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Intrapersonal Dynamics - Research Paper

LIBA PGDM 2013-2015
Personality Types
Submitted By
Gurumoorthy.N

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Contents:
Personality-Whatisit?
Earlypsychologicaldefinitionsofpersonality
PersonalityPattern
Thedeterminantsofpersonality
DifferentPerspectivesinPersonality
Psychoanalyticperspective-SigmundFreud
DefenceMechanism
PsychosexualStages.
TheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI).
The16MBTITypes
MajorPersonalityAttributesInfluencingOB.
BigFiveModel.
HowHaveMyers-BriggsPersonalityTestsHelpedinthe
Workplace?
UsingtheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicatortoEnhanceWorkplace
Communication
Holland'sTypologyofPersonalityandCongruentOccupations
ThePerson-OrganizationFit
Conclusion
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Personality -What is it ?
The term personality is derived from the Latin word Persona meaning mask.
To the Romans Persona denoted as one appears to others not as one
actually is. Hall and Lindsey (1978) classified the popular meaning of
personality under two headings:

The first usage equates the term to social skill or adroitness-An individuals
personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which he is able to elicit
positive reactions from a variety of persons under different circumstances.

The second usage considers personality of the individual to inhere in the most
outstanding or salient impression which he creates on others.

The popular non-scientific definition of personality has two defects:
(1)First it emphasizes only the manifest aspects of the intricate pattern of
personality.
(2)Second, in emphasizing only the objective aspects of personality, it does
not indicate what the real personality is, the subjective or interior organization
which is responsible for the expressive aspects.
Early psychological definitions of personality
Woodworth (1947) - Personality is the quality of individuals total behaviour
Dashiell (1949) - Personality is the total picture of an individuals organized
behaviour, especially as it can be characterized by his fellowmen in a
consistent way
Munn (1965)-Personality is the most characteristic integration of an
individuals structure and activities. It is characteristic in dual sense (1) It is
unique, thus differentiating the individual from all others (2) It is fairly
consistent, representing the customary integration of a particular individuals
structures and activities.
These representative early definitions stressed the manifest aspect of
personality.
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To understand what personality is the intricacy of its structure and its influence
on the quality of individuals total behaviour it is important to understand its
motivational aspect.
Allports (1961) definition is widely accepted as the most comprehensive
definition of personality which emphasizes on the motivational aspect of
personality. Allport (1961) defined personality as the dynamic organization
within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
characteristic behaviour and thought.
Organization - Patterning of the independent parts of personality structure,
each of which has special relation to the whole.
Dynamic - Constantly evolving or changing nature of personality. Not only
does the personality become more complex in structure as the individuals
physical and psychological characteristics develop, but from time to time
and from situation to situation, there are changes in the structural
organization.
Psychophysical systems-A psychophysical system is composed of habits,
attitudes, emotional states, sentiments, motives and beliefs all of which are
psychological but have a physical basis in the individuals neural, glandular
or general bodily states. They are the product of learning.
Determine The word determine emphasizes the motivational role of the
psychophysical systems. Within the individual, these systems lie behind
specific acts and influence the form they will take. Once an attitude, belief,
habit, sentiment or some other elements of a psychophysical system has
been aroused by a stimulus, either from the environment or from within the
individual, it provokes adjustive and expressive acts which are characteristic
form of expression of that individual.
Characteristic - The adjective characteristic refers to the distinctiveness in a
persons behaviour as an expression of the patterns of his particular
psychophysical system.
Behaviour and thought - Behavioural environment involves mastery as well as
passive adaptation.


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Some overlapping concepts
Personality versus character-Character implies a moral standard and involves
a judgement of value. When used in connection with personality, character
relates to a behaviour that is regulated by personal effort and will.
Conscience, an essential element of character, is a pattern of inhibitory
conditioning s which controls the persons behaviour, making it conform to
the socially approved pattern of the group with which the individual is
identified.
Personality versus individuality-Individuality refers to the uniqueness of
personality. Each personality pattern is unique in that it differs from all other
patterns in the combination and organization of its constituent traits, the
strength of different traits, and in core-the persons concept of himself. While
a persons attributes may be qualitatively similar to those of other people,
each of his attributes differs from others quantitatively.
Personality Pattern
The personality pattern is composed of traits or specific qualities of behaviour
which characterize the individuals unique adjustment to life as shown in his
behaviour and thoughts.

The traits are organized or arranged into a meaningful pattern.

The core or centre of gravity of the personality pattern is the individuals
concept of himself as related to the world in which he lives.

(Reference: Personality Development, Elizabeth B. Hurlock, TMH edition)
Three major factors determining development of personality pattern are:
(1)Individuals hereditary endowment

(2) Early experiences within the family

(3) Important events later in life outside the home environment.


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Accordingly, the determinants of personality are:
(1)Physical determinants

(2) Intellectual determinants

(3) Emotional determinants

(4) Social determinants
(5)Aspiration and achievements

(6) Family determinants

Physical determinants
(1)The body has direct influence on the quantity and quality of a persons
behaviour and indirect influence through the way person perceives his body
as a source of self evaluation.

(2)Body build directly influences personality by determining what the person
can or cannot do what his energy level will be and what his reaction will be
to those with superior or inferior body build compared to him. Indirectly body
build influences personality by body cathexes or the degree of satisfaction
person experiences due to body.

(3)Attractiveness indirectly affects personality due to the attitude of others to
the attractiveness of the person

(4) Homeostasis directly influences quality of persons behaviour and
indirectly through the way others judge his behaviour

(5) Body control affects what a person can or cannot do and judgments
others make of him.



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Intellectual determinant
Intelligence provides the person with the capacity to meet and solve the
problems that adjustment to life requires. Intellectual capacity influence
personality directly through the kind of life adjustments individual makes and
indirectly through the judgements others make of him on the basis of his
intellectual achievements.

Intelligence affects adjustment in (1) values (2) morality and (3) humour
Emotional determinant
Emotions are important personality determinants because they affect
personal and social adjustments. They do so directly by colouring interests,
attitudes, likes and dislikes and by upsetting homeostasis. Indirect effect
comes from social judgments based on how the person handles his emotions
and from his ability to establish emotional relationship with others. Emotional
balance, deprivation, expression, catharsis, stress affects personality directly
and indirectly.
Social determinant
The social group judges a person in terms of his conformity to group
expectations regarding proper performance behaviour and role playing.
Social judgments then influence self evaluation and hence self concept.
Social deprivation, social acceptance, social status and social mobility affect
personality.
Aspiration and achievement determinant
Aspirations are ego-involved goals person sets for himself. Aspiration is
influenced by intelligence, sex, personal interests and values, family pressures,
group expectations, cultural traditions, competition with others, past
experience, mass media, personal characteristics.. Level of aspiration affects
personality.

Achievement can be judged objectively by comparing a persons
achievement with those of peers and subjectively by comparing his
achievement with his level of aspiration.

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Family determinant
The indirect effect comes from the persons identification with a family
member he admires, respects and loves and whom he either consciously or
unconsciously imitates and the mirror image the family members provide to
him to evaluate himself.

The family climate, order of birth, size of family, family composition, role
played in family, social acceptance of the family affects personality.
Different Perspectives in Personality
(a) Emphasis on Psychodynamics
Psychoanalytic perspective- Sigmund Freud
According to Freud there are three Levels of awareness like Conscious,
Preconscious, and Unconscious. Conscious - all things we are aware of at any
given moment; Preconscious - everything that can, with a little effort, be
brought into consciousness; Unconscious - inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-
producing thoughts and drives.
Structure of personality has been defined by Freud as consisting of three
components-id, ego and superego. It is the biological basis of personality. It
consists of inherited characteristics of individual and is a collection of
instinctive desires, urges or needs all demanding immediate gratification. It is
irrational and impulsive, adhering to pleasure principle. Ego is the main
mental force controlling behaviour in well adjusted adult. Ego pursues
pleasure. Ego is capable of logical reasoning and learning by experience.
Function is of ego is self preservation. Superego is the voice of the parents
and their moral standards as perceived by the child.
Defence Mechanism
Ego has to balance the demands of the two opposite acting and equally
powerful forces of id and superego. This creates immense pressure on ego.
When the inner war of id, ego and super ego gets out of hand, the result is
Anxiety. Ego protects itself from anxiety via Defence Mechanisms. Defence
Mechanisms are unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to
reduce /redirect anxiety by distorting reality.
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The different types of defense mechanisms are:
Repression - keeping anxiety-producing thoughts out of the conscious mind.

Reaction formation - replacing an unacceptable wish with its opposite.

Displacement - when a drive directed to one activity by the id is redirected
to a more acceptable activity by the ego.

Sublimation - displacement to activities that are valued by society.

Projection - reducing anxiety by attributing unacceptable impulses to
someone else.

Rationalization - reasoning away anxiety-producing thoughts.

Regression - retreating to a mode of behaviour characteristic of an earlier
stage of development.

According to Freud Personality development takes
place through five Psychosexual Stages.
Oral (0-18 months) - centred on the mouth. Fixation at oral stage results in
dependency, immaturity, optimism/pessimism, sadism, oral aggression,
suspicious nature.
Anal (18-36 months) - focus on bowel/bladder elimination. Fixation at anal
stage results in stinginess, obstinacy, obsession, sadism, orderliness.
Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/Oedipus complex (Identification &
Gender Identity)

Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant

Genital (puberty onwards) - sexual feelings toward others
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Personality Traits.
Characteristics that describe an individuals behavior which are exhibited in
a large number of situations.
OB studies personality traits to help managers select appropriate employees
and better match workers to jobs.
Two of the dominant approaches for describing relevant personality traits are
the MBTI and the Big Five Model. Both of these use questionnaires to
determine personality type.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
This the most widely used instrument in the world. Respondents are asked a
series of situational questions and their answers are categorized on four scales
to determine personality type.
According to Jung's theory of Psychological Types we are all different in
fundamental ways. One's ability to process different information is limited by
their particular type. These types are sixteen.
People can be either Extroverts or Introverts, depending on the direction of
their activity; Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive, according to their own
information pathways; Judging or Perceiving, depending on the method in
which they process received information.

Extroverts vs. Introvert
Extroverts are directed towards the objective world whereas Introverts are
directed towards the subjective world.
The most common differences between Extroverts and Introverts are shown
below:

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Extroverts
are interested in what is
happening around them
are open and often talkative
compare their own opinions with
the opinions of others
like action and initiative
easily make new friends or
adapt to a new group
say what they think
are interested in new people
easily break unwanted relations
Introverts
are interested in their own
thoughts and feelings
need to have own territory
often appear reserved, quiet
and thoughtful
usually do not have many
friends
have difficulties in making new
contacts
like concentration and quiet
do not like unexpected visits
and therefore do not make
them
work well alone
Sensing vs. Intuition
Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its physical
qualities and its affection by other information. Intuition is an ability to deal
with the information on the basis of its hidden potential and its possible
existence. The most common differences between Sensing and Intuitive types
are shown below:
Sensing types
see everyone and sense
everything
live in the here and now
quickly adapt to any situation
like pleasures based on
physical sensation
are practical and active
are realistic and self-
confident
Intuitive types
are mostly in the past or in the
future
worry about the future more than
the present
are interested in everything new
and unusual
do not like routine
attracted more to theory than
practice ,often have doubts
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Thinking vs. Feeling
Thinking is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its structure and its
function. Feeling is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its initial
energetic condition and its interactions. The most common differences
between Thinking and Feeling type are shown below:
Thinking types
are interested in systems,
structures, patterns
expose everything to logical
analysis
are relatively cold and
unemotional
evaluate things by intellect
and right or wrong
have difficulties talking
about feelings
do not like to clear up
arguments or quarrels
Feeling types
are interested in people and their
feelings
easily pass their own moods to
others
pay great attention to love and
passion
evaluate things by ethics and
good or bad
can be touchy or use emotional
manipulation
often give compliments to please
people

Perceiving vs. Judging
Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the changes in a situation.

Judging types are motivated into activity by their decisions resulting from the
changes in a situation.

The most common differences between Perceiving and Judging types are
shown below:

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Perceiving types
act impulsively following the
situation
can start many things at once
without finishing them properly
prefer to have freedom from
obligations
are curious and like a fresh look
at things
work productivity depends on
their mood
often act without any
preparation
Judging types
do not like to leave unanswered
questions
plan work ahead and tend to
finish it
do not like to change their
decisions
have relatively stable
workability
easily follow rules and discipline




Sixteen Personality Types: the first letters of the name of the dominant side of
each scale (except that N is used for Intuitive) are combined to create a
personality type. For instance, ENTJ is a person who is extraverted, intuitive,
thinking and judging. This type of person is called Entrepreneur. There are
sixteen possible combinations of these four scales. These personality types are
used to determine the best match-ups in terms of friends, spouses, co-workers
and the like. Unfortunately, the MBTI has been shown to be unrelated to job
performance and should not be used as an employment selection tool.
The 16 MBTI Types
ISTJ
Quiet, serious, earn success by thoroughness and
dependability. Practical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and
responsible. Decide logically what should be done
and work toward it steadily, regardless of distractions.
Take pleasure in making everything orderly and
organized their work, their home, their life.
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ISFJ
Quiet, friendly, responsible, and conscientious.
Committed and steady in meeting their obligations.
Thorough, painstaking, and accurate. Loyal,
considerate, notice and remember specifics about
people who are important to them, concerned with
how others feel. Strive to create an orderly and
harmonious environment at work and at home.
INFJ
Seek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships,
and material possessions. Want to understand what
motivates people and are insightful about others.
Conscientious and committed to their firm values.
Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the
common good. Organized and decisive in
implementing their vision.
INTJ
Have original minds and great drive for implementing
their ideas and achieving their goals. Quickly see
patterns in external events and develop long-range
explanatory perspectives. When committed, organize
a job and carry it through. Skeptical and
independent, have high standards of competence
and performance for themselves and others.
ISTP
Tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a problem
appears, then act quickly to find workable solutions.
Analyze what makes things work and readily get
through large amounts of data to isolate the core of
practical problems. Interested in cause and effect,
organize facts using logical principles, value efficiency

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ISFP
Quiet, friendly, sensitive, and kind. Enjoy the present
moment, whats going on around them. Like to have
their own space and to work within their own time
frame. Loyal and committed to their values and to
people who are important to them. Dislike
disagreements and conflicts, do not force their
opinions or values on others.
INFP
Idealistic, loyal to their values and to people who are
important to them. Want an external life that is
congruent with their values. Curious, quick to see
possibilities, can be catalysts for implementing ideas.
Seek to understand people and to help them fulfill
their potential. Adaptable, flexible, and accepting
unless a value is threatened.
INTP
Seek to develop logical explanations for everything
that interests them. Theoretical and abstract,
interested more in ideas than in social interaction.
Quiet, contained, flexible, and adaptable. Have
unusual ability to focus in depth to solve problems in
their area of interest. Skeptical, sometimes critical,
always analytical.
ESTP
Flexible and tolerant, they take a pragmatic
approach focused on immediate results. Theories and
conceptual explanations bore them they want to
act energetically to solve the problem. Focus on the
here-and-now, spontaneous, enjoy each moment
that they can be active with others. Enjoy material
comforts and style. Learn best through doing.

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ESFP
Outgoing, friendly, and accepting. Exuberant lovers
of life, people, and material comforts. Enjoy working
with others to make things happen. Bring common
sense and a realistic approach to their work, and
make work fun. Flexible and spontaneous, adapt
readily to new people and environments. Learn best
by trying a new skill with other people.
ENFP
Warmly enthusiastic and imaginative. See life as full of
possibilities. Make connections between events and
information very quickly, and confidently proceed
based on the patterns they see. Want a lot of
affirmation from others, and readily give appreciation
and support. Spontaneous and flexible, often rely on
their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.
ENTP
Quick, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and outspoken.
Resourceful in solving new and challenging problems.
Adept at generating conceptual possibilities and then
analyzing them strategically. Good at reading other
people. Bored by routine, will seldom do the same
thing the same way, apt to turn to one new interest
after another.
ESTJ
Practical, realistic, matter-of-fact. Decisive, quickly
move to implement decisions. Organize projects and
people to get things done, focus on getting results in
the most efficient way possible. Take care of routine
details. Have a clear set of logical standards,
systematically follow them and want others to also.
Forceful in implementing their plans.

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ESFJ
Warm-hearted, conscientious, and cooperative. Want
harmony in their environment; work with
determination to establish it. Like to work with others
to complete tasks accurately and on time. Loyal,
follow through even in small matters. Notice what
others need in their day-by-day lives and try to
provide it. Want to be appreciated for who they are
and for what they contribute.
ENFJ
Warm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible.
Highly attuned to the emotions, needs, and
motivations of others. Find potential in everyone, want
to help others fulfil their potential. May act as catalysts
for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to
praise and criticism. Sociable, facilitate others in a
group, and provide inspiring leadership.
ENTJ
Frank, decisive, assume leadership readily. Quickly see
illogical and inefficient procedures and policies,
develop and implement comprehensive systems to
solve organizational problems. Enjoy long-term
planning and goal setting. Usually well informed, well
read; enjoy expanding their knowledge and passing it
on to others. Forceful in presenting their ideas.









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Stage perspective

Personality Development along Eight Life Stages

Stage and Age Choice point
Stage 1: Infancy: First Year of life Basic Trust v/s Basic Mistrust
Stage 2: Early childhood :up to third
year of age
Autonomy v/s Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Play age : up to 5 years Initiative v/s Guilt
Stage 4: Latency : 6 to 11 years Industry v/s Inferiority
Stage 5: Adolescence: about 12 to 20
years
Ego Identity v/s Role confusion
Stage 6: Young Adulthood: From 20 to
24 years
Intimacy v/s Isolation
Stage 7: Middle Adulthood: 25 up to
60 years
Generativity v/s Stagnation
Stage 8: Maturity and Oldage : up to
Death
Ego Integrity v/s Despair and disgust
The stages of Adolescence, Young Adulthood and Middle adulthood are
particularly relevant for organization.
Social perspective
Horney (1945) stated that the effect of social influence on personality extends
to the process by which an individual adapts to his/her social context.
According to her some people develop neurosis because in their early age
they conclude that maladaptive and counterproductive ways are the best
ways to deal with their context. Horney proposed that these people try three
ways to deal with interpersonal problems: Moving towards people
(Compliance), moving away from people (Detachment), moving against
people (aggression).
(b) Emphasis on Personality Structure
Trait perspective
A trait is an individuals characteristic in thought, feeling and action, either
inherited or acquired, and refers to tendencies to act or react in certain ways
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Traits can be placed in particular categories like:
Motive traits- goals that guide behaviour of individuals-
achievement
Ability traits- Individuals general and specific capability and skill-
knowing, perceiving and reasoning
Temperament traits- optimism, depression and various energetic
traits
Stylistic traits-refers to gestures and styles of behaviour unrelated to
specific tactics to achieve a particular goal
Allport categorized trait as Cardinal trait, central trait and secondary trait.
1. Cardinal trait - This is the trait that dominates and shapes a person's
behaviour. These are rare as most people lack a single theme that shapes
their lives.

2. Central trait - This is a general characteristic found in some degree in every
person. These are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behaviour
although they are not as overwhelming as cardinal traits. An example of a
central trait would be honesty.

3. Secondary trait - These are characteristics seen only in certain
circumstances (such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may
know). They must be included to provide a complete picture of human
complexity.
Cattells 16 PF
Cattell saw traits as important units of personality that have predictive value.
In contrast to Allport, who felt traits were part of our biology, Cattell thought
of traits as abstract concepts.

Surface trait and Source trait
Surface traits - Refers to those traits that seem readily apparent. However,
surface traits are based on peoples perceptions of personality; they dont
necessarily provide the best description of underlying personality dimensions.
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E.g., you encounter a friendly, gregarious librarian who is very helpful & you
infer she possesses the trait of sociability.
Source traits - Refers to the deeper patterns underlying personality. These
source traits emerge despite differences in testing situations, questionnaire
methods, & so forth. Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits.
Using these 16 source traits he developed the 16PF. The set of scores on all
factors is the profile of the individual.
Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors, as opposed to the so-
called "Big Five" factors which he considered global factors. All of the primary
factors correlate with global factors and could therefore be considered sub
factors within them.

16 pf questionnaire consists of 187 questions with agree, uncertain and
disagree as answer options. It is a forced choice method questionnaire.
Traits in the Saville and Holdsworth (1984) occupational personality
questionnaire
Relationship with people: Persuasive, controlling, independent, outgoing,
affiliative, socially confident, modest, democratic, crowding

Thinking style: Practical, data rational, artistic, behavioural, traditional,
change oriented, conceptual, innovative, forward planning, detail
conscious, conscientious

Feelings and emotions: Relaxed, worrying, tough minded, emotional control,
optimistic, critical, active, competitive, achieving, and decisive.





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Descriptors of Low
Range
Primary Factor Descriptors of High
Range
Impersonal, distant,
cool, reserved,
detached, formal, aloof
(Schizothymia)
Warmth (A) Warm, outgoing,
attentive to others,
kindly, easy-going,
participating, likes
people (Affectothymia)
Concrete thinking, lower
general mental
Reasoning Abstract-thinking, more
intelligent, bright,

capacity, less intelligent,
unable to handle
abstract problems
(Lower Scholastic
Mental Capacity)
(B) higher general mental
capacity, fast learner
(Higher Scholastic
Mental Capacity)
Reactive emotionally,
changeable, affected
by feelings, emotionally
less stable, easily upset
(Lower Ego Strength)
Emotional Stability (C) Emotionally stable,
adaptive, mature, faces
reality calmly (Higher
Ego Strength)
Deferential,
cooperative, avoids
conflict, submissive,
humble, obedient, easily
led, docile,
accommodating
(Submissiveness)
Dominance (E) Dominant, forceful,
assertive, aggressive,
competitive, stubborn,
bossy (Dominance)
Serious, restrained,
prudent, taciturn,
introspective, silent
(Desurgency)
Liveliness (F) Lively, animated,
spontaneous,
enthusiastic, happy go
lucky, cheerful,
expressive, impulsive
(Surgency)
Expedient,
nonconforming,
disregards rules, self
Rule-Consciousness (G) Rule-conscious, dutiful,
conscientious,
conforming, moralistic,
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indulgent (Low Super
Ego Strength)
staid, rule bound (High
Super Ego Strength)
Shy, threat-sensitive,
timid, hesitant,
intimidated (Threctia)
Social Boldness (H) Socially bold,
venturesome, thick
skinned, uninhibited
(Parmia)
Utilitarian, objective,
unsentimental, tough
minded, self-reliant, no-
nonsense, rough (Harria)
Sensitivity (I) Sensitive, aesthetic,
sentimental, tender
minded, intuitive,
refined (Premsia)
Trusting, unsuspecting,
accepting,
unconditional, easy
(Alaxia)
Vigilance (L) Vigilant, suspicious,
skeptical, distrustful,
oppositional (Protension)
Grounded, practical,
prosaic, solution
oriented, steady,
conventional (Praxernia)
Abstractedness (M) Abstract, imaginative,
absent minded,
impractical, absorbed in
ideas (Autia)
Forthright, genuine,
artless, open, guileless,
naive, unpretentious,
involved (Artlessness)
Privateness (N) Private, discreet,
nondisclosing, shrewd,
polished, worldly, astute,
diplomatic (Shrewdness)
Self-Assured, unworried,
complacent, secure,
free of guilt, confident,
self satisfied
(Untroubled)
Apprehension (O) Apprehensive, self
doubting, worried, guilt
prone, insecure,
worrying, self blaming
(Guilt Proneness)
Traditional, attached to
familiar, conservative,
respecting traditional
ideas (Conservatism)
Openness to
Change (Q1)
Open to change,
experimental, liberal,
analytical, critical, free
thinking, flexibility
(Radicalism)
Group-oriented,
affiliative, a joiner and
follower dependent
(Group Adherence)
Self-Reliance (Q2) Self-reliant, solitary,
resourceful,
individualistic, self
sufficient (Self-
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Sufficiency)
Tolerates disorder,
unexacting, flexible,
undisciplined, lax, self-
conflict, impulsive,
careless of social rules,
uncontrolled (Low
Integration)
Perfectionism (Q3) Perfectionistic,
organized, compulsive,
self-disciplined, socially
precise, exacting will
power, control, self-
sentimental (High Self-
Concept Control)
Relaxed, placid,
tranquil, torpid, patient,
composed low drive
(Low Ergic Tension)
Tension (Q4) Tense, high energy,
impatient, driven,
frustrated, over wrought,
time driven. (High Ergic
Tension)

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB.
Certain personality attributes above and beyond personality type do have
influences on job performance and behavior.
1. Core Self-Evaluation.
Positive core self-evaluators like themselves and see themselves as being
capable and in charge of situations. Two elements determine this attribute:
a. Self-Esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem see themselves as capable
and able to influence the environment around them. Low self-esteem
individuals tend to seek external approval and often benefit from training
programs. Self-Esteem. An individuals degree of liking or disliking him or
herself and the perceived level of self-worth.
b. Locus of Control. There are two types of people in this category: those with
an internal and those with an external locus of control. Internal individuals
believe that they are in charge of their own life and its outcomes; they are in
control of events. External individuals think that they have no control over
their lives. They believe that luck, chance, or fate controls the outcome and
no amount of extra effort on their part will have any effect. External locus of
control often indicates a lack of confidence or negative core self-evaluation.
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Locus of Control. The degree to which people believe that
they are masters of their own fate.
People with positive core self-evaluation find more satisfaction in their jobs
and tend to seek jobs that are more challenging. They feel they are control
of situations and believe that any positive outcome was the direct result of
their actions. These people perform better in the job because of their ability
to set tough goals and stick with the effort required to achieve them.
2. Machiavellianism (Mach). Individuals high in Machiavellianism are
pragmatic, emotionally distant and believe that the ends justify the means.
They tend to win more often, be more manipulative and are harder to
persuade than are people with low Mach.
Situational factors greatly influence the performance of high
Mach individuals. Situations that are most positively related to
successful outcomes with high Mach people are those in
which:
a. The high Mach person must interact face-to-face rather than indirectly,
b. There are a minimum of rules and regulations, and
c. When emotional involvement with details is not relevant to the situation.
3. Narcissism. A person with high narcissism has a grandiose sense of his or her
own importance, requires excessive admiration, has a sense of entitlement
and tends to be arrogant. Narcissists are selfish, often difficult to work with,
and may have a false sense of their effectiveness.
4. Self-Monitoring. High self-monitors show a strong ability to adapt their
behaviors to fit external, situational factors. People with low self-monitoring
tend to have high behavioral consistency while high self-monitors can
appear chameleon-like to their co-workers.
High self-monitors tend to get better performance ratings, take leadership
positions, are more mobile and take up central positions in their organizations,
even though they have less commitment to their organization.
5. Risk Taking. High-risk takers tend to make decisions faster and with less
supporting information than do low-risk takers. The need for high-risk
acceptance behavior must be linked to the requirements for the job.

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6. Personality Types.
a. Type A. These people are very competitive and have a strong sense of
urgency. They work well in moderate-to-high levels of stress. Type As are fast
workers who may not be too interested in the quality of their output. They are
infrequently creative and often make poor decisions because of their focus
on time. This type of individual is highly prized in North America but may not
be seen as positively in other societies.
b. Type B. The opposite of Type A people, Type Bs have far less time urgency
and less competitive natures. Type As do better in getting hired, but the work
situation itself may indicate that a Type B person would be an overall better
fit.
7. Proactive Personality. Individuals with this type of personality tend to
identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until
meaningful change occurs. People with this personality attribute are highly
prized by organizations for obvious reasons. They are often leaders or change
agents and will challenge the status quo. Proactive people tend to have
successful careers but may not be a good match for organizations who do
not value change.
C. Personality and National Culture. An important consideration in the global
environment is whether or not these personality frameworks translate well
across cultures.
Big Five Model.
This instrument has been used in many studies and while it does appear to
work in many cultures, the factors that get the greatest attention vary
dramatically between cultures. One environmental variable, collectivism
(people prefer to act as members of groups rather than individuals), has
been shown to devalue the importance of the conscientiousness and
agreeableness factors for some cultures.
Prediction ability of the Big Five model appears to work best in
individualistic cultures (the opposite of collective cultures). The
model itself has shown good predictability in the developed
nations.


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The Big Five Model.
This instrument (particularly one factor, conscientiousness) has been shown to
be positively related to job performance and might be used as an
employment selection or screening tool.
a. Five Factors:
1) Extraversion.
Deals with the comfort level with relationships. Like the MBTI, this is contrasted
with introversion. Scoring high in this factor means the respondent is more
outgoing and assertive. Extraverts tend to be happy in their jobs but may be
impulsive and absent themselves from work to take on some other, more
sensational tasks.
2) Agreeableness.
Measures deference. High scorers are cooperative and trusting while low
scores are colder and antagonistic. Agreeable workers are less likely to be
involved in drugs and excessive drinking.
3) Conscientiousness.
Measures reliability. High scorers are responsible, organized, dependable and
persistent. Low scorers are unreliable. Not surprisingly, this is the key
determinant of job performance and organizational citizenship behavior
(OCB) on the Big Five. However, conscientious people also tend not to take
risks and may find organizational change difficult to handle.
4) Emotional Stability (or Neuroticism its opposite).
Measures ability to handle stress: the more stable a person, the better he or
she can handle stress. People with high emotional stability tend to have
higher life and job satisfaction. Low emotional stability people surprisingly
make better and faster decisions when in a bad mood than do stable
people.
5) Openness to Experience.
Measures the range of interests and fascination with novelty, a proxy for
creativity. People who score low on this factor tend to be conventional and
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enjoy familiar circumstances. People high in this factor deal better with
organizational change and are more adaptable.
2. Dominant Personality Types. No personality type has been shown to be
dominant in any culture. But culture does affect the personality
characteristics of its population. Two of the attributes that show this cultural
basis most clearly are the locus of control and Type A personality.

How Have Myers-Briggs Personality Tests Helped in
the Workplace?
Employee Selection
Employers use Myers-Briggs and other similar personality tests to find
individuals whose personalities match the workplace culture and also which
individuals have the highest chance of success. For example, the Myers-
Briggs can be scored according to the "Big Five" factor model, which
measures personality in terms of agreeableness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, emotional stability and openness to experience. Since
conscientiousness and agreeableness can predict job performance,
according to research noted by the American Psychological Association
(APA), employers desire more of this personality type. In addition, personality
tests can measure your respect for authority, the ability to get along with
others, cooperate and work on a team, all of which employers need from
their employees.
Work Environment
Employers use the results of personality tests to improve the work
environment. For example, personality tests can measure communication
styles. Learning the differences among these styles helps organizations
develop programs and workplace rules that minimize conflict and improve
communication among co-workers themselves and between workers and
management. For example, the Myers-Briggs "thinking" and "feeling" scale
measures how individuals evaluate information and make decisions. While a
"thinking" individual prefers fairness, objectivity and truth, a "feeling" individual
may value compassion and harmony in work relationships. These two styles
may clash, for example, when a "thinking" supervisor delivers a seemingly
objective performance review to a "feeling" employee that perceives the
review as caustic or severely critical.
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Team Development
Personality types explain the dominant function or preference of an
individual and tell employers and project managers how individuals structure
thoughts, attitudes, reach conclusions and interact. These personality types
are often described in terms of team roles in the workplace, such as the
"Actor," "Executive," "Coach," "Persuader" or "Analyst," each with a different
strength and weakness. Each personality type also has an interaction style,
such as a "Leader" or "Motivator." Employers and supervisors that understand
these styles and team roles can leverage the strength of one employee to fill
the weakness of another, developing teams that can interact effectively with
one another, work to deadlines and complete tasks.
Training and Coaching
Employers can use personality test results to develop leaders, such as
executives and directors. Some personality tests, such as The Birkman
Method, help identify candidates who need more experience or who are
ready for leadership. The Birkman Method also identifies certain behaviours,
workplace needs and reactions to stress. Using this information, organizations
can decide which leadership qualities to nurture in their leadership
development programs and the training needs of individuals. For example,
organizations may develop a "fast track" program for candidates who
measure high on certain personality scales. They also can tailor curricula to
the individual, emphasizing and developing qualities in candidates who may
have measured low on a specific trait.
b. Use of the Big Five for Job Selection.
While conscientiousness is a powerful overall measure of the potential value
of an employee, the other factors can also be helpful, depending on the
performance criteria and occupational group of the vacancy. For instance,
successful salespeople tend to score high in Instructor Manual: Essentials of
Organizational Behavior extraversion, which makes sense as the job requires
an ability to develop relationships and deal with strangers.



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Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to Enhance
Workplace Communication:

Introverts communicating with Extraverts should:
1. Focus on actions to be taken
2. Focus on results
3. Communicate verbally with enthusiasm
4. Emphasize action over deliberation

Extraverts communicating with Introverts should:
1. Communicate a well-thought-through idea or plan
2. Build in time for Introverts to reflect before deciding
3. Communicate in written form rather than orally
4. Allow airtime for Introverts who wait for silence to speak

Sensors communicating with Intuitives should:
1. Start with an overarching description of the issue or challenge rather than
the relevant details
2. Allow room for creative exploration before moving to facts
3. Describe the overall goal and strategies before moving to tactics
4. Explain the desired outcomes and related challenges of a project

Intuitives communicating with Sensors should:
1. Clearly identify the problem they are trying to Solve
2. Share relevant facts and details
3. Reduce risk factors or required changes
4. Describe successful applications of the desired Strategies


Thinkers communicating with Feelers should:
1. Be descriptive rather than judgmental
2. Use empathy by imagining the others perspective
3. Start with a concern for what is important to people
4. Consider a decisions impact on the people who carry it out
5. Start with the positives rather than the negatives




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Feelers communicating with Thinkers should:
1. Discuss the costs and benefits of the issues
2. Identify the issue clearly, the principles involved and potential solutions, as
well as their strengths and weaknesses
3. Take a stand and make their case succinctly
4. Be willing to engage in debate without taking it personally

Judgers communicating with Perceivers should:
1. Allow Perceivers flexibility around how they meet their goals
2. Allow sufficient time for brainstorming
3. Realize that there are often far more right solutions than their own
Solutions
4. Consider multiple options before pressing for closure
5. Understand that over-directing Perceivers will lead to their resistance

Perceivers communicating with Judgers should:
1. Understand that frequent or last-minute changes adversely affect Judgers
2. Take Judgers deadlines seriously and to the minute
3. Balance brainstorming with analysis and decision-making
4. Reopen decisions only when new data significantly impacts the decision
5. Take a clear stand

The Person-Job Fit In the discussion of personality attributes, our conclusions
were often qualified to recognize that the requirements of the job
moderated the relationship between possession of the personality
characteristic and job performance. This concern with matching the job
requirements with personality characteristics is best articulated in John
Holland's personality-job fit theory. The theory is based on the notion of fit
between an individual's personality characteristics and his or her
occupational environment. Holland presents six personality types and
proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depend on the
degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to an
occupational environment.
Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational
environment. Exhibit below describes the six types and their personality
characteristics and gives examples of congruent occupations. Holland has
developed a Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire that contains
160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations
they like or dislike, and their answers are used to form personality profiles.
Using this procedure, research strongly supports the hexagonal diagram in
Exhibit whereas those diagonally opposite are highly dissimilar.
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What does all this mean? The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and
turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. Social
individuals should be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs,
and so forth. A realistic person in a realistic job is in a more congruent
situation than is a realistic person in an investigative job. A realistic person in a
social job is in the most incongruent situation possible. The key points of this
model are that
(1) There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among
individuals,
(2) There are different types of jobs, and
(3) People in job environments congruent with their personality types should
be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than should people in
incongruent jobs.
Relationships among Occupational Personality Types




Holland's Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

Type Personality Characteristics Congruent
Occupation

Realistic: Prefers physical
activities that require skill,
strength, and coordination
Shy, genuine, persistent,
stable,
conforming, practical
Mechanic, drill press
operator,
assembly-line worker,
farmer
Investigative: Prefers
activities
that involve thinking,
organizing, and
understanding
Analytical, original, curious,
independent
Biologist, economist,
mathematician, news
reporter
Social: Prefers activities Sociable, friendly, Social workers, teacher,
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that
involve helping and
developing others
cooperative,
understanding
counselor, clinical
psychologist
Conventional: Prefers rule-
regulated, orderly, and
unambiguous activities
Conforming, efficient,
practical,
unimaginative, inflexible
Accountant, corporate
manager, bank teller, file
clerk
Enterprising: Prefers
verbal
activities in which there are
opportunities to influence
others and attain power
Self-confident, ambitious,
energetic, domineering
Lawyer, real estate agent,
public relations specialist,
small
business manager
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous
and
unsystematic activities that
allow creative expression
Imaginative, disorderly,
idealistic,
emotional, impractical
Painter, musician, writer,
interior decorator


The Person-Organization Fit

As previously noted, attention in recent years has expanded to include
matching people to organizations as well as jobs. To the degree that an
organization faces a dynamic and changing environment and requires
employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly
between teams, it's probably more important that employees' personalities fit
with the overall organization's culture than with the characteristics of any
specific job.
The person-organization fit essentially argues that people leave jobs that
are not compatible with their personalities. Using the Big Five terminology,
for instance, we could expect that people high on extraversion fit better with
aggressive and team-oriented cultures; people high on agreeableness will
match up better with a supportive organizational climate than one that
focuses on aggressiveness; and that people high on openness to experience
fit better into organizations that emphasize innovation rather than
standardization. Following these guidelines at the time of hiring should lead to
selecting new employees who fit better with the organization's culture,
which, in turn, should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced
turnover.
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Conclusion:

Personality assessments can form a key part of the recruitment and selection
process. It can be an extremely useful to examine candidates' personality
traits with those which are "essential" or "desirable" in the role, compare the
prospective candidates in terms of what they would bring to the role and
compare candidates' profiles with an "ideal" candidate profile.

These assessments also provide people with a means of identifying their
personal strengths help them to look at areas to develop ensure people are
placed in roles which allow their talents to be maximised let them shine and
be round pegs in round holes.