History

Examples of motion are everywhere in the world around us. What makes a rock fall off a cliff? How does a skate slide across an icy surface? What
keeps the planets in their orbits around the Sun? It is only natural, then, that questions about motion were foremost in the minds of ancient
philosophers and physicists.
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 B.C. ), for example, tried to find the causes of motion. He said that some forms of motion were "natural."
Rocks fall toward the ground because the ground is a natural place for rocks to be. Objects rise into the air when they are heated because the Sun
is hot, and so it is natural for heat to rise.
Aristotle classified other forms of motion as "violent" because they were not natural to his way of thinking. For example, shooting an arrow
through space produced violent motion since the arrow's natural tendency was to fall straight down toward Earth.
Aristotle's thinking about motion dominated Western thought for 2,000 years. Unfortunately, his ideas were not really very productive, and
scholars tried continually to improve on the concepts of natural and violent motionwithout much success.
Then, in the early seventeenth century, Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei (15641642) proposed a whole new way of looking at the
problem of motion. Since asking why things move had not been very productive, Galileo said, perhaps physicists should focus simply on describing
how they move. A whole new philosophy of physics (the science of matter and energy) was created and, in the process, the science of physics itself
was born.
Newton's three laws
Newton, who was born in the year that Galileo died, produced a nearly perfect (for the time) response to Galileo's suggestion. He said that the
movement of objects can be fully described in only three laws. These laws all show how motion is related to forces. One definition for the term
force in science is a push or a pull. If you push a wooden block across the top of a table, for example, you exert a force on the block. One benefit of
Newton's laws is that they provide an even more precise definition for force, as will be demonstrated later.
The first law. Newton's first law of motion is that an object tends to continue in its motion at a constant velocity until and unless an outside force
acts on it. The term velocity refers both to the speed and the direction in which an object is moving.
For example, suppose that you shoot an arrow into space. Newton's first law says that the arrow will continue moving in the direction you aimed it
at its original speed until and unless some outside force acts on it. The main outside forces acting on an arrow are friction from air and gravity.
Words to Know
Acceleration: The rate at which the velocity of an object changes with time.
Force: A physical interaction (pushing or pulling) tending to change the state of motion (velocity) of an object.
Inertia: The tendency of an object to continue in its state of motion.
Mass: A measure of an amount of matter.
Velocity: The rate at which the position of an object changes with time, including both the speed and the direction.
As the arrow continues to move, it will slow down. The arrow is passing through air, whose molecules rub against the arrow, causing it to lose
speed. In addition, the arrow begins to change direction, moving toward Earth because of gravitational forces. If you could imagine shooting an
arrow into the near-perfect vacuum of outer space, the arrow would continue moving in the same direction at the same speed forever. With no air
presentand beyond the range of Earth's gravitational attractionthe arrow's motion would not change.
The first law also applies to objects at rest. An object at rest is simply an object whose velocity is zero. The object will continue to remain at rest
until and unless a force acts on it. For example, a person might hit the object with a mallet. The force of the blow might change the object's motion,
giving it both speed and direction.
The property of objects described by the first law is known as inertia. The term inertia simply means that objects tend to continue in whatever their
state of motion is. If moving, they continue to move in the same way, or, if at rest, they continue to remain at rest unless acted on by an outside
force.
The second law. Newton's second law clearly states the relationship between motion and force. Mathematically, the law can be stated as F = m a ,
where F represents the force exerted on an object, m is the object's mass, and a is the acceleration given to the object. The term acceleration
means how fast the velocity of an object is changing and in what direction.
To understand the second law, think of a soccer ball sitting on the ground. If you kick that ball with a certain force, the ball will be given a certain
acceleration. If you kick the ball with twice the force, the ball will be given twice the acceleration. If the ball then bounces off the goal post and out
of bounds, the force of the impact with the goal post will change the ball's direction.
The second law provides a more precise way of defining force. Force is any action that causes a body to change the speed or direction with which it
is moving.
The third law. Newton's third law says that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. A simple example of the law is a rocket. A
rocket is simply a cylindrical device closed at one end and open at the other end in which a fuel is burned. As the fuel burns, hot gases are formed
and released through the open end of the rocket. The escape of the gases in one direction can be considered as an action. Newton's law says that
this action must be balanced by a second action that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. That opposite action is the movement of the
rocket in a direction opposite that of the escaping gases. That is, the gases go out the back of the rocket (the action), while the rocket itself moves
forward (the reaction).
Read more: http://www.scienceclarified.com/Io-Ma/Laws-of-Motion.html#ixzz3CJfcRRGk
the spectrum of mechanics
The general study of the relationships between motion, forces, and energy is called mechanics. It is a large field and its study is
essential to the understanding of physics, which is why these chapters appear first. Mechanics can be divided into sub-disciplines by
combining and recombining its different aspects. Three of these are given special names.
Motion is the action of changing location or position. The study of motion without regard to the forces or energies that may be involved
is called kinematics. It is the simplest branch of mechanics. The branch of mechanics that deals with both motion and forces together is
called dynamics and the study of forces in the absence of changes in motion or energy is called statics.
The term energy refers an abstract physical quantity that is not easily perceived by humans. It can exist in many forms simultaneously
and only acquires meaning through calculation. A system possesses energy if it has the ability to do work. The energy of motion is
called kinetic energy
Whenever a system is affected by an outside agent, its total energy changes. In general, a force is anything that causes a change (like
a change in energy or motion or shape). When a force causes a change in the energy of a system, physicists say that work has been
done. The mathematical statement that relates forces to changes in energy is called the work-energy theorem.
When the total of all the different forms of energy is determined, we find that it remains constant in systems that are isolated from their
surroundings. This statement is known as the law ofconservation of energy and is one of the really big concepts in all of physics, not
just mechanics.
The first few chapters of this book are basically about these topics in this order
1. motion (kinematics)
2. forces (dynamics and statics)
3. energy
types of motion
There may be other schemes, but for purposes of this book there are basically three types of motion.
1. Translational motion results in a change of location. This category may seem ridiculous at first as motion implies a change in
location, but an object can be moving and yet not go anywhere. I get up in the morning and go to work (an obvious change in
location), but by evening I'm back at home back in the very same bed where I started the day. Is this translational motion?
Well, it depends. If the problem at hand is to determine how far I travel in a day, then there are two possible answers: either
I've gone to work and back (22 km each way for a total of 44 km) or I've gone nowhere (22 km each way for a total of 0 km).
The first answer invokes translational motion while the second invokes oscillatory motion.
2. Oscillatory motion is repetitive and fluctuates between two locations. In the previous example of going from home to work to
home to work I am moving, but in the end I haven't gone anywhere. This second type of motion is seen in pendulums (like
those found in grandfather clocks), vibrating strings (a guitar string moves but goes nowhere), and drawers (open, close, open,
close all that motion and nothing to show for it). Oscillatory motion is interesting in that it often takes a fixed amount of time
for an oscillation to occur. This kind of motion is said to be periodic and the time for one complete oscillation (or one cycle) is
called a period. Periodic motion is important in the study of sound, light, and other waves. Large chunks of physics are
devoted to this kind repetitive motion. Doing the same thing over and over and going nowhere is pretty important; which brings
us to our next type of motion.
3. Rotational motion occurs when an object spins. The earth is in a constant state of motion, but where does that motion take it?
Every twenty-four hours it makes one complete rotation about its axis. (Actually, it's a bit less than that, but let's not get
bogged down in details.) The sun does the same thing, but in about twenty-four days. So do all the planets, asteroids, and
comets; each with its own period. (Note that rotational motion too is often periodic.) On a more mundane level, bocce balls,
CDs, and wheels also rotate. That should be enough examples to keep us busy for awhile.
The chapters in the section of this book about mechanics are basically arranged in this order
1. translational
2. rotational
3. oscillatory
Are there additional types of motion? Well, it depends on whom you ask and when you ask them. All motion is basically translational to
some extent; that is to say, you can't be moving unless you (or a part of you) moves from one place to another. There is possibly a
fourth type of motion that goes nowhere in the long run (not intentionally, anyway) and yet does not require that the object ever return to
a particular location.
4. Random motion occurs for one of two reasons.
i. Some motion is predictable in theory but unpredictable in practice, which makes it appear random. For example, a
single molecule in a gas will move freely until it strikes another molecule or one of the walls containing it. The
direction the molecule travels after a collision like this is completely predictable according to current theories
of classical mechanics. Every measurement has uncertainty associated with it. Every calculation made using the
results of a measurement will carry that uncertainty along. Now imagine that you are trying to predict the motion of a
billion gas atoms in a container. (That's a small amount, by the way.) After measuring the position and velocity of
each one as accurately as possible, you enter the data in a monstrous computer and let it do the calculations for you.
Since the measurements associated with each molecule are a little off, the first round of computation will be a little
wrong. Those wrong numbers will then be used in the next round of calculation and the results will be a little more
wrong. After a billion calculations, the compounded error would render the results useless. The molecule could be
anywhere within the container. This type of randomness is called chaos.
ii. Some motion is unpredictable in theory and is truly random. For example, the motion of the electron in an atom is
fundamentally unpredictable because of a weird conspiracy of nature described by quantum mechanics. The harder
you try to locate the electron, the less you know about its velocity. The harder you try to measure its velocity, the less
you know about its location. This is fundamental quality of small objects like electrons and there is no way around it.
Although the electron is often said to "orbit" the nucleus of an atom, strictly speaking, this isn't true. The probability of
finding the electron at any particular point in space is predictable, but how it got from the first place you observed it to
the second is actually a meaningless question. There is no name for this kind of motion because the concept of
motion doesn't even apply.
Introduction
Motion means movement. Motion can also be defined as a continuous change in the position of an object. Each type of
motion is controlled by a different type of force. Kinematics is the science which studies the motion of objects. This
chapter looks at some types of simple and complicated motion.
Main types of simple motion
There are two types of basic motion: translation and rotation. Translation means motion along a path. Rotation means
motion around a fixed axis. An axis is the centre around which something rotates. As we have mentioned before, each
type of motion is controlled by a different type of force. Translation is defined by the net force (sum of different forces)
acting on an object. Rotation is defined by torque. Torque is a force which causes the rotation of an object.
Linear motion is the most basic of all motions. Linear motion is the type of motion in which all parts of an object move in
the same direction and each part moves an equal distance. Linear motion is measured by speed and direction. Distance
travelled by an object per unit of time is called velocity. Example: a moving car.
Rotary motion is motion in a circle. This type of motion is the starting point of many mechanisms. Example: a spinning
wheel.
Reciprocating motion is back and forth motion. Example: the up and down motion of a yo-yo.
Irregular motion is motion which has no obvious pattern to its movement. Example: a flying bee.
Uniform motion is motion at a constant speed in a straight line. Example: a rolling ball.
Very often, objects move by complicated motion. Complicated motion can be broken down into simpler types of motion.
An example of complicated motion is a flying Frisbee. The movement of a Frisbee consists of a linear motion and a rotary
motion.
Frictional and gravitational forces affect the motion of objects. Gravitational and frictional forces slow down the motion.
The frictional force which slows a body in motion is called kinetic friction. When two objects slide past one another, for
example, when you push a box across the floor, part of the energy of your pushing moves the box, and part of the energy
is lost to kinetic friction. The less textured the surface, the farther the object will move. That happens because smooth
surfaces have less frictional force. Friction is affected by the texture of both the surface and the moving object.
What is inertia?
Inertia means a resistance to any change in motion. All objects have inertia. The larger the mass of an object, the more
inertia it has. Newton's First Law of Motion states that moving objects will continue moving in the same direction and at
the same speed. It also states that objects at rest will remain at rest unless an outside force acts on them.
When the driver of a car puts on the brakes, the car slows down. The people in the car, however, will continue at the
same speed the car was going because of their inertia. The seatbelt acts as a force to keep the people in place. Seatbelts
help keep people from getting hurt when a car comes to a sudden stop
Uniformly Accelerated Motion
MECHANI CS NOTES UNI FORMLY ACCELERATED MOTI ON
Definition of IB symbols:
u initial velocity
v final velocity
a acceleration (constant)
t time taken
s distance traveled
2.1.7 Derive the equations for uniformly Accelerated Motion
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, in a given direction. The SI units of
acceleration are ms
-2
. This would mean that if an object has an acceleration of 1 ms
-2
it will increase its velocity (in a given
direction) 1 ms
-1
every second that it accelerates. If we write the definition for acceleration in mathematical terms:
(1)
a=vut
Then solve of v:
(2)
v=u+at
This gives us the final velocity of an object in terms of the acceleration, initial velocity and the time the object was
accelerating. In graphical form the equation is a straight line, with u as the vertical intercept, a as the slope and t as the
independent variable.

We can derive yet another equation if we look at the graph of a velocity vs. time for an object with a non-zero initial
velocity.
We know that the area under the curve is equal to the distance travele
(3)
Area=Red+Yellow
(4)
s=ut+(vu)2t
(5)
s=ut+12vt12ut
(6)
s=u+v2t
In we now combine the two equations that we have derived, we can create another equation:
(7)
s=u+u+at2t
(8)
s=ut+12at2
Now if we go back to the definition of acceleration (1) and multiply by t and divide by a:
(9)
t=vua
If we substitute this expression for time into the 3rd equation and solve for v:
(10)
s=u[vua]+12a[vua]2
(11)
s=uvu2a+v2+u22uv2a
(12)
2as=2uv2u2+v2+u22uv
(13)
2as=v2u2
(14)
v2=u2+2as
So what do we have? We have four equations that describe uniformly accelerated motion:
Equation (2) provides a way of calculating the final velocity in terms of the initial velocity, acceleration and the time the
object was accelerated.
Equation (6) provides a way of calculating the distance (displacement) of an object in terms of the initial velocity, final
velocity and time the object was in motion.
Equation (8) gives us the distance traveled without having to know the final velocity of the object. In exchange for knowing
the final velocity we must know the acceleration of the object.
Equation (14) relates the initial velocity, final velocity and acceleration of the object without time! Sometimes this is very
useful.
It is very important to note that these equations ONLY apply if the object in question is experiencing uniform
acceleration, meaning that the acceleration is constant or can be approximated as constant.
2.1.8 Describe the vertical motion of an object in a uniform gravitational field
A uniform gravitational field simply means that the force of gravity does not change or does not change significantly. If you
stay near the surface of the Earth (with in a kilometer or two) the gravitational field can be assumed to be constant (at
least for the purposes of IB physics).
If the gravitational field is constant then an object in that field will experience a constant force and thus a constant
acceleration. This means that the equations derived above are a valid description of the motion of an object in a uniform
gravitational field (assuming no other forces).
- Hide Video
If an object is held stationary in a uniform gravitational field it will fall. It will do so with uniform acceleration. Near the
surface of the earth the acceleration is approximately 9.8 ms
-2
. This means that every second that the object falls its
velocity will increase by 9.8 ms
-1
. So after one second the object has a velocity of 9.8 ms
-1
, after 5 seconds it will have a
velocity of 47.5 ms
-1
, etc. Since the objects velocity is increasing every second this naturally means that the distance it is
covering each second also increases
What happens if an object is thrown up? The acceleration is still downward. If an object is thrown up with an initial velocity
of 30 ms
-1
, after one second it will only be going 20 ms
-1
up, after 2 seconds it will only be going 10 ms
-1
, after 3 seconds
the object will have zero velocity! Even if the objects velocity is zero the acceleration is not zero.
Vertical motion in a gravitational field will be discussed at more length when we get to projectile motion.
2.1.9 Describe the effects of air resistance of a falling object
As an object falls it experiences a drag or frictional force due to air, we call this force air resistance. This drag force is
always in the opposite direction of the motion. When the object is moving slowly the force of drag is proportional to the
speed of the object. As the objects speed increase the drag is proportional to the square of the speed, which means that
the drag force becomes large very quickly. At some point the drag force will increase to the size of the force of gravity on
the object. When the two forces are equal their will be no net force on the object and it will no longer accelerate, i.e. it will
now travel at a constant velocity. This final maximum velocity is called the terminal velocity. The drag and thus the
terminal velocity is determined by the shape of the object, its mass and the cross section of the object.
People have survived falling out of airplanes and hot air balloons, this doesnt happen often but it does happen once in a
great while. They many fall for a couple of minutes before hitting the ground, where they actually bounce. It happens that
a falling human body will reach its terminal velocity (about 200-300 km/hr) fairly quickly, so while they may fall for a long
period of time they hit the ground at a relatively low speed. Low compared to the speed they would hit with if the air did
not reduce their acceleration







I. What is an air track?
An air track is an experimental apparatus that allows the study of motion with minimal interference
by frictional forces.
By allowing the air track gliders to move on a cushion of air, frictional effects are reduced. A blower
adjusted to the correct output level forces air inside a piece of aluminum extrusion. The high air pressure
inside the track forces air out of the track through small holes drilled into the upper surface of the track. The
air track glider rides on this surface of air.
To make effective use of eliminating friction from our experiments we need to measure speeds with great
accuracy. This is accomplished with the use of "photogates". Combined with these sophisticated timing
devices, low friction air tracks enable the experimenter to make high accuracy confirmations of fundamental
motion studies.
Before you start experimenting with the air track, you must learn how to avoid damaging them. The tracks
are made of aluminum which is a soft metal and easily scratched, nicked, and damaged if not handled
carefully. Any irregularity in the track surface will increase frictional effects and reduce the accuracy of
your results. Please be considerate of our equipment, take care not to damage these tracks as they are
expensive and must last the De Anza physics department a long time.
II. How to avoid abusing the air tracks:
1. Never place a glider on a track unless there is air blowing out through the track's holes. Never slide
a glider along the track unless there is air blowing out through the small air track holes. Before putting the
glider on the track, feel the air blowing out of the track with your hand. The glider must slide on a layer of
air and must never slide touching the aluminum track. Contact between the glider and track will scratch and
ruin the track's surface.
2. Remove and replace the track from the storage rack slowly with great care making sure the track does not
collide with other objects. The track is long so that removing and replacing it is a two person procedure
where each person is in charge of one end of the track to ensure it hits nothing. Hitting the track will throw
it out of alignment. These tracks are straight to within 0.02 millimeters over their entire length. Deviations
from this tolerance will reduce the accuracy of your results.
3. Never put any kind of tape on the track or glider. Do not write on the glider with pen or pencil. It is also
a good idea not to excessively touch the track with your hands since finger oil will eventually gum up the
track's surface.
4. Never push down on a glider. On or off the air track, pushing downward on a glider may bend the
delicate sides of the glider. The angle between the sides of the glider must match the ninety degree angle of
the track surface.

Features
High performance track and accessories, reliable and durable

Include air track & accessories, timer, and air supply

Easy to use and clean

Affordable


Introduction
This air track experiment apparatus is designed based on the Air Cushion principles. When an air track is connected with an air
blower, compressed air is sprayed from the holes on the surface and form a thin air layer. This air layer will fill the space between the
air track and the inner surface of a glider. As a result, the movement of the glider can be regarded as friction-free movement. With
the help of an air blower and a digital timer, the air trackcan be used to experimentally study important physics concepts such as
velocity, acceleration, momentum, collision, and kinetic. It is an ideal experiment instrument for physics teaching.

Using this apparatus, the following experiments can be conducted:
1. Determine the velocity of an object in uniform rectilinear motion, and verify Newtons First Law
2. Determine the average velocity and instantaneous velocity of an object in variable rectilinear motion
3. Determine the acceleration of an object in uniform acceleration rectilinear motion
4. Study the relationship between distance and time of an object in uniform acceleration rectilinear motion
5. Determine the gravitational acceleration
6. Verify Newtons Second Law
7. Verify Newtons Third Law
8. Verify kinetic energy theorem
9. Verify momentum theorem
10. Verify momentum conservation law
11. Verify mechanical energy conservation law
12. Study simple harmonic vibration
13. Measure the stiffness coefficient of a spring
14. Measure the period of simple harmonic vibration
15. Verify the amplitude of an object in simple harmonic vibration is irrelevant with the period
16. Demonstrate elastic collisions of objects on air track


Description of Motion in One Dimension
Motion is described in terms of displacement (x), time (t), velocity (v), and acceleration (a). Velocity is the rate of
change of displacement and the acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The average velocity and average
acceleration are defined by the relationships:


A bar above any quantity indicates that it is the average value of
that quantity. If the acceleration is constant, then equations 1,2
and 3 represent a complete description of the motion. Equation 4
is obtained by a combination of the others. Click on any of the
equations for an example.
Graphing one-dimensional motion



Distance, Average Velocity and Time
The case of motion in one dimension (one direction) is a good starting point for the description of
motion. Perhaps the most intuitive relationship is that average velocity is equal to distance divided
by time:

Distance, Average Velocity and Time
The case of motion in one dimension (one direction) is a good starting point for the description of motion. A basic type
of calculation may be explored here by substituting numbers and then clicking on the bold text of the quantity you wish
to calculate. Make only one substitution at a time and click the desired quantity -- then you can repeat with other
substitutions.

m = m/s * s = ( m/s + m/s) * time/2

Forms of Motion Equations

Motion Example
Initial velocity = m/s, Final velocity = m/s
Distance traveled x
= m
In this example, the items labeled on the
diagram are considered primary: if one of
them is changed, the others remain the
same. The data in the boxes may be
changed, and the calculation will be done
when you click outside the box, subject
Distance x = m
Initial velocity v0 = m/s
Final velocity v = m/s
Average velocity = m/s
to the constraints described. Changing
average velocity, acceleration or time will
force a change in at least one of the
original quantities. In this version, the
final velocity is allowed to change.
Acceleration a = m/s^2
Time t = s
Linear Motion Explorer
These motion equations apply only in the case of constant acceleration. It is assumed that x=0 at
t=0 and that the motion is being examined at time t. After you have edited any box of motion data,
click on the text or symbol for the quantity you wish to calculate. If it does not behave the way you
expect, see the comments on the calculation.
m
= m/s x
s m/s =
m/s + m/s
2
x
s m = m/s
x s + 1/2 m/s
2
* t
2

Comments on Motion Explorer
In the example motion calculation, some assumptions are made about the calculation order. It is
intended to be an exploration exercise, and may not conveniently solve all problems. The motion
equations represent a complete set of equations for constant acceleration motion, but in certain
types of problems, intermediate results must be calculated before proceeding to the final
calculation. In the example calculation, you may have to do intermediate calculations, e.g., to
establish the final velocity, in order to set up the problem you wish to solve, just as if you were
working the problem with calculator and paper.
In the example calculation, the time, initial velocity, and displacement were considered given
(primary) unless they were being calculated . For example,if x is being calculated, then v is
assumed given, so it must be calculated first if you want to specify a. After making substitutions,
not all values are updated, so to be sure a specific parameter has been updated, click on the text or
symbol associated with that parameter.