Project Summary Report

A Study of Separated Flow and Plasma

Actuators

Submitted to
The 2014 Academic Year NSF Ay-REU Program
Part of
NSF Type 1 STEP Grant

Sponsored By
The National Science Foundation
Grant ID No: DUE-0756921

College of Engineering and Applied Science
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio

Prepared By
Koungdong Kim, Senior, Aerospace Engineering
John Lewnard, Sophomore, Aerospace Engineering

Report Reviewed By:

__________________________

Dr. Kirti Ghia
REU Faculty Mentor
Professor of Aerospace Engineering
Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
University of Cincinnati

January 6 April 26


I. Abstract
The goal of this research project was to find the effects that both the operating altitude and angle
of attack had on the wake size and separation of the airflow from the airfoil in order to better
understand the airflow problems experienced by high altitude aircraft. Next, a mathematical
model created by Michael Cline
[7]
simulated the effect that a plasma actuator would have on the
surrounding airflow and was inputted into Ansys Fluent for Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) for validation purposes. It was found that as the operating altitude of the airfoil increased,
the wake size of the airfoil also increased. Also, it was found that as the operating angle of attack
for the airfoil increased, the wake size of the airfoil also increased. Lastly, the mathematical
model was validated, because there were no significant differences between results of the
mathematical model and the accepted results of Shyy et al.
[5]
from the same experimental set up.

II. Background
Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluid motion and is a major area of research and development.
One of the major areas of focus in fluid dynamics is research on the separation and control of
airflow around an airfoil. Flow separation on an airfoil occurs due to a build-up of a boundary
layer around the surface of the airfoil. A boundary layer is a layer of stagnant air particles that
forms due to a no-slip condition that is caused by the viscous forces between the flow and
airfoil. Since the mean flow velocity of the flow around the airfoil has decreased, the pressure
of the flow increases according to the Bernoulli principle. As a result, the pressure gradient
satisfies P/x>0 downstream which causes reversed flow near the boundary of the airfoil.
This reversed flow can caused a recirculation zone which causes the flow to separate from the
airfoil as seen in Fig. 1. This separation can cause an increase in the size of the wake to form
which can in turn cause drag which is very undesirable in many engineering applications.
[1]



Figure 1: Velocity Contour Map of Airflow while separating from the airfoil during
simulation run in Ansys Fluent

The flow separation is dependent on the characteristics of the flow and is dependent on the
Reynolds number (Re) where

= density of fluid
D = characteristic length
v = fluid velocity
= dynamic viscosity
As a result, the separation of the flow from the surface of the airfoil is dependent on the density
of the fluid, characteristic length, fluid velocity, and the dynamic viscosity.
Since drag is undesirable in engineering applications, there have been many flow control
methods developed that address wake formation around airfoils. Passive flow control methods
are methods that use stationary geometries on airfoils to divert the flow in such a way that
minimizes wake formation. An example of a passive flow control method is the use of dimples
on a body in order to make the flow become turbulent and in turn increase the velocity of the
flow. This increase in velocity delays the flow separation around the body and allows the body to
travel faster in the fluid.
Another type of flow control method is an active flow control method which utilizes motion in
order to impart momentum into the stagnant flow of the boundary by typically applying faster
moving air particles. This momentum increase of the flow within the boundary layer decreases
the pressure in the flow and causes the amount of recirculation to decrease which in turn causes a
decrease in flow separation and wake formation. One type of active flow control device is a
plasma actuator seen in Fig. 2 which uses an electric field to impart a body force on the
surrounding flow.


Figure 2: A plasma actuator (Thomas et al)
This electric field is created by two oppositely charged electrodes that are powered by an AC
voltage source and are separated by a dielectric barrier. As explained by Enloe et al.
[3]
, as the
AC voltage is applied, ionization occurs at the top electrode, because this is where the electric
Re = Dv/ (1)
field is strongest. However, since the top electrode is negatively charged, the captured electrons
are dissipated onto the portion of the dielectric barrier that covers the positively charged
electrode. The plasma is then formed by the series of discharges of electrons between the top
electrode and the dielectric barrier. The electric field then acts on the resulting plasma, which
then causes momentum to be imparted into the surrounding air. This imparting is so significant
that it can be seen with the naked eye during a smoke test conducted by Thomas et al.
[6]
where
the effect of a plasma actuator was tested as seen in Fig. 3 and Fig 4. During this experiment, the
entire body is a dielectric barrier and as a result has significant results in decreasing the wake
formation.

Figure 3: Cylindrical Body with Plasma Actuator Turned Off (Thomas et al)



Figure 4: Cylindrical Body with Plasma Actuator Turned On (Thomas et al)
Since plasma actuators have influence in minimizing the wake formation around an airfoil, a
great amount of research has taken place in order to find those parameters and conditions that
maximize their performance. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been an integral part of
this optimization process, because CFD is a method of numerical estimation that predicts fluid
motion in a particular environment given certain conditions and parameters. As a result, CFD can
be used to test the effects plasma actuators have on the fluid flow around an airfoil in a cheap
and timely manner compared to conducting physical tests. Subsequently, during this research
project, CFD was used to monitor baseline flows and flows with a plasma actuator acting in the
flow field.

III. Method
To understand how the separation of the flow from the airfoil is dependent on the environment in
which it is operating, CFD was utilized with the NACA0012 airfoil and the effect of altitude and
angle of attack on wake size were tested. In order to conduct CFD, the first step is to create the
airfoil geometry which is the geometry or shape that will be utilized in the simulation
environment. As a result, the coordinates of the NACA0012 developed by Ladson et al.
[4]
were
made into a continuous 2 dimensional entity using SolidWorks as seen in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: 2-dimensional NACA0012 airfoil


Once the airfoil was generated, it was imported into Pointwise which is a meshing software that
allows the user to change the topography of the nodes or intersections of the mesh. As seen in
Fig. 6, a C-grid was used in order to maintain a rectangular grid structure for as much of the
simulation domain as possible, because a mesh that maintains rectangular grid units within the
mesh is more accurate. The C-grid was also used to focus the highest node density near the
actual airfoil. The density of the nodes near the airfoil was increased, because this is the section
of the simulation environment that had the most useful data.













Figure 6: C-grid utilized to analyze flow around NACA0012 airfoil

Once the mesh was created, the boundary conditions were set in Pointwise. As seen in Fig. 7, the
boundary conditions set were those found by Cline et al.
[2]
because these were the boundary
conditions that produced the most realistic results for the simulations.














Figure 7: Table of Trial Runs with Varying Angle of Attack and Altitude
Velocity inlet
Velocity inlet
Velocity inlet
Pressure Outlet
Wall (Airfoil)
Table 1: Trial Runs with Varying Angle of Attack and Altitude


Once the boundary conditions were set and the mesh completed, the mesh was uploaded to
Ansys Fluet which was the CFD software used.
Since one of the main applications of this research would be related to Global Hawk, a US
Military spy aircraft that flies at 60,000 ft. above sea level with a Reynolds number of 10,000,
the wakes sizes at altitudes of 0 ft. and 60,000 ft. were measured and the Reynolds number at
60,000 ft. was assumed to be 10,000. As a result, for the airfoil flying at 60,000 ft. above sea
level, the velocity of the airflow was found using the method below while utilizing the values
seen in Table 1.

Re = Dv/
v = Re /D
v = (10000)(1.42*10
-5
)/(1.225*1) = 1.224 m/s

In order to test the effect angle of attack and altitude had on the wake size, the magnitude of the
velocity of the airflow was kept constant while the fluid parameters at each altitude including,
the pressure, dynamic viscosity, and temperature were varied based on the altitude being
simulated. This was done to simulate an aircraft flying with the same speed but at different
altitudes and with different angles of attack. Thus, the trials seen in Table 1 were run in Ansys
Fluent by simply inputting the airflow qualities (density, dynamic viscosity, and temperature)
into their Fluent. However, the angle of the inlet air velocity was manipulated by changing the x
and y components of the velocity while maintaining the same angle.
Once the relationship between wake size, altitude, and angle of attack were found, the next tests
conducted were done in order to validate a mathematical model that simulated a plasma actuator
acting on airflow over a flat plate created by the graduate student mentor of this research project,
Experimental Set-Up: Wake Size vs. Angle of Attack and Altitude
Trial
#
Angle of
Attack ()
Elevation
(ft.)
Density
(kg/m3)
Dynamic
Viscosity ()
Temperature
(K)
Velocity
(m/s)
Reynolds
Number
1
0
0 1.225 1.79E-05 285.9 1.224 83800
2 60000 0.1162 1.42E-05 216.65 1.224 10000
3
5
0 1.225 1.79E-05 285.9 1.224 83800
4 60000 0.1162 1.42E-05 216.65 1.224 10000
5
10
0 1.225 1.79E-05 285.9 1.224 83800
6 60000 0.1162 1.42E-05 216.65 1.224 10000
Michael Cline
[7]
. The mathematical model was validated by comparing Clines dimensionless
velocity profile at 3.8 mm downstream from the back of the top electrode with the dimensionless
velocity profile of Shyy et al
[5]
at the same location. This mathematical model was translated
from experiments and tests Shyy et al
[5]
had completed regarding a plasma actuator acting on the
fluid flow over a flat plate. The geometry of the simulation was a simple plate geometry as
shown in Fig. 8 where the electrode of the plasma actuator is protruding from the plate.


Figure 8: Plate Geometry used for Shyy et al Trial

As a result, the first step that was taken in order to validate Clines
[7]
mathematical model was to
create a mesh for the plate geometry as seen in Fig. 9. This mesh was a 100x290 node mesh with
the node density increased near the protruding electrode since this is where the most useful data
is located.








Figure 9: Mesh for Plate Geometry used for Validation

The mathematical model used by Cline is the mathematical model created by Shyy et al
[5]
. This
mathematical model simulates the effect a plasma actuator has on the airflow over a plate by
simulating the electric field forces on the plasma. This mathematical model starts by defining the
origin of the model as the bottom right corner of the protruding electrode which is where the
electric field is strongest. As a result,



Since the strongest portion of the electric field is as seen in Fig. 10, where the electric field gets
weaker as the distance from the origin increases, then constants k
1
and k
2
were created in order to
relate electric field and distance from the origin. Specifically, k
1
was used to relate the electric
field strength with distance in the b direction (x direction) while k
2
was used to related the
electric field strength in the a direction (y direction) as seen in Fig. 11.


Figure 10: Locations at which Electric Field is Strongest



Figure 11: The line AB denotes the point at which the electric field is no longer strong
enough to have a significant effect on the surrounding flow.

E
0
= V/d (2)
E
0
= Electric Field
V = Voltage
D = Horizontal distance between electrodes


This relationship between electric field strength and distance from the origin is captured in Eq. 3.




Eq. 4 and 5 are used to find the x and y components of the electric field.





Since


Where q is the total charge of the body that the electric field is acting on, then Eq. 7 and 8 use
this same basic concept where p
c
e
c
is the total charge of the flow on which the electric field is
acting.



However, the electric field can only act where plasma is present which is determined by the
electric field strength at that point. As a result, a variable must be used to take into account
whether the field applies a significant force at that point. Also another variable must be used in
order to take into account collision efficiency. Thus, Eq. 9 and 10 were created



Where is the collision constant and is 1 if E < E
b
or 0 if E >= E
b
where E
b
the breakdown
electric field strength. Although this is the magnitude of the force that will be applied to plasma
E

= E
0

xk
1
yk
2
(3)
E
x
= Ek
2
/

1
2
+
2
2
(4)
E
y
= Ek
1
/

1
2
+
2
2
(5)
F = Eq (6)
F
x
= E
x
p
c
e
c
(7)

F
y
= E
y
p
c
e
c
(8)
F
effx
= F
x
(9)

F
effy
= F
y
(10)
particles, this force is not a constant force. Not only does the AC voltage source have a
frequency but the force on the plasma is only for part of the period that the AC voltage is being
applied. However, since the frequency of the force applied is extremely large, the force will be
assumed as a constant time averaged force:



Where t is the time that the force is being applied and T is the period of the AC voltage. If

Then the total force applied on the plasma is:


As a result, this mathematical model was applied to the mesh created for the plate in Ansys
Fluent by inputting it as a User Defined Function (UDF). A UDF is a program that is written by
the user in order to set specific settings to test how certain things such as plasma actuators will
affect the fluid flow. The variables in the UDF were set to the values that were used to in the
experiment conducted by Shyy et al
[5]
. The test were run for four free stream values (2 m/s, 4
m/s, 5 m/s, and 10 m/s) and this was done by changing the magnitude of the inlet velocity to
these free stream values.

IV. Results
To begin, both the angle of attack and the altitude at which the airfoil was operating had an effect
on the wake size seen downstream. The wake size increased as the angle of attack increased for
both altitudes tested. This can be seen if one were to compare the wake sizes in Fig. 12, 14, and
16. This can also be seen if one were to compare the wake sizes in Fig. 13, 15, and 17.
The wake size was also dependent on the altitude whereas the altitude increased the wake size
increased for all angles of attacks tested. This can be seen if one were to compare Fig. 12 with
Fig. 13, Fig. 14 with Fig. 15, and Fig. 16 with Fig. 17. It should be noted that even in Fig. 12 and
Fig. 13 which both had angles of attack of 0 there is a difference in the amount of separation
that occurs on the airfoil. As a result, both angle of attack and elevation of operation affected the
wake size of the airfoil.



F
tavgx
= F
effx
(t)/T (11)

F
tavgy
= F
effy
(t)/T (12)
1/T = (13)
F
tavg =
p
c
e
c
tE (14)






Figure 12: Angle of Attack: 0; Elevation: 0 ft.








Figure 13: Angle of Attack: 0; Elevation: 60000 ft.







Figure 14: Angle of Attack: 5; Elevation: 0 ft.










Figure 15: Angle of Attack: 5; Elevation: 60000 ft.







Figure 16: Angle of Attack: 10; Elevation: 0ft.








Figure 17: Angle of Attack: 10; Elevation: 60000 ft.

Also, according to the data seen below in Fig. 18, 19, and 20, it appears that Clines
[7]

mathematical model produces very similar results as seen in Fig. 18 to that of Shyy et al
[5]
as
seen in Fig. 19. When comparing the results of Cline
[7]
with the results Shyy et al.
[5]
in Figure
20, all free stream velocities appear to have the same dimensionless velocity maxima at the same
vertical distance from the plates. However, there is a slight difference for the all free stream
velocity where Clines dimensionless velocity does not decrease as quickly as the velocities of
Shyy et al.
[5]
dimensionless velocity as the vertical distance from the plate increases. However,
despite this difference, there appears to be no significant difference to be mentioned.


Figure 18: Clines
[7]
Dimensionless Velocity Profile 3.8 mm Down Stream from back of
Top Electrode

0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
m
)

u/V
Relationship between Vertical
Distance and Dimensionless Velocity
Free stream 2 m/s
Free stream 4 m/s
Free stream 5 m/s
Free stream 10 m/s

Figure 19: Dimensionless Velocity Profile of Shyy et al
[5]
at 3.8 mm Down Stream from
back of Top Electrode



Figure 20: Comparison of Clines Dimensionless Velocity Profile with Dimensionless
Velocity Profile of Shyy et al
[5]


V. Conclusion
As a result, both the altitude and angle of attack at which the airfoil was operating affected the
separation and wake of the airflow around the airfoil. Furthermore, as the altitude of operation
increased, the wake size of airflow increased for all angles of attack tested. Also, as the angle of
attack increased, the wake size of the airflow increased for both altitudes tested.
Conclusions regarding Clines
[7]
mathematical model can be made, as well. Since the methods
of Shyy et al
[5]
have been cited extensively in the field as reference, it can be assumed that the
results are acceptable and represent what would truly happen. Furthermore, since Clines
mathematical model produced results that had only minor discrepancies from the results of Shyy
et al.
[5]
then it can be concluded that Clines mathematical model also represents acceptable and
believable results.
Subsequently, this research has delved into the effects altitude and angle of attack have on the
flow separation and wake size to better understand the airflow problems that high altitude aircraft
experience. To possibly solve the airflow problems tested in this research project, plasma
actuators could be utilized to minimize flow separation and wake size. This research project then
validated a mathematical model created by Michael Cline
[7]
that simulated plasma actuators
acting on an airflow above a flat plate by comparing Clines
[7]
results with the accepted results
of Shyy et al
[5]
from the same experimental set up. As a result, this mathematical model could be
used on more complicated airfoils to test the effect plasma actuators have on the airflow
surrounding these airfoils. Thus, this research was comprised of preliminary results and testing
that can now lead to further scientific discoveries in the field of plasma actuators.

VI. Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Kirti Ghia, Dr. Urmila Ghia, Mr. Michael Cline, Mr. Temesgen
Aure, and the National Science Foundation for the support and guidance of this research project.

VII. References
[1] Chanson, Hubert. (2009) Applied Hydrodynamics: An Introduction to Real and Ideal Fluid
Flows, Taylor and Francis Group.
[2] Cline, Michael, and Tao Jiang. (2012) "Active Flow Control Techniques for Low-Pressure
Turbine Blades." National Science Foundation DUE-0756921 College of Engineering and
Applied Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.
[3] Enloe, C. L., et al. (2004). "Mechanisms and Responses of a Single Dielectric Barrier
Plasma Actuator: Geometric Effects," American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 595-604.
[4] Ladson, C.L., Brooks, Jr., and Trapp, W. Jens. (1975). Development of a Computer
Program to Obtain Coordinates for NACA 4- Digit, 4-digit modified, 5-digit, and 16-Series
Airfoils. NASA TM X-3284, 1975.
[5] Shyy, W., B. Jayaraman, and A. Andersson. (2002). "Modeling of Glow Discharge-Induced
Fluid Dynamics." Journal of Applied Physics, AIP, Vol. 92, No. 11.
[6] Thomas, Flint O., Alexey Kozlov, and Thomas C. Corke. (2006). "Plasma Actuators for
Bluff Body Flow Control," 3
rd
AIAA Low Control Conference, held at San Francisco,
California, June 5-8.
VIII. Index
[7] User Defined Function Created by Michael Cline (2014):
#include "udf.h"

#define freq 3000

#define rhoc pow(10,17)

#define Eb 3000000

#define deltat 67*pow(10,-6)

#define e 1.602*pow(10,-19)

#define Uo 5656.75

#define d .00025

#define Eo Uo/d

#define b .003

#define a .0015

#define k1 (Eo-Eb)/b

#define k2 2*k1

#define pi 4.0*atan(1.0)

DEFINE_SOURCE(xmom_source, c, t, dS, eqn)
{
real source;

real E;

real Ex;

real fx;

real x[ND_ND];

real xo;

real yo;

real xrect;

real yrect;

real alpha;

real beta;

C_CENTROID(x,c,t);

xo = x[0]-.0135;

yo = x[1]-.0015;

alpha = pow(pow(xo,2)+pow(yo,2),.5);

if ((xo > 0.0) && (xo < .003) && (yo < 0.0))
{
E = Eo - k1*(xo) - k2*(x[1]);
if (E > Eb)
{
Ex = E*k2/pow(pow(k1,2.0)+pow(k2,2.0),.5);

fx = Ex*rhoc*e*freq*deltat;

source = fx;

dS[eqn] = 0.0;
}
}
else
{
source = 0.0;

dS[eqn] = 0.0;
}
return source;
}

DEFINE_SOURCE(ymom_source, c, t, dS, eqn)
{
real source;

real E;

real Ey;

real fy;

real x[ND_ND];

real xo;

real yo;

real xrect;

real yrect;

real alpha;

real beta;

C_CENTROID(x,c,t);

xo = x[0]-.0135;

yo = x[1]-.0015;

alpha = pow(pow(xo,2)+pow(yo,2),.5);

if ((xo > 0.0) && (xo < .003) && (yo < 0.0))
{
E = Eo - k1*(xo) - k2*(x[1]);
if (E > Eb)
{
Ey = E*k1/pow(pow(k1,2.0)+pow(k2,2.0),.5);

fy = Ey*rhoc*e*freq*deltat;

source = fy;

dS[eqn] = 0.0;
}
}
else
{
source = 0.0;

dS[eqn] = 0.0;
}
return source;
}