Cement Testing

Cement is a fine powder that is a principal strength giving component of concrete. It is a high quality,
cost-effective building material and a key component of construction projects throughout the world.
Used by the Egyptians some 2,600 years ago and then by the Romans, it was rediscovered in the
early 19th century.
Cement is a hydraulic binder and the basic ingredient of concretes and mortars that has evolved over
the decades. Among the major developers of these hydraulic cements was Louis Vicat who
combined chalk and clay which after burning produced artificial cement.
As the use of concrete in construction grew rapidly this was soon the dominant use for cements.
Thus Portland cement began its predominant role.
Nowadays cements used in modern construction are either Portland cement or Portland cement
blends and come in a wide variety of formulations, including Ordinary Portland cement, White
cement, Rapid hardening cement, Sulphate resisting cement and Masonry cement.
In virtually every construction project the safety and durability of the finished structure are critical to
its success. Essential to achieving this, is the implementation of effective quality control procedures
in the production of building materials such as cement. While traditionally quality control has often
translated into additional resource requirements and costs for cement manufacturers, new
generation of testing technology is enabling procedures to be carried out quickly, accurately and
simply, with minimal resource and budget.

Test methods
The most common testing standards in use are EN and ASTM, many of the test methods used to
determine the properties of cement have been in practice for some time, although the technology
used has been continually developed and refined to offer more accurate results and simplified
operation.
The usual tests carried out are for chemical and physical requirements. Typically chemical standards
details permissible limits for insoluble residue, loss of ignition and other compounds and impurities
like Magnesium Oxide, Sulphate, etc. The physical requirements include fineness, soundness, setting
time and compressive strength.
For example, flame photometers can now determine the chemical properties of a cement sample
with digital accuracy. Chemical analysis plays an important role in the categorisation of cements,
allowing manufacturers to predict the way that the material will react to its environment when
mixed. Alkali content, for instance, can be effectively tested using flame photometry equipment.
Using this equipment the alkali elements are thermally dislodged in a flame and the atoms excited to
a higher energy level; when returning to the ground state, they emit radiation at a characteristic
wavelength specific to each element, and a digital readout is then produced for analysis
In the past cement analysis was carried out using wet-chemical techniques. Now in the laboratory of
a cement works this has been replaced by X-ray analysis equipment of various types. At a cement
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works raw materials, clinker and cement are analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and, often,
X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRF is at the heart of the control of the production process in any modern
cement works and is central to the ability of the cement maker to produce a consistent product.

Cement fineness using Blaine air permeability apparatus is based on the relationship between the
surface area in a porous bed and the rate of fluid flow (air) through the bed. Two types of equipment
are available: manual and automatic, In ASTM C204 two test methods are included method A the
manual apparatus being the reference method.

Testing to determine the setting time and soundness of cement is now made simpler and more
accurate using the latest technology. A process known as the Vicat method has been proven to
determine effectively the water content required to produce the desired consistency in cement. The
object of this test is to determine the time which elapsed from the moment water is added until the
paste ceases to be fluid and plastic e.g. "initial set", and also the time required for it to acquire a
certain degree of hardness the "final set". The initial set is the more important, since, with the
commencement of setting, the process of hardening is said to begin. As a disturbance of this process
may produce a loss of strength, it is desirable to complete the operation of mixing and moulding or
incorporating the mortar into the work before the cement begins to set. Automatic versions of the
Vicat apparatus are available automating the process, again saving time, resources and money while
offering greater accuracy and repeatability. The latest devices feature an integrated memory to hold
tests results, which can then be printed or downloaded for analysis.

The soundness of cement is of particular importance. It is essential that once hardened the paste
does not undergo a large change in volume.
The soundness of cements and limes can be determined by an expansion test using Le Chatelier test
method, soundness is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-pressure
steam.

With cement a crucial ingredient in mortar and concrete supplied to the construction industry, both
the air content and density need to be measured in order to ensure that the strength and durability
of the material will meet the required specifications. Clients often specify minimum levels of air
content and density, requiring manufacturers to be able to determine accurately the properties of
the cement supplied. Air entrainment meters have been developed for this purpose, incorporating a
pressure gauge giving readings of air content as a measure of pressure.

Preparing samples
While relatively simple but proven testing processes for determining the chemical properties,
fineness, workability and flow, and density of cement are still providing manufacturers with an
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effective means of controlling the quality of cement produced, more advanced equipment has been
developed to collect and analyse data from hardened cement mortar samples.

For hardened cement mortar to be tested, samples must first be prepared, through mixing,
moulding and curing. The correct mixing sequence and homogeneity of mix is crucial if consistent,
repeatable test results are to be obtained. A mixer should be powerful enough to ensure that the
speed of its motor is not affected by the mix constituents, but not so powerful that the mixer action
and blade break down individual sand particles. Additionally, many mixing apparatus now provide
automatic mixing cycles, for significantly more efficient operation.
For example, some Mortar Mixers can be used in either manual or automatic mode for more flexible
operation. When in manual mode, the mixing speed can be changed at the flick of a switch while the
motor is running. In automatic mode, any one of the pre-set mixing programmes can be selected for
fast and simple use. The mixer is specially designed to mix mortars and cement pastes to the
required standard, generally EN or ASTM. The units incorporate a mixing paddle with a planetary
motion, which is driven by a motor with a microprocessor based speed and programme controller.

The successful moulding of prisms, cubes and briquettes (depending on the relevant standards being
adhered to) is essential for subsequent strength testing to be meaningful. Moulds need to be robust
enough to retain their form through heavy usage. Equipment is available that has been specifically
designed for this purpose, including jolting tables and vibrating machinery, to compact samples using
purpose made moulds.

Additionally, prior to testing, EN196, one of the most widely used and recognised standards for
determining the strength of cement, requires samples to be cured for at least 24 hours at 20 1C,
90% RH minimum. The samples must then be removed from the moulds and stored under water for
the remaining curing time, which can range from 48 hours to 28 days.
For the early curing of mortar samples prior to storing under water, samples can be placed in a
humidity cabinet. These units are able to offer relative humidity levels of up to 98% RH.
Using a humidity cabinet for curing samples helps to ensure that the results from hardened cement
mortar tests are as accurate and consistent as possible.

Testing hardened cement mortar
The latest generation of testing equipment, includes automatically controlled cement compression
machines that enable hardened cement mortar samples to be tested simply and quickly. The
machinery automates the testing process, incorporating microprocessor control to provide
consistently accurate results.
This type of advanced testing equipment has been developed to satisfy the requirements for high
throughput strength testing of cement mortar samples as specified in various testing standards,
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including EN196, EN 1105 and ASTM C109. After being mixed, moulded and cured, samples of
various sizes and shapes are subjected to compressive loads up to a maximum of 250kN.

By automating processes that have previously been carried out manually, the machines are able to
reduce the time, cost and resource required for testing cement. The technology makes testing as
simple as possible for operators, incorporating pre-programmed test routines reducing variability of
testing. Integrated memory for retaining test results, to be stored in the system, and then
downloaded to a laptop or PC using the built in serial port for streamlined results analysis and
distribution, which is particularly useful in high throughput environments.
Unlike conventional automated compression testing technology using valve systems, which can be
prone to high oil temperatures, requiring additional oil coolers, the latest equipment features
variable output hydraulic pump technology, which provides an automatic loading cycle controlled by
a closed loop microprocessor hydraulic system. This ensures far more efficient performance and
consistent results, with the closed loop control enabling the applied force required to be continually
monitored and adjusted, for far greater accuracy than is possible with manual testing.


Conclusion
Many of the largest cement and concrete producers in the world are seeing the benefits of investing
in the latest testing technology to ensure the quality of their products across the globe. It is crucial
to these companies that the cement they deliver to their customers meets the companies own
internal standards, the relevant testing standards and also the individual specifications of their
clients. Using the latest automated testing technology is contributing considerably to standardise
quality control procedures globally, with more accurate testing enabling these major producers to
offer customers the high level of service they require.

With the latest cement testing technology now available to manufacturers and suppliers a simple
and fast means of achieving accurate analysis of the properties of the materials being supplied,
effective quality control procedures can be implemented extremely cost effectively. The result is
correctly specified cement delivered consistently, maintaining successful client relationships and
ultimately benefiting a companys bottom line.

- END -


For further information contact Tim Gardiner, ELE International, Chartmoor Road, Chartwell Business
Park, LEIGHTON BUZZARD, Bedfordshire, LU7 4WG. Tel: 01525 249 223. Fax: 01525 249 249.
Email: tim.gardiner@eleint.co.uk. Web: www.ele.com.
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Images (low res) for review


250/25kN Automatic Cement
Testing machine


Automatic/Manual
Mortar Mixer



EN Standard specification
Mould for producing prisms
40.1 x 40.0 x 160 mm.




Humidity Cabinet for early
Curing of Mortar prisms