Industrial Training Report Modify

2014
Submitted To

Captain
MiniTractors
Private
Limited

[Industrial Training Report]
Prepared By: Students of Agricultural Engg.& Tech.
Junagadh Junagadh Agriculture University
Submitted by,

Vaghela Alpesh
Hirpara Maulik
Limbasiya Maulik
Chohan Gopal
Zapadiya Mahesh
Undhad Ashish
Page 2

Acknowledgement

We, the students of College of Agricultural Engineering & Tech. Junagadh
Agricultural University, do take this opportunity to express our intense feeling of
indebtedness to Captain Tractors Private Limited for providing us such an
important and a life time opportunity and very comfortable facility and
environment to get such an important and useful training during the month of
May, 2014. We also appreciate their behavior, humbleness and their attention
towards us during our training period in spite of their very busy schedule.

We also wish to record our heartfelt gratitude and regards to Mr. G. T.
Patel (Managing Director), Mr. M. T. Patel (Managing Director), Mr. Rajesh
G. Patel (Director) for providing us a chance to be with them and to gain
knowledge and practical training under their supervision.

We also wish to express our feeling of gratitude, humble regards and
sincere thank to Mr.Jagadish parmar for his simulative and invaluable
guidance, keen interest, inspiration, worthy suggestion, constructive criticism and
also sharing his valuable working experience with us throughout our training
programmer.

We cannot forget to express our regards and feelings to Miss.Martina
Desai and Mr.Mayur Sakhiya for their important and very valuable
information and sharing their thoughts and knowledge in terms of Business
Management, Marketing and Banking and Finance.

Page 3

Contents

Sr. No. Title Pg. No.
1 History of Tractors 4
2 CTPL Product Details & Specifications 13
2 Engine 23
3 Lubrication System 33
4 Fuel System 38
5 Valve Gear Mechanism 62
6 Cooling System 67
7 Transmission System 73
8 Differential Unit and Final Drive 86
9 Hydraulic System 98
10 Steering System 109
11 Power Take Off 113
12 Service System 116
13 Research And Development 118
14 Marketing 127
15 Banking and Finance 135

Page 4

HISTORY OF TRACTOR
(INTERNATIONAL)
WHAT IS A TRACTOR ?
A Tractor is a vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at
slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or
construction.
The word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent noun of trahere "to pull". The first
recorded use of the word meaning "an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or ploughs"
occurred in 1901, displacing the earlier term traction engine (1859).
The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century were portable engines
steam engines on wheels that could be used to drive mechanical farm machinery by way
of a flexible belt.
Around 1850, the first traction engines were developed from these, and were widely
adopted for agricultural use. The first tractors were steam-powered plowing engines.
They were used in pairs, placed on either side of a field to haul a plow back and forth
between them using a wire cable. Where soil conditions permitted (as in the United
States) steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows, but in the UK and elsewhere
plowing engines were used for cable-hauled plowing instead. Steam-powered agricultural
engines remained in use well into the 20th century until reliable internal combustion
engines had been developed.
In 1892, John Froehlich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol powered tractor in
Clayton County, Iowa, USA. After receiving a patent Froehlich started up the Waterloo
Gasoline Engine Company, investing all of his assets which by 1895, all would be lost and
his business resigned to become a failure.

After graduating from the University of Wisconsin, Charles W. Hart and Charles H. Parr
developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine and set up their business in Charles City, Iowa.
In 1903 the firm built fifteen "tractors". A term with Latin roots coined by Hart and Parr
and a combination of the words traction and power. The 14,000 pound #3 is the oldest
Page 5

surviving internal combustion engine tractor in the United States and is on display at the
Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington D.C. The two-cylinder
engine has a unique hit-and-miss firing cycle that produced 30 horsepower at the belt and
18 at the drawbar.

In Britain, the first recorded tractor sale was the oil-burning Hornsby-Ackroyd Patent
Safety Oil Traction engine, in 1897. However, the first commercially successful design was
Dan Alboins three-wheel Ivel tractor of 1902. In 1908, the Sanderson Tractor and
Implement Co. of Bedford introduced a four-wheel design, and went on to become the
largest tractor manufacturer outside the U.S. at that time.
While unpopular at first, these gasoline-powered machines began to catch on in the 1910s
when they became smaller and more affordable. Henry Ford introduced the Fordson, the
first mass-produced tractor in 1917. They were built in the U.S., Ireland, England and
Russia and by 1923; Fordson had 77% of the U.S. market. The Fordson dispensed with a
frame, using the strength of the engine block to hold the machine together. By the 1920s,
tractors with a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine had become the norm.

Page 6

TYPES OF TRACTOR
ROW-CROP TRACTORS:
A row-crop tractor is a tractor tailored specifically to the growing of row crops (crops
grown in rows, as in truck farming), and most especially to cultivating. The big tractors
tended to be very big and heavy, so they were not well suited to getting into a field of
already-planted row crops to do weed control. Row-crop tractorslight, affordable, and
reliablecorrected this flaw.
ORCHARD TRACTORS:
Tractors tailored to use in fruit orchards typically have features suited to passing under
tree branches with impunity.
GARDEN TRACTORS:
Garden Tractors (also called Mini Tractors) are small, light and simple tractors designed
for use in domestic gardens. Garden Tractors are usually designed primarily for cutting
grass, being fitted with horizontal rotary cutting decks. As well as dedicated manufacturers,
many makers of agricultural tractors have made (or continue to make) ranges of garden
tractors, such as Case, Massey-Ferguson, International Harvester and John Deere.
ENGINEERING TRACTORS:
The durability and engine power of tractors made them very suitable for engineering
tasks. Tractors can be fitted with engineering tools such as dozer blade, bucket, hoe, ripper,
and so on. The most common attachments for the front of a tractor are dozer blade or a
bucket. When attached with engineering tools the tractor is called an engineering vehicle.
A bulldozer is a track-type tractor attached with blade in the front and a rope-winch
behind. Bulldozers are very powerful tractors and have excellent ground-hold, as their main
tasks are to push or drag things.

Page 7

TRACTOR HISTORY IN INDIA
1945 to 1960
War surplus tractors and bulldozers were imported for land reclamation and cultivation
in mid 1940's. In 1947 central and state tractor organizations were set up to develop and
promote the supply and use of tractors in agriculture and up to 1960, the demand was met
entirely through imports. There were 8,500 tractors in use in 1951, 20,000 in 1955 and
37,000 by 1960.
1961 to 1970
Local production began in 1961 with five manufacturers producing a total of 880 units
per year. By 1965 this had increased to over 5000 units per year and the total in use had
risen to over 52,000. By 1970 annual production had exceeded 20,000 units with over
146,000 units working in the country.
1971 to 1980
Six new manufacturers were established during this period although three companies
(Kirloskar Tractors, Harsha Tractors and Pattie Tractors) did not survive. HMT, a large public
sector unit, began manufacturing Agricultural Tractors in 1972. Escorts Ltd. began local
manufacture of Ford tractors in 1971 in collaboration with Ford, UK.
1981 to 1990
Annual production exceeded 75,000 units by 1985 and reached 140,000 in 1990 when
the total in use was about 1.2 million. Then India - a net importer up to the mid-seventies -
became an exporter in the 1980s mainly to countries in Africa.
1991 to 1997
Since 1992, it has not been necessary to obtain an industrial license for tractor
manufacture in India. India now emerged as one of the world leaders in wheeled tractor
production.

Page 8

1997 to 1999
In 1998 Bajaj Tempo, already well established in the motor industry, began tractor
production in Pune. In April of the same year New Holland Tractor (India) Ltd launched
production of 70 hp tractors with matching equipment. Larsen and Toubro have established
a joint venture with John Deere, USA for the manufacture of 35-65 hp tractors. Mahindra
and Mahindra are also developing 60-200 hp range.
1999 to Present
Facing market saturation in the traditional markets of the North West (Punjab, Haryana,
and Western Uttar Pradesh) tractors sales began a slow and slight decline. By 2002 sales
went below 200,000. Manufacturers scrambled to push into eastern and southern India
markets in an attempt to reverse the decline, and began exploring the potential for
overseas markets. By 2004 a slight uptick in sales once again due to stronger and national
and to some extent international markets. But by 2006 sales once again were down to
216,000 and now in 2007-08 have slid further to just over 200,000.

Page 9

CURRENT MANUFACTURERS OF
TRACTOR IN INDIA
Angad Tractors, SAS Motors Limited:
SAS Motors Limited, the manufacturer of Angad Tractors, is a public limited company
incorporated in April 2003. Its flagship product is Angad 240 D tractor. The company is
engaged in sourcing, assembling, manufacturing, and marketing of Angad brand tractors
and farm machineries. SAS Motors also provides a range of agricultural equipments.
Angad Tractors (SAS Motors Limited) main mission is to make low cost tractors, power
tillers, and other farm machineries designed on appropriate technology platform available
to the Indian farmers. Currently, SAS Motors Limited manufactures tractors ranging from
15-35 hp.
Balwan Tractors, Force Motors Ltd:
Formerly known as Bajaj Tempo Ltd. until 2005, Force Motors Ltd., makers of India's
ubiquitous 3-wheeler Tempos since 1957 in a collaboration with Vidal & Sohn Tempo
Werke, Germany. In 1999 began production of Ox and Ox 45 Brand Tractors both which
incorporated transmission technology from the German manufacturer ZF. Additional line
Balwan was introduced in 2004 and between the lines Force Motors offers a line of two-
wheel and four-wheel tractors in a horsepower range from 10 to 50 HP. In India BALWAN
600 launched shortly. It has a 60 HP engine. Balwan Tractors are one of the good tractors in
India for agricultural purposes. They have a Benz engine.
Captain Tractors Pvt. Ltd:
Founded in May 1994 and located in Rajkot, India, Captain Tractors manufactures mini-
tractors under the Captain brand.
Crossword Agro Industries:
Located in Rajkot, India, Crossword manufactures small tractors under the Nissan,
Atmak and Captain brand names.
Page 10

Eicher:
In 1949, Eicher Good Earth was set up in India with technical collaboration with Geber.
Eicher a of Germany, imported and sold about 1500 tractors in India. On April 24, 1959
Eicher came out with the first locally assembled tractor from its Faridabad factory and in a
period from 1965 to 1974 became the first fully manufactured (100% indigenization) tractor
in India.
Escorts (Escort, Powertrac and Farmtrac):
Escorts Ltd began local manufacture of Ford tractors in 1971 in collaboration with Ford.
Escort manufactures produces tractors in the 27-75 HP range and has already sold over 6
lakh tractors. Its tractors are marketed under three brand names, Escort, Powertrac and
Farmtrac.
HMT Tractors:
HMT is a large public sector unit and began manufacturing Agricultural Tractors in 1972
under the HMT brand name with technology acquired from Zetor of the Czech Republic. It
manufactures its tractors in Pinjore, Panchkula in a large factory that also manufactures
machine-tools, and Hyderabad It has a capacity of 20,000 tractors per annum.
Mahindra Gujarat Tractor Limited (MGTL):
The company was originally incorporated in the state of Gujarat in 1963 with technical
collaboration with Motokov-Praha of Czechoslovakia as Gujarat Tractor Corporate Ltd. It
was taken over by Mahindra & Mahindra Limited. The company is engaged in
manufacturing of tractors in a range of 30-60 hp which are marketed under Shaktimaan
brand.
John Deere:
In 2000, John Deere set up production in a joint venture with Larsen & Toubro Ltd in
Sanaswadi, The factory currently produces tractors in of 35, 38, 40, 42,45, 50, 55, 65, 75 and
89 HP capacities for domestic markets and for export to the USA, Mexico, Turkey, North and
South Africa, and South East Asia. Pune factory started to produce new 55 to 75 Hp 5003
series tractors for European market in 2008.
Page 11

Indo Farm:
Indofarm Founded in Baddi, Himachal Pradesh, India in 1999, and Indo Farms builds
tractors in the 33 to 90 hp ranges. Company is also manufacturing 9 to 18 ton cranes and 15
to 50 kV silent gen sets. Ursus Poland is its technical partners. Indo farm tractors are
becoming famous in Indian tractor customers because of their better working performance,
quality and reasonable prices. Company is exporting their products to many developed
countries like: New Zealand, UK, Poland, Germany etc. tractor manufacturing is fully
computerized and marketing team is very dedicated and experienced.
Mahindra & Mahindra :
M&M's Farm Equipment Sector origins lie in a joint venture in 1963 between the
Company, International Harvester Inc., and Voltas Limited, and were named International
Tractor Company of India (ITCI). In 1977, ITCI merged with M&M and became its Tractor
Division. After M&M's organizational restructuring in 1994, this division was called the Farm
Equipment Sector. The Farm Equipment Sector has also ventured into manufacturing of
Industrial Engines. M&M Industrial engines are used for various applications like generator
sets, industrial, construction, marine, compressors, etc. These engines are manufactured at
the Company's engine assembly plants at Kandivli and Nagpur. M&M has two main tractor
manufacturing plants located at Mumbai and Nagpur in Maharashtra.
Apart from these two main manufacturing units, the Farm Equipment Sector has
satellite plants located at Rudrapur in Uttaranchal and Jaipur in Rajasthan. The Farm
Equipment Sector as reported by the Company has a dealer network of over 450 dealers.
This dealer network is managed by 28 area offices, situated in all the major cities and
covering all the principal states and M&M tractors has sold more than 13,00,000 tractors
since its inception.
M&M's Farm Equipment Sector is perhaps the largest exporter of Indian tractors to the
USA and the west. The plant in China reportedly has a production capacity of 12,000
tractors annually.
In March 2007, M&M bought a controlling 43% stake in the Mohali-based tractor firm
Punjab Tractors (Swaraj) that will reportedly increase M&M's share in the domestic farm
equipment market from just over 30% to 40%. The 43% stake includes 29% owned by
private equity firm Actis Capital and 14.2% by the Delhi-based Burman family. In July 2007,
Mahindra upped its stake to 64.6%.
MARS Farm Equipments Ltd :
Originally established in 1976, the MARS Group is engaged in manufacturing/marketing
of dump trucks, loaders, foggers, and agricultural tractors and attachments. Based in
Lucknow, U.P., it began manufacturing two mini-tractor models under the Marshal name in
2005, Captain DI 2600 of 25 HP and Trishul MT DI 625 10 HP.
Page 12

New Holland :
New Holland Ag's entry into India was facilitated by FIAT's acquisition of Ford-New
Holland in 1991. By 1998 New Holland Ag. (India) completed the construction of a new
plant in Noida, near New Delhi, with a capacity of 5000 tractors in the 35 - 75 hp range.
Sonalika (International Tractors Ltd.) :
International Tractors Limited was incorporated on October 17, 1995 and began
manufacturing tractors designed by Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
(CMERI). Its engines were initially designed on the successful HMT brand of engines, and
gear-box as per PTL design.
TAFE :
Tractors and Farm Equipment Limited (TAFE) was established in 1961 to manufacture
and market Massey Ferguson tractors and related farm equipment in India. AGCO, the
owner of Massey Ferguson, now owns 24% of TAFE. Tractors are built and sold in India
under both the TAFE and Massey Ferguson brands, and exported under both brands as well.
In 2005, TAFE bought the Eicher Motors tractor and engine division.
Standard :
Standard Combine began building tractors in Barnala, Punjab, India. In Standard
Tractors, tractors are being manufactured in the range of 35, 45, 50, 60, and 75 HP with
respective model names: Standard 335, Standard 345, Standard 450, Standard 460, and
Standard 475. Engines for all these tractor models, except the last one, are manufactured
within the plant as Standard Engines, in specific names SE 335, SE 345, SE 450 and SE
460, respectively. All the above-mentioned models of Standard Engines have shown
compliance to the TREM-III emission norms, as have been verified by the ARAI. However,
two new variants of tractor of 35 hp (Standard 335-I) and 45 hp (Standard 345-I), equipped
with famous Perkins engines (assembled within the Standard Tractors plant), and two
completely new models of tractor of 30 hp (Standard 330) and 40 hp (Standard 340) are on
the verge to be launched. Besides these, three 3-wheelers (two passenger-carriers and one
cargo), one 4-wheeler (cargo), a crane, an electric 3-wheeled mini-car, and two 2-wheelers
(scooters) are either in the process of development or on the verge of launch from the
Standard Tractor Division.
Page 13

VST Tillers :
VST Tillers was set up in 1965 in Bangalore, India. In collaboration with Mitsubishi
Agricultural Machinery of Japan, they manufacture 18HP tractors under various brands,
including Mitsubishi-Shakti', Shakti, Eurotrac-VST and Euro-Trac. They have been exported
to Asia, the Middle East, Europe and the USA.

Page 14

PREVIOUS INDIAN TRACTOR
COMPANIES
Tractor companies that did not survive and were not acquired by other
companies are:
Auto Tractors Ltd., Pratapgarh :
Had manufacturing plant at Pratapgarh (U.P.) and were making tractors with Leyland
engines.
Asian Tractors Ltd :
Began building tractors in 1989 from their own designs.
Haryana Tractors Ltd :
As a part of Pratap Steel Rolling Mills Ltd., Haryana began building tractors from their
own designs in 1983.
Ford Tractors :
Ford (formerly Ford Tractor Division) began producing Ford Tractors in India in 1972
with a tie up with Escorts. In 1986 Ford acquired New Holland and tractor operations was
transferred to Ford-New Holland and made into an independent corporation. In 1991, Fiat
began an arranged purchase of Ford-New Holland that was completed in 1993, ending Ford
Motor Company's long history of tractor production. The deal required that New
Holland/FIAT stop using the Ford name. New Holland India Pvt began production of tractors
in India in 1998.
Harsha Tractors :
In 1975, Harsha Tractors Ltd began manufacturing tractors in conjunction with
Motoimport of Russia. Tractor production never amounted to much, and has since ceased.
Kirloskar Tractors :
Founded in cooperation with Deutz-Fahr of Germany in 1974. It has since ceased to
manufacture tractors. However, the company continues to manufacture engines under
license from Deutz.
Page 15

CTPL Product Details
and specifications
Mini Tractors
1. 2wd segment ( Captain Mini Tractor 120 DI 2WD )
2. 4wd segment ( Captain Mini Tractor 200 DI 4WD )

Technical Specifications

Dimensions
Length: 2286 mm
Width: 1168 mm / 1016 mm
Height: 1955 mm with exhaust pipe
Wheel Base: 1550 mm
Ground Clearance: 260 mm
Track Width: 965 mm / 812 mm (Driving Wheels)
Track Width: 902 mm (Steering Wheel)

Weight Of Tractor
With Oil & Diesel Without Standard Ballast: 845 Kg.

Engine Specifications
Make: FIELDMARSHAL (Hatz Design)
Model: FH-785
Type: four stroke, direct injection
Horse Power: 9.5 hp
Bore/Stroke: 85/110 mm
No. of Cylinders: One
Capacity: 625 cc
Engine rated speed: 2600 rpm
Cooling System: Air-cooled
Air Cleaner: Oil bath air cleaner with pre cleaner Length: 30.3"
Fuel Equipment: 0.5 lit. fuel oil filter with plunger type fuel pump (Mico)
Hydraulic System
To operate three point linkage & upload trailer material.
Drive - from engine through `V` belt.
Output of hydraulic pump: 17.5 liters min.
Transport lock provided

Page 16

Transmission
Clutch: Dry, friction plate
Gear Box: Four forward, one reverse
Foot brakes: Internal expanding shoe type mechanical brakes.
Parking Brakes: Pawl & Atchet type locking arrangement.
Steering: Mechanical worm and peg type
Minimum Turning: With brakes: 2.85 meters
Radius: Without brakes: 3.85 meters.

Trailer
Pay Load: 1.5 Tonne
Trailer Size: 8 ft. X 5 ft. X 1 ft. (40 cu. Ft.)
Tyre: 6.00 X 16 (8 Ply Ratting)

Tyres
Front: 5.20 x 14 (8 ply rating)
Rear: 8.00 x 18 (4 ply rating)

Road Speed (kmph)

Gears Low Gears High Gears
1 2.30 04.71
2 3.86 07.93
3 6.21 12.75
4 9.15 18.78
Reverse 1.72 03.53

Rear PTO Shaft Speed Range

Gears RPM
1 326
2 550
3 882
4 1300

Oil Capacity(in liters)
Diesel Oil tank: 21.00 lit.
Engine Oil sump: 01.08 lit.
Main Gear Box: 01.60 lit.
Reduction Gear Box: 00.50 lit.
Differential: 01.20 lit.
Sterling Box: 00.50 lit.
Air Cleaner: 00.15 lit.
Hydraulic Tank: 14.00 lit.

Page 17

Multiple Attachments and Implements
1. Automatic Seed Drill
2. Leveler
3. Cultivator
4. Sprayer Pump
5. M.B. Plough
6. Trailer
7. Reaper
8. Thresher
9. Rotary Tiller
10. Loader
11. Centrifugal Pump
12. Reversible Plow
13. Generator
14. Horticulture Sprayer
15. Automatic Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill
16. Puddling
17. Mud Pump
18. Furrow Attachment
19. Chiesel Plough
20. Grapes Sprayer
21. Tanker
22. Fertilizer Attachment
23. Self Propelled Reaper

Page 18

1. Automatic Seed Drill

Length: 30.3"
Width: 19"
Height: 37.4"
Weight: 110 Kg. with cultivator
Diesel Cons.: 0.75 Ltr./Hour (Approx)
Area Covered: 1.25 to 1.50 Acre/Hour
(Approx)
Seed: For Sowing Sesamum to Garlic Seeds
Hopper: Single

2. Leveler

Length: 48.4"
Width: 21"
Height: 14.7" + 19.5 (Hitch Point)
Weight: 36 Kg.
Diesel Cons.: 1 Ltr./Hour (Approx)
Area Covered: 4 ft. width & 0.5 to 0.75
Acre/hr. (Approx)

Page 19

3. Cultivator

Length: 48" + 30"
Width: 15.5
Height: 16.7" + 19.5"
Weight: 114 Kg
Tine: 5 Nos.
Depth in the soil: 4" to 6"
Width in the soil: 48"
Area Covered: 1 Acre/Hour (Approx)

4. Sprayer Pump

Length: 38"
Width: 30.7"
Height: 51.5"
Weight: 150Kg. (Approx)
Nozzle: 13 Nos. (Adjustable Height &
Distance between nozzle)
Area Covered: 2 to 3 Acre/Hour
(Apporx)
Tank Capacity: 200 Ltrs.

5. M.B. Plough

Length: 28.7"
Width: 20"
Height: 21.6" + 15.7" (Hitch point)
Weight: 61 Kg. Farrow: Two
Diesel Cons.: 1 to 1.25 Ltr/Hour
Area Covered: 0.5 Acre/Hour (Approx)

Page 20

6. Trailer

Length: 96"
Width: 60"
Height: 12
Volume: 40 Cu. ft.
Weight: 36Kg.
Road Speed: 18 Km/Hour
Pay Load: 1.5 ton with Hyd. Tipping
system

7. Reaper

Length: 60"
Width: 54"
Height: 20.4"
Weight: 170 Kg.
Diesel Cons.: 1 Ltr/Hour
Enables Reaping work of 4 feet width
Wheat, Rice & Soyabean

8. Thresher

Thresher Dia: 2 feet Drum for multi
purpose crops

Diesel Cons.: 1 to 1.25 Ltr/Hour

Page 21

9. Rotary Tiller

Length : 36"
Width : 18"
Height : 18" (Hitch point)
Weight : 175 Kg. (Approx)
Diesel Cons. : 1 to 1.25 Ltr/Hour
(Approx)
Area Covered : 0.5 Acre/Hour
(Approx)
Technical Details:
1. L type Blade 16 nos 24" working
width
2. J type Blade 16 nos. 30" working
width

10. Loader

Length: 36"
Width: 18"
Lifting Height: 7.5 feet
Bucket Cap.: 600 Kg. (12 Cu. Ft.)
Capacity: 5 to 7 min. for small trailer
10 to 15 min. for Big trailer

11. Centrifugal Pump

Pump Size: 2.5 x 2.5 & 3" x 2.5"

Discharge: 9 to 49 Lps.

Head range: 21 to 29 mtrs.

High Head: 3000 to 10000 feet.

Page 22

12. Reversible Plow

Length: 49.6
Width: 36"
Height: 16.5" + 15.7 (Hitch point)
Weight: 3000 to 10000 feet.
Farrow: Two
Diesel Cons.: 1 to 1.25 Ltr./Hour
(Approx)
Area Covered: 0.5 Acre/Hour (Approx)

13. Generator

KVA: 7.5 KVA - Three/Single phase

Diesel Cons.: 1Ltr./Hour (Approx)

Capacity: 5 Hp motor

14. Horticulture Sprayer

30 to 40 feet height covered with H.T.P.
pump enables spray for Apple, Mango &
Chiku

Diesel Cons.: 0.75Ltr./Hour (Approx)

Capacity: 2 Gun will be used at a time
Tank : 200 ltr.

Page 23

15. Automatic Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill

Length: 30.3"
Width: 19"
Height: 37.4"
Weight: 110 Kg. with Cultivator
Area Covered: 1.25 to 1.50
Acre/Hour (Approx)
Seed: For sowing sesamum to garlic
seeds
Hopper: Single

16. Puddling

Enables Puddling work. Tractor with
Rotary Tiller, Puddler, Cultivator & Half
Cage wheel.

Diesel Cons.: 1 to 1.25 Ltr./Hour
(Approx)

Area Covered: 0.5 Acre/Hour
(Approx)

17. Mud Pump

Size: 80 mm x 80 mm (Suction &
Delivery)
Head Range: 6 to 20 mtr.
Out Put: 20 to 3.4 Lps.
Features: Can handles Solids waste up
to 15.5 mm
Application : Tiles & Marble factories,
Chemical, Diesel, Petrol Refinery,
Swimming Pools, Construction sites and
Nagar Palika Services

Page 24

18. Furrow Attachment

Length: 21.4"

Width: 15.5"


Weight: 39 Kg.

Application: To make water flow small
channels in the field.

19. Chiesel Plough
Length: 48" + 30" (Attachment)

Width: 15.5"


Weight: 80 Kg.

Tine: 3 Nos.


Depth in the soil: 6"

20. Grapes Sprayer

Length: 78"
Width: 48"
Height: 54"
Tyre Size: 600.16
Tank Cap.: 550 Ltrs.
Area Covered: 0.75 Acre/Hour
(Approx)
Nozzle: 6 Nos. (Adjustable)
Pump: H.T.P. Pump

Page 25

21. Tanker

Length: 96"

Width: 42"

Weight: 450 Kg.

Tank Capacity: 2000 Ltr

22. Fertilizer Attachment

Length: 63"

Width: 11.2"

Height: 25.6"

Weight: 42 Kg.

Diesel cons.: 1 Ltr/Hour (Approx)

Area Covered: Fertilizer Can be
applied in 3 row

23. Self Propelled Reaper

Length: 94.5"
Width: 45.3"
Height: 43.3"
Weight: 180 Kg.
Engine: Greaves/Honda
Fuel Cons.: 1.25 Ltr/Hour (Approx)
Speed: 3 Km./Hour
Area Covered: 0.5 Acre/Hour (Approx).
Enables Reaping Work of 3 feet width
Wheat, Rice & Soyabean

Page 26

ENGINE
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical
motion. Devices converting heat energy into motion are referred to as engines, which come in
many types. A common type is a heat engine such as an internal combustion engine which typically
burns a fuel with air and uses the hot gases for generating power. External combustion engines
such as steam engines use heat to generate motion via a separate working fluid
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally,
fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal
combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases, which are
produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such as the
pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates useful
mechanical energy.
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal working
fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger.
The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine produces motion and
usable work.
Cut- section of engine-

Page 27

Engine Configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.
a) Two-stroke cycle
b) Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)
As their name implies, four-stroke internal combustion engines have four basic steps that
repeat with every two revolutions of the engine:
1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the IC engine is also known as the suction stroke
because the piston moves to the maximum volume position (downward direction in the
cylinder). The inlet valve opens as a result of piston movement, and the vaporized fuel
mixture enters the combustion chamber. The inlet valve closes at the end of this stroke.
2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston starts its
movement to the minimum volume position (upward direction in the cylinder) and
compress the fuel mixture. During the compression process, pressure, temperature and
the density of the fuel mixture increases.
3. Power stroke: When the piston reaches the minimum volume position, the spark plug
ignites the fuel mixture and burns. The fuel produces power that is transmitted to the
crank shaft mechanism.
4. Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. During this
stroke, the piston starts its movement in the minimum volume position. The open
exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the cylinder. At the end of this stroke,
the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next
cycle. Four stroke engines require two revolutions.
Diesel cycle

Fig: P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise
direction.
Page 28

Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle,
but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system.
This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.

Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines, that
work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four-
stroke engine. It consists of the same four major steps: Intake, compression, ignition and
exhaust.
PV diagram for Otto cycle On the PV-diagram, 1-2: Intake: suction stroke 2-3: Isentropic
Compression stroke 3-4: Heat addition stroke 4-5: Exhaust stroke (Isentropic expansion) 5-2:
Heat rejection The distance between points 1-2 is the stroke of the engine.
Parts of a Four-Stroke Engine-

Cylinder Head
Also referred to as the top end, the cylinder head houses the pistons, valves, rocker
arms and camshafts.
Page 29

Valves
A pair of valves, used for controlling fuel intake and exhaust, are controlled by a set of
fingers on the camshaft called lobes. As the intake valve opens, a mixture of fuel and air from
the carburetor is pulled into the cylinder. The exhaust valve expels the spent air/fuel mixture
after combustion..
Camshaft
Usually chain or gear-driven, the camshaft spins, using its lobes to actuate the rocker
arms. These open the intake and exhaust valves at preset intervals.
The Piston
The piston travels up and down within the cylinder and compresses the air/fuel mixture
to be ignited by a spark plug. The combustive force propels the piston downward. The piston is
attached to a connecting rod by a wrist pin.
Piston Parts-
1. Head Or Crown
2. Piston Rings
3. Skirt
4. Piston Pin
Crankshaft
The crankshaft is made up of a left and right flywheel connected to the piston's
connecting rod by a crank pin, which rotates to create the piston's up-and-down motion. The
cam chain sprocket is mounted on the crankshaft, which controls the chain that drives the
camshaft.

Page 30

Fig: engine components

GOVERNOR of an engine-
A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a
machine, such as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt
or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted on spring-loaded arms to determine how fast
a shaft is spinning, and then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft speed.

Fig: Centrifugal "flyball" governor
Page 31

Types of governor-
1) Centrifugal governor
2) Pneumatic governor
3) Hydraulic governor
1) Centrifugal governor
A centrifugal governor is a specific type of governor that controls the speed of an engine
by regulating the amount of fuel (or working fluid) admitted, so as to maintain a near constant
speed whatever the load or fuel supply conditions. It uses the principle of proportional control.
Diesel engine speed is controlled solely by the amount of fuel injected into the engine by
the injectors. Because a diesel engine is not self-speed-limiting, it requires not only a means of
changing engine speed (throttle control) but also a means of maintaining the desired speed.
The governor provides the engine with the feedback mechanism to change speed as needed
and to maintain a speed once reached. A governor is essentially a speed-sensitive device,
designed to maintain a constant engine speed regardless of load variation. Since all governors
used on diesel engines control engine speed through the regulation of the quantity of fuel
delivered to the cylinders, these governors may be classified as speed-
2) Pneumatic governor-

Pneumatic governor that is responsive to the air flow (vacuum) in the intake manifold of
an engine. A diaphragm within the governor housing is connected to the fuel control linkage
that changes its setting with increases or decreases in the vacuum.
Page 32

3) Hydraulic governor-

Although hydraulic governors have more moving parts and are generally more
expensive than mechanical governors, they are used in many applications because they are
more sensitive, have greater power to move the fuel control mechanism of the engine, and can
be timed for identical speed for all loads. In hydraulic governors, the power which moves the
engine throttle does NOT come from the speed-measuring device, but instead comes from a
hydraulic power piston, or servomotor. This is a piston that is acted upon by fluid pressure,
generally oil under the pressure of a pump. By using appropriate piston size and oil pressure,
the power of the governor at its output shaft (work capacity) can be made sufficient to operate
the fuel-changing mechanism of the largest engines. The speed-measuring device, through its
speeder rod, is attached to a small cylindrical valve, called a pilot valve. The pilot valve slides up
and down in a bushing, which contains ports that control the oil, flow to and from the
servomotor. The force needed to slide the pilot valve is very little; a small ball head is able to
control a large amount of power at the servomotor. The basic principle of a hydraulic governor
(fig. 5-7) is very simple. When the governor is operating at control speed or state of balance,
the pilot valve closes the port and there is no oil flow.

Page 33

ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING CHECKLIST
AIR INTAKE SYSTEM CHECKS

Air cleaner element holed or not sealing correctly.
Incorrect size air cleaner element for type of housing.
Cracked or distorted air cleaner element housing.
Restriction gauge adapter broken.
Inlet or induction system from air cleaner to engine damaged.
Leak in vacuum piping.
Leak in air feed to compressor.
Inlet manifold gasket leaking or cracked.
Injector seat leaking (petrol engines).
Damaged or missing breather.
Damaged or missing dip-stick seal.
Faulty or missing oil filler cap.
Faulty or missing crankcase ventilation.
Oil storage or top-up containers and funnels dirty.
COOLING SYSTEM CHECKS
Faulty thermostats, radiator shutters or shutterstats.
Radiator fins or cores blocked or clogged.
Defective water pump.
Coolant level low.
Radiator pressure relief cap defective.
Fan belts loose.
Faulty thermostatic fan.
Engine overloaded (lugging).
Cooling fins clogged or defective (air cooled engines).
Engine caked with dirt.
Defective water hoses.
Pressurize system and check for leaks.
Check sampling technique, was sample taken cold?
Oil cooler passages blocked or restricted.
Air entrained in cooling system.
Page 34

Insufficient coolant capacity.
Incorrect air/fuel ratio or timing (gas and petrol engines).
Incorrect coolant mixture.
Incompatible coolant mixture.
FUEL DILUTION CHECKS
Sampling technique (sample pump washed out with fuel or solvent).
Leaking fuel inlet and return pipes, pump seals and unions.
Faulty lift/transfer pump.
Worn or faulty injectors (e.g. incorrect spray pattern or break out pressure).
Extended idling periods.
Faulty internal injector seals or O-rings.
Fuel leaks - pressure test system.
Incorrect thermostat fitted.
Extended periods under low engine load.
Pump calibration or timing incorrect.
Restricted fuel return lines.
Contaminated fuel.
Faulty engine protection system.
Low operating temperature.
BOTTOM END WEAR CHECKS
Check filter for abnormal wear particles.
Abnormal noise on start up.
Check for low oil level.
Check oil pressure profile.
Check for faulty oil pump, oil pick up and pressure relief valve.
Overheating.
Coarse dirt entry.
Check for cause of fuel dilution.
Incorrect oil grade used.
TOP END WEAR CHECKS
High blow-by and crankcase pressure.
Low compression.
Lack of power.
Page 35

Dirt entry in air intake system.
Abnormal noise.
Piston torching caused by defective injector spray pattern and timing.
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION (SLUDGE) CHECKS
Restricted air intake system.
Restricted exhaust system (damaged exhaust pipe or silencer).
Fuel system malfunction (timing and faulty injectors).
Faulty turbocharger operation or pressures.
Check for low compression and excessive blow-by.
Extended oil and filter change periods.
Excessive exhaust back pressure (exhaust brake malfunction).
Low engine operating temperature.
After-cooler or inter-cooler malfunction.
Dirty oil or filter by-pass valve defective.
Extended idling periods.
Faulty altitude compensation device.
Dirty or contaminated/adulterated fuel.
Faulty thermostats or radiator shutters (incorrect operating temperature).
Faulty or incorrect engine brake operation.
Incorrect thermostat fitted.
WATER OR INTERNAL COOLANT LEAK CHECKS
Pressure test cooling system to locate leak.
Pressure test with sump removed to locate leak.
Release pressure with sump removed to locate leak.
Blown cylinder head gasket.
Defective cylinder head seals.
Leaking sleeve seals.
Leaking oil cooler.
Cylinder liner cracked or holed.
Injector cooling seals leaking.
Engine breather blocked, missing or damaged.
Low engine operating temperature.
Extended idling periods
Page 36

LUBRICATION SYSTEM
I.C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement
of two metallic surfaces over each other, there is wearing of moving parts,
generation of heat and loss of power in the engine. Lubrication of moving parts is
essential to prevent all these harmful effects.
Lubrication produces the following effect-
1) Reduces frictional effect
2) Cooling effect
3) Sealing effect
4) Cleaning effect
Types of Lubricants
Lubricants can be classified by their originanimal (e.g. oil, goose grease), vegetable
(e.g., soybean oil, linseed oil), or mineral (e.g., petroleum, molybdenum sulfide). From ancient
times until the late 19th cent. lubricants were obtained from vegetable oils or animal fats and
oils. Today most are derived from mineral oils, such as petroleum and shale oil, which can be
distilled and condensed without decomposition. Synthetic lubricants, such as silicones, are of
great value in applications involving extreme temperatures. In certain types of high-speed
machinery films of gas under pressure have been successfully used as lubricants.

The lubricating system of an engine is an arrangement of mechanism and devices which
maintains supply of lubricating oil to rubbing surfaces of an engine at correct pressure and
temperature.
The parts which require lubrication are
Cylinder walls and piston
Piston pin
Crankshaft and connecting rod bearing
Camshaft bearings
Valve operating mechanisms
Cooling fan
Water pump
Ignition mechanism

Page 37

Types of Lubrication Systems-
1. Splash system
2. Forced feed system
3. Combination of splash and forced feed
In captain tractor splash system is used. So it is given as-
1. Splash Lubrication System
In the splash lubricating system, oil is splashed up from the oil pan or oil trays in the
lower part of the crankcase. The oil is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and provides
adequate lubrication to valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and piston rings.
In the engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each
crankshaft revolution to produce the oil splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from
the dipper to the bearing to ensure lubrication. This system is usually used in single cylinder
engines with closed crankcase.

Fig: splash unit
Page 38

2. Forced feed lubrication system-
In this system, the oil is pumped directly to the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston pin,
timing gears and camshaft of the engine through suitable paths of oil. Usually the oil first enters
the main gallery, which may be a pipe or a channel in the crankcase casting. From this pipe, it
goes to each of the main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end
bearings of connecting rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft. From there, it goes to
lubricate the walls, pistons and rings.

Fig: forced feed system
OIL FILTER-
An oil filter removes all the dirty elements of the oil in an effective way. It is a type of
strainer using cloth, paper, felt, wire screen or similar elements. An oil filter is a filter designed
to remove contaminants from engine oil, transmission oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil. Oil
filters are used in many different types of hydraulic machinery. A chief use of the oil filter is in
internal-combustion engines in on- and off-road motor vehicles, light aircraft, and various naval
vessels. Other vehicle hydraulic systems, such as those in automatic transmissions and power
steering, are often equipped with an oil filter.
Wearing of parts, oil consumption and operating cost of an engine can be considerably
reduced by proper maintenance of oil filters. These are of two types-
a) Full-flow filter
b) By-pass filter

Page 39

a) Full-flow filter-
In this filter, the entire quantity of oil is forced to circulate through it before it enters the
engine. A spring loaded valve is usually fitted in the filter as a protection device against oil
starvation in case of filter getting clogged. Filter element consists of felt, cloth, paper, and
plastic.

Fig: full-flow filter
b) By-pass filter-
In this type of filter, the supply lines are from the pump and are connected to permit only a
part of the oil through the filter, the balance oil reaches directly to the engine parts.
Mechanical filter-
Mechanical designs employ an element made of bulk material (such as cotton waste) or
pleated Filter paper to entrap and sequester suspended contaminants. As material builds up on
(or in) the filtration medium, oil flow is progressively restricted. This requires periodic
replacement of the filter element (or the entire filter, if the element is not separately
replaceable).

Page 40

TROUBLES IN LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Excessive oil consumption- when there is excessive oil consumption, the reasons are-
i. More oil goes to combustion chamber and gets burnt
ii. Some leakage occurs in some part of the line.
iii. Loss of oil in form of vapour through ventilating system.
Oil can enter the combustion chamber through rings and cylinder walls, worn piston rings
and worn bearings.
Low oil pressure- it results due to-
i. weak relief valve spring
ii. worn oil pump
iii. cracked oil line
iv. obstruction in the oil lines
v. very thin oil
vi. worn-out bearings
Care should be taken to remove these defects as far as possible to increase the oil pressure
in the lubricating system.
Excessive oil pressure- it may result due to
i. stuck relief valve
ii. strong valve spring
iii. clogged oil line
iv. very heavy oil
These defects should be removed to reduce the excessive oil pressure in the lubricating
system. Sometimes defective oil pressure indicator shows high oil pressure.
LUBRICATING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
There are certain lubricating system service jobs that are more or less done
automatically when an engine is repaired. For example, the oil pan is removed and cleaned
during such engine overhaul jobs as replacing bearing or rings. When the crankshaft is
removed, it is usual procedure to clean out the oil passages in the crankshaft. Also, the oil
passages in the cylinder block should be cleaned out as part of the overhaul. As a Construction
Mechanic, you will be required to maintain the lubrication system. This maintenance normally
consists of changing the oil and filter(s). Occasionally you will be required to perform such
maintenance tasks as replacing lines and fittings, servicing or replacing the oil pump and relief
valve, and flushing the system. Oil and Filter Change It is extremely important that the oil and
filter(s) of the engine are serviced regularly.

Page 41

Fuel system
Properties of fuel
Fuel is a substance consumed by the engine to produce energy. The common fuel for
internal combustion engines are:
Petrol
Power kerosene
High speed diesel oil
Light diesel oil
Quality of fuel
The quality of fuel mainly depends upon the following properties:
Volatility of fuel
Calorific value of fuel
Ignition quality of fuel
Volatility:
Volatility of fuel has considerable effect on the performance of the engine by affecting
the following:
a) Ease of starting the engine
b) Degree of crankcase oil dilution
c) Formation of vapour lock in the fuel system
d) Accelerating characteristics of the engine
e) Distribution of fuel in multicylinder engine
Calorific value:
The heat liberated by combustion of a fuel is known as calorific value or heat value of
the fuel. It is expressed In kcal/kg of the fuel. The heat value of a fuel is an important measure
of its worth, since this is the heat which enables the engine to do work.

Ignition quality:
Ignition quality refers to ease of burning the oil in the combustion chamber. Octane
number and cetane number are the mesasures of ignition quality of the fuel.

Page 42

Detonation (Knocking):
Detonation or engine knocking refers to violent noises, heard in an engine, giving a
pinging sound during the process of combustion. It occurs during the process of combustion of
the mixture within the cylinder after the ignition has taken place. It is an undesirable
combustion and results in sudden rise in pressure, a loss of power and overheating of the
engine. It is caused by -
Improper combustion chamber
High compression pressure
Early ignition timing
Improper fuel
Inadequate cooling arrangement
Preignition
Burning of air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber before the piston has reached
the top dead centre is called preignition. It occurs when the charge is fired too far ahead of the
top dead centre of the piston due to excessive spark advance or excessive heat in the cylinder.
Fuel Test
A few important tests are recommended to determine the suitability of fuels for an I.C.
engine. The following are the important tests.
1. Gravity test:
The gravity of a fuel or oil may be expressed as specific gravity or as API gravity, a scale
devised by American Petroleum Institute. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of its weight
to the weight of an equal, volume of water at 60'1
0
1 the relationship of the API gravity scale to
specific gravity is expressed by the formula:

A.P.I. degrees = 141.5 131.5
Specific gravity of oil at 60'T
The instrument used for testing the specific gravity of oil is known as hydrometer. The
lighter fuel of lower specific gravity has higher API gravity expressed in degrees. Pure water has
got API gravity as 10.

2. Distillation test:
It is a measure of volatility of a fuel. In this test, measured amount of oil is boiled in a flask,
starting from a low temperature and gradually increasing it. The amount of condensed vapour
corresponding to each temperature is collected and noted separately. This process goes on
operating till the evaporation ceases.

Page 43

3. Vapour pressure test:
A special instrument known as Reid vapour pressure test is commonly used to measure the
vapour pressure of a fuel. The pressure is read on the Bourdon gauge at 100F temperature.
Vapour pressure is a measure of starting ability as well is vapour lock tendencies of the fuel.

4. Sulphur test:
Sulphur test is done for the following purposes:
(a) To find out presence of corrosive sulphur compounds in the fuel oil.
(b) To find out quantity of free and combined sulphur present in the fuel oil.
The corrosive sulphur is indicated by immersing a polished strip of copper in the fuel for 3
hours at 122F. A comparison is made with this strip and a freshly polished copper. If' corrosive
sulphur is present, the colour would be discoloured. For finding the total quantity of sulphur,
sample of fuel is burnt in test bombs or wick lamps and sulphur is measured.
5. Carbon residue:
Carbon residue is an indication of the carbon forming properties of the oil under certain
engine conditions. It is a means of measuring the amount of carbon residue left on evaporating
in oil under specified conditions.
6. Colour test:
Colour test also indicates certain physical properties of oil to some extent but it is not a very
reliable test.
Page 44

7. Gum test:
Gum test is a measure of the presence of gum in the oil. The test consists of evaporating
samples of fuel in special apparatus. The residue is weighed in milligrams per 100cc of fuel. The
evaporation takes place in a copper dish and is continued for a longer period of time, indicating
gum-forming properties that may develop upon storage, exposure to air and light.
8. Flash test:
The flash point of oil is the temperature at which inflammable vapours are given off. The oil
sample is heated and the temperature at which distinct flash is obtained when flame is passed
over the container is called flash point. The results are important for safety and fire protection
measures.
Qualities of diesel fuel
The diesel fuel is of two types:
1. High speed diesel oil (HSD)
2. Light diesel oil (LDO)
High speed diesel oil is used for high speed diesel engines. It is lighter than LDO. Light diesel
oil is the main source of fuel for slow speed engines.

I. Diesel fuel should be free from acid or any foreign matter, dirt and moisture.
II. It must be able to lubricate the fuel pumps and fuel injection nozzles, light fuels lack
sufficient lubricating qualities.
III. Diesel fuels are rated according to the cetane number, which is the indication of ignition
quality of the fuel. The higher the cetane number, the better the ignition quality of the
fuel.
Fuel combustion
The process of fuel combustion converts the chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy.
Fuel combustion of I.C. engine takes place in two ways:
1) A mixture of air and fuel is compressed and ignited by a spark. This is called spark
ignition engine or carburetor type engine.
2) Air alone is compressed and fuel is injected near the end of the
Compression stroke. Fuel is ignited by the heat of compression.
This is called diesel engine or compression ignition engine.
For getting maximum power from the carburetor engine, it is essential:
Page 45

1) To maintain proper proportion of fuel and air.
2) To ignite the mixture at the proper time.
Best result is obtained when carburetor is so adjusted that alit- fuel ratio is about 15:1. Such
mixture is called chemically correct mixture. This relation is explained in the following example.
Example 5.1. Find air-fuel ratio for complete combustion of fuel in a carburetor engine,
wane petrol which approximates to hexane C
6
H
14
.
Solution. Air contains 23% oxygen by weight.
Petrol when mixed with oxygen forms carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and water.
C
6
H
14
+ 0
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O ...(1)
After balancing the above equation, it is obtained as:
2(C
6
H
12
) + 19(O
2
) = 12(CO
2
) + 14(H
2
0)
or (2 x 86) + (19 x 32) = (12 x 44) + (14 x 18) or 780 = 780
Oxygen per kg of fuel = 608/172=3.54kg
Correct air supply per kg of fuel = 3.54 x 100/23
= 15.36 kg,
Correct air-fuel ratio = 15.37:1

Fuel Supply System In Spark Ignition Engine
The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine consists of
1. Fuel tank 2. Sediment bowl
3. Fuel lifts pump 4. Carburetor and
5. Fuel pipes.

In some spark ignition engine, the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburetor. The
fuel flows from the fuel tank to the carburetor under the action of gravity. There are one or two
filters between the fuel tank and the carburetor. A transparent sediment bowl is also provided
to hold the dust and dirt of the fuel. If the tank is below the level of the carburetor, a lift pump
is provided in between the tank and the carburetor for forcing fuel from the tank to the
carburetor of the engine, The fuel comes from the fuel tank to the sediment bowl and then to
the lift pump. From there the fuel goes to the carburetor through suitable pipe. From the
carburetor, the fuel goes to the engine cylinder through the inlet manifold of the engine.
Page 46

Fuel system of spark ignition engine
METHOD OF SUPPLYING FUEL TO TILE JET OF THE CARBURETOR

If the fuel tank above the carbutor, the fuel flows by gravity force to a float chamber which
maintains constant head at the jet of the carburetor. If the tank is below the carburetor, there
are three methods of supplying fuel to the jet of the carburetor:
(a) Suction method
(b) Overflow method
(c) Float valve method

Page 47

(a) Suction method:

In this method, there is a check valve, provided in the fuel tank. The check valve is connected to
the needle valve through a pipe. It is mainly used on single cylinder engine operating at
constant load or speed. Any change in engine load or speed, requires adjustment of the needle
valve. The fuel is drawn from the tank through a tube and the amount of fuel is controlled by a
needle valve.

(b) Overflow method:
A pump sup-plies fuel to a chamber equipped with an overflow pipe. It is used on
stationary single cylinder engine.

Carburetor with feed pump to fuel reservoir
Page 48

A fuel pump is used to maintain regular supply of fuel oil. Excess fuel is sent back to the fuel
tank by a return pipe.

Diaphragm type fuel pump

(c) Float valve method:
A diaphragm pump is used to lift the fuel from the tank to the float chamber. This
method is common on multicylinder engines. The amount of fuel is controlled by a float
operated needle valve in the pressure line.

CARBURETOR
The process of preparing an air-fuel mixture away from the cylinders of an engine is called
carburetion and the device in which this process takes place is called carburetor

Principle of carburetor
The basic principle of all carburetor design is that when air flows over the end of a narrow
tube or jet containing liquid, some liquid is drawn into the air stream. The quantity of liquid
drawn into they air stream increases as the speed of air flow over the jet rises and also the
quantity is greater if the jet is made larger.
In practice, the fuel level in the jet is maintained by a float chamber. The fuel levels in the
jet and in the float chamber are always the same. As the fuel is consumed, the level in the float
chamber goes down. The float in the float chamber also goes down and the needle valve comes
off its seat allowing more fuel into the chamber from the fuel tank. When the fuel level rises to
its correct level, the float presses the needle valve back to its seat and cuts off the fuel flow.
Page 49

The velocity of the air flowing over the jet is increased by a constriction. in the induction pipe
known as Venturi.
A throttle butterfly valve provides an adjustable obstruction in the induction pipe. It is
used to control the flow of air-fuel mixture to the engine. As the butterfly valve is turned into
the accelerate position, the air flow over the jet increases and more fuel is drawn out into the
air stream, keeping the mixture strength constant.
A second butterfly valve called Choke is used to provide a richer mixture for the engine to
start in cold condition. The choke controls the volume of air entering into the venturi. A second
jet is fitted near the throttle butterfly which is used when the engine is idling.
Fuel is delivered to the float chamber through fuel pipe either by gravity or by a pump.
The float chamber is connected with the mixing chamber (venturi) via fuel nozzle equipped with
fuel jet.

Float and needle valve maintain a constant fuel level in the float chamber. As the float
chamber is filled with fuel, the float rises by virtue of its buoyancy; this actuates the needle
valve to close the inlet passage when the desired level of fuel is reached. When the fuel level
goes down, the float also goes down; allowing more fuel to enter the float chamber and same
sequence is maintained.

Function of Carburetor
The main functions of the carburetor are:
I. To mix the air and fuel thoroughly
2. To atomise the fuel
3. To regulate the air-fuel ratio at different speeds and loads and
4. 4. To supply correct amount of mixture at different speeds and loads.

COMPONENTS OF CARBURETOR
A carburetor consists of the following components:
I. Venturi tube. It is provided to produce low pressure in the throat of the carburetor.
The suction force causes the fuel to rise in the jet. The fuel is discharged at a rate
proportional to the air velocity, available at that point.
II. Float chamber. Float chamber is a reservoir to maintain a constant level of fuel in
the carburetor. Fuel comes from the tank to the float chamber. There is a hollow
float provided with a needle. With the level of the fuel going down, the float with
the needle also goes down allowing the fuel to come into the float chamber from
the fuel tank. As the fuel level goes up, the needle closes the passage and the fuel
does not come in the float chamber. Thus a constant level in float chamber is always
maintained.
Page 50

III. Throttle. It is a butterfly valve between the mixing chamber of the carburetor and
the inlet manifold of the engine to regulate the quantity of charge. It may be
operated by a hand lever, a foot lever or a governor.
IV. Choke. It is a device for restricting the air supply, in the carburetor. With restriction
of air supply, the mixture becomes richer which helps in starting the engine easily. It
is a type of butterfly valved in the air passage of the carburetor unit.
V. Main jet. It is a small opening of exact size through which fuel passes from the float
chamber to the throat of the carburetor in form of spray. The jet may be of fixed
type or adjustable type. Small stationary single or multicylinder engines are usually
equipped with fixed type of jet, whereas large size tractor engines are equipped with
adjustable type of jet.
VI. Idling jet. It is a special type of jet which supplies fuel at idling speed or low speed of
the engine. It usually consists of a passage which goes to the air stream at the end of
the butterfly. The opening is on the manifold side of the butterfly. When the
butterfly valve is closed, the sucking force in the manifold pulls the necessary idling
fuel from the idling jet.
VII. Compensating jet. Whet main jet supplies richer mixture at higher speed the
compensating jet supplies leaner mixture at that speed. This helps the mixture to
maintain correct proportion of air-fuel at different loads and speeds. There is an
accelerating well through which the jet gets the fuel.
VIII. Economizer. It is a device for regulating the fuel supply in the main jet. The
difference of air pressure at the air intake and above the throttle, affects the
movement of the piston.

METHOD OF MOUNTING CARBURETOR ON ENGINE

On the basis of ways of mounting the carburetor on the engine body, carburetor may be
divided into two classes:

1. Downdraft carburetor.
It is mounted above the intake manifold of the engine, so that the air enters the upper
part of the carburetor and the mixture flows downward into the manifold. Downdraft
carburetors are used mostly on automobiles, trucks and stationary engines,
2. Updraft carburetor.
It is mounted below or beside the engine block and the mixture flows upward into the
engine.

Page 51

Fuel pump for carburetor engine

It is also called gasoline pump. It is a diaphragm type pump. It consists of (1) body, (2) cover
and (3) lead. The pump body accommodates pivoted rocker arm with its return spring and has a
priming lever. Flexible diaphragm is made of varnished or rubberized cloth. Plates connect the
diaphragm to spindle whose lower end is linked with inner end of the rocker arm,. Under the
diaphragm there is a pressure spring. The pump is driven from an eccentric or a special fuel
pump lobe on the engine camshaft. As the camshaft rotates, the eccentric pushes against the
outer end of the rocker arm forcing the arm to pivot on its pin. Operation of diaphragm creates
a vacuum in the chamber above the diaphragm which, opens inlet valve and makes petrol flow
from the fuel tank through the fuel line and filter.

Precautions in handling carburetors

1) The carburetor should be serviced by wiping it clean, checking the mounting, eliminating
fuel leaks, draining the sludge from the float chamber and washing the filter.
2) Carburetor components should always be washed in clean gasoline. Care should be
taken not to damage the gasket, while opening or closing the carburetor.
3) Jets should always be blown with compressed air only Never use wire or any other
metallic object to clean the jets and passage.
4) Check the carburetor and do setting of the jet at regular interval for satisfactory
performance of the engine.

FUEL SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE
Fuel system of diesel engine consists of the following components Fuel tank
1. Fuel lift pump or feed pump
2. Fuel filter
3. Fuel injection pump
5. High pressure pipe
6. Over flow valve
7. Fuel Injector (Injection nozzles)

Page 52

Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the Feed pump (Fig. 5.8] and forced to the Injection
pump through Fuel filter. The Injection pump supplies high pressure filet to injection nozzles
through delivery valves and high pressure pipes. Fuel is injected into the Combustion chamber
through Injection nozzles. The fuel that leaks out from the injection nozzles passes out through
leakage pipe and returns to the
.
Fuel tank through the over flow pipe.
Overflow valve installed at the top of the filter, keeps the feed pressure under specified
limit. If the feed pressure exceeds the specified limit, the overflow valve opens and then the
excessive fuel returns to fuel tank through overflow pipe.

General lay out of fuel supply in diesel engine

Page 53

1. Fuel Tank
It is a storage tank of suitable size and shape, usually made of mild steel sheet. Atmospheric
pressure is maintained in the tank with the help of a pin hole on the cap. Usually a wire gauge
strainer is provided under the cap to prevent foreign particles. Usually a drain plug is provided
at the bottom for flow of fuel.

2. Fuel Lift Pump (Feed pump or Transfer pump)
Fuel lift pump may be
(i) Plunger type,
(ii) Diaphragm

Plunger Type
It may be single acting or double acting pump usually mounted on the side of the
Injection pump housing. It is driven by injection pump camshaft.
It transfers fuel from the fuel tank to the inlet gallery of the Injection pump through
fuel filter, the fuel pressure at the feed pump must be in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 kg/cm
2
, It
delivers adequate amount of fuel to the injection pump. The pump consists of
i) Body, (ii) piston, (iii) inlet valve, (iv) Pressure valve
The valves are tightly pressed against their seats by springs. The piston is free to slide in the
bore.
The fuel contained in the space below the piston is forced to flow through filter to the
injection pump. At the same time, downward movement of the piston creates a depression in
the space above the piston, which causes the fuel to be drawn in the transfer pump from the
Page 54

fuel tank through inlet valve and filter. When starting the engine and venting any possible air,
the priming pump provides manual pump operation also.

Diaphragm type Feed Pump
It consists of:
I. Main body 2. Diaphragm
3. Spring 4. Rocker arm
5. Inlet and outlet valve 6. Sediment bowl
Suction is created in the main chamber of the pump by pulling down the diaphragm. The
fuel is sucked through the inlet valve. During this period, outlet check valve remains closed.
When there is no pressure of the cam on the rocker arm of the pump, it returns its original
position due to the tension of the return spring.
Upper movement of the diaphragm creates a pushing effect on the fuel, which has entered
the chamber during its downward movement, under the pressure of the fuel, outlet valve
opens and the fuel is pumped through outlet chamber. Thus the fuel flows from the tank to
Fuel Injection pump.

Preliminary filter (Sediment bowl assembly)
This filter is mostly fitted on the fuel lift pump. It prevents dust and foreign materials from
reaching inside the fuel line. It usually consists of a glass cap with gasket. Heavy dust particles
settle at the bottom and clean fuel flows ahead.

Fuel filter
Mostly two stage filters are used in diesel engines:
1. Primary 2. Secondary

1. Primary filter removes coarse material, water and dust.
2. Secondary filter removes fine dust particles.

Filters are made of different materials like:

(a) Metal element
(b) Felt and cloth element
(c) Paper disc
(d) Metal element consists of porous metal filter elements.
(e) Felt & cloth element is a cloth of special weaving, which facilitates easy filtration.
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(f) Paper disc type filtering element is enclosed in a metal case, which can be replaced
easily after being clogged.
FUEL INJECTION PUMP
It is a high pressure pump, which supplies fuel to the injectors according to the firing order
of the engine. It is used to create pressure

Varying from 120 kg/cm
2
to 300 kg/cm
2
. It supplies metered quantity of fuel to each cylinder at
appropriate time.
Fuel Injection pump is usually of two types:
1. Multi element pump
2. Distributor (Rotary) type pump

Page 56

1) Multi element pump.
Each fuel pump unit consists of the following components:
(a) Plunger and barrel (b) Camshaft
(c) Delivery valve (d) Fuel control valve
Plunger and Barrel
Each pump element consists of
1. Plunger
2. Barrel
The plunger has helical groove. The rotation of the plunger changes the position of its
helical groove with respect to the barrel port. The fuel enters the barrel through these ports.
Control rod of the pump governs the movement of plunger. This control rod is connected to the
governor by a linkage. Locking screw controls the length of stroke of the plunger. Calibration is
necessary in such cases.

Working of plunger
When the plunger is at BDC, the barrel is occupied by the fuel which has entered through
the barrel ports either under the force of gravity or from a fuel pump. As the plunger rises, the
fuel is pushed back through the barrel ports until they are closed by the top of the plunger
position. The effective stroke of the plunger begins at this point. Further upward movement
forces the fuel through the delivery valve, causing it to lift up from its seat. The fuel then enters
the pipe, connecting the pump to injector. A corresponding amount of fuel leaves it at the other
end and enters the cylinder through the injector.
This action continues until the plunger reaches a position when the lower edge of the
control helix uncovers the barrel ports allowing the fuel to pass out via the vertical slot in the
plunger.
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By rotating the plunger, the effective stroke can be shortened or lengthened depending
upon which part of the helix is in line with the barrel port, through which the fuel escapes at
the end of stroke. Thus the quantity of fuel, injected into the cylinder can be varied.

Camshaft
The camshaft of a fuel pump is timed with the crankshaft and operates the figake4and
exhaust valves. It also operates the plunger at the correct sequence according to the firing
order of the the engine.
The fuel from tank passes through filters and flows to Fuel injection pump and from the
pump, the plunger lifts the fuel to the injector of a particular cylinder.

Delivery valve
This acts as a one way valve or non-return valve. It seals off the delivery pipe from the
barrel during the intake stroke until next delivery stroke. It is fitted in the EL pump between the
pump element and the delivery pipe or high pressure line. It consists of a delivery valve and a
valve body in one unit. Another important function of delivery valve is to relieve (unload) the
pressure in the delivery pipe.

2) Distributor (Rotary) Type Fuel Injection Pump

In this type of pump, one plunger and one barrel assembly deliver fuel not to one cylinder
but to several cylinders. The plunger not only reciprocates, but rotates also in a close fitting
barrel. This helps in distributing fuel to a number of cylinders in turn. In the upper part of the
barrel, there are inlet ports through which fuel enters the barrel. There are delivery passes
connecting the barrel bore with the inclined passages drilled in the head. Through this passage,
fuel is delivered to delivery valve holder. From these the fuel goes to the appropriate injectors
through high pressure pipes. The barrel is sealed on the outside by rubber rings.

Important characteristics of diesel fuel

I. Proper viscosity. If fuel viscosity is higher than proper viscosity, droplet of the fuel,
injected into the combustion chamber becomes comparatively large and then the fuel is hard to
burn. On the contrary, lower viscosity fuel may not provide proper lubrication of plungers and
nozzles of injection pump, resulting in quick wear of parts. So fuel of proper viscosity should be
chosen.
2. Impurities and compound elements in diesel fuel should be low in percentage.
Impurities and compound elements like (i) water, (ii) ash, (iii) sulfur, (iv) carbon residues
should be low is percentage. Increase of percentage of the impurities and compound elements
Page 58

would decrease engine output, and cause quick wear of fuel injection system components and
engine components.
PRECAUTION IN HANDLING FUEL SYSTEM
I. Fuel
(a) High quality fuel is necessary to the fuel injection pump. Since the pump elements and
nozzles are super-high precision parts to have a clearance of about 0.001 mm, any kind
of dirt and water will damage the pump elements and nozzles.
(b) Only filtered fuel should be supplied to the fuel tank.
2. Fuel tank cleaning
Water and deposits should be drained from the fuel tank at least every six months. Strainer
of feed pump and other strainers should be cleaned frequently.
3. Air venting for fuel system
When air has entered the fuel lines or the suction chamber of the injection pump, Venting
should be done properly. Air is removed by the priming pump through the bleeding holes of the
injection pump.
4. Lubricant
Recommended lubricant should only be used. Oil level should be between upper line and
lower line of oil level gauge. Oil should be changed at the specified time.
5. High pressure pipe
Resistance to fuel flow in high pressure pipe and its length have influences on fuel injection
quantity, so only specified high pressure pipe should be used. High pressure pipe should never
be bent sharply. The radius of the bend should not be less than 50 mm. The pipe should never
be bent by applying heat.
6. Delivery valve
Delivery valve holder should be tightened with specified, torque. Excessive tightening will
cause cracks on pump housing.
7. Nozzle holder
Nozzle holder retaining nut should be tightened with specified torque. Over tightening will
make control rack resistance heavy.

TROUBLE SHOOTING IN FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM PRELIMINARY CHECK
Before trouble shooting, check the following:
a) Check all fuel lines for leakage and damages.
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b) Check injection timing.
c) Inspect nozzle spray. Loosen each fitting between delivery valve holder and high
pressure pipe, and then check each valve holder or fuel leakage with the pump
stopped. If leakage is found, the delivery valve is faulty.
d) Check feed Pump. Loosening inlet fitting to the pump housing, operate the priming
pump. Fuel should overflow from fuel hose.
e) Check if the control rack smoothly moves. Remove the control rack over, push the
control rack into the pump housing and release it. The control rack should back
smoothly.
f) Check the pump element chamber for rust and damage.
Fuel injector
It is the component which delivers finely atomised fuel under high pressure to the
combustion chamber of the engine. Modern tractor engines use fuel injectors which have
multiple holes. Main parts of injector are: nozzle body and needle valve. The nozzle body and
needle valve are fabricated from alloy steel. The: needle valve is pressed against a conical seat
in the nozzle body by a spring. The injection pressure is adjusted by adjusting the screw, In
operation, fuel from the fuel injection pump enters the nozzle body through high pressure pipe.
When the fuel pressure becomes so high that it exceeds the set spring pressure, the needle
valve lifts off its seat. The fuel is forced out of the nozzle spray holes into the combustion
chamber. The injector is installed in a brass tube or sleeve which is fitted in the cylinder head
and is held in position by a special clamp. The nozzles of injector are of three types:

1. Pintle type
2. Throttle type
3. Hole type
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1. Pintle type. It has got a nozzle tip projection, which is little thinner than the nozzle tip.
This prevents the nozzle tip from being clogged with carbon.
2. Throttle type. It is a nozzle with specially shaped nozzle tip projection. It causes
economy of fuel.
3. Hole type. It does not have a nozzle tip. The valve seat is directly connected to a
conically shaped outlet.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
Diesel fuel, is injected in diesel engine through injectors with the help of fuel injection
pump. The system using injectors, fuel injection pump, fuel filter, and fuel lines is called fuel
injection system. The main function of fuel injection system is:
1. To measure the correct amount of fuel required by engine speed and load.
2. To maintain correct timing for beginning and end of injection,
3. To inject the fuel into the combustion space against high compression pressure.
4. To atomise the fuel for quick ignition.
Process of fuel injection in diesel engine is of two types: Air injection b) solid injection

Page 61

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
A combustion chamber is a space inside the engine, where the combustion of fuel takes
place. In diesel engine, the fuel is atomised, vapourised and burnt inside combustion chamber,
whereas in spark ignition engine, atomisation of fuel takes place in the carburetor and
vapourisation occurs in carburetor as well as the inlet manifold. Combustion chamber is
classified as:

(a) Direct injection chamber
(b) In Direct injection chamber

Indirect injection chamber

It may be of two types:
a) Precombustion chamber
b) Air cell chamber

Direct injection chamber
Fuel is injected directly in the compressed: air of the cylinder. The entire fuel is not burnt
quickly. Only a part of the fuel comes in contact with the heated air of the engine which gets
ignited immediately. Starting of engine is easy is this case.

Page 62

INDIRECT INJECTION CHAMBER
(i) Precombustion chamber. There is small chamber above the cylinder of the engine, which
may be spherical or cylindrical in shape. Fuel is injected directly in this small chamber. At
the time of fuel injection, the air of the chamber is disturbed by the upward movement
of the piston. As the combustion takes place, very high pressure is produced inside the
small chamber which forces the unburnt fuel with high velocity into the main chamber.
Starting of the engine is not very easy due to relatively low temperature of the cylinder.
(ii) Air cell chamber. It is a -space provided in the piston or cylinder to trap air during the
compression stroke. Later air blows out into the combustion chamber. There is a
spherical cavity in the cylinder head, piston head or the cylinder wall, Fuel is injected in
the main chamber and combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder. When the
piston moves downward, the air cell discharges air in the form of spray inside the
cylinder which results in rapid burning of the fuel.

TURBOCHARGER
It is a turbo-compressor driven by the exhaust gases of the engine to supply air under pressure
to the cylinders of the engine. Turbocharger is useful because the power output of a 'diesel
engine can be increased by supplying compressed air to the engine cylinders. If more air is
delivered to the cylinders the fuel charge can also be increased and will release more energy.
The turbocharger consists of a centrifugal compressor with impellers and a gas turbine unit. The
compressor impeller and the turbine wheel are rigidly fixed on a common shaft. Compressor
impeller draws air from the atmosphere and delivers it to the intake manifold and from there it
goes to the engine cylinders thus improving the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

FUEL FILTER

It is a device to remove dirt from fuel oil. Solid particles and dust in diesel fuel are very harmful
for giving a fine degree of filtration.

Page 63

Fuel injection equipment in diesel engines is extremely sensitive to dirt and solid particles
present in fuel. A filter is used to remove the dirt and solid particles from the fuel to ensure
trouble free fuel supply. It consists of a hollow cylindrical element contained in a shell, an
annular space being left between the shell and the element. The filtering element consists of
metal gauge in conjunction with various media such a
s
packed fibres, woven cloth, felt, paper
etc. These filters are replaced at certain intervals, specified by the manufacturer.
Usually there are two filters in diesel engine:
1. Primary filter and
2. Secondary filter
The primary filter removes water and coarse particle of dirt from the fuel. The secondary filter
removes fine sediments from the fuel. Usually the primary filter is placed between the tank and
the transfer pump.

AIR CLEANER
It is a device which filters and removes dust, moisture and other foreign matter from the air
before if reaches the engine cylinder.
Air cleaner is usually of two types:
1. Dry type air cleaner and
2. Oil bath type air cleaner
1. Dry type air cleaner. The filtering element in this case is a type of felt. The air passes
through the element. The element has got larger surface area so the -air speed becomes
Page 64

relatively low and consequently particle or dirt in the air is deposited on or stopped by its
surface.
2. Oil bath type air cleaner. In this type of air cleaner, the incoming air impinges upon the
surface of the oil, kept in a container in the lower part of the casing. The foreign particles
of the air are trapped in the oil and then the air passes through a wire element before
reaching the inlet manifold of the engine. The wire element also arrests the remaining
dirt particles of the air.

Process to remove airlock in the diesel engine
Very frequently there is airlock in diesel engines. It is very important to remove airlock from
the fuel system for satisfactory running of the engine. The following sequence should be
followed for this purpose.
1. Open the fuel cock and fill the precleaner bowl with fuel.
2. Loosen the bleeding screws of the fuel filters and pump manually till diesel oil flows out
without bubbles from both fitters. Tighten the screw of the filters one by one.
3. Loosen the bleeding screws of the fuel injection pump and pump manually until bubble
free diesel oil flows around these screws tighten the screws.
4. Loosen the cap nuts on the injectors one by one and bleed the fuel till the bubble free
fuel comes out from the cap nuts. Tighten the cap nuts one by one.

Precautions in handling diesel fuels in diesel engine
Fuel injection pump and injectors are very precise components of diesel engine. Dust is very
harmful for fuel injection equipments. Hence extreme care should be taken to use perfectly
clean fuel. 90% of the troubles of diesel engines can be removed if absolutely clean fuel is used
in the engine.
1. It is very dangerous to touch the spray of the diesel oil. The atomised fuel may enter the
flesh of the body and poison the blood.
2. Disassembly and assembly of nozzles should be done in fresh fuel with extreme care.
3. Fuel filters should be cleaned at regular interval and they should be changed at specified
time.
4. Fuel injection pump, injectors and governors should be opened and repaired by
authorised technicians only and not by others.
6. While filling the diesel tank, a strainer should always be used.

Page 65

Valve Gear Mechanism
The valve gear mechanism of an I.C. engine consists of those parts which
actuate the inlet and exhaust valves at required time with respect to position of
piston and crankshaft.

Valve gear arrangement for Horizontal engines. Valve gear arrangement
for Vertical engines.

Page 66

The main components of the mechanism are
Valves
rocker arm
valve springs
push rod
cam
Camshaft.

The fuel is admitted to the engine by the inlet valve and the burnt gases are escaped
through the exhaust valve. In vertical engines, the cam moving on the rotating camshaft
pushes the cam follower and push rod upwards, thereby transmitting the cam action to
rocker arm.
The camshaft is rotated by the toothed belt from the crankshaft.
The rocker arm is pivoted at its centre by a fulcrum pin.
When one end of the rocker arm is pushed upward by the push rod, the other end
moves downward.
This pushes down the valve stem causing the valve to move downward, thereby opening
the port.
When the cam follower moves over the circular portion of cam, the pushing action of
the rocker arm on the valve is released and the valve returns to its seat and closed it by
the action of the valve spring.

Valves
The valves used in internal combustion engines are of the following three types
Poppet or mushroom valve
Sleeve valve
Rotary valve
Page 67

Out of these three valves, poppet valve is very frequently used. It consists
of head, face and stem.
The head and face of the valve is separated by a small margin, to avoid sharp edge of
the valve & also to provide provision for the regrinding of the face.
The face angle generally varies from 30: to 45:.
The lower part of the stem is provided with a groove in which spring retainer lock is
installed.
The inlet and exhaust valves are subjected to high temperatures of 1930:C to 2200:C
during power stroke.
The material of valves must have
Good heat conduction
Heat resistance
Corrosion resistance
Wear resistance
Shock resistance.

Temperature
Inlet valve < Exhaust valve
Material
Inlet valve: - Nickel chromium alloy steel
Exhaust valve: -Silchrome steel (Special alloy of
Silicon & chromium)

VALVE DESIGNING
a) Size of the valve port
Let a
p
= Area of the port,
v
p
= Mean velocity of gas flowing
through the port,
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a = Area of the piston, and
v = Mean velocity of the piston.
We know that
A
p
.v
p
= a.v
A
p
= a.v/v
p

B) Thickness of the valve disc

Thickness of valve disc (t) may be determined from the following relation, i.e.

k = constant = 0.42 for steel & 0.54 for cast iron
d
p
= Diameter of the port in mm,
p = Maximum gas pressure in N/mm
2

b
= Permissible bending stress in MPa or
N/mm
2

c) Maximum lift of the valve
h = Lift of the valve.
The lift of the valve may be obtained by equating the area across the valve seat to
the area of the port. For a conical valve,
We have
or

= Angle at which the valve seat is tapered = 30: to 45:.
In case of flat headed valve, the lift of valve is given by

Page 69

The valve seats usually have the same angle as the valve seating surface. But it is
preferable to make the angle of valve seat 1/2: to 1: larger than the valve angle. This
results in more effective seat.

d) Valve stem diameter
The valve stem diameter (d
s
) is given by

d
s
= + 6.35mm to + 11mm

Page 70

COOLING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION:
Fuel is burnt inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine to produce power. The
temperature produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600C and this is
greater than melting point of engine parts.
The cylinder and cylinder bead are usually made of cast iron and piston in most cases is
made of aluminium alloy. It is estimated that about 40% of total heat produced is passed to
the atmosphere via the exhaust, 30% is removed by cooling system and only about 30% is used
to produce useful power.
Bad effect of high temperature in the engine:
1. Cylinder and piston may expand to such an extent that the piston would seize in the
cylinder and stop the engine.
2. Lubricating quality of the oil inside the cylinder would be destroyed due to high
temperature and there may not be sucking of air in the cylinder.
3. Preignition of fuel mixture would take place and would cause engine knocking as well as
loss of power.
Experiments have shown that best operating temperature of I.C. engine lies between
140F to 200F, depending upon types of engines and load conditions.
Purpose of cooling:
1. To maintain optimum temperature of engine for efficient operation under all conditions.
2. To dissipate surplus heat for protection of engine components like cylinder, cylinder head,
piston, piston rings and valves.
3. To maintain the lubricating property of the oil inside the engine cylinder for normal
functioning of the engine.
There are two different methods of cooling:

1. Air cooling and
2. Water cooling

Page 71

1. AIR COOLING:

Air cooled engines are those engines, in which heat is conducted from the working
components of the engine to the atmosphere directly. In such engines, cylinders are generally
not grouped in a block. Air cooled engines are made up of aluminium which transfers more
heat.
Principle of air cooling:
The cylinder of an air cooled engine has fins to increase the area of contact of air for
speedy cooling. The cylinder is normally enclosed in a sheet metal casing called Cowling. The
flywheel has blades projecting from its face, so that it acts like a fan drawing air through a hole
in the cowling and directing it around the finned cylinder. For maintenance of air cooling
system, passage of air is kept clean by removing grasses etc. This is done by removing the
cowling and cleaning out the dirt etc. by a stiff brush or compressed air. When separate fan is
provided, the belt tension is to be checked and adjusted if necessary.
Advantages of air cooled engine:
1. It is more simple in design and construction.
2. Water jackets, radiators, water pump, thermostat, pipes, hoses etc. are not needed.
3. It is more compact.
4. It is comparatively lighter in weight.
Disadvantages:
1. There is uneven cooling of the engine parts.
2. Engine temperature is generally high during working period.
2. WATER COOLING:
Engine using water as cooling medium is called "water cooled engines. These engines are
generally made up of cast iron body. There are two types of cooling fan are used,
a) Sucker type: It is used in vehicles which has movable engine
b) Pusher type: It I used in stationary engines.
There are three common methods of water cooling:
1. Open jacket or hopper method
2. Thermosiphon method
3. Forced circulation method

Page 72

1. Open Jacket or Hopper Method:

There is a hopper or a jacket containing water, which surrounds the engine cylinder, as
shown in fig.

Hopper

Water

Fig. Open Jacket or Hopper System
So long as hopper contains water, the engine continues to operate satisfactorily. As
soon as the water starts boiling, it is replaced by cold water. The hopper is large enough to run
for several hours without refilling. A drain plug is provided in a low accessible position for
draining water as and when required. This system is not common in present days.
2. Thermo-siphon method:
It consists of radiator, water jacket, fan, temperature gauge and hose connections. The
system is based on the principle that heated water which surrounds the cylinder becomes
lighter in weight and it rises upwards in liquid column.
Hot water goes to the radiator, where it pass through tubes surrounded by air.
Circulation of water takes place due to the reason that water jacket and the radiator are
connected at both sides i.e. at the top and the bottom. A fan is driven with the help of, a V-
belt to suck air through tubes of the radiator unit, cooling radiator water. The disadvantage of
the system is that circulation of water is greatly reduced by accumulation of scale or foreign
matter in the passage and consequently it causes overheating of the engine.
3. Forced Circulation method:
In this method, a Water pump is used to force water from the radiator to the water
jacket of the engine. After circulating the entire run of water jacket, water comes back to the
radiator where it loses its heat by the process of radiation. To maintain the correct engine
temperature, a thermostat valve is placed at the outer end of cylinder head (Fig.). Cooling
liquid is by-passed through the water jacket of the engine until' the engine attains the desired
Page 73

temperature. Then thermostat valve opens and the by-pass is closed, allowing the water to go
to the radiator.

Fig. Forced Circulation System
The system consist of
1. Water pump 2. Radiator
3. Fan 4. Fan-belt
5. Water jacket 6. Thermostat valve
7. Temperature gauge 8. Hose pipe.
1. Water pump
It is a centrifugal type pump. It has a casing and an impeller, mounted. on a shaft. The
casing is usually made of cast iron. Pump shaft is made of some non-corrosive material. At the
end of the shaft, a small pulley is fitted which is driven by a V-belt. Water pump is mounted at
the front end of the cylinder block between the block and the radiator. When the impeller
rotates, the water between the impeller blades is thrown outward by centrifugal force and
thus water goes to the cylinder under pressure. The pump outlet is connected by a hose pipe
to the bottom of the radiator. The impeller shaft is supported on one or more bearings. There
is seal which prevents leakage of water.
2. Radiator
Radiator is a device for cooling the circulating water in the engine. It holds a large
volume of water in close contact with a large volume of air, so that heat is transferred from the
water to the air easily.
Hot water flows into the radiator at the top and cold water flows out from the bottom.
Tubes or passages carry the water from the top of the radiator to the bottom, passing it over a
large metal surface. Air flows between the tubes or through the cells at right angles to the
downward flowing water. This helps in transferring the heat from the water to the atmosphere.

Page 74

3. Thermostat valve:
It is a control valve used in the cooling system to control the flow of water when
activated by temperature signal. It is a special type of valve, which closes the inlet passage of
the water connected to the radiator. The thermostat is placed in the water passage between
cylinder head and top of radiator. Its purpose is to close this passage when the engine is cold,
so that water circulation is restricted, causing the engine reach operating temperature more
quickly. Thermostat are designed to start opening at 70:C to 75:C and then fully open at 82:C
for petrol engine and 88-90:C for diesel engine.
Thermostat valves are of two types

a) Bellows type:
This type has got bellows, which contain a liquid like alcohol or ether. The liquid
expands with the increase of temperature and raises the valve off its seat. This permits the
water to circulate between the engine and the radiator.

b) Bimetallic type:
It consist of a bimetallic strip. Unequal expansion of two metallic strips causes
the valve to open and allows the water to flow to the radiator.

4. Water Jacket:
Water jackets are cored out around the engine cylinder so that water can circulate
freely around the cylinder as well as around the valve opening.
5. Fan:
The fan is usually mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the same belt that
drive the pump and dynamo. The purpose of the fan is to provide strong draft of air through
the radiator to improve engine cooling.
COOLING SYSTEM TROUBLES:
Due to defective cooling system, several adverse effects are noticed, such as:
1. Overheating and
2. Slow warm-up of the engine.
Over heating is mostly due to:
a) Accumulation of rust and scale in the radiator and water jacket.
b) defective hose pipe
c) defective thermostat
d) defective water pump and
e) loose fan belt.
Care and Maintenance of Cooling System:
a) Clean and fresh water should be filled in the radiator.
Page 75

b) Lime free water should be used in radiator.
c) Tension of the belt should checked frequently.A loose belt may cause, overheating,
reduce charging current, high wear of belt. If belt is very tight wear may cause on the
pulley and dynamo.
d) Rotten or soft hose pipe should not be used in the system.
e) Oil and grease should always keep away from the belt.
f) Bearing of water pump should be lubricated regularly.
g) Radiator should be cleaned by blowing air with compressed air.
h) The cooling system should be cleaned at suitable interval.

Page 76

Transmission System
Types of gearing:

Various types of gearing are used on a motor vehicle. The gearboxes employ one or more of
the following:
1- Spur, teeth parallel to axis, used on sliding mesh.
2- Helical, teeth inclined to axis to form helix.
3- Double helical, two sets of opposing helical teeth.
4- Epicyclic or planetary, spur or helical gears rotating about centers which are not
stationary.
Gear ratio (single gear train):
The gear ratio, or velocity ratio, between a pair of gear wheels is in
inverse ratio to the number of teeth on each. Thus:

N
B
/N
A
= D
A
/D
B
= n
A
/n
B

N
B
= N
A
(n
A
/n
B
)
Where:
N
A
= rev per min of gear A,
N
B
= rev per min of gear B,
D
A
= Diameter of gear A
D
B
= Diameter of gear B
n
A
= number of teeth on A
n
B
= number of teeth on B

Page 77

Power, Speed and Torque:
The power transmitted by a shaft is directly proportional to the
speed of revolution and the torque acting on it

Then
T
A
N
A
= T
B
N
B

For a given power, therefore, the torque is inversely proportional to the speed of
revolution and if the re min is reduced the torque will be increased in the same ratio (assuming
100% gear efficiency).

T
B
/T
A
= n
B
/n
A

Where:
T
A
= torque transmitted by A
T
B
= torque transmitted by B

Velocity or gear ratio (i
g
) = number of teeth on driven gear/number of teeth on driver gear.

T
B
= T
A
(n
B
/n
A
) = T
A
/ i
g

Compound gear train:
If the number of teeth on each wheel is known, the relationship between the speed of
wheels A and D can be determined as follows
For wheels A and B: N
B
/N
A
= n
A
/n
B
, i.e. N
B
= N
A
(n
A
/n
B
)
Wheel B and C are fixed on the same shaft, so N
C
=N
B

For wheels C and D: N
D
/N
C
= n
C
/n
D
, i.e. N
D
= N
C
(n
C
/n
D
)
Substituting N
C
= N
B
= N
A
(n
A
/n
B
) from above, we get
N
D
= N
A
(n
A
/n
B
) (n
C
/n
D
)
Or N
D
/N
A
=
By inspection of the layout of the figure, it will be
observed that wheels A and C are driver gears while B
and D are driven gears. Hence, from the above equation

Velocity or gear ratio (i
g
) = product of teeth on driven
gears/ product of teeth on driver gears

N
D
= N
A
(n
A
/n
B
) (n
C
/n
D
) = N
A
(n
A
n
C
/ n
B
n
D
) = N
A
/i
g

Page 78

Types of Drives and gearboxes

There are many types of the car drives, usually classified accordance with number of
driving axles (4x2, 4x4, 4WD, AWD) and each type has a different gearing arrangement. Also,
gearbox (transmission) has different types (sliding-mesh, constant-mesh, synchro-mesh) some
of them are old-fashion and had been replaced, and some are in use in modern cars.
SLIDING-MESH GEARBOX:
The sliding gearbox was popular on cars up to about 1930, but it is rarely used. The basic
layout of a 4-speed and reverse gearbox is shown in the figure. The various spur-type gears are
mounted on three shafts.
1. Primary shaft (alternative names clutch or first motion shaft)
2. Counter shaft (countershaft)
3. Mainshaft (third motion shaft).

Page 79

1. Primary shaft ( Input shaft)
This shaft transmits the drive from the clutch to the gearbox. At the end, the shaft is
supported by a spigot bearing positioned close to the splines on to which the clutch driven
plate is connected. The main load on this shaft is taken by a bearing; normally a sealed
radial ball type, positioned close to an input gear called a constant mesh pinion. The gear is
so named because it is always in mesh with a larger gear, a c constant mesh wheel, that I
part of the counter shaft gear cluster. Note that a small driving gear is called a pinion and a
large gear a wheel.

2. Counter shaft ( Lay shaft)
This shaft, which is normally fixed to the gearbox casing, supports the various-sized driving
pinions of the counter shaft gear cluster.
3. Main shaft
This splined output shaft carries spur gearwheels that slide along the shaft to engage with
the appropriate counter shaft gears. At the front end, the main shaft is supported by a spigot
Page 80

bearing situated in the centre of the constant mesh pinion. A heavy duty radial ball bearing is
fitted at the other end to take the force of the gears as the attempt to move apart.
Gear positions
Neutral
All main shaft gearwheels are positioned so that they do not touch the counter shaft gears.
A drive is taken to the counter shaft, but the main shaft will not be turned in neutral position.
First gear
The first-speed gearwheel A on the main shaft is lid backwards to engage with pinion B on
the counter shaft; all other gears are positioned in neutral. In this gear, the reduction in speed
that occurs as the drive passes through the constant-mesh gears, E and F, is reduced further by
the firs-speed gears, A and B.
The gear ratio (also called the movement ratio or velocity ratio) is given by
Ratio = (Driven/driver) x (driven/driver)
I
g1
= (F/E) x (A/B)
N
output 1
= N
input
/ i
g1

T
output 1
= T
input
x i
g1
x i
g1

Second gear
The second-speed gearwheel C is slid forward to engage with the counter shaft gear D; all
the other gear are set in the non-driving position.

I
g2
= (F/E) x (C/D)
Third gear
In this gear position, gearwheel G is slid in to mesh with gear H.

I
g3
= (F/E) x (H/G)
Top gear
In this layout, fourth gear is a direct drive; namely a gear that gives a ratio 1:1. It is obtained
by sliding gear G to engage its dog teeth with the corresponding teeth formed on the end of the
constant mesh pinion E. Engagement of the dog clutch locks the primary to the main shaft and
this gives a straight-through drive.
Reverse gear
Sliding a reverse gear between any two gears on the
counter shaft and main shaft is the method used to change the
direction of rotation of the output shaft.
The simplest arrangement uses a single reverse gear,
which is mounted on a short shaft. This shaft is positioned so
Page 81

that the reverse can slide and mesh with the two first-speed gears as shown in the figure. The
gear ratio is
i
gr
= (Driven/Driver) x (Driven/Driver) x (Driven/Driver)
= (F/E) x (J/B) x (A/J)
= (F/E) x (A/B)
This is the same ratio as for first gear, and irrespectively of the size of gear J, it will be
seen that the ratio always remains the same. For this reason it is called an idler it changes the
direction, but does not alter the ratio.
With the idler arrangement, some drivers persistently slip the clutch to maintain a low
reversing speed. Excessive clutch wear resulting from this practice is minimized when the
reverse ratio is set lower than first gear. This achieved by using a reverse gear arrangement as
shown in the figure. Instead of single idler, the compound reverse gear has two gear pinions
joined together. The reverse shaft is positioned so that the reverse pinions are able to mesh
simultaneously with the appropriate counter shaft and mainshaft gears.
Gear Changing
When one gear is moved to engage with another gear noise will result if the peripheral
(outside) speeds are not the same to avoid this, the driver of the vehicle having a sliding-mesh
gearbox performs an operation called double declutching.
Select mechanism
A fork of the type shown in figure is used to slide a gearwheel along the main shaft in
order to select the appropriate gear. It is mounted on its own rod and links the drivers gear
stick to the sliding gearbox.
Every gearbox must be fitted with the following:
1. Selector detent-

Page 82

Holds the gears and selectors in position and so prevent gear engagement or
disengagement due to vibration. The figure shows a typical arrangement suitable for a layout
having the selector fork locked to the rod.

2. Interlock mechanism-
Prevents two gears engaging simultaneously; if this occurs the gearbox will lock up and
shaft rotation will be impossible. Although the interlock device takes a number of different
forms, the arrangement shown in the figure is one of the most common.

Power take-off arrangement
In addition to the mechanism use for driving a vehicle along a road, a power supply is
often required for operating external items of auxiliary equipment.
Page 83

A light truck having a tipping mechanism is one example, but the most varied
application of power take-off units is associated with specialized off-road vehicles.
The figure shows a typical power take-off arrangement that is driven from the gearbox
counter shaft.
Disadvantages of the sliding mesh
Although the mechanical efficiency of the sliding mesh gearbox was high, it suffered
from two great disadvantages:
1. Gear noise due to the type of gear.
2. The difficulty of obtaining a smooth, quit and quick change of gear without the great
skill and judgment.
CONSTANT-MESH GEARBOX

The main feature is the use of the stronger helical of double helical gears which lead to
quieter operation. In this design, the mainshaft pinions revolves freely on bushes or needle-
roller bearings and are all in constant engagement with the corresponding counter shaft
Page 84

wheels. The gear operation is obtained by locking the respective gear to the main shaft by
means of a dog clutch. The layout of the box is shown in the figure.
With this arrangement the quieter-running helical gears can be employed, and during
gear changing the noise and wear are reduced by the simultaneous engagement of all the dogs
instead of only a pair of gear teeth as on the sliding-mesh gearbox.
With single helical pinions (double helical is economically impractical), the driving
loads on the teeth cause an axial thrust which must be resisted by thrust washers, or shoulders,
on the mainshaft.
SYNCHRO-MESH GEARBOX

The figure shows unite main details of. Fundamentally the box is laid out in same
manner as a constant-mesh, with the exception that a cone clutch is fitted between the dog
and gear members. The initial movement of the selector a sleeve carries the hub towards the
gear and allows the cones adjusts the speed of the gearwheel to suit the hub and mainshaft.
Extra pressure on the lever will allow the sleeve to override the spring-loaded balls, and
positively engage with the dogs on the gear.

Page 85

BAULK RING SYNCHRO-MESH

This system is designed to overcome the main disadvantage of the earlier design- noise
or crashing of the gears due to a quick change, by adding baulking ring to do the job as shown
in the figure.

ADDISIONAL GEAR RATIOS

Commercial vehicles having a relatively low power/weight ratio, and operating under
unladen to fully loaded conditions, require additional gears for efficient operation.
ALTERNATIVE RATIO GEARBOX:
A. One arrangement is to provide two pairs of alternative-ratio constant mesh gears
between the clutch shaft and counter shaft. This doubles the number of indirect gear
ratios available.
B. Another system is to use an auxiliary gearbox behind the main gearbox with a choice of
direct drive or a reduction to split the ratios in the main gearbox. This enables all the
available gears to be used in sequence. The auxiliary gearbox may be a counter shaft
type with constant-mesh gears, or epicyclic, and the gear change may be power-
operated electrically or by compressed air.
Overdrive Gear:
Sometimes, and particularly, for cars where economy with a lowered cursing engine
speed is desired, the epicyclic unit may provide an overdrive of approximately 0.75:1. More
recent practice is to incorporate fifth speed an indirect ratio of some 0.75:1 to 0.85:1. A typical
arrangement is an extra pinion on the counter shaft in constant mesh with a mineshaft pinion
turning on needle-roller bearings. This is engaged by a synchromesh unit splined to the
mainshaft and operated from the reverse selector.

Page 86

The All-Inderct Gearbox (Transaxle):
The counter shaft two-stage gearbox is used in both longitudinal- and transverse-
engined front-wheel-drive case. However, many of the former employ a single-stage, all-
indirect gearbox. There is no direct drive and consequently no particular advantage in 1:1
gearbox ratio.

Two-Speed Transasfer Gearbox:
A range of vehicles uses optional four-wheel drive- with additional emergency low
ratios- to provide a cross-country facility. This is usually accomplished by a two-speed transfer
gearbox. With counter shaft and two pairs of constant-mesh helical gears, attached to the end
of the main gearbox are driven via short coupling shaft from the gearbox mainshaft.

Page 87

Four- and All-Wheel Drive:
Four-wheel-drive (4WD) and all-wheel-drive (AWD) systems can dramatically increase
vehicles traction and handling ability in rain, snow, and off-road driving. The improved traction
of 4WD and AWD systems allows the use of tires narrower than those used on similar 2WD
vehicles. These narrow tires are less expensive. They also tend to cut through snow and water
rather than hydroplane over it. Both 4WD and AWD systems add initial cost and weight.

Page 88

4WD versus 2WD:
4WD systems are those having a separate transfer case. They also give the driver the choice
of operating in either 2WD or 4WD through the use of a shift lever or shift button.
2WD systems do not have a separate transfer case. They use a front-wheel-drive transaxle
equipped with a viscous clutch, center differential, or transfer clutch. All-Wheel-drive system
does not give the driver the option of selecting 2WD or 4WD modes. The system operates in
continuous 4WD. All-wheel-drive vehicle are usually passenger cars that are not designed for
off-road operation. They are designed to increase vehicle performance in poor traction
situations, such as icy snowy roads, and in emergencies.

Page 89

Differential unit and final drive
Differential:
Differential unit is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of the rear
wheels of the tractor to rotate slower or faster than the other. While turning the
tractor on a curved path, the inner wheel has to travel lesser distance than the
outer wheel. The inner wheel requires lesser power than the outer wheel, this
condition is fulfilled by differential unit, which permit one of the rear wheels of
the tractor to move faster than the other at the turning point.
Thus the differential has two functions:
I. On straight travel, it allows both the rear wheels of the tractor to get equal
power and speed and
II. On turns, it allows the inner side drive wheel to move slower than the outer
wheel.
The output shaft coming from the gear box is provided with a bevel pinion at the
end of the shaft. The bevel pinion is in mesh with large bevel wheel known as
crown wheel.
The main functions of crown wheel assembly are:
1. To transmit power through right angle drive to suit the tractor wheels.
2. To reduce the speed of rotation.
The differential unit consists of:
1) Differential casing
2) Differential pinion
3) Crown wheel
4) Half shaft and
5) Bevel gear
The differential casing is rigidly attached with the crown wheel and moves like
one unit. Two pinions are provided inside the differential casing, such that they
are carried round by the crown wheel but they are free to rotate also on their
own shaft or stud.
Page 90

There are two or more bevel gears in mesh with differential pinion. One bevel
pinion is at the end of each half shaft, which goes to the tractor rear wheel. Thus
instead of crown wheel being keyed directly to a solid shaft between the tractor
wheels, the drive is taken back from the indirect route through differential
casing, differential pinion and half shaft of the tractor.
When the tractor is moving in a straight line, the differential pinion do not rotate
on the stub shaft but are solid with the differential casing. They drive the two
bevel gears at the same speed and in the same direction as the casing and the
crown wheel.
Each differential pinion can move in two planes simultaneously. When it is
carried by the casing, it drives the half-shaft in the same direction but when it is
rotated on its own shaft, it drives them in opposite direction i.e. rotation of
differential pinion adds motion to one shaft and subtracts motion from the other
shaft.
Differential lock:
Differential lock is a device to join both half axles of the tractor so that even if
one wheel is under less resistance, the tractor comes out from the mud etc. as
both wheels move with the same speed and apply equal traction.
Page 91

1. Thrust Washer - Differential Gear
3. Pinion Gear Differential
4. Thrust Washer - Pinion Gear
5. Differential - Spider
6. Rear Axle Bearing. 112mm(od) x 66mm(id) x 23mm(w). Fits Dexta with
Diff Lock and all Majors
7. Halfshaft Inner Seal
8. Halfshaft Collar
11. Rear Axle Difflock 112mm(od) x 66mm(id) x 23mm(w)
14. Rear Axle Seal - Outer
17. Rear Wheel Stud
20. Rear Wheel Nut

Page 92

Final drive:
Final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between the
differential and the drive wheels. Final drive transmits the power finally to the
rear axle and the wheels. The tractor rear wheels are not directly attached to the
half shafts but the drive is taken through a pair of spur gears. Each half shaft
terminates in s small gear which meshes with a large gear called bull gear. The
bull gear is mounted on the shaft, carrying the tractor rear wheel. The device for
final speed reduction, suitable for tractor rear wheel is known as final drive
mechanism.

Page 93

Tractor steering
Requirements of steering assembly:
1. Steering should be effortless force should operate the vehicle and its location should be
convenient for handling.
2. The steering wheel radius should be within 250-275 mm.
3. After taking a turn wheels should have a tendency to return to straight position by
virtue of self alignment torque.
4. It should not transmit field shocks to the steering wheel.
5. Steering geometry should not be disturbed.
6. There should be provision for changing the wheel.
Main parts of the steering system:
1. Steering:
The steering wheel is made of steel rod having 2,3 or 4 spockes and moulding of rubber
on it. In some case center hub has splines cut and some have key grooves to firmly
faster it with steering shaft.

2. Steering outer tube:
It is the hollow steel pipe in which the steering shaft moves. one end is fixed on steering
box.

3. Steering shaft:
It is made from good quality steel. One end is fixed in steering wheel with splines or key
and then kept tight by means of a nut other end is secured firmly with in gear box.
Sometimes two pieces of shaft are also provided for adjusting the angle of steering
wheels, they are joined by means of a universal joint.
Page 94

4. Drop arm :
It is forged out of good quality steel. One side of it has splines which matches with the
splines of sector shaft and held on sector shaft by a nut. The other end has a taper hole
in which ball end is held tight with the help of nut.

5. Steering box:
It is a type of gear box that converts the rotary motion into to and fro
motion of drop arm so that the drag link can be pushed or pulled resulting to
move stub axle to right or left and it turn the wheels.
Page 95

Types of steering boxes:
1. Worm and ball bearing nut type (screw and nut)
2. Worm and sector type.
3. Worm and roller type (worm and worm wheel)
4. Cam and lever type
5. Worm and pin type
Steering geometry:
Camber angle:-
It is the angle made by the wheel of an automobile; specifically, it is the angle
between the vertical axis of the wheel and the vertical axis of the vehicle when
viewed from the front or rear. It is used in design os steering and suspension. If
top of the wheel is further out than the bottom (that is, away from the axle).the
angle between the plane of the wheels and the vertical is called camber angle.
Page 96

By cambering wheels and tilting kingpin both the centerlines join where tyre is
touching the ground & transmitting the load. It provides
a) Easy steering
b) Reduce the road shocks to the steering wheels.
Toe in:-
It is the amount of closeness of front side (A) of front wheels as compared
to the rear side (B) of the front wheels.
If no camber only toe in was there.
Wheels will tend to move inside due to tie road.
Move straight with side slip.
Toe out:
When the distance of front wheel at front is more than the distance at
back of front wheels, it is called toe out.

Page 97

Caster angle:
It is angle by which king pin is set at back of vertical line drawn through
center of spindle body, where king pin is inclined at top towards body.

Ackerman steering:-
In front axle design in which swing on stub axle and the king pin rather
than swinging complete axle is known as ackerman steering.
Steering arms are fixed to stub axle not on right angle but are slanted
towards center of the vehicle.
When vehicle is taking a turn, the center line from rear tyre will meet the
line drawn perpendicular from both front tyres will join at point X. under these
circumstances the vehicle will move in true circle and there will be no side
slippage.

Tractor having 30 kw or more power generally will have power steering. A
quarter century of power steering development of farm tractor has more focused
almost completely on two basic fluid power types.
1. The hydromechanical systems
2. The full hydraulic systems, commonly called hydrostastic power steering.
Hydrostatic power steering
The term hydrostatic, although technically applicable to all power steering used
on farm tractor today, has by common usage come to mean those systems
requiring no mechanical linkage between the drivers steering wheel and the
steered wheels. In these systems, fluid under pressure is used not only to power
Page 98

the load but also to provide hydraulic feedback from the load and to transmit
manual effort to the load when the power source in unavailable. The lack of a
positive, fixed position relationship or index between the steering wheel and the
ground wheels is considered a shortcoming by some when comparing the
hydrostatic systems to the hydromechanical types.
The modern trend toward larger tractors featuring innovative
improvements in chassis configuration, component location, and operator
placement, as well as the increasing popularity of articulated, four wheel drive
vehicles, often precludes the use of the traditional, familiar, mechanical steering
linkages of yesterday. The two most important advantages of the hydrostatic
system are:
1. Flexibility of installation
2. Lower cost
The most distinguishing feature common to hydraulic steering systems is the
use of a positive displacement flow metering or measuring device coupled to the
steering wheel shaft. Hydrostatic systems can be conveniently categorized by the
manner in which this metering device operates in the control loop. At least four
basic types can be identified, as shown in figure-1
Type 1
The metering unit in rigidly attached to the power steering shaft and
hydraulically connected to the control value, but it is hydraulically coupled to
separate feedback device. This is simpler lower cost arrangement than type 3 but
introduce an operational factor also discurrent later.

Power steering pumps
The power source for a steering system can be either a separate pump,
the central hydraulic system pump, or a combination of both.
Page 99

High-quality, fixed-clearance gear or vane pumps are used for pressures up to
1500 psi (10.3 MPa). The majority of open-center steering pumps, both on farm
tractors and on trucks and automobiles, are of this type.
Pressure-balanced and clearance-compensated vane and gear pumps
extend the pressure capability into the 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) to 3000 psi (20.7
MPa) range with latest gear types capable of 3500 psi (24.1 MPa) operation.
Most commercially available steering control units are rated at about 2000 psi
(13.8 MPa) operation, and these may limit system pressure, if used. Closed-
center, self-contained steering systems will allow pressures up to 4000 to 5000
psi (27.6 to 34.5 MPa ) with piston pumps are if other system components and
circuitry have matching capabilities. Pressures above 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) are
difficult to justify on agricultural steering systems.
Most commercial power steering pumps are designed to be belt or gear
driven and have speed capabilities above the engine speeds typical on farm
tractors. Unless the pump is to be driven directly off the crankshaft, the higher
permissible speeds should be exploited to reduce size and cost. Common
maximum pump speeds are form 3000 to 5000 rpm. The required pump flow is
given by

gal/min

(L/min)

Where,
V= actuator total displacement volume, in.
3
(cm
3
),
T=desired steering time for lock-to-lock turn, s

A steering wheel rate of less than one revolution per second is seldom
satisfactory, and more than two is rarely desired. A steering time t of 2 to 4 s,
lock-to lock, is typical.
With flow rate Q and time determined, pump displacement can be
computed.
The power requirement of the pump is

in.lb/s (N.m/s)

hp, or

Where,
= pressure rise through pump, psi (pa),
= overall pump efficiency,
= rev/s
Page 100

Fixed displacement pumps used in closed-center steering systems require
pressure unloading means, usually in combination with an accumulator to
prevent excessive heat generation and energy waste during low-duty cycle
operation. The accumulator is advisable to prevent rapid on and off pressure
cycling and to permit use of a smaller pump. Since this represents an
uneconomical solution with very little advantage over the open-center system, it
is seldom considered.

The null or centered position, flow capacity of an open-center control
valve is incompatible with good system response over a wide flow range. For this
reason, a flow control valve is normally used to limit the maximum flow through
the valve to the required for the most rapid desired steering rate. The flow
control is usually an integral part of the pump and bypasses excess flow, at higher
pump speeds directly from pump and bypasses excess flow, at higher pump
speeds, directly from pump outlet to reservoir. The heat generated can usually
be dissipated by properly sizing the reservoir or, occasionally, the bypassed flow
is routed through a small heat exchanger.
Noise in hydraulic systems
Space does not permit the inclusion of any theories of noise generation in
a hydraulic system. Some of the suggested readings at the end of this chapter
may be of value to the student who wishes to pursue the subject. In general, the
noises generated are caused by either turbulence or cavitation in the fluid. There
are also mechanical noises. Many, perhaps all, hydraulic systems need a
systematic noise reduction program during their experimental development
stage.

Page 101

Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator
System MODI
Introduction
Normally, a hydraulic system with reference to a tractor is considered to be a unit
responsible for lifting and lowering an agricultural implement. However, in fact, it does many
other important jobs. The draft control and weight transference has become an inevitable
function of hydraulic system. Some of the tractors are fitted with a hydraulic brake system,
where some are fitted with a hydraulic steering system. Tipping trailer, front-mounted loaders
or dozers are some of the hydraulic system on tractors.
We are already familiars with mechanical and electrical media of transfer of power from the
generation sources to the utilization point. Similarly, a fluid is also a media. In the hydraulic
system the fluid is confined inside pipes lines reservoirs and cylinders. When pressure is applied
at any point, the force transferred by the fluid throughout the system which is utilize to lift the
implements and do other jobs with minimum of effort.
The reason for selecting the hydraulic system for power transfer is due to its merit over the
mechanical means of power transfer which are enumerated below:
1. The hydraulic system is simpler then the mechanical linkage system because fluid power
can be routed around corners with less problems.
2. The system is flexible enough, allowing the point of application to move to any location
with respect to the source of power generation, which is almost constant in the case of
the mechanical system.
3. Power can be engaged or disengaged with ease using a simpler control valve.
4. In comparison to input heavy forces can be controlled simply by increasing the size of
the cylinder.
5. Because of self lubrication, wear and tear is less and hence the system is economical to
operate.
6. A good range of speed of operation is possible.
7. A hydraulic system is safer than a mechanical system as the moving parts are minimized.
Though the system is preferred but cannot be called a perfect system without any
drawbacks. The efficient operation requires a regular cleanliness to avoid rusting, corrosion,
dirt, and other foreign materials.

Page 102

Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System
Pascals Law
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and
equally throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at
right angles to its interior surfaces.
Amplification of Force
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as,
F = PA
Thus, if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid, the force
generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force that created
the pressure. This principle is used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press to
generate very high forces.
Conservation of Energy
Since energy or power is always conserved, amplification in force must result in reduction of
the fluid velocity. Indeed if the resultant force is applied over a larger area then a unit
displacement of the area would cause a larger volumetric displacement than a unit
displacement of the small area through which the generating force is applied. Thus, what is
gained in force must be sacrificed in distance or speed and power would be conserved.
Types of Hydraulic System:
1 Constant-flow, variable-pressure system: In this system, a fixed- displacement pump
operates continuously, the output being bypassed back to the reservoir at low pressure when
not needed for any function. The two usual bypass methods are through open-center valve and
through pilot-operated bypass valves. When all the open-center valves in a circuit are in the
neutral position, an open bypass from the pump back to the reservoir is provided through the
valves. In the pilot operated bypass valve arrangement, all control valves are of the closed-
center type. When all valves are in the neutral position, the bypass valves opens to permit
pump flow to the reservoir at a low pressure. Most implements with hydraulic systems and
most medium and small size tractors have constant flow systems. There is a limited number of
control functions. The operating pressure is only as great needed for particular function at a
particular time, and pump operates at low load when not needed. However when the pump
capacity are greater than 38 to 57 liter per minute, the pressure loss the open centre valve or
bypass valve may be sufficient to cause oil heating problems. Most medium and small size
tractor have pump capacities of 19 to 38 liter per minute. Complications are introduced if two
or more functions are performed on concurrently
2. Constant-pressure system: This system are not common on implements, but are being
used increasingly on the larger tractors. One method of maintaining as essentially constant
system pressure is by means of a variable-displacement, pressure-compensated pump , usually
as radial piston pump. The pump displacement changes in response to system pressure to meet
Page 103

the flow demands of the system while maintaining the predetermined system pressure. The
change in gas volume as oil is withdrawn or pumped in provides a finite storage capacity
between the cut-in and cut-out pressure. A constant pressure system provides much greater
flexibility than a constant -flow system, with simpler valving and circuits for multiple functions.
The full pressure is available for any number of functions in parallel at any time, and one
function does not affect the others. Response is fast, since pressure is always available. But
whenever the pump is needed it must operate against the full system pressure even though the
demand may be only for low pressure. The throttling required to reduce the pressure to that
needed by the actuator produce heat which must be dissipated and represent the waste
energy.
Rated pressure for the constant-flow variable systems on tractors are mostly 8 to 14
MPa. Constant-pressure systems usually have rated pressure of 12 to 18 MPa. System relief
valves are normally set about the 25% higher than the rated pressure.

3. Variable-flow , variable-pressure system : This systems are basically closed loop
arrangement, with oil recirculating between the pump and a motor. The flow is usually varied
by changing the pump displacement but could be varied by the pump speed. The pressure
adjusts itself to accommodate the motor load at any particular flow rate.
Working Of Hydraulic System
Following basic components of hydraulics system
1. Reservoir: It contains sufficient oil to move the piston for lifting the load
2. Pump: It forces the fluid from the reservoir to the cylinder.
3. Relief Valve: It protect the system from high pressure. The valve is set for slightly higher
than the working pressure. In case the pressure increased beyond the working pressure, the
relief valve opens allowing the fluid to pass on to the reservoir. Also, when the piston
reaches its extreme position, the relief valve opens to bypass the oil.
4. Control valve: The control valve used to allow the operator to direct the flow of fluid either
from pump to the cylinder or from the cylinder to the reservoir.
5. Cylinder: The cylinder converts the hydraulic power to mechanical power for doing the
various jobs.
However, to get further acquainted with the working, let us take the example of the
hydraulic system fitted on Escort 335 tractor known as the manual draft control (MDC)
hydraulic system. The operational control lever is fitted on the right hand side of the drivers
seat. The tractor has 4 positions of lift, stop, lower and TCV.

Page 104

Different Components Description As Per Follow:
Control valves
Directional control valves (Spool Valve)
It route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool inside a cast
iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, intersecting grooves
and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the
supply fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic
fluid to an actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is
moved to the opposite direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is
allowed to return to neutral (center) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in
position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each
hydraulic cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.
Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools
typically have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 m). The
valve block will be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid
distorting the valve block and jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or
solenoids which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside
the housing, where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen
by flow capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate
proportional to valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of
the most expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.
Pressure relief valves: It is used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return
circuit to maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... On hydraulic
cylinders, to prevent overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. On the hydraulic reservoir,
to maintain a small positive pressure this excludes moisture and contamination.
Pressure regulators: It is useful for reduce the supply pressure of hydraulic fluids as
needed for various circuits.
Sequence valves: It control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one
hydraulic cylinder is fully extended before another starts its stroke, for example.
Shuttle valves: It is provide a logical or function.
Check valves: It is one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its
pressure after the machine is turned off, for example.
Pilot controlled Check valves: It is one-way valve that can be opened (for both
directions) by a foreign pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be hold by the
Page 105

check valve anymore. Often the foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is
connected to the motor or cylinder.
Counterbalance valves: It is in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve.
Whereas the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a pilot
controlled flow control.
Cartridge valves: It is in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf
components with a standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary
valve block. They are available in many configurations; on/off, proportional, pressure relief,
etc. They generally screw into a valve block and are electrically controlled to provide logic
and automated functions.
Hydraulic fuses: It is in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic
line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.
Auxiliary valves: It is in complex hydraulic systems may have auxiliary valve blocks to
handle various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan
operation, air conditioning power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the
particular machine, and may consist of a metal block with ports and channels drilled.
Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by switches
or a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.
Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators, that is, they produce straight-line motion and/or force.
Cylinders are classified as single-or double-acting
1. Single Acting Cylinder: It has only one fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direction.
When mounted vertically, they often retract by the force of gravity on the load. Ram type
cylinders are used in elevators, hydraulic jacks and hoists.

2. Double-Acting Cylinder: The double-acting cylinder is operated by hydraulic fluid in both
directions and is capable of a power stroke either way. In single rod double-acting cylinder
there are unequal areas exposed to pressure during the forward and return movements due
to the cross-sectional area of the rod. The extending stroke is slower, but capable of
exerting a greater force than when the piston and rod are being retracted.

Double-rod double-acting cylinders are used where it is advantageous to couple a load to
each end, or where equal displacement is needed on each end. With identical areas on either
side of the piston, they can provide equal speeds and/or equal forces in either direction. Any
double-acting cylinder may be used as a single-acting unit by draining the inactive end to tank.
Page 106

Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system
develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining
flow against a load of 5,000 psi.

Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by
volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts,
or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.

Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are;

Gear pump: cheap, durable, simple. Less efficient, because they are constant (fixed)
displacement, and mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa (3000 psi).

Vane pump: cheap and simple, reliable (especially in g-rotor form). Good for higher-flow low-
pressure output.

Axial piston pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to vary output
flow for automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump designs, including
swashplate (sometimes referred to as a valveplate pump) and checkball (sometimes referred to
as a wobble plate pump). The most common is the swashplate pump. A variable-angle
swashplate causes the pistons to reciprocate a greater or lesser distance per rotation, allowing
Page 107

output flow rate and pressure to be varied (greater displacement angle causes higher flow rate,
lower pressure, and vice versa).

Radial piston pump A pump that is normally used for very high pressure at small flows.
Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life
operating at higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston
pumps make up one half of a hydrostatic transmission.
The Fluid Delivery Subsystem
It consists of the components that hold and carry the fluid from the pump to the actuator. It is
made up of the following components.
Reservoir
It holds the hydraulic fluid to be circulated and allows air entrapped in the fluid to
escape. This is an important feature as the bulk modulus of the oil, which determines the
stiffness of hydraulic system, deteriorates considerably in the presence of entrapped air
bubbles. It also helps in dissipating heat.
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume
changes from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and
contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid
and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used.
Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic reservoirs, while
equipment operators always appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt
and other particulate from the oil, as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the
tank.
Some designs include dynamic flow channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a
smaller reservoir.
Filter
Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually
produced by mechanical components and need to be removed along with other contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the
reservoir and the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitations and possibly failure of
the pump. Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This
arrangement is more expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but eliminates
cavitations problems and protects the control valve from pump failures. The third common
filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir. This location is relatively
Page 108

insensitive to blockage and does not require a pressurized housing, but contaminants that enter
the reservoir from external sources are not filtered until passing through the system at least
once
The hydraulic fluid is kept clean in the system with the help of filters and strainers. It
removes minute particles from the fluid, which can cause blocking of the orifices of servo-valves
or cause jamming of spools.
Tubes, pipes and hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics.
The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard diameters up to 100
mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged.
The tubes are interconnected by different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and
pressures), welding cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare connection and by
cut-rings. In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not
acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected.

Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these
are used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but usually by
welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after
welding. Black pipe is non-galvanized and suitable for welding.

Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used
when pipes or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or
maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded
by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance.
The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the machine, since hose failures can
be deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses
generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high pressure hose is
the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of
rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.

Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is
commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are
used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For this
reason, in marine applications most piping is stainless steel.
Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid must be essentially non-compressible to be able to transmit power
instantaneously from one part of the system to another. At the same time, it should lubricate
the moving parts to reduce friction loss and cool the components so that the heat generated
Page 109

does not lead to fire hazards. It also helps in removing the contaminants to filter. The most
common liquid used in hydraulic systems is petroleum oil because it is only very slightly
compressible. The other desirable property of oil is its lubricating ability. Finally, often, the fluid
also acts as a seal against leakage inside a hydraulic component. The degree of closeness of the
mechanical fit and the oil viscosity determines leakage rate.
Seals, fittings and connections:
In general, valves, cylinders and pumps have female threaded bosses for the fluid
connection, and hoses have female ends with captive nuts. A male-male fitting is chosen to
connect the two. Many standardized systems are in use.
Fittings serve several purposes;
1. To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal, for example.
2. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90, 45, straight, or swivel fitting is chosen as
needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and then tightened.
3. To incorporate bulkhead hardware.
A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses or
valves
A typical piece of heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed connection points and
several different types:
Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting correctly
without over or under tightening.
I. O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional nut
tightens the fitting, washer and o-ring in place.
II. Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut and
pressed into a flare mating.
III. Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring are fastened together.
IV. Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft.
V. Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place.
Primarily used in aircraft.
VI. Elastomeric seals (O-ring boss and face seal) are the most common types of seals in
heavy equipment and are capable of reliably sealing 6000+ psi (40+ MPa) of fluid
pressure
Motors
Motors work exactly on the reverse principle of pumps. In motors fluid is forced into the
motor from pump outlets at high pressure. This fluid pressure creates the motion of the motor
shaft and finally go out through the motor outlet port and return to tank. All three variants of
motors, already described for pumps, namely Gear Motors, Vane Motors and Piston motors are
in use.
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Accumulators
Unlike gases the fluids used in hydraulic systems cannot be compressed and stored to cater
to sudden demands of high flow rates that cannot be supplied by the pump. An accumulator in
a hydraulic system provides a means of storing these incompressible fluids under pressure
created either by a spring, compressed a gas. Any tendency for pressure to drop at the inlet
causes the spring or the gas to force the fluid back out, supplying the demand for flow rate
Spring-Loaded Accumulators
In a spring loaded accumulator, pressure is applied to the fluid by a coil spring behind the
accumulator piston. The pressure is equal to the instantaneous spring force divided by the
piston area. The pressure therefore is not constant since the spring force increases as fluid
enters the chamber and decreases as it is discharged.
Spring loaded accumulators can be mounted in any position. The spring force, i.e., the pressure
range is not easily adjusted, and where large quantities of fluid are spring size has to be very
large.

Gas Charged Accumulator
The most commonly used accumulator is one in which the chamber is pre-charged with an inert
gas, such as dry nitrogen. A gas charged accumulator should be pre-charged while empty of
hydraulic fluid. Accumulator pressure varies in proportion to the compression of the gas,
increasing as pumped in and decreasing as it is expelled.
Page 111

Classification of Hydraulic Controls:
The hydraulic control systems being used on farm tractors can be classified into three
systems. Modifications and combinations of these systems exist.
1. Nuging System
This system is used to raise, lower, or position an implement, either mounted or trilled, by
moving a hand lever either forward or backward from its neutral position. If the control level is
moved (nudged), the hydraulic cylinder will move a complete stroke. If the lever is returned
manually to its neutral position before the end of the complete stroke, the cylinder will stop
and remain in that position, provided leaks do not exist i the system. In the nudging system
there is no relationship between the positions of the hand control lever and the cylinder piston.
In control language the nudging system is an open-loop system.
A modified nudging system limits the stroke of the piston by adjustable stop on the
cylinder, or hydraulic shutoff to lock the piston. When using the modifying nudging system, the
operator can lower or raise an implement to predetermined position without visually
determine its position. The modified system often provided for a detent on the valve to hold
the hand lever unaided until the piston reaches the end of its stroke or an adjustable stop, at
which time the valve is returned to neutral.
2. Automatic Position-Control System
This system is provides automatic control of an attached implement and allows the
operator to preselect and to position the implement as determined by the position of hand
control lever. The relative position of the hand lever and of the hand lever and of the hydraulic
cylinder is always identical. Within the limit of the relief valve controlling the maximum
pressure, the hydraulic cylinder will automatically move the implement to its predetermined
position and maintain it there, regardless of any leakage in the system.
The position-control system is normally associated with a three-point hitch system. It is not
used with a remote cylinder. The most elementary form of a position control system.
3. Automatic Draft-Control System:
These systems will automatically raise or lower an implement as the draft or resistance
of the attached implement increases or decreases. The sensing device, which tells the hydraulic
system to lower or raise the hitch system, is located on either the lower links or the upper link,
depending on the size of tractor. The position of hand control lever in effect, establishes the
draft to maintain. For example, a draft-control system on a tractor pulling a plough to maintain
a constant force on the sensing device.

Page 112

Fig.: Hydraulic System in Tractor

Steering System
What is power steering?
Power steering is a system which helps to steer the wheels with some source of power
other than the drivers manual force with which he turns the steering. This feature adds to the
comfort while driving as less effort is needed to turn the steering by the driver. Power Steering
is specially important for the cars which have engine in front and there is a lot of weight on the
front wheels.
For rear engine cars like Tata Nano or light weight cars like Maruti 800, its ok to have no
power steering and still drive comfortably because of low weight on the front wheels. But for
heavy cars and also as a luxury feature power steering provides lots of ease.
Hydraulic Power Steering
Hydraulic power steering uses high pressure fluids for assisting the steering movement.
It uses a plunger type arrangement for its working. When the driver turns the steering wheel, it
Page 113

opens up the flow or pressurized fluid in such a way that helps to turns the wheels in the
required direction.

Electric Power Steering
Electric power steering works with the help of an Electric Motor and a control unit
which has some sensors. The motor runs on battery and will use electric power to assist the
movement of steering when the driver turns the wheel.

Hydraulic Power Steering V/S Electric Power Steering
Hydraulic power steering is a primitive technology used for decades and has improved a
lot with time. Earlier, it did not have any difference in steering response with speed of the car,
Page 114

but the new age of hydraulic power steering are speed sensitive and work better than the older
hydraulic power steering.
Electric power steering are comparatively new technology with less complicated build
and mechanism, takes less space and are more durable. Electric power steering use sensors to
sense the car speed and will take care of the different steering response required for different
speeds.
Some of the main differences are as below:
1. Hydraulic Power Steering System is complicated compared with Electric Power Steering
2. Hydraulic Power Steering System usually weighs more than Electric Power Steering
3. Hydraulic Power Steering uses hydraulic fluids for operation whereas there is no such fluid
needed for Electric Power Steering, thus Electric Power Steering needs less maintenance
compared to hydraulic power steering.
4. Electric Power Steering gives better response at different speeds as compared to Hydraulic
Power Steering
5. Eclectic Power Steering is less prone to problems and faults and are more durable as
compared to Hydraulic power steering.
6. Hydraulic power steering extracts power from engine, so it reduces the fuel mileage of the
engine. Electric power steering consumes power from battery which is also charged by
engine, but it consumes less power compared to Hydraulic power steering. So a car having
Electric power steering will give more mileage than one with Hydraulic power steering.
Electro-Hydraulic Systems
Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also
sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic assist technology as standard
systems, but the hydraulic pressure is provided by a pump driven by an electric motor instead
of being belt-driven by the engine. These systems can be found in some cars by Ford,
Page 115

Volkswagen, Audi, Peugeot, Citroen, SEAT, Skoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, and Mazda.

Captain MITSUBISI KUBOTA
Model DI 2600 4WD SHAKTI MT 180 D B-2420
TYPE CHESIS BASE INTEGRATED INTEGRATED
Gross Weight 905 Kg 645 Kg 595 Kg
Engine HF 785(HATZ DESIGN) OHV MDE-KC3 KUBOTA D1104-E2-D22I
Engine Type 4-S DI 4-Stroke 4-STROKE
No. Cly. ONE THREE THREE
HP 11.8(DIN 70020/ 9.5HP(CMVR))
18.5 HP/2700 RPM(As per DIN
70020), 13.5KW/2700 RPM (As per
IS 10000 part II to IV)
24 HP AT 2600 RPM
C C 624 900 1123
Bore (mm) 85 70 MM 78
Sroke(mm) 110 78 MM 78.4
Rated RPM 2600 2700 2600
Compression ratio 17:01 23:01
COOLING SYSTEM AIR COOLED WATER COOLED WATER COOLED
S.F.C. 198.94 GM/HP-Hr SFC-230 GM/HP-Hr
LENGTH MM 2600 MM(102.36") 2565 MM(100.98") 2410MM(94.88")
WIDTH MM 1080 MM(42.52") 920 MM(36.22") 1015MM(40")
HIEGHT WITH CYLENCER MM 1950 MM(76.77") 1475 MM(58.07") 1080MM(38.5") UP TO SEAT
DRIVING TRACK WIDTH MM 965 MM(37.99")[812 MM(31.97")] 890 MM(35.04") 810mm/900mm
STEARING TRACK WIDTH MM 902 MM(35.51") 740 MM(29.13") 815mm
WHEEL BASE MM 1440 MM(56.69") 1422 MM(55.98") 1563MM(61.54")
GROUND CLEARENCE MM 220 MM(8.66") 230 MM(9.06") 325MM(13")
Clutch Dry Friction type single Plate DRY SINGLE DISC Dry friction plate
G B SLIDE+ SYNCRO 4+2 F R 6F + 2R 9F+3R(HI/LOW/MED)
Minmum 2.23 Km/Hr. 1.2 Km/Hr 1.2KM
Maximum 17.76 Km/Hr. 14.0 Km/Hr 18.8KM
1 st Gear 326 RPM 623 540 RPM
2 nd Gear 550 RPM 919
3 rd Gear 882 RPM 1506 960 RPM
4 th Gear 1300 RPM
PUMP DISCHARGE LIT/MIN 17.5 LIT/MIN 13 LPM 26.4 LPM
ADDC YES POSITON CONTROL POSITION CONTROL
LIFTING CAPACITY ON TPL 350 Kg 400 Kg 615 KG
TRANSPORT LOCK YES NO
Steering Mechanical Warm & Pag Type Bewel Gear-Boll screw type POWER STEERING
With Braker 2.6 m With Break 2.1 M
Without Brake 2.8 m Without Break 2.5 M
Front 5.2 * 14 5x12 7X12
Rear 8.00 * 18 8x18 8.30X20
L1 2.23 1.23 1.2
L2 3.75 1.87 1.7
L3 6.04 3.18 3
L4 8.88
H1 4.46 5.43 7.3
H2 7.52 8.22 10.4
H3 12.03 13.98 11.8
H4 17.76
RL/R1 1.66 1.58 1.4
RH/R2 3.32 6.93 9.1
DIESEL TANK 14.9 18 LIT 26 LIT
COOLING SYSTEM AIR COOLED WATER COOLED WATER COOLED
ENGINE OIL 1.60 LIT 3 LIT 3.1 LIT
HYDRAULIK TANK OIL 14 LIT
GEAR OIL 1.60 LIT
DIFFERENCIAL OIL 1.20 LIT
FRONT DIFFERENCIAL
REDUCTION GEAR OIL 1.75 LIT
AIR CLEANER 0.15 LIT 0.5 Lit
STEARING 0.50 LIT 0.5 Lit
BREAK SYSTEM INTERNAL EXPANDING SHOE BREAK INTERNAL EXPANDING SHOE BREAK WET DISC TYPE
STARTING SYSTEM SELF START & HANDLE START SELF START SELF START
2100MM(7 FT) REDIUS
13 Lit
Engine Specification
Dimensions
Gear Box
Road speed
PTO Speed
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Steering
Turnning Radus
Tyre Size
GEAR SPEED KM/Hr
DIESEL/OIL CAPACITY
Page 116

Power Take Off

A power take-off or power takeoff (PTO) is a splined driveshaft, usually on a tractor or
truck, that can be used to provide power to an attachment or separate machine. It is designed
to be easily connected and disconnected. The power take-off allows implements to draw
energy from the tractor's engine.
Semi-permanently mounted power take-offs can also be found on industrial and marine
engines. These applications typically use a Cardan shaft and bolted joint to transmit power to a
secondary implement or accessory. In the case of a marine application, such shafts may be used
to power fire pumps.
Types of PTO
Independent PTO:-
An independent PTO means that the PTO shaft is controlled with a
separate clutch. As with a live PTO, this allows for full control over the tractor
while separately controlling the PTO. There are two major types of independent
PTO; mechanical and hydraulic. A mechanical-independent PTO uses a separate
on-off selector, in addition to the PTO control lever. Often the tractor must be
stopped or off to change this selector position. A hydraulic-independent PTO
uses a single selector.

Advantages are: Ease of operation and maximum flexibility in determining when you want the
PTO to be ON and OFF.
Disadvantages are: higher acquisition cost, more complex and difficult to troubleshoot/repair,
higher maintenance expense and not quite as safe as live PTO.
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Live (two-stage clutch) PTO

A live PTO works with the use of a two-stage clutch. Pressing the clutch
half-way will disengage the transmission while pressing it fully will disengage the
transmission and the PTO. This allows the operator to slow down or change gears
while the PTO is still operating.

Advantages are: relatively simple design, operator friendly in function, and safety. Safe,
because, with the tractor movement and implement power dependent upon the position of the
clutch pedal, you have a built-in panic button (the clutch pedal) that you can instantly depress
to bring everything to a halt should things go awry.
Disadvantages are: more expensive to repair, extra routine adjustments (on dual clutches) to
maintain proper operation, and a little more leg muscle is required to depress the clutch
through both stages of the clutch.
Transmission
The simpliest, and earliest, form of PTO is the transmission PTO. The PTO shaft is directly
connected to the tractor's transmission. The PTO is only working when the tractor's clutch is
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relased, so if you take the tractor out of gear while slowing down the PTO will stop working.
This is a disadvantage in applications such as mowing.

Advantage of this type of PTO are simple design, low initial cost and less expense to
maintain.
Disadvantages are the inability to fully control tractor direction and speed
without disrupting implement power. In the case of a straight shift tractor with a
mid mount mower deck that is driven by a mid PTO, you would be well advised to
investigate thoroughly, the operational characteristics. You DO NOT want the
mower to stop every time you change directions.

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SERVICE SYSTEM
Importance of service:-
More life
More Efficiency
PRE DELIVERY INSPECTION (PDI)
Checking all parts of the tractor in good condition or not so inspection is useful
Deliver tractor in good condition to the costumers.
INSTALLATION
A) Daily maintenance Nut, Bolts check
Water check
Diesel check
Oil check
B) Weekly maintenance Gracing
Lubricants (lubrications)
Electrolyte level
Radiator fins
C) Monthly maintenance - Primary filter
SERVICE REPORT
Face to face Weekly one
Record ( Report) - Daily
Telephone Every hour
FORMATE OF SERVICE REPORT
Job card
PDI (Pre delivery inspection)
Installation
Daily workshop data
Free service
SCR (Service consult report)
PCR
Warranty Registration
Warranty
Clam report form

Page 120

ACTIVITIES OF THE SERVICES
Door to door costumer service
Door to door free service
Mechanical meet
Costumers meet
Demonstration
Free service camp
Parts of lubricants discount
Free installation
Costumers satisfaction

Page 121

Research and development
The Future Engine

The piston engine, especially the diesel, seems well established and is not likely
to be replaced immediately with other types of energy conversion systems. However,
development of new engine materials has progressed considerably. Ceramic materials,
which have high heat resistance, well as high anticorrosion and anti-wear properties,
have indicated their potential applications to piston engines, permitting operations at
higher temperatures and thus higher thermal efficiency compared to conventional
metal based engines. Although their brittleness has been a limitation to their wide
application for engine structures, recent development of ultra-plastic fine ceramics
may open a new era for wide usage in piston engines. Complete replacement of
engine parts with ceramics is not likely to occur in the ne future, but applications of
ceramics to specific engine parts including turbochargers will likely occur soon. Tractor
and engine manufacturers continue, to use better engine materials and to develop
new types of energy conversion devices.
Trends in Tractor Design

Gohlich (1984) presents an excellent discussion on this subject. He concludes that:
1) More emphasis will be concentrated on reducing the total weight of the tractor-implement
system in order to minimize the ground pressure and soil compaction, particularly during seed
bed preparation.

2) Front- and rear-mounted implements will contribute increasingly to better, more convenient,
and more economical field operations.
3) Instead of the standard heavy tractors today, for most of the required field operations a lighter,
second tractor power unit with low-pressure tires, which would transfer the majority of its power
through the power take off (pto) rather than through the ground drive, may be a desirable
approach on the future farm.
4) The optimization of power transfer will be facilitated by driver information displays as well as by
control circuits that may eventually take over some present manual functions.
5) Components for the driver's comfort and safety will be further improved,
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TRACTOR DESIGN
Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. A
new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and
operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From the study of existing ideas, a
new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then studied keeping in mind its commercial success and
given shape and form in the form of drawings. In the preparation of these drawings, care must be
taken of the availability of resources in money, in men and in materials required for the successful
completion of the new idea into an actual reality. In designing a machine component, it is necessary
to have a good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength
of Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.
Classifications of Machine Design
The machine design may be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive design
In most cases, the designer's work is concerned with adaptation of existing designs.
This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted by designers of
ordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the
existing designs of the product.

2. Development design
This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability in order to
modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting, a new material or different method
of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing design, but the final
product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New design
This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking. Only
these designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the work
of a new design.

The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:
a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.
b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on
the practice and past experience.
c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
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d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimisation of a design.
General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:

1) Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to which the internal
stresses are set up.

2) Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest
arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required. The motion of the parts may
be:

i) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating motions.
ii) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple harmonic.
iii) Constant velocity.
iv) Constant or variable acceleration.

3) Selection of materials.
It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of the properties of the
materials and their behaviour under working conditions. Some of the important
characteristics of materials are: strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and
corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc.

4) Form and size of the parts.
The form and size are based on judgement. The smallest practicable cross-section may
be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the designed cross-section are
reasonably safe. In order to design any machine part for form and size, it is necessary to know
the forces which the part must sustain. It is also important to anticipate any suddenly applied
or impact load which may cause failure.

5) Frictional resistance and lubrication.
There is always a loss of power due to frictional resistance and it should be noted that
the friction of starting is higher than that of running friction. It is, therefore, essential that a
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careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of all surfaces which move in
contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings.

6) Convenient and economical features.
In designing, the operating features of the machine should be carefully studied. The
starting, controlling and stopping levers should be located on the basis of convenient
handling. The adjustment for wear must be provided employing the various takeup devices
and arranging them so that the alignment of parts is preserved. If parts are to be changed for
different products or replaced on account of wear or breakage, easy access should be
provided and the necessity of removing other parts to accomplish this should be avoided if
possible.
The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production or for the
processing of material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the maximum
capacity consistent with the production of good work.

7) Use of standard parts.
The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the cost of standard or stock
parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order.
The standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible; parts for which patterns are
already in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings and parts which may be selected from
regular shop stock such as screws, nuts and pins. Bolts and studs should be as few as possible
to avoid the delay caused by changing drills, reamers and taps and also to decrease the
number of wrenches required.

8) Safety of operation.
Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are speeded up to
insure production at a maximum rate. Therefore, any moving part of a machine which is
within the zone of a worker is considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of an
injury. It is, therefore, necessary that a designer should always provide safety devices for the
safety of the operator. The safety appliances should in no way interfere with operation of the
machine.

9) Workshop facilities.
A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his employer's workshop,
in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other workshop. It is sometimes
necessary to plan and supervise the workshop operations and to draft methods for casting,
handling and machining special parts.

10) Number of machines to be manufactured.
The number of articles or machines to be manufactured affects the design in a
number of ways. The engineering and shop costs which are called fixed charges or overhead
expenses are distributed over the number of articles to be manufactured. If only a few articles
are to be made, extra expenses are not justified unless the machine is large or of some special
design. An order calling for small number of the product will not permit any undue expense in
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the workshop processes, so that the designer should restrict his specification to standard
parts as much as possible.

11) Cost of construction.
The cost of construction of an article is the most important consideration involved in
design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of an article may immediately bar
it from further considerations. If an article has been invented and tests of handmade samples
have shown that it has commercial value, it is then possible to justify the expenditure of a
considerable sum of money in the design and development of automatic machines to
produce the article, especially if it can be sold in large numbers. The aim of design engineer
under all conditions should be to reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum.

12) Assembling.
Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function. Large
units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to their
place of service. The final location of any machine is important and the design engineer must
anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for erection.
General Procedure in Machine Design

In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted in
several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows:
1) Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the
need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2) Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will
give the desired motion.
3) Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
4) Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.
5) Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material
used. It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the
permissible limit.
6) Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgement to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by
consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7) Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8) Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.

The flow chart for the general procedure in machine design is shown in Fig.

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Engineering Materials and their Properties

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design engineer.
The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties suitable for the
conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with the effects which
the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties of the materials.

Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1) Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
2) Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

Production
Detailed drawing
Modification
Design of elements (size and stresses)
Material Selection
Analysis of forces
Synthesis (Mechanism)
Need or Aim
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The metals may be further classified as:
(a) Ferrous metals, and (b) Non-ferrous metals.

The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
rought iron and steel.
The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,
such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult problem
for the designer. The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the minimum cost. The
following factors should be considered while selecting the material:

1) Availability of the materials,
2) Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3) The cost of the materials.

The important properties, which determine the utility of the material are physical, chemical and
mechanical properties.
Physical Properties of Metals
The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric and
thermal conductivity, and melting point.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal include
strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep
and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called
stress.

2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and
machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.

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4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application
of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually
measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile
material commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild
steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking
of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile
loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.

7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.

8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by
the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed
upto the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact
loads.

9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways
such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to remove the
material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material. It
may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.

10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit.
This property is essential for spring materials.

11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.

12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is caused by
Page 129

means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic size. This
property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. The hardness is
usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of making the test. The
hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests :
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.

Page 130

MARKETING
It is an Art of selling through various medium with tricks.
The aim of marketing is to know and understand the customer so well that the product
or service fits him and sells itself.
Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion,
and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and
organizational goals. American Marketing Association.
Way Of Marketing
Internet / Radio / T. V. advertisement ,News paper, Hoardings, Magazines, Browsers,
Space advertizing , Seminar, Demonstration, Free trial, Road show, Free gift, Schemas /
Discount, Direct marketing , Display at focal level, Voice call / Mail / SMS, Wall paintings ,
Slogans, Brand ambassador, Logo.
4 P of Marketing
Followings are four elements of the Marketing.
1) Product
2) Price
3) Place
4) Promotion
1. Product: it is tangible and intangible thing which meets the consumer needs.
Product Variants Quality
Design Features
Packing Brand name
Shape Style
Color Warranty
2. Price: this is a medium of exchange. Value for what you buy and get.
Discount
Allowances
Scheme
Credit Policy
Payment terms
3. Place: it is a real or virtual market where the product is available and users can find it, buy it
and seller can sell.
This term really refers to any way that the customer can obtain a product. Provision of a
product can occur via any number of distribution channels, such as in a retail store, through the
mail etc.
a. Distribution channel
b. Market Coverage
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c. Locations
d. Transport
4. Promotion: It is the communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of
influencing, informing or persuading a potential buyer's purchasing decision.
Promotion tools:
a. Sales Promotion (Ex. Titan Discount voucher for Rs. 200 on each next purchase above Rs.
1000)
b. Advertising
c. Sales Force
d. Public Relation
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE THEORY
This theory is as same as the life of a human being. Stages of Human life cycle.
1) Child (Form Birth)
2) Young
3) Mature
4) Old age
Stages of PLC
1) Introductory
2) Growth
3) Maturity
4) Decline Stage
Plc Chart

Page 132

Stages Of Plc
1. Introductory stage:
This is a stage when product or service gets birth in the market means when the
manufacturers launch the product first time in the market.
Frequent advertising to communicate with targeted customer/consumer/client etc.
Pricing according to the nature of the product.
Profit is very low because mostly expense is done on advertising.
2. Growth:
This stage is similar to the young stage of the human life cycle when the product us
widely accepted by the targeted customer.
High frequency of the advertising.
Slightly change in the pricing policy.
High profit margin.
3. Maturity:
After the widely acceptance by the customer, product enters in to the maturity stage.
Lesser the efforts in the advertising expenses.
Lower the profit margin.
This is the time for company to add new features in the product. Ex. Pulsar, pulsar+ etc.
4. Decline:
This is the old age of the product in the market when the product is about to thrown out
from the market.
Low or null advertising.
No profit margin.
This is the time for the company to launch new product.
CONSUMER ADAPTION PROCESS
It describes the behavior of consumers as they purchase new products and services.
Individual Categories of
1. Innovators
2. Early Adopters
3. Early Majority
4. Late Majority
5. Laggards

Page 133

1. Innovators are the first to adopt and display behavior that demonstrates that they likely to
want to be ahead, and to be the first to own new products, well before the average
consumer.
2. Early adopters are also quick to buy new products and services, and so are key opinion
leaders with their neighbors and friends as they tend to be amongst the first to get hold of
items or services.
3. The early majority look to the innovators and early majority to see if a new product or idea
works and begins to stand the test of time. They stand back and watch the experiences of
others. Then there is a surge of mass purchases.
4. The late majority tends to purchase the product later than the average person. They are
slower to catch on to the popularity of new products, services, ideas, or solutions. There is
still mass consumption, but it begins to end.
5. Finally, laggards tend to very late to take on board new products and include those that
never actually adopt at all. Here there is little to be made from these consumers.
Pricing
Premium Pricing.
Use a high price where there is uniqueness about the product or service. This approach
is used where a substantial competitive advantage exists. Such high prices are charge for
luxuries such as Cruises, Hotel rooms, and Concorde flights.
Page 134

Penetration Pricing.
The price charged for products and services is set artificially low in order to gain market
share. Once this is achieved, the price is increased. This approach was used by France Telecom
and Sky TV. Ex. TATA NANO
Economy Pricing.
The cost of marketing and manufacture are kept at a minimum. Supermarkets often
have economy brands for soups, noodles, etc.
Price Skimming.
Charge a high price because you have a substantial competitive advantage. However,
the advantage is not sustainable. The high price tends to attract new competitors into the
market, and the price inevitably falls due to increased supply.
Psychological Pricing.
This approach is used when the marketer wants the consumer to respond on an
emotional, rather than rational basis. For example 'price point perspective' 99 Rs. Not 100 Rs.
Ex. BATA and mostly retail apparel brand uses this pricing.
Product Line Pricing.
Where there is a range of product or services the pricing reflect the benefits of parts of
the range. For example Jeans at Rs. 499, Pair Rs. 999
Promotional Mix
Promotion is communicating with the public in an attempt to influence them toward
buying your products and/or services.
Tools of Promotional Mix
1. Advertising
2. Personal Selling
3. Sales Promotion
4. Publicity
5. Direct Marketing
6. Public Relation

1. Advertising:
It is a paid form of the communication through various Medias. Presentation and
promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. Examples: Print ads, radio,
television, billboard, direct mail, brochures and catalogs, signs, in-store displays, posters, motion
pictures, Web pages, banner ads etc.
2. Personal selling
A process of helping and persuading one or more prospects to purchase a good or
service or to act on any idea through the use of an oral presentation.
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Examples: Sales presentations, sales meetings, etc. Can be face-to-face or via
telephone.
3. Sales Promotion
Media and non-media marketing communication are adopted to increase consumer
demand, stimulate market demand or improve product availability.
Examples: Coupons, sweepstakes, contests, product samples, rebates, tie-ins, self-
liquidating premiums, trade shows, trade-ins, and exhibitions.
4. Publicity
This is non paid communication through Newspapers, magazines, TV programs and
radio shows have large amounts of space to fill and depend upon publicists to help provide
story ideas, interview subjects, background information and other material.
5. Direct Marketing
It is a form of advertising that reaches its audience directly through multiple channels
including email, direct mail, social media, catalogs, online advertising, interactive television, etc.
Businesses communicate straight to the consumer with advertising techniques such as fliers,
catalog distribution, promotional letters, and street advertising.
6. Public Relation:
Paid intimate stimulation of supply for a product, service, or business unit by planting
significant news about it or a favorable presentation of it in the media.
Examples: Newspaper and magazine articles/reports, TVs and radio presentations,
charitable contributions, speeches, issue advertising, and seminars.
Product Mix :
This approach is used to measure the performance of the product and to count the
Market share of the product ultimately the success of the product.
A product mix (or product assortment) consists of all the product lines and items that a
particular seller offers for sale.
1. Product Line/Length
2. Product Depth
3. Product Width
1. Product Line/Length: Product mix length refers to the total number of items the
company carries within its product lines. Procter & Gamble typically carries many brands within
each line. For example, it sells eleven laundry detergents, eight hand soaps, six shampoos, and
four dishwashing detergents.
Captain: all variants of Tractor, various Implements & Fertilizers.
2. Product width: Product mix width refers to the number of different product lines the
company carries.
For example, CTPL markets a wide product mix consisting of many product lines,
including Tractor, Implements, and Fertilizers.
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3. Product depth: Product line depth refers to the number of versions offered of each
product in the line.
Example: Captain DI 2600 (Single Lever)
Captain DI 2600 (ADDC)
Captain DI 2600 4WD (Single Lever)
Captain DI 2600 4WD (ADDC)
Volume Based Marketing
It is the process of sealing the product with less profit in large volume. By this way we
can get more customers with more volume of product in market.
Village Classification

Activities carried out in different area:
For A:
New product placement
Door to Door contact
Service camp
Customer meet
For B:
Reason identification
Demonstration
Road show
Display
Paper add
Leaflet
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For C:
We have to maintain our position
For D:
Why we are low? Find the reason
Elements Of Advertising:
Mission: what are the advertising objectives?
Money: how much can be spent? (Budget)
Message: what message can be sent?
Media: what media should be used
Measurement: how should the results is evaluated?

Page 138

Banking and Finance
Loany Cases:
This loany facility available for the more than 4 acar land farmer. There is a requirement of
the following documents as per under
1. Form no.7/12
2. Form no.8(A)
3. Form no. 6 (Hack partake)
4. Form no. 16 (for well identify)
5. Mandela No Due Certificate
6. Form no. 7/12 Entry No Due Certificate
Know Your Clinet (KYC)
1. Identity Proof: License
Election Card
Pan Card
2. Address Proof: Ration Card
Electricity Bill
Telephone Bill
RTO Book there are following details:
1. Registration Number
2. Chassis Number
3. Engine Number
4. Dealers Name and address
5. Manufacture Company
6. Month and Year of Manufacture
7. Receipt Number
8. Cubic Capacity
9. Horse Power
10. Bill
11. Sales letter No. 21
12. Fitness Certificate No.22
13. Insurance
14. Tax Details
Page 139

Observation about CTPL and product
Captain tractor Pvt. Ltd. Previously known as Asha exim Pvt. Ltd. Was established in 1994 by
the visionary farmer Mr.G.T. Patel of Rajkot. The company started developing a mini tractor
which can be afforded by small & medium farmers.

First successful mini tractor of India with 9.5 HP engine rolled out of factory in 1998.
The sale of mini tractor is progressively increase in various state of country including
Maharashtra, Gujarat etc., also in other countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, Uganda, Suzan
etc..
Captain tractor Pvt. Ltd. Has also developed various types of tractor drawn
implements/attachments, useful for various field operations.
The companies environment is very sound in all sense of discipline, punctuality, working
etc..
Company has included departments like R & D, production, marketing etc.
Company produces many products related to mini tractor, like implements their parts
and parts of tractor. Company also developed and marketing self propelled reapers.
Company maintaining the good quality of products and also follows its standards.
Captain tractor consumes on an average 1 lit diesel per hour so it is very convenient and
suitable for small and medium farmers.
Company also make organic fertilizer from fish manure and other natural substances,
therefore natural elements also help to make soil more fertile.
Company has young, energetic and enthusiastic staff which helps the company to make
the progress.
Page 140

Conclusion
Training at Captain Tractors Private Limited (CTPL) was a very great and very learning
experience as far as practical work and knowledge is concerned. There we all were given a
chance to see, observe n ultimately learn all the things regarding different components/systems
such as engine, cooling system, fuel system, lubrication system, hydraulic system, steering
system, transmission system, braking system.

Apart from the above mentioned technical systems, we also were guided and were
made very familiar with many concept of Business Management in terms of marketing,
banking and finance, service, research and development etc. We also got the chance to visit the
plant Khedut Industry (Seed-drill).

Overall all experience about Captain Tractors Private Limited was very inspiring and
very important and great in terms of knowledge as well as in terms of our future aspects.

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Industrial Training Report Modify

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2014

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