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1.0 The Sentence and Its Elements

1.1 What is a Sentence?

A sentence is often defined as a word or group of words that

expresses a complete thought or a word or group of words that has an
expressed or understood subject and a predicate.

Examples of Sentences:

• Go!
• Come what may.
• Who arrives?
• When he reached the mountain, he saw a road to the left
and a road to the right.

1.2 What is a Fragment?

A fragment is a group of words that lacks either a subject or a

predicate and does not express a complete thought.

Examples of Fragments:

• Familiar means of transportation.

• Suppose President Diosdado Macapagal could return to
earth today.
• Found a need for each other without the presence of a loving
parent.
• When my friend got married.

Oral Exercise:

Determine whether each group of words is a sentence or

a fragment.

1. The invention of machines has brought most of the changes.

2. Would find himself in a strange new world.
3. In his time no building more that four stories high.
4. Automobiles and trains had not yet been invented during that
time.
5. Horse drawn vehicles traveled on unpaved roads.
6. A vast number of changes in the last two hundred years.
7. At the court of the king of Babylon in 2000 B.C.
8. There he would see many things that were familiar to him.
9. The lamps and torches and charcoal fires.
10. Two hundred years is a short period of time in history.
11. The changes that have occurred in that time were tremendous.
12. Without the inventions of machines.
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Written Exercise:

Write C if a word group is a complete sentence, write frag if it

is a fragment.

1. When the bus driver went on strike.

2. I saw many people giving rides to strangers.
3. Some even drove out their way for others.
4. Especially when the weather was bad.
5. One rainy day, I saw an elderly woman pull her car over to the
curb.
6. Yelling and waving for five shivering students to get into her car.
7. Until the strike finally ended.
8. Scenes like that were not uncommon.
9. It seems that community problems bring people together.
10. By weakening the feeling that we live very separate lives.

1.3 What are Phrases and Clauses?

There are two types of fragments: a phrase and a clause. A phrase is

a group of words introduced by a preposition, a noun, or verbals
(gerunds, participles, infinitives)

Examples of Phrases:

• Into the wide garden (prep)

• Farming of land without plows (gerund)
• To survive living in that barren land (infinitive)
• Amazed and excited in her new surrounding (participle)
• Traveled without food for 2 days (verb phrase)

Another type of fragment is a clause. A clause has a subject and a

predicate but does not express a complete thought.

Examples of Clauses:

• Before the computer was introduced

• When the first plane came into being
• Because this method was slow
• As technology advanced

Oral Exercise:

Identify whether the underlined group of words is a clause or a

phrase.

1. During the 1800s an agricultural revolution occurred.

2. Farming became more productive because of new inventions.
3. Crop yields increased when a seed drill was invented.
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4. Seeds were scattered by hand before the drill was marketed.

5. Farmers were excited when the steel plow appeared in 1937.
6. With John Deere’s invention, they could plow more land.
7. After Eli Whitney built his cotton gin, large – scale cultivation of
cotton became possible.
8. Without this device cotton took too much time to clean.
9. Farms soon expanded since grain could be harvested easily.
10. As time passed, many other inventions helped the farmer.

Written Exercise:

Identify if it is a Phrase or a Clause.

1. Including crayons, stones, and melted chocolates

2. Also, grumpy as a bear, but weak as a kitten
3. As you can see in this old photograph
4. Who made giant contributions to our country’s history
5. Good at tennis but better at volleyball
6. Of his many ideas and inventions
7. That he was the most attentive boy in class
8. What Ramon Magsaysay did to the poor
9. Whoever proclaimed him the winner
10. To open the rear window every morning

1.4 What are the Functions of Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition

and ending with a noun or pronoun. The prepositional phrase often answers the
question where, when, and what kind.

Examples:

• The members of the club want sweatshirts with the club emblem.
(adjective)
• They sailed along across the lake yesterday (adverb)
• By Wednesday, they shall have finished the work.( adverb)
• The children are in the park (adverb)

1.5 What are the Functions of Clauses?

Like phrases, clauses also function as other parts of speech such

as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

 A noun clause occupies the following positions in the

sentence.

Notice these examples:

1. Where he is going is a secret. (subject)

2. I know what his name is .(direct object)
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3. This is what I think.( subjective complement)

4. The club will give whoever wins a prize. (indirect object)
5. She will name him whatever she wants to.(direct object)
6. She worried about how ill he was.( object of prep)
7. One fact, that he is incompetent, cannot be disputed.
(appositive)
8. Remembering what she said, I was careful to be on time.(object
of participle)
9. John asked her to read what he had written.(object of
infinitive)
10. Knowing that he is here is a comfort to me.( object of gerund)

Oral Exercise on Noun Clauses:

Identify the function of these underlined noun clauses.

1. Benjamin Franklin learned what succeeds.

2. He knew what should be said.
3. What happened has been recorded.
4. Appreciation was given to whoever helped.
5. Friendliness is what resulted.
6. What we want is not always what we need.
7. Whoever succeeds must work.
8. He must learn what is expected.
9. Satisfaction comes to whoever succeeds.
10. Success is what is desired.

An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective to

modify a noun or a pronoun.

Examples:
• This is a new music video that I like best.
• Griffins, which are mythological beasts, are seen in many
coats of arms.
• Here is the salad that you ordered.
• The students questioned the data on which the theory was
based.

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an

adjective, or another adverb.

Examples:
• After I proofread my paper, I typed it.
(The adverb clause After I Proofread my paper tells when I
typed it.)
• Because Manicotti takes so long to prepare, Joy makes it
only on special occasions.
(Because manicotti takes so long to prepare tells why Joy
makes it only on special occasions)
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• You and your brother may come with us if you want to.
(If you want to tells under what condition you and your
brother may come with us.)
• His pitching arm is stronger today than it ever was.
(The adverb clause modifies the adjective stronger, telling to
what extent his arm is stronger.
• My cousin Adele reads faster than I do.
(The adverb clause modifies the adverb faster, telling how
much faster my cousin Adele reads.)

Oral Exercise:

Identify the adverb clause in each of the following sentences.

1. He went home as soon as he could.

2. Abraham Lincoln maintained great interest in legal studies when he
was President.
3. He read law books whenever he had the chance.
4. He even read while he conducted cabinet meetings.
5. He had wanted to be a lawyer since he was a young boy.
6. He worked as a lawyer after he finished his education.
7. He was a member of the legislature of his state before he became
President.
8. He maintained his interest in law until he was assassinated.
9. We will better appreciate Lincoln the lawyer when we study his legal
opinions.
10. I have always lived where I was born.

Written Exercise:

Copy the dependent clause and identify whether noun, adjective, or

adverb clause. If the sentence is simple, write none.

1. One of the great problems that the world faces is overpopulation.

2. Experts tell us that unless it is brought under control population growth
will produce a serious crisis in the world’s food supply in a few years.
3. Increase in population will also exhaust the space that is habitable on
the earth.
4. Many of the world’s peoples are not aware of this problem.
5. People who have engaged in fertility rites for centuries find the danger
of over-population a hard concept to grasp.
6. World leaders who must always think about public reaction find the
population problem hard to cope with.
7. Improvement in food production and distribution however is something
that everybody can understand and support.
8. Likewise water conservation which is necessary to food production and
other vital human activities is supported readily by most people.
9. But increased production as important as it is will probably never reach
sufficient proportions unless an effort is made to control population.
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10. Before this complicated problem is solved people will have to be

educated to understand the urgency of reducing the world’s birth rate
as well as the necessity for the production of much more food.

2.0. Expanding Sentence Patterns

Kinds of Sentences (simple, compound, complex)

2.1 Basic Pattern: Simple Sentence

The subject of a sentence is the part that names whom or what the
sentence is about. The predicate is the part that tells what the subject is or does.

1. A gale is a strong wind.

2. A dangerous gale and flash flood are coming this way.
3. A gale at sea can sink small boats and destroy houses on the shores.

Sometimes the subject can just be one word, as in sentence 1. The

subject can also be compound as in sentence 2 and compound predicate as in
sentence 3. But sentences 1 to 3 are still categorized as simple sentences.

2.2 Compound Sentences use coordinate conjunctions as connectors.

Examples:

And shows addition.

• John moved to New York, and Alice moved to Seattle.

But and yet show contrast.

• John moved away, but Alice stayed in town.
• Jerry has saved money all year, yet he does not have
enough for his vacation.

Or and nor show contrast or alternation.

• Are you going to the party, or will you stay home?
• I do not write Arabic, nor do I speak it very well.

Notice that after nor, the sentence pattern takes question word – order
verb or auxilliary before subject.

• I am not eager to go there, nor is John.

• I am not eager to go there, nor will John be.

For and so show reason.

• That student failed, for he was very ill this year.
• The books were cheap, so I bought all of them.
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Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs, called correlative

conjunctions. These pairs of conjunctions may be used to join two basic
sentence patterns or two parallel sentence elements of any kind.

Either...................or.....................
Neither.................nor...................
Both.....................and..................
Not only................but also...........

Either you will confess, or I will complain. (Compound)

Neither the money nor the jewelry was missing. (Simple)
Jack failed not only chemistry, but also physics. (Simple)
Both Jerry and Bob are in love with Harriet. (Simple)
Neither is he dependable, nor is he trustworthy. (Compound)
Not only is he dependable, but also he is trustworthy. (Compound)
Not only is he dependable, but he is also trustworthy. (Compound)

Notice the question word – order in the last three sentences, also variation
possible in the placement of but also. Make sure they are of parallel structure.

Adverb Clauses are often introduced by the following relationships:

Examples:
Adverbial clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions can
express the following relationships.
 Time ---------- when, while, before, since
 Place ---------- where, wherever
 Condition ---------- if, unless, provided
 Cause ---------- because, since, as
 Purpose ---------- that, so that, in order that
 Manner ---------- as if, as though
 Result ---------- so –that, such – that
 Comparison ---------- than, as – as, so – as
 Concession ---------- although, even though, even if

Examples of Adverb Clauses

• Many pioneers struggled as many other heroes have struggled.

• Danger lurked wherever they looked.
• If Indians attacked, everyone fought.
• When sickness came, families cooperated.
• Although hardships increased, people continued.

Oral Exercise:

Determine if the group of underlined words is a phrase or a

clause and identify its function.

Example:
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Because he was loved throughout India and the world, Gandhi was
called Mahatma, meaning “Great Soul.”

: Answer: CLAUSE – ADVERB

1. What Mary Ann did was brave and earned praise from everyone.
2. The mother said he could go.
3. The students questioned the data on which the theory was based.
4. Talking about money makes him uneasy.
5. Having some experience, he was hired immediately.
6. The school needed a teacher to take charge.
7. The only job he could find is fixing bikes.
8. Wanting privacy, they never discuss salaries.
9. When hte volcano errupted, the sky turned black.
10. Our dog rests on the floor in the sunshine.

Written Exercise:

Determine if the underlined group of words is a phrase or a

clause. Then identify its function. (Two answers for every
number.)

1. What surprised me first were the yellowish green fire engines.

2. Now, after we have lived in Cavite for a year, both Michelle and I are
happy in our new home in Tubigon.
3. Cartoonists use a variety of unusual names for the symbols that
commonly appear in funnies.
4. For example, a briffit is the little puff of dust hanging in the spot where
a swiftly departing character had just been standing.
5. If you look through newspapers from the first half of this century, you
will see many pictures of Mohandas K. Gandhi.
6. There is a teacher in the classroom but there are no students.
7. There stood Mary, frantically dipping water out of the boat.
8. The traveling salesman who was selling second hand computers
looked very attractive.
9. He goes to school by motorbike everyday.
10. She is loved anywhere she is assigned to teach.

3.0 Problems in the Position of Modifiers

3.1 MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Misplaced modifiers are words that, because of awkward placement, do

not describe the words the writer intended them to describe. Misplaced modifiers
often confuse the meaning of a sentence. To avoid them, place words as close
as possible to what they describe

Misplaced Words They could see the Goodyear blimp

sitting on the front lawn
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(The Goodyear blimps were sitting Sitting on the front lawn, they
on the front lawn?) could see the Goodyear
blimp.

Correctly Placed Words

We had a hamburger after the After the movie, we had a

movie, which was too greasy for hamburger which was too greasy
my taste. for my taste.
(The movie was too greasy for my
taste?)

Other single – word modifiers to watch out for include only, even, hardly,
nearly, and often. Such words should be placed immediately before the word
they modify.

Our phone almost rang fifteen times
last night.
(The phone almost rang fifteen times,
but in fact did not ring at all?)
Our phone rang almost fifteen times
last night.
(The intended meaning – that the
phone rang a little under fifteen times
– is now clear.)

Oral Exercise:

Point out the misplaced word or words in each sentence. Then revise
the sentence, placing related words together to make the meaning clear.

Example:

Anita returned the hamburger to the supermarket that was spoiled.

Anita returned the hamburger that was spoiled to the
supermarket.

Revise the following sentences for clarity.

1. Larry looked on as his car burned with disbelief.

2. We watched the fireworks standing on our front porch.

3. Jenny kept staring at the man in front row with curly hair.

4. I love the cookies from the bakery with the chocolate frosting.
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5. Jason almost has two hundred baseball cards.

Written Exercise:

Rewrite each sentence, adding the italicized words. Make sure that
the intended meaning is clear and that two different interpretations are not
possible.

Example:

I borrowed a pen for the essay test. (that ran out of ink)

For the essay test, I borrowed a pen that ran out of ink.

1. I was thrilled to read that my first niece was born. (in a telegram)

2. My father agreed to pay for the car repairs. (over the phone)

3. I found a note on the kitchen bulletin board. (from Jeff)

4. The children ate the whole bag of cookies. (almost)

5. Jon read about how the American Revolution began. (during class)

3.2. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the

word it meant to describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the
sentence takes an unintended meaning. For example, in the sentence

While sleeping in his backyard, a Frisbee ball hit Bill on the head.

As it is, it means that the Frisbee was sleeping in his backyard. What the writer
meant, of course, was that Bill was sleeping in his backyard. The writer should
have placed Bill right after the modifier.

While sleeping in his backyard, Bill was hit on the head by a

Frisbee.

The sentence could also be corrected by placing the subject within the opening
word group:
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While Bill was sleeping in his backyard, a Frisbee hit him on

the head.

Examples:

DANGLING Riding his bike, a German shepherd bit

Having almost no money, my survival
depends on my parents.
(Who has almost no money? The
answer is not survival but I. The
subject I must be added.)
CORRECT
Having almost no money, I depended
on my parents for survival.
Or: Since I had almost no money, I
depended on my parents for survival.
Tony’s ankle. (Who is riding the bike?
The answer is not German shepherd,
as it unintentionally seem to be, but
Tony.)
Riding his bike, Tony was bitten on
the ankle by a German shepherd.
Or: While Tony was riding his bike, a
German shepherd bit him on the
ankle.

These examples make clear two ways of correcting a dangling modifier. Decide on
a logical subject and do one of the following:

1. Place the subject within the opening word group:

Since I had almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival

(Note: In some cases an appropriate subordinating word such as since must be

added, and the verb may have to be changed slightly as well.)

2. Place the subject right after the opening word group.

Having almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival.

Sometimes even more rewriting is necessary to correct a dangling modifier. What

is important to remember is that a modifier must be placed as close as possible to
the word it modifies.

Written Exercise:

A. Rewrite each sentence to correct the dangling modifier.

1. Having turned sour, I would not drink the milk.

2. At the age of five, my mother bought me a chemistry set.

3. Because they were drooping, the children watered the plants.

4. Talking on the phone, my hot tea turned cold.

5. Pile high with dirty dishes, Pete hated to look at the kitchen sink.

B.Complete the following sentences. In each case, logical subject

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should follow the opening words.

Example:

Checking the oil stick, I saw that my car was a quart low.

1. While taking a bath,

2. Before starting the car,
3. Frightened by the noise in the basement,
4. Realizing it was late,
5. Though very expensive,

3.3. PARALLELISM in SENTENCES

Words in a pair or a series should have a parallel structure. By balancing

the items in a pair or a series so that they have the same structure, you will make
your sentences clearer and easier to read. Notice how the parallel sentences that
follow read smoothly than the nonparallel ones.

NONPARALLEL(Not Balanced) PARALLEL(Balanced)

Fran spends her free time reading, Fran spends her free time reading,
listening to music, and she works in listening to music, and working in the
the garden. garden. (A balanced series of – ing
words: reading, listening, working)

After the camping trip, I was After the camping trip, I was
exhausted, irritable, and wanted to eat. exhausted, irritable, and hungry.

(A balanced series of descriptive

words: exhausted, irritable, hungry)

My hope for retirement is to be My hope for retirement is to be

healthy, to live in a comfortable house, healthy, to live in a comfortable house,
and having plenty of money. and to have plenty of money.
(A balanced series of verbs: to be, to
live, to have).

Balanced sentences are not a skill you need to worry about when writing
first drafts. But when you rewrite, you should try to put matching words and ideas
not matching structures. Such parallelism will improve your writing style.

Written Exercise:

The unbalanced part of each sentence is italicized. Rewrite this part

so that it matches the rest of the sentence.
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Example: In the afternoon, I changed two diapers, ironed several

shirts, and was watching soap operas. watched instead of was watching

1. Annie put the coin into the slot machine, pulled its arm, and was
waiting to strike it rich.
2. Studying a little each day is more effective that to cram.
3. Many old people fear loneliness becoming ill, and poverty.
4. Once inside the zoo gates, Julio could hear the lions roaring, the
chirping of many birds, and the elephants trumpeting.
5. People immigrate to America with hopes of finding freedom, happiness,
and in order to become financially secure.
6. My pet peeves are screeching chalk, buses that are late, and dripping
sinks.
7. As smoke billowed around her, Paula knew her only choices were to
jump or suffocation.
8. The principal often pestered students, yelled at teachers, and was
interrupting classes.
9. People immigrate to America with hopes of finding freedom, happiness,
and in order to become financially secure.
10. As a child I had nightmares about a huge monster hat came out of a
cave, was breathing fire, and wanted to barbecue me.

4.0 WRITING PARAGRAPHS

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that introduces and develops

a main idea. Paragraphs are the true “building blocks” of writing. They indicate
that a writer has moved from one main idea to another. Paragraphs also make
reading a page easier. The first line of a paragraph is intended slightly from
the left margin.
In a paragraph you will usually find a topic sentence that states the main
idea, supporting sentences that provide more detailed information, and
when appropriate, a clincher sentence. The clincher sentence summarizes
or restates the paragraph’s main idea.

Sample Paragraph:

People in prehistoric times made music with simple

instruments. The human voice was probably the first instrument. People
enjoyed chanting and singing around a fire. They also beat rhythmically on
hollow logs and shook rattles made of bone and pebbles. Eventually
people found that a simple reed or hollow stick could produce musical
sounds when air was blown into it. Such instruments provided joys of
music for our prehistoric ancestors.

Summary: A paragraph is a group of related sentences about one main idea.

Oral Exercise 1

The sentences below make up a paragraph. Tell which sentence is

the topic sentence. Then order the supporting sentences correctly.
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1. He used electronic equipment to create sounds.

2. Since 1950, many composers have experimented with untraditional
ways of making music.
3. The sounds may have any tone, pitch, loudness, and duration.
4. Edgar Vares, for example, was known for his electronic music.

Written Exercise:

Read the following paragraph. Then write an answer for each

question below it.

The water drum is a unique musical instrument. It is closed cylinder

that is usually made of metal. Inside the drum is a certain amount of water
that affects the drum’s tone. By tilting the drum, the player shifts the water
during or between each beat. The movement of the water raises or lowers
the pitch of the drum beat and produces some very unusual sounds.

1. What is the paragraph’s main idea?

2. What is the paragraph’s topic sentence?
3. Which sentences develop the main idea?
4. Is there a clincher sentence?

Oral Exercise 2:

Revise the following to make it meet the requirements of a good

paragraph. Cite stray sentences and removed them. Add a clincher
sentence.

Composer John Cage captured people’s attention early in his career when
he set up a piano in Cambridge’s Harvard Square. That is near many other
historical places. Cage sat down at the piano to play – but did not play.
Instead he sat still while an assistant turned pages of music for him. The
lunchtime audience was baffled for a long while. Arthur Fiedler was another
famous musician from the Boston area. Then people realized that John
Cage wanted them to hear. The real music this composer wanted to reveal
to the world was the sound of Harvard Square’s busy daily life.

5.0 CONNECTING MAIN IDEA AND DETAILS

As writers prepare to write a paragraph of information, they remind

themselves that it must be about only one main idea. They choose only those
details and facts that are related to the main idea. Some writers use diagrams
like this to help them.
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A skin might be A skin might be

stretched stretched on a
between two round or oval
sticks. frame.

There were
many kinds of
tipi doors.

A blanket A thick, hairy skin

might be might be used to
pinned up as a keep water out
door. the water.

The sentence in the center circle states the main idea. Each fact in the
other circles is related to the main idea.
As you write your paragraph of information, be sure to present only details
that are related to the main idea.

Written Exercise 2:
In the following paragraph, the author gives examples of how animals
behave when they’re angry. Write a semantic map showing the topic
sentence and details.

When animals are angry, they use a different kind of body language. If one
animal invades another’s territory, the first animal threatens it. Animals may
threaten by displaying their teeth or claws. Some try to make their body look
bigger. Birds fluff up their feathers. Fishes stick their back fins straight up
and opens their gill covers upward. Angry cats arch their backs and make
their hair stand on end. These messages say, “I’m a BIG angry animal.
Don’t come any closer.”

“Animal Body Talk,”

National Geographic World

6.0 UNITY AND COHERENCE in PARAGRAPHS

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A paragraph may have a main idea, topic sentence, and supporting

sentences. But the reader may still not understand it fully. What may be missing
is unity or coherence.

6.1 UNITY

When a paragraph has unity, all the sentences relate to the main idea.
For example, in a paragraph explaining the origin of baseball, every sentence
should give some information about baseball’s beginnings. Including a
sentence about this year’s best team will ruin the paragraph’s unity. That
sentence isn’t about the paragraphs main idea – how baseball began.

As you read the following paragraph, notice how each sentence is directly
connected to the main idea: how sailors once believed in mermaids.

Another monster that was equally dreaded by sailors was the beautiful
mermaid. Like the sirens, mermaids were thought to be half woman half fish.
Such creatures were said to carry a mirror in one hand and a comb in the other,
and from time to time they would run the comb through their long sea green hair.
Most sailors were convinced that it was very bad luck to see a mermaid. At best,
it meant that someone aboard their ship would die soon afterward. At worst, it
meant that a terrific storm would arise, the ship would sink, and many of the crew
would drown.
William Wise, “Strange and Terrible
Monster of the Deep”

Oral Exercise:
Identifying Sentences that Destroy Unity

In each of the following paragraphs, one sentence should make you

say, “what’s that doing there?” Find the sentence that destroys the unity of
each paragraph. [Remember: in a unified paragraph, all details are directly
related to the main idea or the sequence of actions.]

The disappearance of Amelia Earhart remains a mystery. Earhart, who

was the first woman pilot to fly across the Atlantic Ocean, crashed in the Pacific
while attempting to fly around the world. She was born in Atchison, Kansas,
1897. Some searchers believed that she survived the crash into the Pacific,
because radio distress calls were received. An intensive search for the source of
the signals was made. Searchers were not able to find her, however. Finally, that
distress signals ceased. In spite of continued searches by airplane and ship, no
clue to what became of Amelia Earhart has yet been found.

Written Exercise:

One reason the mountain bike is popular is because it’s built to help
the rider keep control even when riding it off paved roads. The extra – wide
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handlebars improve the rider’s balance. Jeremy has a mountain bike, but he only
rides on city streets. With its wide tires the mountain bike will roll right over small
obstacles that would trip up the skinny tires of a racer. And because the tires are
knobby, riders can keep going even if the ground is muddy or sandy. That helps
riders keep their balance. Because of these features, mountain bike riders can go
almost anywhere.

6.2 COHERENCE

In addition to having unity, a paragraph needs to be coherent.

When a paragraph has coherence, the reader can easily see how ideas
are related. One way to create coherence is to use transitional words and
phrases. These are words or phrases that show that ideas are connected and
how they are connected. The following chart lists some common transitions.
Notice that the transitions you use depend, in part, on the kind of paragraph
you’re writing.

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

Comparing Ideas/ Classification and Definition

also another similarity
and moreover too

Contrasting Ideas/ Classification and Definition

although in spite of on the other hand
but instead still
however nevertheless yet

Showing Cause and Effect / Narration

As a result for so that
Because since therefore
Consequently so

Showing Time / Narration

after eventually next
at last finally then
at once first thereafter
before meanwhile when

Showing Place / Description

above beyond into
across down next to
around here over
before in there
behind inside under
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Showing Importance / Evaluation

first mainly then
last more important to begin with

Notice how the underlined word transitions help show how ideas are related.

Doesn’t the earth sometimes seem like one big mess? That’s
because it is. Think about how much trash you make in one day. Where does it
go? The garbage man picks it up and it’s gone. But where? Sometimes trash is
burned, releasing harmful pollutants into the air – not a smart idea. Other times it
goes to a dump or a landfill, where it’s buried with dirt. Not a great idea either, but
it doesn’t matter anymore, because we’re fast running out of space for landfills –
so where next?
“Earth SOS,” Seventeen

Written Exercise:
Identifying Transitional Words and Phrases

Can you find the words and phrases that connect the writer’s ideas?
Make a list of all the transitional words and phrases you can find in this
paragraph about a family adrift on the ocean in a rubber raft and dinghy.

The rain continued all night long, and as we bailed the warm sea water out
of the raft we were glad not to be spending this night in the dinghy at least. I went
over to the dinghy twice in the night to bail out, for the rain was filling her quite
quickly, and I shivered at the low temperature of the rain water. The raft canopy
offered grateful warmth when I returned, and the puddles of salt water in the
bottom of the raft seemed less hostile after the chill of the dinghy. We all huddled
together on top of the flotation chambers, our legs and bottom in the water, and
although we did not sleep, we rested, for the work of rowing and bailing now went
on around the clock, the bailer passing back and forth between the two
compartments.
Dougal Robertson, “Survive the Savage Sea”.

7.0 TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

7.1 Description – tells what something is like or looks like. It uses mostly
sensory details to tell about what you see, hear, smell, taste, or touch.
In a description, a writer may organize details by arranging them in spatial order.
For example, a writer can describe something from left to right, back to front or
top to bottom.

Examples of Sensory Details:

Sight – The bright sun glared off the front

 19

windshield of the car.

Sound – Thunder boomed down the canyon,

echoing off the walls.

Touch – My hands felt frozen to the cold, steel

handlebars.

Taste - Thirstily, she gulped down the sweet

orange juice.

Smell – The sharp, unpleasant odor of fresh

asphalt met his nose.

Facts - In 1961, Roger Maris slammed sixty-

one home runs to break the old
record of sixty held by Babe Ruth.

Examples – Fierce windstorms occur

throughout the world. In the central
United States, tornadoes have wind
speeds over two hundred miles per
hour.

Example:

By the Shores of Silver Lake

Laura and Mary walked slowly along on the green shore by the rippling
silver – blue water, toward the wild Big Slough. The grasses were warm and soft
to their feet. The wind blew their flapping skirts tight against their bare legs and
ruffled Laura’s hair. Mary’s sunbonnet and Carrie’s were tied firmly under their
chins, but Laura swung hers by its strings. Millions of rustling grass-blades made
one murmuring sound, and thousands of wild ducks and geese and herons and
cranes and pelicans were talking sharply and brassily in the wind.

Exercise: Using Description

How would you describe our favorite movie star, your sneakers, or
hte inside of your room? Choose one of these subjects or one of the five in the
following list. List or cluster the details you would use to describe it. Try to appeal
to the senses by listing things you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. Observe
the subject if you can or brainstorm some details.

1. a town plaza
2. the moment just after a long three-point shot at a basketball
game.
3. a garbage truck or garbage dump
 20

4. your favorite place

5. a monster of the leading TV program series.

7.2. Narration – tells a person or how a situation changes over a period of

time. You can narrate a story, explain a process, or explain causes and effects.
They are often organized in a chronological order.

Example:

Here’s how to have an egg race. Give each player an uncooked egg
and a tablespoon. Then, have the players line up at the startling line. Each should
place the egg in the spoon. At a signal, all should race toward the finish line. The
winner is the first to reach the line with an unbroken egg.

7.2.1 Telling a Story

You’re probably very familiar with one kind of narrating-

telling a story. When you tell a story, you tell what happened. The story may be
about either imaginary or real events.
Here is a narrative paragraph that tells what happens during
a ride in a theme park. You are about to meet a very angry gorilla.

Example:

Transporting his passengers on the Rossevelt Island tramway, the

operator suddenly announces that King Kong has escaped and is wreaking
havoc on Manhattan. Suddenly a wall of water breaks from mains and floods the
streets below. Fires rage. Then Kong appears in all his terror, hanging from the
Queensboro Bridge. He swats at a police helicopter and sends it crashing to the
ground. Then the sixs-ton, four-story-tall gorilla turns his attention to you,
grabbing the tram as if it were a Tonka toy. Twisting and turning the vehicle, he
picks it up, blasts you with his banana-scented breath, and hurls you to the
ground. Falling at 12 feet per second with 1.75 g’s of acceleration, the tram is
saved from certain disaster by a single cable.
A.J.S. Rayl, “Making Fun”
7.2.2 Explaining a Process

Whenever you tell someone how something works or how to do something

you’re explaining a process. To help readers follow the steps in the process, you
once again use chronological order.
In this paragraph, the writer explains how to pan for gold. Once the gold
pan is filled with rock and sand, the panning begins.

Swirl your pan around and around just below the surface of the water. The
water will cause the light sand and gravel to rise to the top. Pour off the sand,
pick out the pebbles and repeat the process. When the top dirt is stripped off, you
will see black streaks in the bottom of your pan. These are the tiny grains of iron
 21

magnetite. This is the “pay dirt.” Be careful not to wash it away. Magnenite is
heavy, but gold is heavier. Your gold, if it is there, will be under the black sand.

Jean BartenBach, Rockhound Trails

7.2.3 Explaining Cause and Effect

Narrating is also used to explain how one event causes another

event. To make the cause – and – effect connections clear, events are often
narrated in the order in which they happened.

In the following paragraph, the cause is an October storm. The

effects of the storm are what happens to the people, the trees, the animals, and
the buildings.

A storm came this year, against which all other storms

Cause
were to be measured, on a Saturday in October, a
balmy afternoon. It built as it came up the valley as did
every fall storm, but the steel – gray thunderheads,
the first sign of it anyone saw, were higher, much
higher, too high. In the stillness before it hit, men
Effect
looked at each other as though a fast and wiry man
had pulled a knife in a bar. They felt the trees falling
before they heard the wind, they dropped tools and
scrambled to get out. The wind came up suddenly and
like a scythe, like piranha after them, like seawater
through a breach in the dike. The first blow bent trees
half to the ground, the second caught them and
snapped them like kindling, sending limbs raining
down and twenty – foot splinters hurtling through the
air like mortar shells to stick quivering in the ground.
Bawling cattle running the fences, a loose lawnmower
bumping across a lawn, a stray dog lunging for a child
racing by. The big trees went down screaming, ripping
open holes in the wind that were filled with the broken
 Effect

22
Effect
China explosion of a house and the yawning screech
of a pickup rubbed across asphalt, the rivet popping
and twang of phone and electric wires.

Barry Holstun Lopez, River Notes

Using Narration as a Strategy

When you tell a joke – or any kind of story – you start at the beginning and
tell what happens next until you get to the punch line, or ending. Read the
directions and then use narration to develop each of the following items.

1. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least three actions that
took place.
A. the funniest thing that ever happened to me (Make up a story if
you like)
B. what happened during the EDSA I (Check a history book.)
2. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least four steps in the
process.
C. how to wash a dog (or a car or clothes)
D. how to ask someone for a date

3. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least three causes or
effects. You may need to do some research on your selected subject.
E. getting a part – time job (the effects)
F. water pollution (the causes)

7.2.4. Classification – tells how the specific relates to other subjects that
belong to the same group. Country music, for example, belongs to the group
music, which includes rock, jazz, blues, rap, folk, gospel, classical opera, and
other types of music. When you classify, you define (country music) or compare
or contrast (piano and electronic keyboard).

When you write a paragraph to classify, you usually arrange ideas in

logical order. Something is called logical because it makes sense; its meaning is
clear. When you classify, it makes sense to group or arrange related ideas
together.

7.2.5. Defining
When you tell about a subject that’s new to your reader, you may
have to give a definition. Usually, a definition has two parts. First, it identifies the
large group, or general class, that the subject belongs to. Second, it tells how the
subject is different from all other members that belong to this general class.
 23

Here is one – sentence definition of tae kwon do. The general class
that the subject, tae kwon do, belongs in is italicized. Notice how the other details
in the sentence tells how tae kwon do is different from other martial arts.

Example:
Tae kwon do is an ancient form of marital art from Korea that uses
kicks and punches in a hard style.

Now here’s a paragraph that defines tae kwon do. As you read,
think about how the paragraph goes beyond the one – sentence definition.

Tae kwon do is a martial art more than 2,000 years old. An

assortment of kicks and punches that focus power with deadly effectiveness, it’s
a so called hard style. Hard style? I as Master Son. “ Punch, side kick,
roundhouse,” Son replies. “One kick, fight finished.”
Bob Berger, “Road Warrior”

7.2.6 Comparing and Contrasting

When writing about two or more subjects, you may want to compare
and contrast them. Compare them by explaining how they’re alike. Contrast
them by telling how they’re different. In a single paragraph, you’ll probably do one
or the other, not both.

Read this paragraph and decide which creature in the drawing below is a
month and which is a butterfly. See if you can find the major differences as you
read.

There are three main differences between butterflies and moths.

Butterflies are out by the day while moths usually fly at night, but this is not an
infallible guide since some months fly by day. Second, moths spread their wings
sideways at rest whereas butterflies hold them together over their backs, though
again there are exceptions. Third, the butterfly’s antennae are long, slender with
clubbed ends, whereas a moth’s are shorter and feathery.
Gerald Durrell with Lee Durrell
The Amateur Naturalist

Exercise: Using Classification as a Strategy.

What is it? What makes it different? How is it like or different from something
else? All of these questions involve the strategy of classification. Follow the
directions below to develop each main idea.

Main Idea

1. Japanese schools are very 2. Even if you don’t know much

different from American about dogs, you can’t possibly
schools. mistake a Saint Bernard for a
Siamese cat.
 24

Classification Strategy Define subject. Tell its general class.

Compare and contrast the two
subjects: Private schools and Public
schools. List some details about
each kind of school to support the
main idea. (you may need to do
some reading about public schools.)
Then list all the characteristics that
distinguish it from othe breeds. (if
you need some information, About
the animal, use an encyclopedia or
talk to an owner.)

8.0. Evaluation – gives the reason for one’s opinion in the order of importance.
That is, you’ll tell the most important reason first, the next more
important reason next, and so on. Or, you may decide to reverse
the process and tell the least important reason first.

The following paragraph was written to persuade people not to build more
buildings in Yellowstone National Park.

Example:
I don’t think that more hotels, campgrounds, and restaurants should be
built in Yellowstone National Park. The park is set aside to protect the animals
and plants that live there and to allow people to experience the wilderness. When
more buildings go up, more people crowd into the park. And the more people
there are, the less room there is for wildlife and for wilderness. People don’t just
take up space. They also scare the animals and keep them from living as they
would naturally live in the wild. In Yellowstone National Park, I think the most
important thing is to protect the animals and the natural wilderness. If this means
putting a stop to more building, then the building should be stopped.

Exercise:
Using Evaluation as a Strategy

What’s your evaluation – good, bad, or somewhere in between? What are

your reasons for your evaluation? Pick two of the following topics and write
a sentence expressing your evaluation. Then give two or three reasons to
support your opinion.

Example:
Evaluation: The pizza is delicious.
Reasons: (1) It has lots of cheese.
(2) It has a crisp, crunchy crust.
(3) The toppings are fresh and plentiful.

1. a recent recording you’ve listened to or a concert you’ve attended

2. last week’s episode of your favorite TV series
3. a sporting event you attended or watched on TV
4. a new fad or fashion for teenagers.
 25

Exercise: Speaking and Listening: Evaluating a Movie

Of all the movies you’ve seen lately, which one is the best? Why? Think of
at least three reasons to support your choice of best movie. Jot down your
evaluation and your reasons. Then meet with a small group and givee your
evaluation and your reasons. See if your group can agree on some criteria, or
standards, for good movies. How importan

WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ALL TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

After reading the fable “ The Tortoise and The Hare”, you will have an
opportunity to apply your knowledge on how to write the various types of
paragraphs such as a description, narration, explanation, cjlassification and
evaluation by answering the comprehension questions that follow:

The Tortoise and the Hare: A Fable

One hot and muggy summer aftrnoon, the Hare was

boasting to a huge crowd of animals who had gathered in
a verdant forest clearing: “I’m the fastest animal in the forest verdant
and no one can beat me, even on my slowest day!” covered with
green plants
5 “Why is it so important to be the fastest?” asked the
Tortoise.

“Because the fastest is superior!”replied the Hare.

“My speed is unbeatable, and I can do anything faster than
any other animal, so I am the most superior animal in the
forest.”

10 “Speed, perhaps, can be a good thing, but it doesn’t

automatically make one animal more superior or important
than any other animal,” responded the Tortoise indignantly. Indignantly
angrily;
“If you really don’t think my speeds make superior, discontendtedly
why don’t you prove it? Suppose the two of us run a race to
15see who’s right?” exclaimed the hare. “We can race down
the four-mile path along the edge of the forest. Your’e so
slow and sluggish that I’ll probably finish the race before
you get a third of the way.” The hare began to laugh at
the tortoise racing, he fell to the ground in disdain

20 a fit of laughter, snorting and spitting great guffaws. contempt;the

Although the tortoise had disdain for the Hares feeling that
display of insensitive behavior and preferred not to enter someone de
into a race with such an egocentric fool, he accepted the serves no
Hare’s challenge because he wanted to confront the respect
 26

25 Hare’s taunting. He stashed a bottle of water in his egocentric

shell in anticipation of the sweltering race ahead. Selfish;self-

Without doing anything to prepare for the hot and

humid weather, the Hare lined up at the starting line next
to the Tortoise. The other animals, hoping for the
30 impossible-that the Hare would get his just rewards-
shouted, “Go!” and the Hare took off with unbelievable
speed, darted up the first hill, and soon disappeared
from sight. The tortoise set off with a gradual and methodical
pace, and steadily climbed up the hill after the Hare. Seeing
35 this, most of the animals calculated that the Tortoise’s
chances of winning were slim to nil.

The Hare seemed unstoppable as he passed the three-

Mile mark on the path. However, because he did not prepare

40 decided to stop at one of the rest stops slong the path for
a little refreshment. “I’m so far ahead of that laboriously slow
Tortoise that I have lost of time, “he concluded. With great
confidence in his anticipated victory, he strolled into his
favorite fast food restaurant and demanded a jumbo-sized
45 carrot juice and extra-large salad.

After he had finished repast, he noticed a nearby

skateboarding course across the meadow. “I’m so far
ahead of that pitiful Tortoise that I still have time for some
amusement,” considered the Hare. “The Tortoise probably
50 hasn’t even reached a mile yet.” Chuckling at the Tortoise,
and with great confidence in himself, the Hare rented a
skateboard, kneepads, and a helmet, and hit the course.
He skateboarded at such great speed that he literally audacity
“hit” the course and landed on his own tail! The Hare did not shameless
55 hurt himself badly, but his great audacity left him with overcon-
a bruised ego. He arose sheepishly and limped off the fidence
course.

Following his skateboarding accident, the Hare

tried to start sprinting. Because of his bruises and full stomach,
he was unable to run as swiftly as before.”Even though I can’t
60 run as fast, I’ll still beat that tedious Tortoise,” proclaimed
the Hare. However, the broiling temperature made running
difficult, and the Hare soon felt totally exhausted. After
running for only a half mile, the Hare decided to take another
short rest, and he sat down near a gurgling brook.
65 “I’ll just rest here for a few minutes, and then I’ll have more
energy for racing.” Although he would eventually regret it,
the Hare nestled in a bed of leaves, immediately fell asleep,
and began snoring very loudly.
 27

Meanwhile, the Tortoise continued to trudge along

70 the path at the edge of the forest; he knew that he could
not affordto stop, and more importantly, he knew that the
overconfidentHare would stop many times. “Even though
it’s hot, I have plenty of water, so there’s no need to stop
until I finish the race,” the Tortoise told himself. “Plus, it’s
75 never a good idea to eat and run.”

Soon, the Tortoise was passing the brook where the

Hare napped comfortably. The Tortoise heard the Hare’s
loud snoring, which gave the Tortoise an added degree of
confidence. He calculated that if he were able to keep up
80 his steady pace, he had a good chance finishing first.
The Tortoise thanked the Hare for being true ti his foolish
character, and he continued to plod steadily toward the
finish line.

As the Tortoise slowly approached the end of the

85 path, the Hare suddenly awoke and bolted upright from
his leaf-nest. Realizing that he could potentially lose the
race, the Hare jumped up and raced back onto the path.
Unfortunately, his pace was even slower than before
because he wasn’t yet fully awake and still felt groggy.
90 As the Hare moved along the path as fast as he could, he
noticed that the Tortoise was just a few yards away from
the finish line. He knew that his only chance of winning
was to trick the Tortoise. He called to the Tortoise,
“Tortoise, I’m hurt. Can you help me?”

95 The Tortoise stopped and looked back, “How do I

know that you’re telling the truth?”
“My tail hurts. Please help me,” begged the Hare,
as he pretended to be in great pain.
Fortunately, the Tortoise had heard the Hare’s loud
100 snoring, so he knew that the Hare was trying to
deceive him.
“What can I do to help you?” asked the Tortoise.
“Please help me get to the clearing,” pleaded the Hare.
“Did you enjoy your sleep?” questioned the Tortoise,
immune to the Hare’s antics.

105 “Yes...err. No wait!” shouted the harebrained Hare.

“I knew you were sleeping after I heard your loud
snoring,” declaired the Tortoise. “I’ll see you on the other
side of the finish line.
Despite his lethargy, the Hare made a mad dash lethargy
110 to catch the Tortoise. But he was too late. The Tortoise a lack of
crossed the finish line just ahead of the Hare. The Hare energy;
crossed the line and collapsed on the ground. sluggishness
 28

“You boast too much, you’re arrogant, and you rarely

consider others’ feelings, so I’m not surprised that you
115 to deceive me”, the Tortoise said calmly.
And all the animals cheered gleefully. It was clear that
Speed alone was not enough to make the Hare finish first.

Comprehension Questions:

1. Describe the personality traits of the two important characters.

2. Explain why the Tortoise accepted the Hare’s challenge. Do you think that
the Tortoise believed that he had a chance of winning?
3. Tell what the Tortoise did to prepare to prepare for the race in hot weather.
4. Find the idioms “slim to nil” in line 36 and “made a mash dash” in line 109.
Use the context to figure out the meanings. Write an explanantion of one
of the idioms.
5. Explain the meaning of the Tortoise’s statement to theHare, “ I’m not
surprised that you tried to decieve me.” What does this statement reveal
about the Hare’s character?
6. Justify the challenge made by the Hare. Explain what you have done.
7. Assess the moral of the fable. What is another way to express “slow and
steady wins the race”?