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Structural Steel Work
This training module is designed to give students
a good appreciation on the use of structural steel
as a construction material and the good practices
of structural steel work construction.
Building & Construction Unit, IC
(Notes can be downloaded from BCU
Web page)
http http:://www //www..ic ic..polyu polyu..edu edu..hk/bcu/ hk/bcu/$ $Training Training- -
materials materials..htm htm
Password Password :: 12345 12345
Learning Objectives:
State the characteristics of structural steel as
construction material, and the commonly used
steel sections
Read and interpret the construction details of
structural steel elements of a building structure
in drawing format
Participate in fabrication of a simple steel building
frame; use of cutting and drilling tools;
connection practices including bolt and nuts and
welding
Recognize protective coatings of structural steel
structures: painting & hot-dip galvanizing
Conduct inspection on the fabricated frame and
simple NDT for the welding connections
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Terminology
Steel framed structures are usually made
up of the following structural elements
connected by bolts or welding :
beams
girders (large steel beams)
trusses
stanchions (columns)
bracing
Shapes and Properties of hot rolled steel
Shapes of commonly used steel sections in Hong Kong based on product information of
British Steel: UB, UC, EA, UA, PFC, CHS, RHS, SHS and Joists
Standard Length of Steel Component: 12m
e.g UC - Universal Column UB - Universal Beam
EA - Equal Angle
UA - Unequal Angle
PFC- Parallel Flange Channel
RHS - Rectangular CHS Circular Hollow Section
Hollow Section
SHS - Square
Hollow Section
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Standard and grade of steel
BS EN 1993 is the standard for the design,
fabrication and erection of structural steelwork
(These were formerly referred to BS 5950).
BS EN 10025 is the standard for material
strength is specified in relation to steel grade. It
dependent on yield stress. Stresses are given for
three grades of steel called S275, S355 & S460
(These were formerly referred to BS 4360 as
Grades 43, 50 and 55) is commonly used, except
for bridges
Structural steel for bridgework according to BS
5400
Standard and grade of steel
Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
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Typical examples of structural steel works
connections method:
Beam-to-column connections: Bolted
endplate + welded connections
Beam-to-beam connections: Endplate type
beam splice (plate-to-plate connection).
Column bases: Bolted base plate
connection.
Column-to-Column: Splice plate + welded
connections
Connection Methods
Example of beam-to-column connections:
Extended End Plate Moment Connection
This connection is the end plate moment connection. It is made by
shop-welding a plate to the end of a beam and field-bolting it to a
column or to another beam. The four bolts around the tension flange
transmit the flange force into the column. Additional bolts may be needed
in deeper sections. A bolt may also be added near the neutral axis of the
beam to prevent gaps between the plates.
Source: http://wwweng.uwyo.edu/connections/
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Example of Beam-to-beam connections:
Beam Splice Moment Connection
This is a beam splice moment connection. The flange plates and
bolts in this beam splice must be capable of transferring all the
flange force from one side to the other. The web plate and bolts may
help to resist moment, but their primary function is to transfer shear
across the splice.
This moment connection has flange plates on the outside only.
In some connections it may be necessary to have plates inside the
flanges as well.
Source: http://wwweng.uwyo.edu/connections/
Example of Column bases: Pipe Column
Base Plate
A round pipe column sits atop a wide flange and is fastened
with a rectangular end plate having four bolts. Even though all the
bolts lie outside the round section, this is generally designed as a
pinned connection. The column delivers a concentrated load to the
beam and a bearing stiffener is used on the web.
Source: http://wwweng.uwyo.edu/connections/
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Source: http://wwweng.uwyo.edu/connections/
An all-welded column splice. The web plate is shop-welded to
the lower column, then the upper column is lowered into the
connection and field-welded. The web bolts are just for fit-up
and erection.
Example of Column-to-Column: Welded
Column Splice
Structural Steelwork Fabrication Processes
1. Measurement / Marking
2. Cutting and Drilling
3. Welding/Plating Components
4. Painting/Galvanizing
5. Quality Control
6. Handover
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Cutting and Drilling
Use of common hand tools or equipments
including cutting machine, grinder, hammer,
dividers, steel rule, and drilling machine etc.
Holes in steel sections and plates shall be
formed to the following sizes:
For ordinary bolts and high strength friction grip bolts:
Not exceeding 24 mm diameter - 2 mm greater than the bolt diameter.
Greater than 24 mm diameter - 3 mm greater than the bolt diameter.
For holding down bolts:
6 mm greater than the bolt
diameter or with sufficient
clearance to ensure that a bolt,
whose adjustment may cause
it to be out of perpendicular,
can be accommodated
through the base plate.
Precaution of holes drilling
Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition
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Welding/Plating Components
A weld is defined as a localized coalescence of
metals wherein coalescence is produced by
heating the metal to suitable temperatures, with
or without the application of pressure and
without the use of any filler metal.
Butt welds and fillet welds are included in the
section of welded connections. Butt welds are
normally used for in-line jointing in plates or
sections and fillet welds are used for tee or lap
jointing.
Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Welding/Plating Components
Tack weld
Functions of tack weld hold up the correct alignment and
connection of two components before permanent welding.
The minimum length of the tack shall be the lesser of 4
times the thickness of the thicker part or 50 mm.
If the permanent weld joint is required for the any x ray
inspection. The tack weld cannot be connected on the joint
directly. Such (b) and (c) as below:
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Butt Weld
Full penetration welds
A full penetration weld is a butt that has complete penetration and fusion
of weld with parent metal throughout the thickness of the joint. In the use
of matching welding consumables, which have all mechanical properties
equivalent to, or better than, those specified for the parent metal, the
design strength of full penetration butt weld can be taken as equal to the
parent metal. If parent materials are of different grades, the lower grade
steel should be assumed for all connected plates. However, the electrode
for the highest grade should be used. Two common types of butt welds
are available as U and V butt joints. U butt joint has a depth of penetration
equal to the depth of weld penetration and V butt joint has a depth 2 mm
less than the depth of weld penetration.
Partial penetration weld
When connecting strength is not required to be as high as the strength of
the capacity of the connection components, a partial penetration butt weld
can be used.
Welding/Plating Components
Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Welding/Plating Components
Fillet welds
Fillet weld is more commonly used because its
cost is lower than full penetration weld.
Fillet weld does not require end preparation of
the element to be welded and the size or leg
length is smaller. The amount of testing required
for fillet weld is also smaller.
Source: Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
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Welding/Plating Components
Source: http://www.engr.mun.ca/~dfriis/cadkey/program/textappi.html
Symbols indicating fillet welds
Symbols for different butt weld notches
Steel materials is easily rust without protective
coating. Because the rust on steel materials may
cause malfunction or weaken the strength of own
structure. So, we must provide some competent
coating to prevent any rusting reaction occur.
Coating System - Painting
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Painting is the principal method of protecting
structural steelwork from corrosion. Paints are
usually applied one coat on top of another and
each coat has a specific function or purpose.
Primers for steel are usually classified according to the main
corrosion
Iron-oxide (Generally red or yellow)
Zinc Phosphate
Hot-Dip Galvanized (BS EN ISO 1461)
Finished coating - A high performance, two, components
chemically-cured aliphatic urethane gloss enamel for use in
areas where maximum gloss & colour retention are required.
For use on properly prepared and primed / galvanized steel
Coating System - Painting
Coating System - Painting
Zinc Phosphate Primer (Type of Primer)
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Coating System - Painting
Red or Yellow Oxide Primer (Type of Primer)
Coating System - Painting
Micaceous Iron Oxide (Type of Undercoat)
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Coating System - Painting
Gloss Enamel (Type of Finishing Coat)
Coating System - Painting
Common thickness of each coating
Primer: dry film thickness = 35 m
Undercoat: dry film thickness = 35 m
Finishing coat: dry film thickness = 30 m
Minimum overall dry film thickness = 100 m
Checking with thickness of coating we use elcometer
Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition
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Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
Hot Dip Galvanizing is a factory controlled metallurgical
combination of zinc and steel that provides corrosion
resistance in a wide variety of environments. It protects
steel from corrosion in two ways. It provides cathodic
protection and barrier protection.
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
1. Degreasing
2. Pickling
3. Fluxing
4. Galvanizing
5. Finishing
6. Quenching
7. QC Inspection
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Hot Dip Galvanizing Process
Surface Preparation
The most important step in the application of any coating. In most
instances, where a coating fails before the end of its expected service life
it is due to incorrect or inadequate surface preparation. With galvanizing,
the surface preparation process contains its own built-in means of quality
assurance and quality control in that zinc will simply not react with a steel
surface that is not perfectly clean.
Caustic Cleaning Acid Pickling Fluxing
Source: http://www.gscsteel.com/galvanizing.html /
Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
Galvanizing - In this step, the material is completely immersed in a bath
of a minimum of 98% pure molten zinc. The bath temperature is
maintained at about 450 C. Fabricated items are immersed in the bath
long enough to reach bath temperature. The articles are slowly withdrawn
from the galvanizing bath , and the excess zinc is removed by draining,
vibrating, and/or centrifuging. The steel then goes into a dilute chromate
quench giving your product a longer lasting luster.
Source: http://www.gscsteel.com/galvanizing.html /
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Coating System - Hot Dip Galvanizing
Inspection/Finishing The most important method of
inspection for galvanized articles is visual. A variety of
simple physical and laboratory tests may be performed for:
Thickness,
Adherence of the coating,
Uniformity of the coating,
Appearance
Source: http://www.gscsteel.com/galvanizing.html /
Inspection and checking occurs at each stage in the
fabrication process and after final assembly.
These checks are usually carried out examine for:
Straightness
Flatness
Inherent defects
Dimensions
Connections
Alignment of holes
Welding
Finishes/cleanliness
Inspection and Quality Control
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Material testing
Samples of steel shall be provided from each
batch of steel within 3 days after delivery of the
batch to the fabricators works or to the Site.
The rate of sampling and the position and
direction of the samples shall be in accordance
with BS EN 10002-1 and BS EN 10045.
Test for material of steel
Impact test (BS EN 10045-1)
Tensile test (BS EN 10002-1)
Charpy 'V-notch' Impact test (BS EN 10045-1)
Consists of striking a notched test piece with a hammer and
measuring the energy required to cause fracture. The energy is
indicated on the dial of the test machine and the force is produced
by a swinging mass. Energy to fracture specimen .
Material testing
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Material testing
Tensile test (BS EN 10002-1)
Testing machines are used to determine the mechanical properties of
materials under tension, compression, bending, shear and torsion. A
standard test piece is gripped at either end by suitable apparatus in a
testing machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is
stretched until it breaks. The test provides information on proof stress,
yield point, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area.
Inspection and Quality Control
All welds shall be inspected and tested according to the
requirements.
NDT inspection has become important in different industries.
Also, the inspection is widely used and requires expensive
equipment and special technologies.
Final inspection of welds
a. Visual examination
b. Non-destructive testing
Dye Penetrate Testing
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Ultrasonic Testing
X-ray
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Non-destructive testing
Dye Penetrate Testing
Utilized to detect open or surface cracks
or defects in materials. Red dye or
fluorescent penetrants are utilized as
well as various types of wet and dry
developers.
1. Pre-treatment by cleaner
2. Penetration of red penetrate
3. Remove red penetrate completely with cleaner before inspection
4. Applied white developer
5. As it dries, red penetrate in flaw area
is absorbed and appeared
Non-destructive testing
Magnetic Particle Inspection
An articulated leg magnetic yoke providing a portable means of
creating magnetic fields for detection of surface cracks.
ferromagnetic materials to detect surface and slight subsurface
discontinuities.
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Non-destructive testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) are performed for the detection and sizing
of internal defects, flaws or discontinuities in piping, castings,
forgings, weldments or other components. Exact sizing techniques
have been developed to detect and monitor progressive cracking
in a variety of equipment.
Non-destructive testing
Radiographic Testing (RT) (X-ray)
To detect and evaluate internal defects and structural variations,
including cracks, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, porosity
and inclusions. These tests are performed with Iridium 192,
Cobalt isotopes, or low-voltage x-ray. Several dark room trailers
are available for on-site development of radiographs.
Image of a beehive through low-voltage x-ray.
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Acceptance of Welds
Weld Type Weld Size Approval of Welding
Procedure
Butt weld < or = 4 mm Not necessary
Ditto > 4 mm By qualified welding
inspector
Fillet weld < or = 4 mm Not necessary
Ditto > 4 mm By qualified welding
inspector
Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Acceptance of Welds
Weld Type Frequency of Non-destructive
Testing
All types of butt welds 100% ultrasonic examination
and magnetic particle inspection
Fillet welds with leg
length exceeding and
including 10 mm
20% ultrasonic examination and
magnetic particle inspection
Fillet welds with leg
length not exceeding 10
mm
20% magnetic particle
inspection
Secondary attachment
welds, e.g. for fixing
purlins, side rails
5% of attachments by magnetic
particle inspection and ultrasonic
examination if leg length
exceeds and includes 10 mm
Source: General Specification for Building 2007 Edition
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Acceptance of Welds
Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
Acceptance of Welds
Source: Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
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Each part of the structure shall be aligned as
soon as practicable after it has been erected.
Any temporary bracing or temporary restraint
shall be left in position until erection is
sufficiently advanced to leave the remaining
structure in a stable and safe condition.
Common Practice
Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005, Building Department,
HKSAR.
Connections From Steel Sculpture, College of Engineering and Applied
Science, University of Wyoming, Denver, US, Online
[http://wwweng.uwyo.edu/connections]
Section 15, Structural Steel Work, General Specification for Building ( 2007
Edition ), Architectural Services Department, HKSAR.
Section 21, Painting, General Specification for Building ( 2007 Edition ),
Architectural Services Department, HKSAR.
Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel
2005 , Building Department, HKSAR.
Appendix I, Symbols Used in Engineering Drawings, Engineering - 1502;
Engineering Design I (Computer Graphics), Faculty of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, University of Newfoundland, Canada. Online
[http://www.engr.mun.ca/~dfriis/cadkey/program/textappi.html]
Galvanizing Process, Goodluck Steel Co, India. Online
[http://www.gscsteel.com/galvanizing.html]
Reference