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Metonymy in Grammar
Ronald W. Langacker
University of California, San Diego
Introduction
(1) A basic assumption of syntax: Particular elements combine in very specific and determinate
ways. It is possible to give a definite and precise specification of the elements connected
to one another and how they are connected. This property will be called determinacy.
(2)(a) [ [Alice]
NP
[ [likes]
V
[Bill]
NP
]
VP
]
S
(b) LIKE(x,y) x=Alice y=Bill
(3)(a) Determinacy reflects a broader conception: (i) language is a separate mental module; (ii)
syntax is autonomous; and (iii) semantics is well-delimited and fully compositional.
(b) The cognitive linguistic alternative: (i) grammar is not autonomous from semantics; (ii)
semantics is neither well-delimited nor fully compositional; and (iii) language draws on
more general cognitive systems and capacities from which it cannot be neatly separated.
(c) The canonical situation is actually one of indeterminacy. Grammar is basically
metonymic.
(4)
Conceptualist Semantics
(5) Some basic tenets of cognitive semantics:
(a) Meaning resides in conceptualization, broadly interpreted as including any aspect of our
mental experience.
(b) Being grounded in perception and bodily experience, basic conceptual elements are
imagistic rather than propositional.
(c) Conception and linguistic semantics are crucially dependent on various imaginative
capacities: metaphor, metonymy, blending, fictivity, and mental space construction.
(d) Lexical semantics is flexible and open-ended (encyclopedic in scope).
(e) Semantic structure is only partially (not fully) compositional.
(f) Linguistic meanings incorporate not only the conceptual content evoked, but also the
construal imposed on that content.
(6) In our society, any election turns into a cat-fight.
(7)
(b) Encyclopedic Semantics (a) Dictionary Semantics
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(8)(a) I picked up the cat.
(b) A contented cat sounds like a smoothly-running motor.
(c) He was saved by his cat-like reflexes.
(d) Shes taking a cat-nap.
(e) His opponents portrayed Bill Clinton as a tomcat.
(f) This {birdcage/furniture/rug} is cat-proof.
(9) Encyclopedic semantics is one manifestation of indeterminacy in language. It implies that
semantic composition is also indeterminate: the meaning of the whole cannot be
predicted from the meanings of the parts unless the parts themselves have definite,
limited meanings.
(10) Construal is our ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways. Every
lexical and grammatical element incorporates, as an inherent aspect of its meaning, a
certain way of construing the conceptual content evoked. Dimensions of construal
include specificity, scope, perspective, and prominence.
(11)(a) [specific] calico cat > cat > feline > creature > thing [schematic]
(b) The clever girl gently picked up her calico cat. > A girl picked up a cat. > A female
moved an animal. > Someone did something to something. > Something happened.
(12) An expressions scope is the extent of the conceptual content it evokes and depends on for
its characterization. Its immediate scope is the onstage region, i.e. the portion most
relevant for a particular purpose.
(13)
(14) Perspective includes such factors as vantage point (V) and orientation.
(15)(a) Two kinds of prominence are especially important for grammar: profiling and
trajector/landmark alignment.
(b) An expressions profile is the specific focus of attention within its immediate scope, i.e.
the entity it designates (refers to).
(c) An expression can profile either a thing or a relationship (in abstract senses of those
terms).
(d) When a relationship is profiled, varying degrees of prominence are conferred on its
participants.
(e) One participant stands out as the primary focal participant, called the trajector (tr).
There is often a secondary focal participant, called the landmark (lm).
(f) Expressions that evoke the same conceptual content can nonetheless contrast in meaning
because they differ in their choice of profile or trajector/landmark alignment.
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(16)
Cognitive Grammar
(17) The central claim of Cognitive Grammar:
(a) Grammar is symbolic in nature, forming a continuum with lexicon.
(b) This continuum consists of constructions, i.e. assemblies of symbolic structures
connected to one another.
(c) A symbolic structure resides in the pairing of a semantic structure and a phonological
structure (its semantic and phonological poles).
(d) All grammatical elements are meaningful (primarily in terms of construal).
(18)(a) An expressions grammatical category is determined by the nature of its profile (not its
overall conceptual content).
(b) A noun profiles a thing (abstractly defined).
(c) A verb profiles a process, defined as a relationship followed sequentially in its evolution
through time.
(d) Members of certain other classessuch as adjectives, adverbs, and prepositionsprofile
relationships that are non-processual (being apprehended holistically rather than
sequentially).
(19)
(20)
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(21)(a) A construction consists of two or more component structures that are integrated, at
both the semantic and the phonological pole, to form a composite structure.
(b) Integration depends on correspondences (dotted lines) established between component
structure elements. Corresponding elements are superimposed (their specifications
merged) in forming the composite structure.
(c) Typically, the profile of one component structure is inherited at the composite structure
level. This component (indicated by a heavy-line box) is called the profile determinant.
(d) The composite structure at one level of organization can function in turn as a component
structure in another construction, at a higher level of organization. In this way
constituency can emerge.
(22)
(23)(a) Grammatical patterns (rules) are schematic constructions, representing what is
common to specific expressions that instantiate them. These constructional schemas
serve as templates for producing and assessing new expressions.
(b) The semantic pole of a constructional schema constitutes a pattern of semantic
composition. Semantic structure is not distinct from grammar, but an inherent part of it.
(24) Constructional Schema for Prepositional Phrases
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(25)(a) A subject is a nominal expression whose profile corresponds to the trajector of a profiled
relationship. An object is one whose profile corresponds to a landmark.
(b) A head is the profile determinant at a given level of organization.
(c) A complement is a component structure which specifies a schematic substructure of the
head.
(d) A modifier is a component structure a schematic substructure of which is specified by the
head.
Active Zones
(26)(a) An entitys active zone, with respect to a profiled relationship, is that facet of it which
most directly and crucially participates in that relationship.
(b) There is often a discrepancy between a nominal expressions profile and its active zone
with respect to a relationship for which it functions as trajector or landmark.
(27) The cigarette in her mouth was unlit.
(28)(a) the cake in the oven; the letter in the envelope; the air in the balloon; the dresser in the
bedroom; the food in my stomach
(b) the swan in the water; the axe in your hand; the arrow in the target; the sword in the
scabbard; the cork in the bottle
(c) the water in the cup; the fish in the bowl; the dirt in the planter; the groceries in the
paper bag; the ice cubes in the tray
(d) the man in the bathtub; the straw in the glass; the flowers in the vase; the cat in the litter
box; the oarsmen in that boat
(29)
(30)(a) The boy {blinked/waved/coughed/meditated/ached/yawned/stretched/smiled/urinated}.
(b) She hit me (in the {arm/stomach/mouth/back/leg/knee/neck}).
(c) She hit me (with {her left hand/her right elbow/the top of her head/a stick/a baseball}).
(d) I can {hear a piano/see the elephants in the distance [when only a cloud of dust is
visible]}.
(31) The active zone is not necessarily a subpart of the profiled entity; it need only be associated
with it in some evident fashion. Being identical to it and being a subpart are special cases
of association.
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(32)
(33) I have to review this book, which weighs 5 pounds.
Reference Point Constructions
(34) We have the ability to invoke one conceived entity as a reference point (R) in order to
establish mental contact with another, i.e. to mentally access one conceived entity
through another. The entity accessed in this way is called the target (T). The set of
entities accessible through a given reference point (the set of potential targets) are
collectively referred to as its dominion (D).
(35)
(36) fishing pole, mosquito net, baseball glove, bicycle seat, axe handle, window shade, jar lid,
book cover, fingernail, trout stream, pencil sharpener, tree root, movie theater, tomato
worm, checkbook, rose petal, mailman, arrowhead, sheep dog, wine bottle, elephant
table, chimney squirrel, airplane diaper
(37)
(38) the mayors cellphone, Joes mother, my foot, the babys diaper, their office, his problems,
your candidate, my bus, the students qualifications, our displeasure, her migraine, the
dogs fleas, the banks current interest rate, Oswalds assassination [of Kennedy],
Kennedys assassination [by Oswald]
(39)(a) Your uncle, he should really get married.
(b) That color, I just dont like it.
(c) The lottery, I never have any luck.
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(40)
(41)(a) Taroo-ga fuku-ga itsumo hade-da. Taro always has gaudy clothes. [Japanese]
Taro-S clothes-S always gaudy-be
(b) Rokugatsu-ga ame-ga yoku furu. June always has a lot of rain.
June-S rain-S often fall
(c) Kono koosokudooro-ga ookuno torakku-ga tooru. This freeway has many trucks
this freeway-S many truck-S pass pass on it.
(42)
Complex Things and Relationships
(43)(a) Those women are intelligent. [(44)(a)]
(b) The problems with that idea are numerous. [(44)(b)]
(c) These two proposals are very much alike. [(44)(c)]
(44)
(45) These boxes are heavy. [(44)(a) or [(44)(b)]
(46) The two men lifted the two boxes.
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(47)(a) The faculty {has/have} accepted the new curriculum.
(b) Drinking and smoking {does/do} not improve your health.
(c) A flock of geese {was/were} flying overhead.
(48)(a) The new curriculum has been accepted by the faculty.
(b) Drinking and smoking will not improve your health.
(c) We saw a flock of geese flying overhead.
(49)
(50)(a) [a flock [of geese]] > [a flock [of geese]] (> [[a flock of] geese])
(b) ([a lot [of geese]] > [a lot [of geese]] >) [[a lot of] geese]
(51)(a) [A flock [of geese]] was flying overhead.
(b) [A flock [of geese]] were flying overhead.
(c) *[[A lot of] geese] was flying overhead.
(d) [[A lot of] geese] were flying overhead.
(52)(a) Three barrels of oil were stacked in the basement.
(b) Three barrels of oil were sitting in the basement.
(c) I saw three barrels of oil on the truck.
(d) They loaded three barrels of oil onto the truck.
(53)
(54) To heat our house last winter we burned the three barrels of oil which had been sitting in
the basement for several years.
(55)
(56)(a) Three barrels of oil are equivalent to 126 gallons.
(b) Three barrels of oil is equivalent to 126 gallons.
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(57)
(58)(a) Eleven days in Cairo {was/were} more than we had planned on.
(b) For this recipe two cups of flour {is/are} enough.
(c) Thirty degrees {is/*are} a big difference in temperature.
(d) Fourteen dollars {was/*were} a lot to pay for that.
(59)(a) We piped in three barrels of oil, but they werent enough, so we had to pipe in another.
(b) We piped in three barrels of oil and burned it over the winter.
(60)
Buried Connections
(61) I saw her in the park.
(62)(a) I pounded on the door.
(b) ??On the door, I pounded.
(c) In the park, I saw her.
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(63)
(64)
(65)(a) Taroo-wa [Ziroo-ga ryoori-o tukuru]-no-o kitaisuru. [Japanese]
Taro-T [Jiro-S meal-O make]-thing-O expect
Taro expects that Jiro will make a meal.
(b) Taroo-wa [Ziroo-ga ryoori-o tukuru]-no-o taberu.
Taro-T [Jiro-S meal-O make]-thing-O eat
Taro eats a meal which Jiro makes.
(c) [Yakan-ga huttoosita]-no-o yunomi-ni sosoida.
[kettle-S boiled]-thing-O cup-in poured
I poured the boiling water into a cup.
(66)
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Anaphoric Connections
(67)
(68)(a) The duck situation is getting serious. They leave droppings all over my floor.
(b) Each of those women speaks an interesting language. All three are ergative.
(c) He speaks excellent French even though hes never lived there.
(69) Donburi-ga detekita node, suguni sore-o tabeta. [Japanese]
bowl-S served since instantly it-O ate
As soon as the bowl was served, I ate it [the food].
(70)(a) Its just not fair!
(b) That brings us to our final topic.
(71)(a) A noun specifies a type of thing, whereas a full nominal profiles an instance of a type
and indicates its relation to the ground, i.e. the speech event and its participants.
(b) Grounding is effected overtly by determiners (demonstratives, articles, possessives, and
certain quantifiers).
(c) Many languages have conventional patterns of covert grounding. What appears overtly as
just a noun is thus interpreted as representing an instance of the type with a certain
discourse status.
(72)(a) My son is a house painter.
(b) Last week I house painted.
(73)(a) She doesnt have a [computer], but she needs one.
(b) Thats an [expensive [Japanese [car]]]. My friend bought one last week.
(74)(a) The [hard-working [Japanese]] have achieved prosperity.
(b) She has four [brilliant [students]].
Conclusion
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