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Dedication

Its my continuous effort to get a recognition in the Technical Community. I
dedicate this fruitful work to My Parents who showed me a path in which I was never
burdened any complicacies. This is an ultimate study material for both Mechanical
and Civil. Its style of writing can easily be understood by even a layman. It was
fulfilled with lucid illustrations of AUTO CAD and various Commands.

Iam Thankful to the Secretary and Correspondent Mr.M.A Khaleel and heart
of the institution ,the Director Mr. M.A Bari as their encouragement in bringing up
this work. I have fully utilized the opportunity they had given me and I have made my
own contribution in making this institute an incubation Centre for Research and
Development.

Iam so privileged to convey my thanks to our Principal Mr. Kulkarni to
touched my shoulder in publishing this book.

My deep sense of gratitude is extended to Dr.MD Abid Ali, HOD,
Mechanical, Anurag Engineering College.








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About the Author




Mr. PRUDVI RAJ KANDUKURI presently working as an Assistant
Professor of Mechanical Department in Khader Memorial College of Engineering and
Technology,Devarakonda,Nalgonda(Dt),.He earned his Graduation in Mechanical
Engineering at Anurag Engineering college.
He worked with Megha Engineering and Infrastructures Limited as a Design
Engineer.
He did various projects related to Manufacturing, Production, Design and on
Renewable energy sources. He had his project on Renewable energy Sources
(combination of Solar and Wind energy) Which was awarded best among the all
other.
Participated in various Technical Presentations and Seminars across the
various colleges and received several prizes.
He received Meritorious Certificate during his participation in VIMANTRA, a
National level Technical Festival.




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Contents
INTRODUCTION TO CAD
The Design Process
1. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
HARDWARE IN CAD
1. The Design Workstation
2. A Graphics Terminal
3. Operator Input Devices
4. Cursor Control Devices
5. Digitizers
6. Keyboard Terminals
DRAWING AND MODIFYING OBJECTS
START AND SAVE A DRAWING
METRI
CONTROL THE VIEW
UNITS
LIMIT
ABSOLUTE COORDINATE SYSTEM
RELATIVE COORDINATE SYSTEM
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
LINE
POLYLINE
ARC
CIRCLE
POLYGON
OSNAP
ERASE
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COPY
MOVE
ROTATE
MIRROR
OFFSET
POLAR ARRAY
RECTANGULAR ARRAY
EXTEND
TRIM
BREAK
FILLET
CHAMFER
LENGTHEN
ZOOM ALL
ZOOM WINDOW
ZOOM EXTENTS
HATCH
DISTANCE
EXTRUDE
REVOLVE
PYRAMID
SHADE
SUBSTRACT
INTERSECT
SPL LINE
CLOUD
XL LINE
POLYEDIT


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1. INTRODUCTION TO CAD
What is CAD?
CAD is a term, which means computer aided design. It is the technology concerned
with the use of digital computers to perform certain functions in design and
production. This technology is moving in the direction of greater integration of design
and manufacturing, two activities, which have traditionally been, treated as distinct
and separate functions in a production firm. Ultimately, CAD/CAM will provide the
technology base for the computer - integrated factory of the future.

Computer aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems
to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. The
computer system consists of the hardware and software to perform the specialized
design functions required by the particular user firm. The CAD hardware typically
includes the computer, one or more graphics display terminals, keyboards, and other
peripheral equipment.

The CAD software consists of computer programs to facilitate the engineering
functions of the user company. Examples of these applications program include
stress-strain analysis of components, dynamic response of mechanisms, heat-transfer
calculations, and numerical control part programming. The collection of applications
programs will vary from one user firm to the next because their product lines,
manufacturing processes, and customer markets are different. These factors give rise
to differences in CAD system requirements.

The central and the essential ingredient of CAD is the digital computer. Its
inherent speed and storage capacity have made it possible to achieve the advances in
image recessing, real time process control, and a multitude of other important
functions that are simple too complex and time consuming to perform manually. To
understand CAD, it is important to be familiar with the concepts and technology of
the digital computer. The modern digital computer is an electronic machine that can
perform mathematical and logical calculations and data processing functions in
accordance with a predetermined program of instructions. The computer itself is
referred to as hardware, whereas the various programs referred to as software.
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There are three basic hardware components of a general-purpose digital computer:
1. Central processing unit (CPU)
2. Memory
3. Input/output (I/O) section
The Design Process:
Before examining the several facets of CAD, let us first consider the general design
process. It is an iterative procedure, which consists of six identifiable steps or phases,
characterizes the process of designing something:
1. Recognition of need:
Recognition of need involves the realization by something that a problem exists for
which some corrective action should be taken. This might be the identification of
some defect in a current machine design by an engineer or the perception of a new
product marketing opportunity by a salesperson.
2. Definition of problem:
Definition of the problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed. This specification includes physical and functional characteristics, cost,
quality, and operating performance.
3. Synthesis:
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in the design process. A
certain component or subsystem of the overall system is conceptualized by the
designer.
4. Analysis and optimization:
The synthesized data is improved through analysis procedure and redesign. This
process is repeated until the design has been optimized with in the constraints
imposed on the designer. The components and the subsystems are synthesized in to
the final overall system in a similar iterative manner.
5. Evaluation:
Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications
established in the problem definition phase. This evaluation often requires the
fabrication and testing of prototype model to assess operating performance, quality,
reliability, and other criteria.
6. Presentation:
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The final phase in the design process is presentation of the design. This includes
documentation of the design by means of drawings, material specifications, assembly
lists and so on. Essentially, the documentation requires that a design database be
created.
HARDWARE IN CAD:
Hardware components for computer-aided design are available in a variety of sizes,
configurations, and capabilities. Hence it is possible to select a CAD system that
meets the particular computational and graphics requirements of the user firm. A
modern CAD system is based on interactive computer graphics (ICG).CAD also
includes non-graphic applications of the computer in design work. These consist of
engineering results, which are best displayed, in order than graphical form. Non-
graphical hardware (i.e. line printers) can be employed to create rough images on a
piece of paper by appropriate combinations of characters and symbols. However, the
resulting pictures, while they may create interesting wall posters, are not suitable for
design purposes. Typically, a stand-along CAD system would includes the following
hardware
Components: One or more design workstations. These would consist of:
1. A graphical terminal
2. Operator input devices
3. One or more plotters and other output devices
4. Central processing unit (CPU)
5. Secondary storage
The Design Workstation:
The CAD workstation is the system interface with the outside world. It represents a
significant factor in determining how convenient and efficient it is for a designer to
use the CAD system. The workstation must accomplish five functions:
1. It must interface with the CPU
2. It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
3. It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic image.
4. It must translate computer commands into operating functions.
5. It must facilitate communication between the user and the system.
A typical interactive graphics workstation would consist of the following hardware
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Components.
A Graphics Terminal:
There are various technological approaches, which have been applied to the
development of graphics terminal. Nearly, all computer graphics terminals available
today use the cathode ray tube (CRT) as the display device. Television sets use a form
of the same device as the picture tube. In CRT operation a heated cathode emits a
high -speed electron beam onto a phosphor coated glass screen. The electrons
energize the phosphor coating, causing it to glow at the points where the beam makes
contact. By focusing the electron beam, changing its intensity, and controlling its
points of contact against the phosphor coating through the use of a deflector system,
the beam can be made to generate a picture on the CRT screen. There are two basic
techniques used in current computer graphics terminals for generating the image on
the CRT screen.
Operator Input Devices:
Operator input devices are provided at the graphics workstation to facilitate
convenient communication between the user and the system. Workstations generally
have several types of input devices to allow the operator to select the various pre
programmed input functions. These functions permit the operator to create or modify
an image on the CRT screen or to enter alphanumeric data into the system. This
results in a complete part on the CRT screen as well as a complete geometric
description of the part in the CAD database. Different CAG system vendors offer
different types of operator input devices. These devices can be divided into tree
general categories:
1. Cursor control devices
2. Digitizers
3. Alphanumeric and other keyboard terminals
of the three, cursor control devices and digitizers arte both used for graphical
interaction with the system. Keyboard terminals are used as input devices for
commands and numerical data.
Cursor Control Devices:
The cursor normally takes the form of a bright spot on the CRT screen that indicates
here lettering or drawing will occur. The computer is capable of reading the current
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position of the cursor. The user simply moves the cursor to the desired block to
execute the particular function.
There are varieties of cursor control devices, which have been employed in CAD
systems. These include:
1. Direction keys on a keyboard terminal
2.Thumbwheels
3. Joysticks
4.Tracker ball
5. Light pen
6.Electronic table/pen
Digitizers:
The digitizer is a operator input device which consists of a large, smooth board and an
electronic tracking device which can be moved over the surface to follow existing
lines. It is a common technique in CAD systems for taking x, y coordinates from a
paper drawing. The digitizer can be used to digitize line drawings. The user can input
data from a rough schematic or large layout drawing and edit the drawing to the
desired level of accuracy and detail. The digitizer can also be used to freehand a new
design, with subsequent editing to finalize the drawing.
Keyboard Terminals:
Several forms of keyboard terminals are available as CAD input devices. The most
familiar type is the alphanumeric terminal, which is available with nearly all-
interactive graphics systems. The alphanumeric terminal can be either a CRT or a
hard-copy terminal, which prints on paper. It is used to enter commands, functions,
and supplemental data to the CAD system. The system also communicates s back to
the user in a similar manner. The computer as the part of the interactive procedure can
display menu listings, program listings, error messages, and so forth.

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The following image identifies key interface elements:



1 Application Menu
2 Quick access Tool bar
3 Info center
4 Title bar
5 Ribbon
6 Drawing area
7- Cross hairs
8 Commond Window
9 Status Bar
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2. DRAWING AND MODIFYING OBJECTS

Autocad is a drafting/modeling software used all over the world by almost all
manufacturing companies. It is a variable software which can be used in all
engineering divisions. It is a drafting version popularly known to everyone associated
with mechanical engineering. The Autocad drawing enables the designer to
communicate his ideas to the outside of department easily. Conversion of Autocad
files to other software is also using drawing exchange formula. In the lesson,
commands and procedures for drawing and modifying the objects are explored.

3. START AND SAVE A DRAWING

When you start a drawing, you specify the type of units and other settings you
can also choose how to save your files, including saving back up files. The settings
you select, English a metric determines default values used for many system variables
of controlling text dimensions, grid, snap and default line type and hatch pattern life.
ENGLISH - Creates a new drawing based on Imperial Measurement System.
The drawing is based on cad.dwt template.
METRI
Creates a new drawing based on metric measurement. The drawing is based on
cadiso.dwt template. Save drawing files for later use.
CONTROL THE VIEW
You can magnify the details in your drawing for a closer view or shift the view
to a different part of the drawing. If you can save the view by name, you can restore
them later.
UNITS
Every object is measured in units. In AutoCAD we can determine the value of the
units before we draw.
LIMIT
The drawing limits are two-dimensional points in the world coordinate that represent
a lower-left limit and an upper right limit. You cannot impose limits on the Z
direction.
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ABSOLUTE COORDINATE SYSTEM
In Absolute Coordinate System, the dimensions X and Y of a point is specified with
reference to the origin (0,0).
RELATIVE COORDINATE SYSTEM
In Relative Coordinate System, the dimensions X and Y of a point are specified with
respect to the last entered point (i.e) the last enter point is taken as origin.
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
In Polar Coordinate System, the dimensions of a point are specified by using a
distance and angle with reference to the previous point. Angles are measured in
anticlockwise direction, taking 0 degrees towards right.
LINE
Line command allows you to create a line where the end points are specified by two
dimensional or three dimensional coordinates.
Command: L + ENTER
POLYLINE
PLINE command allows you to draw line and arc segments, but from start to end, it is
treated as a sing object. With PLINE command, you can draw objects even with line
width.
Command: PL + ENTER
ARC
The ARC command allows you to create an arc segment. There are different methods
of creating an arc. The different methods of creating an arc are:
1)3 Points
2)Centre, Start, Radius
3)Start, Centre, End
4)Start, Centre, Angle
5)Start, Centre, Length
6)Start, End, Angle
7)Start, End, Direction
8)Start, End, Radius
Command: A + ENTER


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CIRCLE
The CIRCLE command allows you to create a circle. There are four different methods
for drawing circles. They are:
Centre, Radius/Centre, Diameter
3 Points (3P), 2 Points (2P)
Tangent, Tangent, Radius (ttr)
Command: C + ENTER
POLYGON
Polygon command creates a regular polygon. You must specify the number of sides of
the polygon and whether it is Inscribed or Circumscribed polygon. Now, specify the
centre and radius of the polygon circle.
Command: POL + ENTER
OSNAP
Osnaps allow you to snap onto a specific object location when you are picking a
point. For example, using Osnaps you can accurately pick the end point of a line or
the center of a circle.
Command: FUNCTION KEY - 3
ERASE
This command is used for deleting unwanted objects. You must select the
object to be erased.
Command: E + ENTER
COPY
The copy command is used for making copies of selected objects. The object to be
copied must be selected and the base point must be specified and the copy can be
dragged and placed at the required position.
Command: CO + ENTER
MOVE
This command is used for moving selected objects. The object to be moved
must be selected and its base point must be specified then we can drag it to the
required location.
Command: M + ENTER

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ROTATE
This command is used for rotating selected objects. To rotate an object, first select it
and specify a base point. Now enter an angle value or specify a second point to rotate
the object.
Entering a positive angle value rotates the objects counterclockwise or clockwise,
depending on the Direction Contorl Control setting and Drawing Units dialog box.
The plane of rotation and the direction of the zero angle depend on the orientation of
the user coordinate system.
Command: RO + ENTER
MIRROR
The MIRROR command is used for creating mirror images of selected objects. You
must first select the object to be mirrored and then specify the axis along which it is
mirrored, to create an mirror image of the selected object.This is a very useful
command for drawing symmetrical objects about a particular axis.
Command: MI + ENTER
OFFSET
Offset an object to create a new object whose shape parallels the shape of the original
object. Offsetting a circle or an arc creates a larger or smaller circle or arc, depending
on which side you specify for the offset.
Command: O + ENTER
POLAR ARRAY
This command creates an array of the selected object around a centre point. You must
specify the centre point of the array, the total number of items and the angle to fill for
creating a polar array.
Command : AR + ENTER
RECTANGULAR ARRAY
This command creates an array of the selected objects defined by the number of rows
and columns and the offset between them.
EXTEND
The EXTEND command elongates the selected objects to a specified boundary.
Command: EX + ENTER

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TRIM
The TRIM command trims off an object using cutting edges defined by other objects.
Here the user is required to select object(s) to define cutting edge(s) then select the
object to be trimmed, the selected side of the object is removed based on the side of
selection of the object to be trimmed relative to the cutting edge.
Command: TR + ENTER + ENTER
BREAK
The BREAK commands is used to remove only parts of an object. You must specify
the first and second points between which the object must be deleted.
Command: BR + ENTER
FILLET
FILLET rounds of the edges of two arcs, circles, elliptical arcs, lines, polylines, rays,
splines or xlines with an arc of a specified radius. Rounds along the edges cannot be
created with zero radius.
Command: F + ENTER
CHAMFER
CHAMFER command draws a line at the corner between two selected lines. If the
lines do not intersect, it extends the lines. If they intersect, the lines extending beyond
the chamfer line can be trimmed or left as it is, by the trim mode.
Command: CHA + ENTER
LENGTHEN
The LENGTHEN command is used to increase/decrease the length of AutoCAD
objects.
Command: LEN + ENTER
ZOOM ALL
This zoom to display the entire drawing in the current viewport. The display shows all
the entities even if the drawing extends outside the drawing limits.
Command: Z + ENTER
ZOOM WINDOW
ZOOM WINDOW commands to display an area specified by two diagonally opposite
corner points of a rectangle window.

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ZOOM EXTENTS
This zoom to display the drawing extents. If the drawings are small in the existing
limits, then there is an enlarging effect on the screen. If the drawing occupythe
complete area of the limits, then there are many not be much difference between
ZOOM ALL and ZOOM EXTENTS.
HATCH
Hatches are shaded pattern which generally represent cross-section of a mechanical
component. Using BHATCH command the required area, type of hatch, hatch angle
and scale can be specified.
Command: H + ENTER
DISTANCE
This command lists the distance between the selected points and also lists out the
angle in current plane and 3D angle from the current plane, based on the direction of
picking the two points. It also lists the projected lengths on the three axes called the
delta length.
Command: DI + ENTER
EXTRUDE
Solids can be created by extruding selected objects. Use the EXTRUDE command to
create a solid or surface from a common profile of an object.
Command: EXT + ENTER
REVOLVE
REVOLVE command can create a solid or surface by revolving open or closed
objects about an axis. The revolved objects define the profile of the solid or surface.
Command: REV + ENTER
PYRAMID
This command can create a solid pyramid. The number of sides for a pyramid, from 3
to 32, can be defined. The axis endpoint defines the length and orientation of the
pyramid.





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Few more commands are listed below......
SHADE
Command: shade
SUBSTRACT
Command: SU + ENTER
INTERSECT
Command : IN + ENTER
SPL LINE
Command: SPL + ENTER
CLOUD
Command: REVCLOUD + ENTER
XL LINE
Command: XL + ENTER
POLYEDIT
Command: PE + ENTER
It is used to convert the lines and arcs into polyline.



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Experiment - 1
CREATION OF SIMPLE OBJECTS

Aim: To create simple objects like polygon and general multi-line figures using
Auto CAD software.
Software Used:
Auto CAD 2014
Commands Used:
Limits, Zoom, Line, Arc, Circle, co-ordinate systems, Dimlinear
Procedure:
1) Limits are set for A4 standard drawing size. Margins are drawn using lines.
2) Using Line command and appropriate co-ordinate system, the given figures are
drawn and aligned.
3) The drawn figures are dimensioned using respective DIM command.
4) Title Block is drawn for the given dimension.
5) Finished work sheet is saved and hard copy is taken.
Result:
The given simple figures like polygon and general multi-line figures are drawn using
Auto CAD software.












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