1

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

2

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
INDEX
1.1 Statement of the Problem

1.2 Significance of the problem

1.3 Relevance of the Problem

1.4 Theoretical Background of the Investigation

1.4.1 Self-Efficacy theory
Social learning theory of career decision
making
Social cognitive theory
Career decision-making self-efficacy
Self- Efficacy Theory of womens Career
Development
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
1.4.2 Personality Theories of Career Decision
Making
Hollands Typological Theory
Roes Personality Theory of Career Choice
Behaviour

3

Five Factor Model
1.4.3
Parenting

Parenting Scales
Impact of Parenting Styles
1.4.4 Interests
The Nature of Interests
Development of Interests
1.5 Concepts and terms used

1.6
Abbreviations used
1.6.1 Demographic Variables
1.6.2 Career Decision Self Efficacy scale
1.6.3 NEO Five Factor Inventory
1.6.4 Parenting Scale
1.6.5 Chateerjis Non Language Preference
Record



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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Career choice is the most important event in an individuals life.
Persons success and consequently, satisfaction and happiness depend on how
accurately he chooses his Career. Improper selection of the Career or
frequently changing the Career is very harmful for psychological health. Once
we invest time, money and effort in moving along a particular career path it
may not be easy to change the path.
It is well known that individuals who make career choices based on
personal interests and abilities, show significantly higher levels of job
satisfaction and are more productive workers. Students who have gone
through comprehensive career counselling are discerning in their career
choices. Students, who make career choices without adequate and accurate
counselling and guidance, are at risk of being impelled to choose careers that
are not suitable for them.
Choice of a career is not only central to ones lifestyle, but is also a
vital aspect of the physical and emotional well-being of the individuals
themselves and their families (Walsh & Tosi, 1980). Career choice is a
developmental process that extends throughout life; it involves not a single
decision but a series of decisions. Career decision is not just a matter of
selecting an occupation that is good match with persons characteristics, but in
reality the process is lot more complicated. Good Career planning includes a
match between requirements for a job, aptitude interests, personality of the
5

youth and expectations from the parents. Good career planning leads to good
career adjustment.
The young persons transition into the world of work marks one of the
most important milestones in his or her life. Reaching and crossing this
milestone is influenced by numerous socio-economic, cultural and
psychological forces.
The importance of career counselling has been emphasized in India
since 1938 when the Acharya Narendra Dev Committee underlined the
importance of guidance in education. The Mudaliar Commission (1952) and
the Kothari Education Commission (1966) have subsequently made
recommendations for the formalization of guidance and counselling services at
national level.
Arulmani G. and Nag-Arulmani S (2006) conducted a survey in 15
different regions of India. This survey has been designed to collect information
about young peoples orientation to work and the manner in which they make
career choices. They recommend that, there is an urgent need for a model for
career counselling.
While doing career counselling since 2003, researcher came across
variety of students and their parents. She observed that, the young career
aspirant makes choices based on hearsay, prevailing career beliefs and prestige
pertaining to specific careers.
Researcher also worked as a resource person for lectures and
workshops on career selection. She has visited career exhibitions, spoken to
many students, parents and teachers. During these discussions she found that,
some career related issues need to be tested by research. In Indian settings,
6

there is scanty research on the influences of various factors on career decision
making among adolescent girls and boys. Therefore, she has decided to
undertake this research.
University Grants Commissions has made provision for special funds
to establish and run career counselling cell in colleges. Many colleges want to
take advantage of this scheme but, even the concerned staff members do not
know how to start with this project, as they are confused. If an ideal model of
career counselling is developed by taking into consideration Indian context, it
will be of great help to colleges. The present study intends to develop such
model of career counselling.
1.1 Statement Of The Problem
To study the impact of Personality, Interests and Perceived Parenting
on Effective Career Decision Making of adolescent boys and girls; studying in
Arts, Science and Commerce faculties.
1.2 Significance Of The Problem
India is rapidly developing in higher education, which has made the
society more complex than it was in the past. The number of occupations has
increased and also there are many occupations within one career. For instance,
farming which was a simple occupation some years ago is now a very complex
career within many occupations to choose from. This includes poultry,
vegetable farming, fruit farming etc.
According to Indian educational system, main stream of education is
decided after S.S.C. Generally students choose among Arts, Science and
Commerce streams. Some students opt for Diploma or Certificate courses.
7

Unfortunately, some students have to end their educational journey after
S.S.C. They are forced to earn money without obtaining any occupational skill.
The choice of a career is a crucial problem for a student. Most students
face following questions at some or the other time. What am I really going to
do? Can I really get there? How? Am I sure of the path? What are the risks? If
I dont make it, do I have any other option?
Few factors generally influence students in making their choice, e.g.
(a) Marks obtained at the annual examination, (b) the choice done by parents
and (c) the advice of teachers, friends and others. Closer observation in most
cases would reveal that these determinants of choice are not at all objective in
nature. Some ambitious parents dictate their own, unfulfilled Career decisions
on their children and compel them to choose the courses which perhaps they
didnt like or they were not able to complete. On the other hand, a few percent
of students have parents who are aware about psychometric testing and career
counselling sessions. Such parents help their children to select a proper career
for themselves. In order to eliminate any chances for regret, students should
begin the process of career decision making in a rational manner. If help of
trained career counselor is taken at the proper time, much disappointment,
wastage of time and energy could be avoided.
Career counselling is the emerging field of psychology. Young
psychologists can work in this field with the help of proper training and
experience. Career counselling is the most objective process of career decision
making. Along with Psychometric Testing many important things like
socioeconomic status, family background, parental attitude and students
health are required to take into consideration while counselling the students.
8

The present study aims to find out the existing Career decision making Process
and suggest a new model of effective career decision making with special
reference to Indian Society.
1.3 Relevance Of The Problem
Pune is known as City of Education. Many educational avenues are
available in Pune. One can see a wide range of availability of courses, from
free to exorbitantly priced courses. Various National as well as International
educational institutes are confusing students by making attractive
advertisements and giving placement assurances. Every year educational fairs,
lecture series regarding Career opportunities are organized by many
organizations. Agents are cheating students outside the city who desperately
want to take admission in a popular course offered in a particular institute.
After paying donation per seat for seeking admission, if students are not
capable of completing the particular course, they get frustrated, depressed and
sometimes few of them even attempt suicide. In such cases there is not only
loss of time and money, but also loss of human qualities. This is a kind of
wastage of human resources.
Indias ex-president Dr. Abdul Kalam dreamt of India as the super
power in the world in 2020. If this dream has to come true, proper
management of human resources is highly essential. Present investigation will
be a small contribution in this regard.
The relevance of career research to the Indian context becomes sharper
against the background of economic reforms that have helped India become
one of the world's fastest growing economies. An obvious corollary to
economic development is the widening of the array of occupational
9

possibilities. The optimal utilization of human resource to fulfill the demands
of these occupational roles becomes vital to sustain growth and development.
(Arulmani, 2006).
Career Psychology has remained an infant science in India.
Theoretically sound, culturally and psychologically validated, career
counselling services do not yet seem to be available for use in Indian situation.
It is against the background of a paucity of research in the field of Career
Psychology, that this study has been conceived and executed.
By the time research is complete the need to explore the career
decision making process with special reference to Indian setting will become
crucial. Therefore it seems that the implications of this research would prove
to be of great help to the society.
1.4 Theoretical Background Of The Investigation
Career choice has become a complex science with the advent of
information technology, the emergence of post industrial revolution and job
competition. Today, one has not only to make due career planning but also
exhaustive career search before making a career choice so as to adjust with the
evolving socio-economic conditions (Wattles, 2009).
Researcher has taken extensive review of literature related to Career
Choice Behaviour. Multiple factors, influencing career behaviour were
summarized in the following researches.
Tope (2011) studied 100 students from schools. Data collected was
analyzed using Pearson Moment Correlation Co-efficient. The results revealed
factors such as family background, peer group pressure, societal valued jobs
and the school environment directly influences students choice of career.
10

Generally, the choice of a career is influenced by parents, friends, and
counsellors; however, variations occur from one population to the other.
According to Oyamo and Amoth (2008), studies in Kenya show that rural
students tend to seek help from parents more than urban students and that
parents more than teachers play a major role in the career choice of students.
One consistent finding in research suggests that adolescents own
aspirations are influenced by their parents aspirations or expectations.
Parental support and encouragement are important factors that influence career
choice. Children may choose what their parents desire simply to please them.
(Taylor et al, 2004)
Rottinghaus et. al, (2002) found that Self-efficacy, Personality,
interests and the learning environment subscale of the Strong Interests
Inventory predicted educational aspirations among college students.
De Witz and Walsh (2002) reported that self-efficacy contributed to
college students satisfaction but that social self efficacy and general self-
efficacy were not predictive of satisfaction. These findings suggest that career
practitioners can assess self-efficacy, interests and personality jointly to better
understand clients career development.
Bandura et al (2001) state that each individual undertaking the Career
decision making process is influenced by several factors including the context
in which they live in, their personal aptitudes, social contacts and educational
attainment.
According to Kerka (2000), career choice is influenced by multiple
factors including personality, interests, self concept, cultural identity,
11

globalization, socialization, role model, social support and available resources
such as information and finance.
Bartley (1998) examined the process of career exploration during late
adolescence. Factors associated with this process included career decision-
making self-efficacy, motivational processes, goal directedness, vocational
decision making style, personal growth initiative, ego identity, exploration
beliefs and contextual anxiety. Findings suggest that a few constructs predict
career exploration as well as many constructs and that men and women should
be considered separately. Findings also suggest the need for further
investigation.
In the annual review of 2002 of Practice and Research in Career
Counselling and Development, several variables were identified as relevant to
career development. Some of these salient variables were personality,
interests, self-efficacy, social class, family environment context and important
role in life. Career counsellors should explore these areas to determine their
importance in the educational and career decision making of their clients.
Arulmani G. and Nag-Arulmani S. (2006) conducted an Indian regional
survey on work orientations and responses to career choices (WORCC-IRS).
They published report of this survey, and indicated that Socio-economic status
and Gender would be the important research themes for the future research.
After reviewing the literature, researcher has come to the following
conclusions,
1) Family background, Peer group pressure, Parental aspirations, Self-
efficacy, Personality, Interests, Aptitude, educational attainments, role
models Vocational decision making styles, social class, family
12

environment and gender are the important determinants of Career choice
behaviour.
2) There are many researches in the area of Career choice behaviour but they
are limited in their scope. Number of variables studied in these researches
was also limited.
Hence, an extensive research considering many variables and issues
were thoughtfully undertaken. Researcher decided to include Personality,
Perceived Parenting Interests and Socio-economic status as independent
variables. Impact of these variables on Career Decision Making was
investigated in the present study. Theoretical background of the related
variables was studied and discussed in this section.
1.4.1 Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy theory may be viewed as one approach to study the
applicability of social learning or social cognitive theory to vocational
behaviour
Social Learning Theory Of Career Decision Making:
J.D. Krumboltz and his colleagues have outlined the social learning
theory of career decision making (1984). This theory offers a more dynamic
process oriented way of thinking about vocational decisions. This theory
included age, sex education and socioeconomic status, along with
environmental variables such as role models, as factors that may serve to shape
career choice. According to this theory, the individuals cognitive and
emotional responses to the environment are the most important influence on
Career Decision Making. Theory focuses on teaching clients career decision
making alternatives and makes use of the concept of the triadic reciprocal
13

interaction and emphasizes the role of instrumental and associative learning. It
was developed to address the questions: why people enter particular
educational course or jobs; why they may express various preferences for
different activities at different points in their lives.
Social Cognitive Theory:
Bandura (1986) proposed the social cognitive theory. This theory
analyses the diverse ways in which beliefs of personal efficacy operate within
a network of socio-cultural and socio-economic influences to shape life paths.
Bandura (1986) defined
Self-efficacy
as peoples judgments of their
capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performance. Self-efficacy is more powerful than
interests, values or abilities. Efficacy beliefs operate as a key factor in a
generative system of human competence. Hence, different people with similar
skills, or the same person under different circumstances, may perform poorly,
adequately, or extraordinarily, depending on fluctuations in their beliefs of
personal efficacy.
People guide their lives by their beliefs of personal efficacy. Such
beliefs influence the courses of action people choose to pursue, how much
effort they put in given endeavours, how long they will persevere in the face of
obstacles and failures, their resilience to adversity, whether their thought
patterns are self-hindering or self-aided, how much stress and depression they
experience in coping with taxing environmental demands, and the level of
accomplishments they realize.


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Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy:
One of the most popular applications of self-efficacy theory is the
study of career decision-making self-efficacy (Betz, Klein & Taylor, 1994).
Crites (1978) has given the theory of career maturity and the model of career
choice competencies. On the basis of this model Taylor & Betz (1983)
provided the framework for deciding the skills required in career decision-
making. Crites hypothesized that good career decisions will be facilitated by
competence with respect to five career choice processes: (1) Goal Selection,
(2) Occupational Information, (3) Problem Solving, (4) Planning, and (5) Self
Appraisal. Thus the conceptualization and measurement of career decision-
making self-efficacy involved the integration of two major theories, Self-
efficacy theory and Career maturity theory.

Bandura (1986) describes four main sources of influence that
contribute to the formation of self-efficacy belief. With reference to career
development these sources can be explained as follows:
Performance Accomplishments
Performance Accomplishments describe the individuals actual
performance on a task and his or her ability to attribute success on the task to
personal effort. Repeated failure on a career development task is likely to
affect the career aspirants self-efficacy for career preparation.
Vicarious Experience
Going through the experience of watching someone (a role model)
similar to themselves succeed by consistent effort raises observers belief that
they too can master similar activities. In the same way, observations of others
failures despite strong efforts, undermines observers judgement of their own
15

efficacy and lowers motivational levels. A young person who is surrounded by
role models who have succeeded in career preparation is likely to have a
higher self-efficacy for career preparation.
Verbal Persuasion
Verbal persuasion refers to the individual being persuaded and
encouraged by someone else that they possess the capabilities to master a task.
Conversely, consistent verbal feedback that questions a persons capabilities
would cause him or her to avoid challenging activities and give up quickly in
the face of adversity. Being consistently discouraged from going on for further
education by family and community, could lessen the career aspirants self-
efficacy for career preparation through further education.
Physiological And Emotional Arousal
People partly rely on their physiological capabilities and emotional
states, to assess their own capabilities and personal stress reactions tend to be
interpreted as the precursor to poor performance. If career preparation tasks
consistently evoke feelings of fear and frustration the individuals self-efficacy
for that task could diminish. According to Social Cognitive Theory, these
factors work together to influence the individuals over all self-efficacy for a
particular task.
Self- Efficacy Theory Of Womens Career Development:
The self-efficacy approach to womens career development was first
proposed by Nancy Betz and Gail Hackett (1981). This theory assumes that,
the process of women career development is different from men career
development.
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The four sources of information that guide the formation of ones
expectations of self-efficacy are different for males and females. The first
information source includes performance accomplishment which women are
thought to experience to lesser degree than men. Women are postulated to
suffer from lack of vicarious learning opportunities which is the second
information source contributing to self efficacy. In general females are
underrepresented in certain occupational fields thus fewer role models and
observable career paths are available for women. Feeling of inadequacy or
lack of exposure to non-traditional or unfamiliar activities may perpetuate the
perception of low self-efficacy in women and girls. The third source of
efficacy is the opportunity to learn new tasks in a relatively anxiety-free states
higher level of anxiety, which have been shown to exist in women are thought
to be associated which lower degrees of self contributes to individuals sense
of self efficacy. Traditionally, males have been actively encouraged and
rewarded for career motivation and pursuits, whereas women have not. This
leads to perceptions of inability and lack of confidence in females.
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT):
SCCT takes Banduras general cognitive theory (1986) and connects it
to career related choices, plans, performance behaviours and explorations. It
examines how career and academic interests mature how career choices are
developed and how these choices are turned into action. Social Cognitive
Career Theory was developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven Dr. Brown and Gail
Hackett first in 1994 and expanded upon in 2000.
SCCT provides a model for understanding how the perceived support
of parents and the confidence gained through student participation in
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comprehensive guidance programs interact to support the career development
of adolescents. According to this theory, proximal factors (e.g. race, gender
disability/ health status, ethnicity) directly predict career interests and the
career choice process of young person by either providing or limiting access to
vocational preparation and employment opportunities. Distal factors (e.g. the
environmental supports provided by parents, teachers and professional school
counselors) exert a moderating effect through learning experiences on the
young persons career related selfefficacy and outcome expectations, which
then mediate the formation of interests, career related intentions and career
related goals. Gender and the gender typing of careers are related to career
interest patterns (Lapan, Adams, Turner & Hinkel man, 2000). Career self
efficacy and career planning / exploration efficacy are related to and predictive
of the range of occupations considered (OBrien et al, 1999, Rotberg, Brown
& Ware, 1987), the level of occupational interests (Bores Rangel, Church
szendle & Reeves, 1990), and the confidence to pursue career related tasks
(Ahrens & OBrien, 1996) among adolescences and young adults.
Social Cognitive Career Theory, in short, suggests that an individuals
Career path is strengthened when he is exposed to many interests and
vocational opportunities; has a strong sense of self-efficacy; maintains high
outcome expectations; set goals for the future; and anticipates and negotiates
barriers to success.
1.4.2 Personality Theories of Career Decision Making
Hollands Typological Theory
Hollands model (1996) is called RIASEC model or hexagonal model.
According to this model, person flourishes when his personality type matches
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with work environment. A good match typically results in career satisfaction,
achievement and stability. Major Assumptions of Hollands theory:
1. In our culture, most people can be categorized as belonging to one of
six types: realistic, intellectual, social, conventional, enterprising and
artistic
2. There are six kinds of environments: realistic, intellectual, social,
conventional, enterprising and artistic.
3. People search for environments and vocations that will permit them to
exercise their skills and abilities, to express their attitudes and values,
to take an agreeable problem and role, and to avoid disagreeable ones.
4. A persons behaviour can be explained by the interaction of his
personality and his environments.
Following are the six personal orientations and their optimal work
environments:
1) Realistic people describe themselves as good at mechanical tasks and
weak in social skills. They prefer jobs with tasks that are physical or
mechanical and that are clearly defined, such as farming, auto-
mechanics, and engineering. They tend to avoid tasks that involve
social skills, abstract thinking subjectivity, or verbal skill.
2) Investigative people enjoy abstract thinking and logical analysis and
prefer understanding to action. They like working with ideas, rather
than with things or people. Investigative individuals can often be
found working in research laboratories or libraries.
3) Artistic people see themselves as imaginative and independent. They
tend to be impulsive and creative and are socially aloof. These
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individuals dislike structured tasks, preferring instead to rely on their
subjective impressions in dealing with the environment. They have a
high need for emotional expression and often seek careers in music
or drama.
4) Social people describe themselves as being understanding and
wanting to help others. They prefer to interact with people and they
have the necessary social skills to do so comfortably. They typically
have greater verbal ability than mathematical ability. Social types are
often found in the helping professions, such as teaching, nursing and
social work.
5) Enterprising people perceive themselves as happy, self-confident,
sociable and popular. They like to use their social skills to lead or
persuade others. They prefer sales or supervisory positions, in which
they can express these characteristics.
6) Conventional people are conforming, systematic and orderly. They
typically have greater clerical and mathematical ability than verbal
ability. They prefer working environments that are structured and
predictable and may be well suited to occupations in the business
world.
Obviously these six personal orientations are ideal types. In reality, no
one person fits perfectly into any one type. Most people are a combination of
two or three types.
Roes Personality Theory Of Career Choice Behaviour:
Anne Roes (1956) proposed a theory based on Maslows Classic
theory of basic needs. Roes research led her to believe that the needs structure
20

of the individual would be greatly influenced by early childhood experiences.
These early childhood experiences play an indirect role in shaping later career
behaviour (Brown, Lurn and Voyle 1997). She suggested that parent-child
relationships influence personality orientations and the development of
psychological needs. Vocational interests and choices are some of the ways in
which individuals try to satisfy those needs.
Roe (1957) hypothesized that, three types of parental attitudes,
acceptance, concentration and avoidance are associated with the vocational
development of the students. According to Roes theory, children reared in
warm and accepting environment become people oriented adults and people
who are exposed to cold and aloof environment at home become more
interested in things than in people.
Roes extensive research into occupations
led her to the development of eight occupational groups (Roe & Klas 1972).
They are Service, Business Contact, Organization, Technology, Outdoors,
Science, Culture, Arts and entertainment.

Roes system of classification and
categorization has proved to be useful as framework for organizing a multitude
of occupations in a meaningful way, and her work has had an impact on
interest test development and career research.

Five Factor Model:
The five five-factor model was originally based on a combination of
the lexical approach and the statistical approach. Fiske (1949) took a set of 22
of Cattells 35 clusters and discovered through factor analysis a five-factor
solution. Fiske is noted as the first person to discover version of the five-factor
model, but he is not credited with having identified its precise structure. Five
factor model asserts that personality structure can be described in terms of five
21

broad categories. Secondly it suggests that differences among people in these
dimensions are stable over time, have genetic basis are due at least in part to
some still-to-be specified internal mechanism. After 1990 the five factor model
has received the most attention and support from personality researchers.
Cattell provided the theoretical groundwork for this model.
McCrae and Costa agreed with Eysenck that personality traits are
bipolar and follow a bell shaped distribution. That is most people score near
the middle of each trait with only a few people scoring at the extremes.
Neuroticism (N) and Extraversion (E) are the two strongest and most
ambiguous personality traits. People who score high on neuroticism tend to be
anxious, temperamental self-pitying, self conscious, emotional and vulnerable
to stress-related disorders. Those who score low on N are usually calm, even-
tempered, self-satisfied and unemotional.
People who score high on extraversion tend to be affectionate, jovial,
talkative, joiners and fun-loving. In contrast, low E scores are likely to be
reserved, quiet, loners, passive, and lacking the ability to express strong
emotion.
Openness to experience distinguishes people who prefer variety from
those who have a need for closure and who gain comfort in their association
with familiar people and things. People who consistently see out different and
varied experiences would score high on openness to experiences people high
on openness tend to question traditional values, whereas people low on
openness tend to support traditional values and to preserve a fixed style of
living. People high on openness are generally creative, imaginative, curious
and liberal and have a preference for variety. By contrast, those who score low
22

on openness to experience are typically conventional, down-to-earth,
conservative and lacking in curiosity.
Agreeableness scale distinguishes self-hearted people from ruthless
ones people who score in the direction of agreeableness tend to be trusting,
generous, yielding, acceptant and good-natural. Those who score on the other
direction are generally suspicious, unfriendly, irritable and critics of other
people.
The fifth factor-conscientiousness described people who are ordered,
controlled organized, ambitious, achievement focused and self-disciplined.
People score high conscientiousness are hard working, conscientious, punctual
and preserving. In contrast, people who score low on conscientiousness tend to
be disorganized, negligent, lazy, and aimless and are likely to give up when a
project becomes difficult.
1.4.3 Parenting
One of the major tasks of family system is parenting, parenting refers
to the physical protection emotional nurturing and socialization of Children
Parenting is a relationship that socialization of Children Parenting is a
relationship that Parenting means implementing a series of decisions about the
socialization of our children (Kagan, 1975). What we do to enable them to
become responsible contributing members of society. It also includes decision
about what to do when children cry, become aggressive, tells lie; do not
perform satisfactorily in school etc. Parents sometimes find these decisions
confusing and over whelming. Such decisions are confusing because there is
little consensus as to what children should be like when they grow up or what
we do to get them there. Another reason for these confusing decisions is that it
23

is bidirectional and dynamic. An adults behavior toward a child is often a
reaction to that childs temperament and behavior, changing with time as the
child develops (Lerner, 1998; Putnam, Sanson & Rothbart 2002). Thus, by
influencing adults, children influence their own development.
The first and most important dimension of parenting is parental
acceptance. Most parents are at least moderately accepting of their children,
some are indifferent hostile and rejecting, Parental acceptance and warmth
appear to influence the degree to which children internalize the standards and
expectations of their parents. The second dimension is parental control, or
strictness of parental standards. A parent who is moderately controlling sets
high performance standards and expects increasingly mature behaviour. A
parent who is uncontrolling expects little of the child.
Parenting Styles are combinations of parenting behaviours that occur in
a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate.
Parenting as the style of child upbringing refers to privilege or responsibility
of mother and father, together or independently to prepare the child for society
and culture, which provides ample opportunity to a child to find roots,
continuity and a sense of belonging (Sirohi and Chauhan, 1991) and also serve
as an affective agent of socialization.
In a landmark series of studies, Diana Baumrind gathered information
on child rearing by watching parents interactions with their preschoolers, her
findings and those of others who have extended her work reveal four styles of
child rearing.


24

Authoritative Child Rearing:
This is the most successful approach to child-rearing. This involves
high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques and appropriate
autonomy granting. Authoritative parents are warm, attentive and sensitive to
their childs needs. They establish an enjoyable, emotionally fulfilling parent
child relationship that draws the child into close connection. At the same time,
authoritative parents exercise firm reasonable control of their childs
behaviour. They insist on appropriate maturity, give reasons for their
expectations. Such parents engage in gradual, appropriate autonomy granting.
They encourage the child to express her thoughts, feelings and desires. These
parents are willing to accommodate childs perspective, this increases the
likelihood that child will listen to parents perspective.
Authoritarian Child Rearing:
Parents who use an authoritarian parenting style are low in acceptance
and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting.
Authoritarian parents appear cold and end rejecting; they frequently degrade
their child by mocking and putting her down. To exert control, they yell,
command, criticize and threaten; Do it because I said so! is their attitude. If
the child disobeys such parents resort to force and punishment, they make
decisions for their child and expect the child to accept their word
unquestioningly. Children of authoritarian parents are anxious and unhappy,
are low in self-esteem and self-reliance and tend to react with hostility when
frustrated. These parents frequently interrupt or put down the childs ideas
decisions or choice of friends. When they are dissatisfied, they withdraw love
making their affection or attention contingent on the childs compliance with
25

their own wishes which for them is very important at that moment.
Permissive Child Rearing:
The permissive child-rearing style is warm and accepting. Rather than
being involved they are either overindulgent or inattentive. Instead of
gradually granting autonomy, they allow children to make many decisions for
themselves at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so. Some
permissive parents truly believe that this approach is the best; many others
simply lack confidence in their ability to influence their childs
behaviour. Children of permissive parents are impulsive, disobedient and
rebellious. These children are also overly demanding and dependent on adults
and they show less persistence on tasks and poorer school achievement.
Uninvolved Child Rearing:
The uninvolved child-rearing style combines low acceptance and
involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy.
Uninvolved parents may be emotionally detached and depressed, so
overwhelmed by the many stresses in their lives that. They have no time and
energy for children (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
They may respond to the childs immediate demands for easily
accessible objects; but parenting strategies that involve long-term goals such
as establishing and enforcing rules about homework and social behaviour,
listening to the childs point of view, providing guidance about appropriate
choices, and monitoring the childs whereabouts and activities, are weak and
fleeting.
Extreme of uninvolved parenting is called neglect. Depressed parents
having many stresses in their lives, such as marital conflict, little or no social
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support and poverty show neglect towards their children. Neglect disrupts all
aspects of development, including attachments, cognition, play and emotional
and social skills.
Parenting Scales:
In the present investigation Parenting scales are measured. Bharadwaj
has proposed eight bipolar parenting scales. These scales are described in
detail in the chapter Methodology and Sampling. The researcher has classified
the parenting scales by Bharadwaj under Baumrinds parenting styles by
comparing the two. Since, parenting scales are bipolar, one dimension of a
particular mode comes under one style and another dimension may come
under another style e.g. Parenting scale (A) Re vs Ac, Rejection dimension of
this mode comes under authoritarian parenting style but Acceptance dimension
comes under authoritative parenting style. The parenting dimensions
Rejection, Utopian Expectation, Moralism, Discipline and Faulty role
expectations come under the authoritarian parenting style. The parenting
dimensions Acceptance, Protection, Realism and Realistic Role Expectation
come under the authoritative parenting style. Indulgence, Lenient standard and
Freedom dimensions of parenting come under the permissive parenting style.
Impact of Parenting Styles:
Researchers have conducted numerous studies, which have lead to
number of conclusions about the impact of parenting styles on children.
Authoritarian Parenting style generally leads to children who are
obedient and proficient but they rank lower in happiness, social competence
and self-esteem. Authoritative Parenting style leads to result in happy, capable
and successful children (Maccoby, 1992)
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Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in
happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience
problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.
Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These
children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem and are less competent
than their pears.
Culture, personality, family size, parental background, socio-economic
status, educational level and religion are the potential causes for differences in
parenting styles.
Parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique
blend in each and every family e.g. The mother may display an authoritative
style while the father favours a more permissive approach.
1.4.4 Interests
Career interests are patterns of likes, dislikes and indifferences related
to career development and occupations. Interests motivate and move a person
toward or away from a certain activity.
The Nature Of Interests:
1) Interests are different from abilities. However, interests and abilities tend
to show some similar patterns. People often learn to like things they do
well and learn to dislike things they do not do well.
2) Interests have a substantial effect in choosing a career.
3) Psychologists have identified some broad domains of interest like
scientific interests, aesthetic interest.
4) Interests are also different from values. Values are regarded as more
general and more resistance to change than interest.
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5) Research shows that people are unaware of their interests and they could
not verbalize their interests. Therefore complex and indirect methods of
interest measurement are developed.
Development Of Interests:
During the initial stages of career development, the child may be drawn
toward a wide range of activities. As the individual grows and matures
economic, social and cultural factors shape initial orientations into interests
that are more socially acceptable.
Self efficacy and interest formation are linked together because as an
individual mature he or she is likely to maintain interest only in those activities
where they perceive positive outcomes and feel efficacy. An individuals sense
of self efficacy strengthened by her interests in turn helps an individual to
determine her future goals.
The vocational interests of young children typically have an element of
fantasy. Such fantasies may have little to do with their abilities or knowledge
or what particular occupations entail. Children normally progress from a
fantasy stage to a transition state in late childhood and early adolescence and
family to a more realistic stage in the development of vocational interests
during late adolescence and early adulthood still the general direction of a
persons interests may be apparent fairly early in life. Young children tend to
engage in activities that they view as appropriate and avoid activities that they
consider inappropriate for themselves.
According to Anne Roe [1964], Vocational interests and hence Career
choices, results from the kinds of relationships that children have with their
families. A warm accepting family atmosphere tends to create a people
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orientation, whereas a cold, aloof family atmosphere is more likely to result in
an object or thing orientation.
From a social learning perspective interests are viewed as the results of
differential reinforcement for engaging in certain activities, coupled with
imitation and modeling of people who are important to the individual.
1.5 Concepts And Terms Used
Self-Efficacy:
Self-efficacy refers to an individuals conviction about his or her
abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources and courses of action
needed to successfully execute the specific task within a given context.
Career Decision Making Self-Efficacy (CDSE):
Individuals degree of belief that he/she can successfully complete
tasks necessary to making career decisions.
Personality:

Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and
thought.
Interest:
Strong [1943] defined an interest as a response of liking. It is a learned
affective response to an object or activity; things in which we are interested
elicit positive feelings, things in which we have little interest, elicit little affect,
and things in which we are totally disinterested elicit apathy or even feelings
of aversion.


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Parenting:
Parenting means implementing a series of decisions about the
socialization of our children (Kagan, 1975).
Perceived Parenting:
Perceptions of the individual about ones own feelings as to how he/she
was brought up by his/her parents on different modes of parenting.
Parenting Styles:
Parenting styles can be defined as the differing styles of discipline,
nurturance, reinforcement and acceptance used by the parents during child-
rearing.

SES:
A familys socioeconomic status is its rank or position within a society
based on social and economic factors such as income, occupation and
education of parents.

1.6 Abbreviations used
1.6.1 Demographic Variables
FE - Fathers Education
FO - Fathers Occupation
ME - Mothers Education
MO - Mothers Occupation
SES - Socio-Economic Status




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1.6.2 Career Decision Self - Efficacy Scale
CDSE - SF - Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale Short Form
SA - Self - Appraisal
OI - Occupational Information
GS - Goal Selection
PL Planning
PS - Problem Solving
1.6.3 NEO Five Factor Inventory
NEO - FFI NEO Five Factor Inventory
N - Neuroticism
E - Extraversion
O - Openness to Experience
A - Agreeableness
C - Conscientiousness
1.6.4 Parenting Scale
P - Scale - Parenting Scale
(Re Vs Ac) (A) - Rejection Vs Acceptance scale
(Ca Vs Pr) (B) - Carelessness Vs protection scale
(Ne Vs In) (C) - Neglect Vs Indulgence scale
(Ut Vs Rea) (D) - Utopian Expectation Vs Realism scale
(Le Vs Mo) (E) - Lenient Standard Vs Moralism scale
(Fr Vs Di) (F) - Freedom Vs Discipline scale
(Fa Vs Real (G) - Faulty Role Expectation Vs Realistic Role Expectation
scale
(Mc Vs Ma) (H) - Marital Conflict Vs Marital Adjustment scale
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1.6.5 Chateerjis Non - Language Preference Record
CNPR- Chateerjis Non - Language Preference Record
F - Fine Arts
L - Literary Work
S - Science
M - Medical
Ag - Agricultural
T - Technical
Cr - Crafts
Ou - Outdoor
Sp - Sports
Ho - Household Work
In short, career decision making is an important event which affects the
whole life-span of every individual. Hence, it is worthwhile to undertake a
scientific enquiry into it. Previous researches indicated that, personality,
interests and perceived parenting are the important predictor variables of the
career decision making. Therefore, these variables were studied in present
investigation.
This study would be a significant contribution as the junior college
students who are on the threshold of career decision making have been
selected as the sample. The study will also provide a base line data for further
research in Indian settings.

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