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ESDEP WG 3
FABRICATION AND ERECTION
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give more detailed information on the technical matters involved in steelwork erection introduced in
Lecture 3.2.1
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 3.2.1: Erection I
The following lectures might be helpful:
Lectures 3.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 3.2.3: Erection III
Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of Buildings
Lecture 15A.8: Offshore: Fabrication
Lecture 15B.12: Introduction to Bridge Construction
SUMMARY
This lecture discusses the technical aspects of steelwork erection such as unloading and handling of materials,
foundation checking and adjusting for errors, assembly procedures, and final bolt-up of connections.
Lecture 3.2.1 outlined an ideal approach to erecting steelwork emphasising the need for a Technical
Specification for Erection and good site organisation in order to pre-empt possible erection problems when
the steelwork arrives on site.
This lecture discusses the on-site activities in more detail. It points out that careful attention to detail is
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required to ensure that the specification is adhered to and that good practice is maintained on site at all times.
The operations are viewed sequentially, from the unloading of the steel elements, through checking and
adjusting for foundation errors, to erecting and bolting together the final structure.
2.1. Reception, Unloading and Handling of Construction Material.
Logistics is a very important part of the erection process and must be constantly kept in mind.
Fabricators have a strong tendency to deliver the construction elements in the same sequence as they are
fabricated; this is satisfactory provided the fabrication sequence is similar to the erection sequence. For this
purpose detailed planning of the fabrication and erection processes is required.
It is necessary, therefore, to prepare a delivery schedule, coordinated with the capacity of the site erection
team. Generally the site will have a storage area to allow for times when the deliveries cannot be exactly
coordinated. If possible a "just-in-time" delivery should be organised for the heavier construction elements in
order to avoid the costly manoeuvres of unloading and intermediate handling.
Any damaged material, which should be repaired or returned, must be separated immediately after arrival.
The project manager must be informed, in order to allow him to assess what effect this might have on the
construction programme.
When handling individual members the following should be noted:
parts with different reference marks must not be mixed or packed together.
on larger or heavy parts the lifting points must be indicated, including where possible the location of the
centre of mass of the component.
all parts that can be easily damaged must be adequately protected during transport and handling.
components in the storage area must be kept off the ground, protected from damp and dirt by means of
sleepers or battens.
When using steel wire cables as lifting slings the following should be noted:
care must be taken to ensure that the sharp corners of beams are packed with wood in order to protect
the sling, the surface treatment and any prepared edges.
slings must be regularly inspected, and the maximum safe load must be shown on a steel tag.
when using double-leg slings it must be appreciated that the lifting capacity diminishes as the angle
between the legs increases; the load in the legs can be calculated from:
R =P/2 x 1/cos a
where R is the load in a leg
P is the total leg
a is the half-angle between the legs of the sling.
the maximum safe load should not exceed 1/6 of the breaking load of the steel wire cable from which
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the sling is made.
the hoisting slings should be regularly inspected and taken out of service as soon as the number of
broken wires in a metre's length reaches or exceeds 20% of the total.
the slings should not be bent over diameters less than six times the diameter of the cable. If necessary
rounded cushions must be put in place to support the sling.
For the transport and delivery to site of bolts, nuts and washers the following should be noted:
they must be provided with adequate packing, sufficiently protected to avoid damage during transport.
in the case of high strength bolts, both bolts and nuts must be adequately greased.
each package shall contain only one type of bolt, nut or washer of the same diameter, length and
quality.
each package shall be provided with a label, indicating the manufacturer's mark, the type (bolt, nut and
washer), the quality and the number.
high strength bolts are indicated by coloured labels, according to the type and quality (4,6 =green, 8,8
=red, 10,9 =blue).
Regarding the storage and use of welding consumables, the following should be noted:
the electrodes must be packed in closed and sealed packages or tins; storage must be in a closed and
dry place at a temperature high enough to prevent condensation and special care must be taken to avoid
damaging the coating.
when basic-type electrodes are used, they must be dried or baked in accordance with the welding
procedure.
once the sealed packets have been opened, the electrodes must be placed in a portable drying oven.
mobile drying ovens must be provided close to the welding area; the welder himself must be provided
with an insulated quiver in which he keeps the electrodes, taken from the nearest drying oven.
in very special cases and in very damp conditions the welders should be provided with individual
portable drying ovens, from which they remove the electrodes one by one, as they need them.
For general purposes a complete list of erection elements must be available on site indicating their
code-number, weight, size, etc., and specifying the locations where they are to be used.
2.2 Foundations and Base Plates (Levelling, Measuring, etc.)
The columns of a steel framework transfer their load to the foundation by means of the base plates. The
foundation bolts constitutes the unifying element between foundation and framework.
In cases where the column transfers compressive stress only (theoretically no foundations bolts are needed)
the bolts are used to locate the column correctly.
Anchor bolts are either put in place before the concrete is poured, are drill fixed afterwards in the hardened
concrete, or are placed in openings, left in the foundation, which can be filled later.
An inspection of the foundation, to check the levelling and alignment of the anchor bolts, must be made
before erection commences. A fixed levelling point and three fixed alignment points are generally established
for this purpose. Errors in the concrete foundation identified at this early stage, can be easily corrected using
packer plates.
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The foundations must be cleaned prior to erecting the steelwork. It must be ensured that the cavities for the
holding down bolts are completely free from contamination.
2.3 Assembly and Erection
The erection of the steel frame can start after the packer plates (or the base plates) are in position.
The main aim during erection is to maintain the stability of the structure at all times. Collapse of structures
during erection is often due to lack of understanding of the stability requirements.
Stresses can be reversed during erection, and every reversal, no matter how transient, must be considered in
the design.
Questions concerning the construction sequence and its effect on stability must be resolved. The designer
should position the braced bays in a way that ensures that they are the first to be erected. It is essential that
the structure is braced and true as the erection proceeds.
The use of sub-assembled units is a way of reducing the amount of work to be done at height. There are,
however, some factors which affect the practability and economy of sub-assembling a unit on the ground. The
first is the weight of the eventual assembly, including any lifting beams; another is the degree to which the
unit is capable of being temporarily stiffened without unduly increasing its weight. The bulk of the unit is also
a significant factor as fouling the crane jib must be avoided. It is often necessary to make a drawing of the
crane jib and the sub-assembled unit at the point of highest lift to check practicability.
Sub-assembly is only worthwhile if the unit can be lifted and bolted in a reasonably easy way. The object is to
save operations at a height which could readily be done at ground level; having to loosen and retighten bolts
to remove twist, therefore, makes sub-assembly much less attractive.
Most steelwork arrives on site pre-painted. The paint treatment may be damaged, by the steel slings, during
handling; the damage should be minimised by the use of softwood packers which will also ensure that the load
will not slip as it is being lifted and that the slings - chain or wire - are not themselves damaged, as they bend
around sharp corners
Packers to prevent slipping are even more necessary if the final position of the construction piece being
erected is not horizontal. The aim should always be to arrange the slinging in such a way that the piece hangs
at the same angle as that which it will assume in its erected position.
Pieces being lifted are usually controlled by a light hand line fixed to one end. This line controls only the
swing of the piece, and is not intended to be used to pull it into level. When lifting large and heavy parts from
a horizontal position to a vertical one, temporary tiebacks must be used to avoid uncontrolled movements
when the part is getting close to the vertical position.
Some situations may require temporary stiffening to be left in position after the initial erection and until the
permanent connections are made. The need for temporary stiffening should be foreseen in the erection plan,
so that sufficient stiffeners and lifting devices are available and no delays occur due to shortage of devices for
the erection of the next sub-frame.
Where a particularly awkward or heavy lift has to be made, it may be simpler and safer to fabricate special
cleats for this purpose. A small amount of additional effort in the drawing office and workshop can save much
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time and money on site.
2.4 Bolting Connections on Site
Before carrying out any bolted connections checks must be made:
the bolts, nuts and washers to be used must be exactly as indicated on the drawings.
bolts, nuts and washers must be clean and undamaged.
the parts to be connected must be clean and without defects.
The use of flame cutting to enlarge holes should not be permitted since it will result in an unacceptable
connection and will damage the paintwork.
In connections with tapered flanges, tapered washers must be placed under the nut, the bolt, or both.
In the case of a hole with a vertical axis, the bolts should be inserted from above, with the nut at the bottom.
Where specified, the nuts should be secured against loosening by an extra nut or by applying a special nut or
washer.
2.4.1 Ordinary bolts
Hexagon-headed bolts and nuts are normally available in a range of sizes, and tensile strengths. Washers were
traditionally used under the nut but are now frequently omitted. The strength grades most commonly used for
structural bolting are 4.6 and 8.8, the former in general applications, the latter where more severe loading
applies.
Bolts are normally installed hand-spanner tight, in 2 mm clearance holes for diameters up to 24 mm, and 3
mm clearance holes for diameters over 24 mm. Where exact location and prevention of relative movement
between the joined parts is required, accurately machined bolts, fitted in reamed holes, are used. These bolts
require precision work and are costly to install. Where rigidity is required pretensioned HSFG bolts are
normally used.
2.4.2 High-strength friction-grip (HSFG) bolts
In HSFG bolted joints the shear load is transferred between the connected parts by friction. The friction force
is provided by the clamping action of the bolts, which are tightened in a controlled way to provide a specific
shank tension. The bolts are installed in clearance holes and thus there may be no bearing action in
transferring the load.
To make practical use of the friction effect, it is necessary to use high-tensile bolts so that an adequate
clamping force can be obtained with reasonably sized bolts. The stress induced in the bolts by the
pretensioning is at, or near, the proof stress.
Two strength grades of parallel shank bolts are available, the General Grade (equivalent to 8.8) and the
Higher Grade (equivalent to 10.9). Nuts are designed to develop the full strength of the bolt. Hardened
washers are used under the element which is to be rotated during tightening.
In order to mobilise the friction effect it is necessary to develop the required bolt pretension. This may be
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done either by controlled tightening of the nuts, using torque-control or part-turn methods, or by the use of
load-indicating devices; these may be special bolts, special fasteners or load-indicating washers.
2.4.2.1 The torque-control method
For this method of tightening a calibrated torque wrench is required which may be hand operated or, for
larger bolt diameters or large numbers of bolts, power operated. It is essential to check the tightening
equipment in combination with the bolts and nuts to be tightened very regularly, using special prestress-
measuring devices.
A certain deviation in the shank tension must be expected: estimates of the result of tightening, with the
objective of achieving a minimum shank tension of 80% of the specified tensile strength, have shown that
approximately 90% of the bolts would be tightened satisfactorily.
2.4.2.2 The part-turn method
This method uses the ductility of the bolt material by rotating the bolt sufficiently to take the bolt well into the
plastic state in which the shank tension is comparatively insensitive to further nut rotation. The maximum
shank tension that can be obtained is equal to the maximum torqued-tension strength of the bolt under the
friction conditions occurring at the time of tightening. Care must be taken with short bolts and with parallel
shank bolts which have only a small amount of thread in the grip.
The part-turn method is not allowed with Higher Grade (parallel shank) bolts. It is not recommended also for
use with M12 bolts.
2.4.2.3 Load-indicating devices
A variety of special load-indicating bolts are available, some simple and some complicated. A simple device is
the load indicating washer, which has a number of protruding nibs on one surface. As the nut is tightened the
protrusions are crushed; when the gap between the load indicator and the bolt has reached a prescribed value
(measured by a feeler gauge), the required shank tension will have been achieved.
2.4.2.4 Installation
HSFG bolts are installed in drilled holes with 2 mm clearance for bolts under 24 mm diameter and 3 mm
clearance for those over 24 mm. The holes must be sufficiently aligned so that the bolts can be inserted freely.
A hardened steel washer is used under the nut or head, whichever is to be rotated.
Where there are a number of bolts in a joint they should be tightened incrementally in a staggered pattern.
Successful achievement of the specified shank tension depends on the threads being in good condition. Bolts
and nuts must therefore be stored and handled in a way which ensures that the threads are not damaged or
contaminated. For a fastener to be in a usable condition the nut must run freely on the bolt thread.
Bolts which have been tightened using the part-turn method must not be used again; this restriction also
applies to bolts tightened using torque-control methods if plastic deformation has occurred.
Heating of the bolt itself or heating of the surrounding surfaces, possibly resulting in heating of the bolted
connection, can result in the destruction of the integrity of the connection and to the failure of the
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construction, and must be prevented at all times. Any welding operations, therefore, must take place before
the bolt is tightened.
The good practice guidelines, listed in Section 2.4.1, should be followed when handling and storing
materials on site.
Anchor bolts are used to attach the steel columns to their foundation. Errors in foundation level can be
corrected by using steel packers under the baseplate.
Stability must be maintained at all times during erection and the erection sequence should be arranged
to ensure this.
Sub-assemblies can be used with advantage to reduce work at height.
Bolted connections use either ordinary or HSFG bolts. The latter can be pretensioned either using the
torque-control, part-turn, or load-indicating washer methods.
Arch, H., Erection, Chapters 33 - Steel Designers' Manual, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1992.
1.
Thornton, W. A., "Design for Cost Effective Fabrication and Construction", Chapter 7.1 Constructional
Steel Design, London, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
2.
Miller, E. W., "Erection of Steel Structures", Chapter 7.2 Construction Steel Design, London, Elsevier
Applied Science, 1992.
3.
Potter, P. D., "Fast Steel Erection": Steel Fabrication Journal, No. 46, February 1983, Australian
Institute of Steel Construction.
4.
The Steel Construction Industry Code of Practice for Sage Erection of Building Steelwork: Part 2 -
Multi-storey Buildings and Structures, Australia, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1989.
5.
Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, CEN, 1992.
6.
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