. )2. (AC. :*(
Homer. :*. C). (*(. (A*
H'o. Vi!tor. :A. 0:. 2:. ():1)0
Ibsen. Henrik. ((* Ill-Starred
#rothers The 0/ Ivanov.
Vsevolod. (/* Ivanov.
Vya!heslav. (0
Ka!obs. Kose4h. (C. (/
Kakobson. Roman. 2*. (C:
Kames. Filliam. 2
Ialashnikov. A/
<ale'ala :A
<alilah and Dimnah 20. 2C12B. CA
Iaram5in. @ikolai. :*0
Iaristsky. &4ollo. 0B
<atha0a-#rahmana ()
Iaverin. Veniamin. (2(. (2A12C
Ihlebnikov. Velimir. (0
Ihristiansen. S$ V$. ::
Xm5 %aximilian CB1C/. (C(1C:
Iireevsky. Pyotr. :C
Ilin'er. Friedri!h. 0/
Ilyev. @ikolai. (0
Ioni. &natoly. (BC
Iot5ebe. &'st von. :*B1/
Iykhelbeker. VilE'elm. ()*
"amrillo ofTormes C). /2. )A
#eikin. @ikolai. AB
#eisewit5. Kohann. 0/ #eon!avallo.
R''iero. )2 #eontiev. Ionstanin. C:
#ermontov. <ikhail. A/. ()/ #esa'e.
&lain. A21AC. CC. /2. (**. ((/1
(). :*/
#eskov. @ikolai. (0. (B0. ()2. :*:
#ewis. <atthew. (2* #!retis. (()
#4in. &rsene. (*0 #vov1
Ro'a!hevsky. Vasily. (/C
<aksimov. Ser'ei. :*B <andelshtam.
Iosi,. :01:2 <ar'aret o, @avarre. (0B
<arlinsky. &leksandr. A/ <atrin.
-harles. (2*. (2A <a4assant. "y
de. :*.2A.AB.C01C2.
(()1:*
<ayakovsky. Vladimir. (/A. ()B. ())
<enander. (A. 0B <ere5hkovsky.
%mitry. 0. C. 0B10/.
(/B
<ilashevsky. Vladimir. (B*
<iller. Vsevolod. (/1()
<inaev. %mitry. A2 <irbea.
O!tave. /2 <oliere. 0B. A(
@adson. Semyon. :*2 @ekrasov.
@ikolai. (/A. (/)1)* @iet5s!he.
Friedri!h. :(
On!hkov. @ikolai. (:. 02. (:*.(:/n$.
(C(1C:
Omamentalism. (/* Ostrovsky.
&leksandr. )2 Ostr4. Kohannes. 2:
Ovid. (A. B0. /B Ovsyaniko1
Ilikovsky. %mitry. (1:. 0
Panchatantra 2:. 2C. CA
Perralt. -harles. :)
Petra5hitsky. #eo. 2
Petronis. "ais. AC
Pi!asso. Pablo. (2/
Pilnyak. Boris. (0)12*. (2A. %)', %(*
Piro5hkov. <$ V$. (/B
Plats. (A
317 Theory of Prose
Poe. Ed'ar &llan. ((A1(C. (:/
Po'odin. &leksandr. A
Poin!are. Kles. (//
Ponson d Terrail. Pierre1&leGis. A:
Potebnya. &leksandr. (. 0. C. )
Prevost. &bbe. (A2. ())
Pshkin. &leksandr. (0. :2. 0/. A0. A2.
AB1A/.((2.(0A. (2).(B*. (/*. (/)1
)*. ()0.:*(. :*:10. :*C
Rabelais. Fran!ois. 0A. BB. ):. (AC
Rad!li,,e. &nn. ((A. (::. (2A. :*(
Rant5a. -ont von. :*C Remi5ov.
&leksei. (0. (B0 Renad de
<ontaban. :C Ri!hardson. Samel.
(2A Romanov. E$ R$. 0*10(. 0:. 00
Ro5anov. Vasily. ()*1:*A Rtsy
34sed. o, I$ F$ Romanov6. :*:
Rybnikov. Pavel. (B
Saltykov1Sh!hedrin. <ikhail. (A
Savodnikov. %mitry. (*. ((B
S!arron. Pal. 02
S!hiller. Friedri!h. 0/
S!hnit5ler. &rthr. )2
Se'en &i=iers The 2:. CA
Severyanin. I'or. (0
Shakes4eare. Filliam. (A. A2. /). )0.
(A2
Sh4erk. Fyodor. :*:. :*A
Sienkiewi!5. Henryk. 0A Slonimsky.
<ikhail. (2A Sobolevsky. &leksei. :C
Sokolov. Boris and Yri. ((/. (:0
Solo'b. Fyodor. A/ Solovyov. Ser'ei.
(/C Solovyov. Vladimir. (B2. :*(
Son5 of I5or(s -ampai5n The. (()
Son5 of +oland The :B1:/. 0:
So4ho!les. 0). 2212A. B: S4en!er.
Herbert. 012. (01(2 S4eransky.
<ikhail. ::1:0 Stasov. V$ V$. :*:
Steiner. Rdol,. (B:. (B2 Stendhal.
(:) Sterne. #aren!e. CC. /:. /).(2A.
(2B1
B*. ():. :**. :*0. :*/
Strakhov. @ikolai. 2A. :*0
SuMetD see Syu=het
Su0a-saptati )Tales of a Parrot* 2:1
20.CA
Smtsov. @ikolai. 2( Svorin.
&leksei. ()/ Swi,t. Konathan. B*.
):. (2A. (A) Syu=het (B*
Tennyson. &l,red. #ord. 0:
Teren!e. (A
Thousand and Ane 2i5hts A 02. 0A.
2:.CA. CC. CB.C/.C). BA./*.)*.)C.
(**. :*(
Tie!k. #dwi'. )2 Tolstoi. #eo. A. C1
). (:. (A.0B.2(12:.
2A12C. C:1CA. B*1B(. B2. )2. (*(.
(*:. (:(1::. (:B. (0B. (2*. (A:.
(A). (BB. (B). (/)1)*. ()(1):. ()/.
207-8
Trotsky. #ev. (B2 Tseretely. "ri'ory.
0B Tr'enev. Ivan. C. AB. /*. (*(.
(0C.
(0). (2). (B/. (/) Twain.
<ark. 02. 0C10B. A:. :*(
Tynyanov. Yry. (/A Tyt!hev.
Fyodor. (
Ds4ensky. "leb. vii
Ver'il. (/
Veltman. &leksandr. :*:
Verne. Kles. 0C. A:. (**. (*0. (*/.
((/1() Veselovsky. &leksandr. 2.
(C1(B. (/.
:*. :2. :A. :B. :). 02. 0C. 0/. 0)12*.
C0
&etalapancha'imsati 2:
Vinsky. F$ V$. :*/ Voltaire.
(B.C0. )C1)B
Vonlyarlyarsky. Vasily. A/
Yakbinsky. #eo. 2. A. (0
Namyatin. Ev'eny. (/*
Nelenin. %mitry. ((
Nelinsky. Iornely. ::.0B.0).(*(.(A*
Nhikharev. Ste4an. :*/
Nhkovsky. Vasily. (0/