LECTURE # 1

Conductor:
The materials which allow charges to flow with minimum resistance are called conductors.
In good conductors least resistance is offered by the material. In bad conductors comparatively
high resistance is offered. All metals are good conductors.
]
Grades of Conductors:
High grade conductors i.e. gold, silver, platinum etc unfortunately precious metals are
good conductors. All good conductors are also good heat conductors. We know that ! I" is
linear relationship, but keeping the temperature constant #loss$ ! ".s%r #I$, i.e. losses increases if
" increases, in low grade conductors this loss is much high comparatively.
Insulators:
The materials which offer very high resistance to flow of the charges are called insulators.
&ood insulators offer very high resistance. 'ad insulators offer comparatively low resistance, but
it is of the order of the mega ohm. The conductors have positive thermal coefficient of resistance,
whereas insulators have negative thermal coefficient of the resistance. We may have reduced
resistance of insulators under high temperature. Insulators start storing heat and don not
e(change it to surroundings. Its thermal capability decays and insulation capability decreases.
Energy Band Theory:
The electrons in an atom are supposed to have different energy levels. The electrons can
e(ist in some ranges of energy, energy level, and they cannot e(ist in other ranges of the energy,
forbidden levels. The permissible levels are taken in groups called energy band within which the
levels are very close and they appear to be continuous.
In an insulator, the highest occupied energy band is completely filled. Also the forbidden energy
band above the occupied band id wide. The electron cannot )ump from lower to upper permissible
energy levels.
As large is the band gap, as good is the insulator. In insulators movement of electrons is
restricted to band gap, unless there is influence of e(ternal field. When atoms are densely and
closely packed, they e(ist in the form of clusters. The electrons in the outer most shell of an atom
are under the influence of this atom and also the other neighboring atom forces. The electrons
when there is e(ternal field influence of the electric field, electrons get energy from it .If very high
voltage is applied, the electrons from ground state )ump to conduction band and insulator
becomes conductor.
Potential Gradient:
The potential gradient at a point is defined as *the rate of increase of potential at that
point w.r.t displacement+. It is a parameter to measure the strength of an insulator. ,otential
gradient ! v-d
The resistance offered by an insulator to flow of charges cannot be calculated directly. .or a given
length of sample insulator, we perform a destructive test to find its breakdown voltage. It is also
sometimes called the voltage stress. It determines the capabilities of insulator to withstand
voltage.
Properties of an Insulator:

/$ It should have high specific resistance
0$ It should have dielectric strength
1$ It should be tough and flei!le
2$ It should have high "iscosity #for li%uid$
3$ It should not !e hygroscopic
4$ It should be capable of #ithstanding high te$perature without much deterioration.
5$ It should be non%infla$$a!le
6$ It should be chemically inert & sta!le
7$ It should not be attacked by acids and al'alis
/8$ It should be capable of #ithstanding high rupturing "oltage
//$ It should be non%corrosi"e
/0$ It should be non%toic or en"iron$ental friendly
(ielectric )aterial:
. 9ielectric materials have dipoles. 9ielectric in general are made up of 0 types of
molecules: polar and non;polar molecules. ,olar molecule behaves like a permanent dipole:
although electrically neutral as a whole, its centers of positive and negative don not coincide.
<n the other hand there is no dipole in non =polar molecules #in the absence of e(ternal
field$.When a non;polar dielectric material is placed in an e(ternal field, it gets polari>ed, that is,
there is displacement of charges in the direction of the field. ?nder the field the centers of the
negative and positive charges shift and as a result of which a dipole is made. 9ipole is
constituted by t#o charges displaced "ia "ery s$all displace$ent between them. The
phenomenon is called as @lectric ,olari>ation. The charge of the molecules is called induced
charged. When there is displacement of positive and negative cluster, they do not bodily move
but they )ust tend to align themselves with the field that is applied. The turning effect of the
molecules in the presence of the field is called dipole $o$ent. The net dipole $o$ent per
unit "olu$e in the direction of the field is called polari*ation. When all dipoles are aligned
themselves with the field, they will have voltage between the two ends and will maintain it, so
long tell orientation is there. 'ut practically it is not possible because of temperature or some
other factors.
Capacitor:
It is a device that stores charges in electric field. When the capacitor is charged and the
electric field is removed, then after sometime, the stress gradually releases and because of
which the dielectric material between plates of capacitor restores to original position. Atronger
polari>ation property, it will take longer period for retaining the original position after removing
the e(ternal field.
,olari>ation is directly proportional to the electric field that is applied. i.e.
, @
9 ! @
9 ! or @
Where
o = permittivity of free space
r = relative permittivity
Bow charge density is:
= % + A
9 ! ! % + A
! % - A
% !
! constant @
, E
E ,
#Ao the total charge stored depends on @$
Potential:
The positive work done to take a charge from infinity to a reference point, against
the field is called potential at that point.
8
v ! % % @d


v ! % @d
8
Taking its differential w.r.t length
dv - d ! %@
.or unit charge i.e. % ! /
Then
E - d" + d ."+$/
It means potential gradient and electric field are the same things
Classifications of Insulation:
/$ &as insulation i.e. air, A.4 etc
0$ Ci%uid insulation i.e. Transformer oil
1$ Aolid insulation i.e. plastic, rubber etc
Energy Process: @nergy process can be summari>ed as follow:
DEollision Ioni>ation
D@(citation Ioni>ation
D,hoto Ioni>ation
D,hoto e(citation
DBegative Ion .ormation
DFolecular 9issociation
DThermal Ioni>ation
Eplanation of Each
Collision Ioni*ation:
When a moving electrons in the electric field, strikes a stationary
atom, such that the G.@ of the electron is greater then the ioni>ation potential of the atom, the
atom absorbs the energy and one electron is removed completely from the atom. An atom which
has lost one or more electrons is called as ion. The minimum amount of energy re%uired to nock
out an electron from valance shell of an atom or the minimum energy re%uired to ioni>e an atom,
which is in its ground state, is called ioni>ation potential.
0.1tationary ato$/ 2 e .)o"ing electron/ ------ 20 2 3e
1+3 )"4" 5 I4P
#HA shows the ioni>ed form of A$
.rom the above e%uation, the incidence of and electron #e$ with G.@ greater then I., of the atom
#A$, results in HA #Hve ion of A$ and electron pair production, one is the incident electron and the
other is knocked out electron.
The ion can move but slowly due its heavy mass.
0e have high velocity due to less mass. The ion and 0e both move in electric field but in opposite
direction.
Ecitation Ioni*ation:
It can be show in e%uation as follow:

0 2 e ------------------ 06 2 e
74E 8 IP
#AD shows the e(cited form of the A$
When an atom is stroked by an electron that has G.@ less then the I.,, in such case the atom gets
e(cited i.e. its valence shell electrons get )ump to higher shell. This is called e(citation ioni>ation.
In such situation some of energy of electron is transferred to the atom and the atom is said to be
in unstable state. The instability is in between 0 shells, the one from where the electron has left
and the other where the electron has entered. After sometime when e(cited atom comes to
normal state, it emits a photon #The e(cited state have very short life$
60 ------------- 0 2 h
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% E9 .Ecited/
E - h
! fre%uency %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% E: .nor$al/
h ! plankIs constant
Cet @ is the energy that is emitted
Then
@ ! h ! @+ = @I
Where @+ ! energy of electron in e(cited state
@I ! energy of the electron in normal state
Photo Ioni*ation:
When a photon strikes an atom, such that the photon energy is
greater than the I., of the atom, the atom absorbs energy and becomes ioni>ed. As a result of
which photon absorption occurs, there is an electron;ion pair production as well. 'oth ion and the
electron move in opposite direction in the field with different speed or velocity due their different
masses.
; 5 I4P
h 2 B ----------------- 2B .2"e ion/ 2 e
Photo ecitation:
In this process the photon strikes an atom but its energy is less
then that of the I, of the atom. This produces the e(cited state of the atom which is unstable with
short life. The e(cited atom gives photon and comes to its normal state after sometime. In short,
photo e(citation can be defined as:
74E8 IP
h 2 B ------------ B6
B6 --------------- B 2 h
<egati"e Ion =or$ation:
The atom with greater affinity of electron is called as electronegative.
When an electron strikes to such atom, the atom absorbs the electron. As a result of which there
is unbalance between the number of electrons and number of protons inside the atom. The atom
becomes unstable and there is negative ion formation. This negative ion will start moving in the
direction of the electrons in the electric field but with slower pace.
C .Electro$agnet ato$/ 2e --------- %C .%"e ion/ 2 Ei .Energy released/
)olecular (issociation:
When an electron strikes a molecule with G.@
greater then 9.@ of the molecule, the molecule is dissociated with the formation of positive and
negative ions, along with the incident electron.
0B 2 e -------------- 20 2 %B 2 e6
#Where the energy of the eD is less then that of the of the e$
Ther$al Ioni*ation:
When thermal energy is imparted to an atom such that this energy is greater than
I., of the atom, the atom becomes ioni>ed and as a result and electron is released.
0 2 Et .ther$al energy/ --------- 20 2 e
Conduction Current:
It depends upon 0 factors
/$ elocity with which the charges are moving
0$ Bumber of charges
@%uation of continuity:
J !
Where
! conductivity
!1/
! reciprocal of recestivity
Ao J = E /
E = V / L
J = V / (L$
J = I / A
I - A ! - #C$
<r V = [(L)/A]*I ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; #/$
! constant D I
<r V I
> - IR %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% .3/ .?h$:s La#/
.rom the e%uation of continuity, we prove <hmIs Caw
'y comparison of e% #/$ and #0$ we get
R = L/A
LECTURE # 3
.Gas Insulators/
Characteristics of Gas insulator:
.ollowing are its main characteristics:
/$ It must have high dielectric strength
0$ It must be non%infla$$a!le
1$ It must be non%corrosi"e
2$ It must b non%toic or en"iron$ental friendly
3$ It must have some odor for safety purpose #in case of leakage$
4$ It should be chemically inert & sta!le
Conduction in Gas Insulators:
&as is generally does not conduct but in two cases it conducts.
To#nsend Theory:
He considered 0 important sources for conduction in gas insulations.
1/ Cos$ic Radiation: These rays come from outer space. The "ays are radioactive in nature.
When they fall on the gas insulator it emits electrons from it which is responsible for the
conduction.
3/ Ultra"iolet Rays: These rays can ioni>e atom through photo ioni>ation or photo e(citation.
Gas Insulator Brea'do#n:
Cet us consider the cathode tube as shown in fig below.
A variable voltage source is connected to it. An ammeter A is installed as well to measure current
I. when the voltage is increased gradually, then the following graph is obtained
ertical a(isK I ! current
Hori>ontal a(isK v ! &ap voltage
The graph can be divided into 1 main parts as one can see.
1/ Region 0
3/ Region B
@/ Region C
Bow we will e(plain each region one by one below.
Region 0
This is the area which is called Photo Ionization Region. In this area the current is
proportional to the applied voltage. 9ue to the applied voltage the numbers of ions are increased
and thus current increases as well. Cet suppose the number of electrons that are produced in the
region A, when the current reaches the ma(imum value Io, are no.
Ao the total charge that is produced is noe (e is the charge on one electron).
.ollowing 0 possibilities are possible in the region A.
G.@LI.,
e + M =======> + + 2e
e + =======> + e
========> +
Region B
In this area the current is round about constant or rarely increases with the increase of voltage.
This area is called Constant Current Region or E,uili!riu$ Region4
A question arises in one's in! "why the current is constant "?
The electrons, produced, are repelled by cathode. The electrons
are moving towards anode while the positive ions move towards cathode. @lectrons are absorbed
by anode very easily because of their smaller si>e but positive ions will make a cluster near the
cathode because they cannot be absorbed easily because of their larger si>e. Ao cathode
strength will decrease, so the strength of the cathode will not accelerate the electrons
proportionally. That is why current is not increasing in the region '.
0lternati"e #ay of eplanation:
When the positive ions collapse with electrons, they
dissolve them to give neutral atoms. And thus the numbers of ions are not increasing to increase
the current that is why the current is constant.
Region C .;igh =ield E$ission/
We remove electrons by high voltage emission. We increase the voltage, a point reaches when
the field e(ceeds the work function #$ of a material. In this situation electrons are removed from a
metal forcibly. Bow thus the positive ions around the cathode get electrons from the cathode
metal and become neutral and thus the strength of the cathode again increases and thus the
current will increase. The current is increased due to t#o fields: effect
1/ #he ga$ electrons are accelerate!
2 %o& the electrons are also o'ing (ro catho!e !ue to high (iel! eission i.e. catho!e acts as
source of electrons. Thus, the number of electrons in the cylinder will be increased. These
electrons will produce further electrons by collision with atom of the gas in the cylinder. <ne
electron will produce 0 more electrons: these 0 electrons will produce further 2 electrons and so
on. This is called a!a"anche #or$ation <" a!a"anche e##ect%
After this the current is out of controlled and a path will be produced between anode and cathode.
The path will be somewhat like conducting short path. Thus short circuit will occur.
)athe$atics of the a!o"e pheno$enon:
9ifferential displacement d(, let suppose there are dn( numbers of electrons.
Cet d is the total length of the chamber.
Bumber of electrons is proportional to the d( in the differential length.
i.e
dn( d( ............................ #a$
dn( n( ............................. #b$
dn( n( d(
dn( ! constant n( d(
Where constant is denoted by alpha # ) and is known as Townsend /st Ioni>ation Eonstant. It
can be defined as
MThe number of electrons librated due to number of collision per secM
! dn( + n(d(
n d
[ dn( / n( ] ! d(
no 8

ln Nn/no ] ! d
Ep d ! n / no
n - no ep .d/444444444444444444444444444444444444.c/
n
Ao e% #c$ implies that:
I - Io ep .d/
LECTURE # @
.Gas insulator ContA d/
Role of Positi"e Ions:
The Townsend work was ob)ected because he )ust ignored the role of positive ions. Then
he again includes the role of positive ions as well, which we will discuss now.
In order to consider the role of positive ions he defined a 0nd coefficient which is defined as Mthe
numbers of secondary electrons being liberated from the cathode material per incident of positive
ions impact+.
In order to account for an effective impact the G@ gained by the positive ion from the main field
must be at least greater than 0 #$ which means that 0 electrons will be liberated, one to
recombine to form neutral atom and the other being introduced in the main gap. These electrons
which are being librated by cathode material are called 0ndary electrons. These are not those
electrons which are already present in the gap as a result of cosmic or other rays #primary
electrons$.
Let
nt ! Bo of electrons reaching the anode per sec
no ! Bo of electrons emitted from the cathode by ?, cosmic or some other waves or rays
nD ! Bo of electrons released by cathode through Hve ions
= no of electrons released from cathode per incident of Hve ion
nDD ! total electrons introduced in the gap ! nD H n8 ..........................#/$
When we have a single electron moving towards anode under the influence of electric field it will
produce collisions ioni>ation in the gap and therefore the electrons will be multiplied to form
avalanche as the distance towards anode decreases. The number of electrons will increase
according to the factor e(p d. Ao theoretically the number of electrons formed in the gap by a
single electron will be e%ual to e(p # d $ ; / .Ao, the number of electrons produced in the gap by
nD H n8 NnD H n8 ]N@(p # d $ ; / ]
Ao total number of electrons produced in the gap will be
n ! nDD#@(p#d$ ; /$
Ao can be defined as
= nD/ nDD#@(p#d$ ; /$
nD ! nDD#@(p#d$ ; /$
Bow e% #/$ implies that
nDD ! nD H n8

! nDD#@(p#d$ ; /$ H n8
nDD ; nDD#@(p#d$ ; /$ ! n8
nDDN / ; #@(p#d$ ; /$ ] ! n8
nDD ! n8 -#/ ; #@(p#d$ ; /$$
Bow
nt ! nDD @(p #d$
! n8 @(p #d$ - #/ ; #@(p#d$ ; /$$.......................................#A$
It - Io Ep d + .1 % .Ep.d/ % 1/ B /444444444444444444444444444444444444444.B/
At ery high voltage
nt !
@% #A$ shows that
/ ; #@(p#d$ ; /$ ! 8
#@(p#d$ ; /$ ! /
= 1 / #@(p#d$ ; /$.................... .0"alanche for$ation/
To#nsend Criterion:
Case 1:
Ep .d/ 81
The discharge current is not self;maintained i.e. on removal of the source
producing the primary current Io ceases the flow
Case 3:
Ep .d/ - 1 The number of @(p d of ion pair produced in the gap by the passage of one
electron avalanche is sufficiently large that resulting the positive ions, on bombardment the
cathode are able to release 0ndary electrons and so cause a repetition of avalanche formation.
Case @:
Ep .d/ 5 1 The ioni>ation produced by successive electrons is cumulative. The spark
discharge grows more rapidly.
PaschenCs La#: This Caw states
DThe sparking potential is a function of the product of the gas pressure
and gap lengthD. i.e.
Aparking potential ! function of #,d$
Where
, ! gas pressure
d ! gap length
The sparking potential decreases with increasing the value pd reaches a minimum value at a
critical value of pd and then increases again. Bo breakdown can be obtained below the critical
sparking potential by decreasing either of the parameter.
The e(istence of the minimum value in the sparking potential may be e(plained %ualitatively by
considering the efficiency of the ioni>ation of electron at different energy. Beglecting the effect of
0ndary, coefficient for values of pd L pdmin, electrons crossing the gap make more fre%uent
collisions with the gas molecules than at pdmin , but the energy gained between collisions is lower
than at min pd. Hence the probability of ioni>ation at a collision is less unless the voltage is
increased. .or pdmin the electrons may cross the gap without making any collision. The point of
pdmin corresponds to the highest ioni>ation efficiency.
#&raphically ,aschenOs Caw$
Effect of Pressure:
Townsend e(periment was carried out at pressure. ,ressure
plays an important role in the breakdown mechanism of gases. Increased pressure is the result of
densely peaking of atoms and molecules of a gas. The initial electrons which are present due to
e(ternal sources are under the influence of the neighboring atoms and molecules which restrict
their movement. In other words, in the presence of e(ternal field, these electrons wound not gain
appreciable energies to form effective collision ioni>ation because their means free path will be
restricted or small enough to gain sufficient energy form their field. Thus, in the order to obtain
unstable conditions 0 criterions must be made
1/ Either 'er) high (iel! ust *e there
3/ +r electrons &hich $la) a,or role in the *rea-!o&n ust *e increase!
Bow, reduce the pressure below normal, in this case the breakdown will take place at much
higher value, the reason is that electrons being accelerated by the main field will ac%uire very
high G@, since the mean free path is now appreciably greater. However, there is always a good
chance of missing a collision .Ao chances of collision ioni>ation or to say avalanche formation are
less. In the presence of very high electric field, electrons are introduced in the main gap by the
electrodes material. Aince increase in the field will appreciably lower the potential barrier, thereby
overcoming the work function #$ and thus electron will be liberated by the electrodes materials.
Bow, where the numbers of electrons are increased in the gap, chances of the collision ioni>ation
will increase. The process will become cumulative which will cause unstable condition.
0ir!last Circuit Brea'er:
Eircuit 'reaker is used to remove the faulty part of the system when there any fault
occurs. In air circuit breaker, a compressor plant is necessary to maintain a high air pressure of
188psi.When fault occurs the E' isolates the faulty section from healthy section. It performs
emergency opening of the ckt, under the abnormal conditions. <pening of a E' is very
dangerous because it results in arcing #/8;;;/888kv$ the temperature of the arc rises up to
0688E.At this time air is introduced under high pressure. It performs 1 main tasks,
1/ It increases the length o( arc. #here*) increasing the resistance an! re!ucing the current.
2 It s$lits the arc into sall segents
& It quenches the arc an! cools the contacts
The compressed air takes away the ioni>ed gases along with it and assists in arc %uenching.
After fraction of a cycle #less then /$ the arc is e(tinguished. The high pressure air gas has higher
dielectric strength than that of atmospheric pressure. Hence a small contact gas of few cm is
enough.
Air strike voltage is produced which is too high to produce much of heat. Ao cooling the E' is
very important. Ao the cooling rate must be more then that of the heating rate or in the other
words the rate at which heat is produced should be less than that of that rate at which it gets cool.
.or %uenching the arc
Rate of cooling 5 rate of heating
A.4 E' is generally used as air E'.
LECTURE # E
.Li,uid Insulator/
General Points:
(ielectric strength of li%uid is generally greater then gas so that is why it is preferred
1=3 is high corrosi"e so it cannot be used for power transformer.
1=F has high cooling effect but highly corrosi"e so cannot be used for power
transformer.
Transformer <il may blast if used for long time. Its color is changed because of
car!oni*ation. Aome additi"es are used to avoid the carboni>ation. 'ut the pro!le$
with adding the additive is the fla$$a!ility4
In so$e cold area Transformer <il cannot be used.
1o$e conducti"e $aterials are used as a additive but due its presence the dielectric
strength of the oil decreases.
Brea'do#n )echanis$ in Li,uid Insulator:
D @lectronic Fechanism
D Auspended ,articles Fechanism
D Eavitations Fechanism
Eplanation of Each
Electronic )echanis$:
Internal 0gency K The ions can be formed in the oil #li%uid insulator$ due to
A%r #I$" losses.
Eternal 0gency K It may be due to e(ternal agency like temperature, cosmic
rays or ? rays.
<nce electrons are produced, then they can ioni>e other atoms, so the process may be
cumulative. Ao primary electrons will increase. It will tend towards avalanche formation.
1uspended Particles )echanis$ K
We will talk about suspended particles not about free electrons
now. Cet there is no thermal effect. Cet the Transformer be in a cell. Ao cosmic rays are screened.
Eosmic rays are basically P;rays if the cell is made up of steel then they will be reflected i.e.
te$perature is controlled
cos$ic rays are $ini$i*ed

Ao primary electrons production is reduced. Auspended particles are of two types
=i!rous $aterials
Conducting $aterials
=i!rous $aterials :
Ghere fro$ these fi!rous $aterials co$e fro$H
--5 9ue to primary winding insulation
--5 9ue to 0ndry winding insulation
These particles donIt react chemically but )ust flow in the li%uid insulator.
Conducting )aterials:
Ghere fro$ these $aterial co$e fro$H
Fostly these materials come from metallic luster.
;o# these particles help in !rea'do#n $echanis$H
Eonsider the tank filled with li%uid insulator as show in fig. These particles act as tiny dipoles as
they are charged by electric field, so they align themselves in the two electrodes #cathode and
anode$.The path followed by them will make a bridge #least path$ i.e. short circuit will be
produced. Bow after spark the temperature will rise in the surroundings. Thermal ioni>ation may
occur. It will lead to the li%uid insulator breakdown.
;o# to a"oidH
?sing good %uality of insulation of winding
<il analysis should be done through dissolve gas chromatography.
Bowadays resin is used which has very high insulation. It has no fibrous materials
#"esin is under the e(perimental test$
E$pirical =or$ula:
To find the electric field due to fibrous


Where
= permittivity of li%uid dielectric
= ,ermittivity of suspended particle
r ! radius of curvature of the particle
@ ! e(ternal electric field

. ! force on the particle
Eonsider the factor consisting of & i.e.
# ) / # + 2) ! (1 -)/(1 +2/)
= (1 -) / (1 +2/)
Bow if the particle is made that of conducting material then =
Ao

Ca"itations )echanis$:
These are basically bubbles in the insulators.
These cavitations may b larger or smaller.
Cet the cosmic rays, ? rays, temperature and other factors are controlled.
;o# Ca"itations are for$edH
They may come from violent chemical reactions and dissolved gases.
9ue to s%r #I$" loss.
<r may be due to loose connection that produces sparks that may produce some ions to
produce bubble r cavitations
Ghat happens #hen !u!!le is producedH
Two possibilities are there
1/ It may escape
3/ <r it may be trapped inside the li%uid.
Ghy the !u!!les are trappedH
The bubble is trapped in the li%uid insulator due 0
reasons
1/ High density - viscosity
3/ Aurface tension
Cet suppose the bubble is trapped inside the chamber. .urther, for convenience suppose the
bubble is the middle of the chamber.
When field is applied, the bubble acts as dipole... <ne end is Hve and the other is ;ve. Aince the
bubble is in the middle, so both the electrodes will attract it and will elongate until it reaches the
two ends #electrodes$ and a path will be available to short circuit the two electrodes. The local
temperature will increase in the path. Thermal ioni>ation will occur. Fore electrons will be
produced which will lead to breakdown.
The forces inside the bubble may e(ceed the surface tension and the bubble will be accumulating
i.e. two or more bubbles will be
produced with accumulation.
E$pirical =or$ula:
Where
@ ! main .ield
b ! voltage drop across bubble
1 = permittivity of the li%uid dielectric
0 ! permittivity of the bubble.
! surface tension of the li%uid
r ! radius of bubble
@o ! electric field around the bubble
;o# to a"oid the ca"itations:
1/ 'y enhancing the cooling
3/ Anti;o(ygen agents can be added to transformer oil to avoid the entry of <(ygen to
transfer oil.
LECTURE # I
.1olid Insulators/
Characteristics of the 1olid Insulation:
/$ Fust have high dielectric strength
0$ Fust have $echanical strength4#mechanical tough$
1$ Fust not degrade during the service in nay particular environment
2$ Fust have high te$perature resistance #high or low temperature resistive$
3$ Ahould be inert and sta!le chemically in the environment it is working
4$ Ahould be non%infla$$a!le
5$ Fust have electric strength
.oli! insulation cannot *e use! e'er)&here.
Brea'do#n )echanis$:
@lectronic Fechanism
@lectromechanical Fechanism
@rosion Fechanism
Eplanation of Each
Electronic )echanis$:
Aome electrons come from manufacture process because no
manufacture process is ideal. The dielectric is said to be pure one if it has no impurities in it. Here
an impurity means the presence of the free electrons which are responsible for the breakdown
mechanism. In any dielectric material, practically, there are always some free electrons present.
.or better %uality dielectric these electrons are however smaller in numbers and therefore
insufficient to result in measurable current that may have an effect on the overall performance of
the material. In case of poor dielectric material, the electrons present due to anisotropy will
contribute significant current in the presence of e(ternal field. This may make the insulator unfit
for the practical applications.
In case of dielectric material with the few electrons already present # though not sufficient for
significant current $ , breakdown can take place under controlled lab conditions and under the
influence of very high electric field of the order of mega volts per cm. The !rea'do#n process is
outline as follo#:
?nder the influence of high e(ternal field to accelerate the already present few number of
electrons to very high energy is sufficient to produce collision ioni>ation of the neighboring atoms,
thereby resulting in electrons multiplication. <n librating electrons from the neighbor atoms will
result in the positive ions which are fi(ed in position. The electrons are swapped away by the
e(ternal field which is absorbed by anode, leaving behind a trial of positive ions along the path of
ioni>ation which produce a low resistive path between the two electrodes, so resulting in a short
circuit. It must be remembered in case of soli! !ielectric the short circuit &ill lea'e a $eranentl)
con!ucting $ath via carboni>ation as a conse%uence of burning of the path along the positive ions
trail. This makes the dielectric unfit for future use of the insulator for insulating purpose.
Electro$echanical )echanis$:
The mechanism is applicable only for those materials
which are visco;elastic material like P,C@, C9,@, H9,@, ,E, I", @," etc. These are usually
used for cable industry to manufacture low voltage to e(tra high voltage cables. The mechanism
includes the important constant, referred as modulus of elasticity or young modulus or hookOs
constant denoted by Q and is e%ual to ratio of stress to strain.
Atrain is the reaction of the stress applied to relief the stress. Atrain that is produced
during application of the solid insulator is non linear.
Bon;linear strain,
= ln N do-d ]
m ! mechanical stress #say$
d is final thickness against the compression to reduce the thickness. Ao, according to law of
mechanics Q ! ratio of stress to strain i.e. Q ! m /
m ! Q ! Q ln Ndo - d]................................... #/$
The mechanical stress, m, results in the non;linear mechanical strain, .
Where do is the thickness after applied stress. All this is considered under the application of
compressive stress on the visco;elastic material held between two electrodes in the absence of
e(ternal field.
According to the law of electromagnetic the compressive forces that will result from the applied
voltage, v, and electric field will be:
e ! R 9@
Where e is the stress due to the applied electric voltage
9 ! electrostatic flu( density,
@ ! electric field applied across the electrodes
@ ! - d
And
9 ! % - A
Ao
e ! R %-A -d ! % -0Ad.................... #0$
The arrangement is such that it is e%uivalent to parallel plates capacitor with dielectric material
sandwiched between two metallic electrodes.
Cet E be the capacitance of the capacitor
Then % ! E
Ao e% #0$ implies
e ! R E-Ad
! E s,r #$ - 0Ad
Aince we know that for a parallel capacitor
E ! rA + d put this in e% #0$, we get
e ! N rA + d ] Ns,r#$ - 0Ad ]
! R r s,r#-d$
#@%uation for electrostatic stress$
?nder the e%uilibrium condition the mechanical stress and the electrostatic stress both are e%ual.
i.e.
e ! m
R r s,r#-d$ ! Q ln N do-d ]
1,r #v$ ! 0Q s,r #d$ ln #do-d $ - r ..............#A$
Implies that
! d 0Q ln #do-d $ - r SSSSS.. #'$
> J
> d
Taking the derivative of either e% #A$ or # ' $ w.r.t d and put it e%ual to >ero for ma(imum
conditions
We get
d ! 0d ln #do-d $
Implies that
/-0 ! ln #do-d $
@(p #/-0$ ! do-d
d - do ep .%1+3 /
'here s(r stan)s #or s(uare
Erosion Brea'do#n )echanis$:
It involves the eating away of the inside of a material by
the action of partial discharges #Tiny breakdown$. @rosion starts from cavity or void that is the
result of the some defects left behind inside the material during manufacturing process. Fost of
the manufacturing process involves the cooling down a solid material from molten state to room
temperature. If the cooling process is not controlled well, then some portion inside the material
will remain as small cavity. Aome cavities in general are considered as har$less T some of them
are said to be har$ful4
;ar$less are those which are much smaller in si>e *una+"e to sustain "oca"ize) )ischarges,
under the influence of electric field. <n the other hand the har$ful is that one
which is of larger si>eA a!le to sustain locali*ed discharged under the influence
of the field. It must be noted that the otherwise harmless cavities can become
harmful one by a process called nucleation #hich is the result of the ther$al
stress and counted in practice due to cyclic electrical loading4
We know that dielectric is good heat insulator as well. Ao during the operation the
upper and lower temperatures are not same which leads to thermal stresses.
Inside temperature will be high due to discharges. A cavity of sufficient si>e, under
the influence of electric field will produce a tiny breakdown inside the cavity. 9ue to
these discharges inside the wall can rise the temperature to e(tend that it will melt
the wall of the cavity. The gas produced will be librated outside the cavity until the
whole material becomes a cavity inside.
There is probability of combining of 0 or more cavities to give a larger one.
Construction of solid insulator:
It is made of porecelein which is widely used insulator for overhead lines. It is made up of chine
clay, gypsum, lime: graphite etc #%uart> or alumina$. It has a galvani>ed metallic cap and pin in
the beneath portion. Apecial cement layer is used between dielectric material and conductor. It
has a grain boundary of ceramic material. The surface is made highly polished and gla>ed
#&rease or silicon layer of polish$. Any deposition in the form of dust sand , salt carbon fumes or
other chemical deposition can be easily washed by natural purging event like rain , wind etc. The
cap is made circular to form cyclone which helps in cleaning the insulator below surface when
wind flows because cyclone helps in the circulation of wind easily through it. There is house
inside the cap used for locking the pin of the other insulator for series arrangement.
The color of the insulator used depends upon the e(ternal environment: it has nothing to do with
the technical side.
LECTURE # F
.1olid insulator contA d/
We use series connected insulators. These insulators have to face high voltage. ,ractically it is
shown that the insulators in the lower end of the series have to face high voltage while the upper
ones comparatively low. Ao different stresses are produced in these series connected insulators.
Ao the chances of breakdown are possible. Cet us prove it that they have different voltages.
These insulations behave like capacitors. The capacitance effect produced between an insulator
and the earth connected tower is 1KL of the insulation capacitance and is called stray
capacitance. Cet suppose the capacitance between two series connected insulator is E. Cet
suppose:
A ! the voltage at insulator A
' ! the voltage at insulator '
E ! the voltage at insulator E
?sing GEC analysis: ia ! i/ H i'
?sing I ! -U ! - /-wE ! wE
wEA ! 8./wE # ' H E $ HwE'
A ! /./ ' H 8./E ....#/$
Bow:
i' ! ic H i0
wE' ! 8./wEc H E
' ! /./E S.#0$
Bow we know that
! A H ' H E
,ut the value of the e% #/$ and e% #0$
! /./' H 8./c H /./c Hc
! #/./$ #/./$ c
! /.0/c H 0.0c
! 1.2/c
E ! -1.2/ ! 8.07
>C - 3ML >
' ! /./c
! /./#07V$
>B - @3L >
A ! #/88; 10 ;07$ V


Guard Ring Capacitors:
.rom the above discussion we show that the voltage is decreased as we move away from the line
voltage i.e. A L ' L E
We try to e%uali>e all three voltages. Ao that there should be e%ual stress upon all insulators
connected.
.or this purpose we use guard ring capacitors. Cet us do analysis of the guard ring capacitor
@(periment show that guard capacitor should have
capacitance 3V of E.
Bow using the GEC analysis
iA H ia ! i/ H i'
wE A H 8.83 wE A ! 8./ wEc H wEc
/.83A ! /./' H 8./c
>0 - 14KEN >B 2 K4KMI >c OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
.@/
Aimilarly
i' H ib ! i0 H iE
wE ' H 8.83 wE # A H '$ ! 8./ wE #AH E$ H wE '
' H 8.83# A H '$ ! /./E
/.83 ' H 8.83 A ! /./E
/.83 ' H 8.83 #/.825 ' H 8.73 c $ ! /./E
/.83 ' H 8.8301 ' H 8.825 c ! /./E
/./80 ' ! /.831 E
>B - K4MM@ >C OOOOOOOOO44.E/
,ut the value of e% #2$ in e% #1$, we get:
A ! /.825 #8.771 E $ H8.873 E
! 8.776 E H8.873 E
! /./1 E
Bow
! A H ' H E
,utting the value of ' T E:
>0! @ML >
! /.871 E H 8.733 E 2 E
! 1./06 E
Implies that
E ! - 1./06 ! 10V
1o >C - @3L >
,ut this value in e%#2$ we get:
Ao E ! 10V
' ! 8.733#10$
1o >B - @K4FL >
Ao
A ! #/ ; 8.10 ; 8.184$
!15.2V

1o >0 - @N4EL >
Ao the results are now comparatively good i.e. the values are comparatively matching.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
End of the $idter$ course4
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
=I<0L TER) C?UR1E
LETURE # N
.Corona/
Electric =ield:
@lectric field is regarded as parameter to define the strength of a particular
point in a system at which voltage is present. However, the field is reduced in non;linear fashion
with the increase of the distance from the point. These points may be conductors or associated
hardware like transformer bushesS in the case of irregularities in the conductor for e(ample a
broken strand will be regarded as critical point where the field will concentrate and therefore will
be a point of ma(imum stress. .urther more sharp points will also produce concentration and will
be regarded as point of ma(imum stress.
The electric field configuration can be classified as:
Unifor$ field .U=/
<on%unifor$ field .<U=/
Unifor$ field .U=/: U= is regarded as the configuration with the distribution of the field does not
vary appreciably. .or e(ample along the length of the transmission conductor.
However in lab environment, ?. is the configuration which is accomplished by using 0 spherical
electrodes. Cet spacing between the electrodes is 9 and r is the radius of the sphere. 9 must not
e(ceed the radius of the sphere i.e.
(WW r, then the field will be uniform, otherwise it will be non;uniform. However, this is applicable
only when there is no ground ab)ect nearby. In practice these kinds of electrodes are not
preferred due to its limitation (WW r.
<on%unifor$ field .<U=/: <U= is one where the distribution of the field is not uniform. It is
responsible for the corona. If ( 5 r then the field will be distorted due to leakage flu(.
(isc shape para!olic Electrode:
Instead, another configuration is used that is called disc shape parabolic electrode. It must be
remembered that smooth curvature are more reliable than sharper curvature because of the
fringing field which is the result of the stress concentration acts at sharp bends. ,ractically
almost field conditions are that of non;uniform.
To produce B?. in lab we use one of the following gap techni%uesK
/$ 1phere%plane gap: High voltage is applied on sphere and the other end #plane$ is
grounded N fig#/$ ]
0$ Point%plane: High voltage is applied on point end and the other end #plane$ is grounded
N fig#0$ ]
@/ Point%point gap: voltage is applied on point end and the other end #point$ is grounded
N fig #1$ ]
.ig #/$ H fig #0$ H fig #1$ H
8 8
8
C?R?<0: Eorona is the onset of partial ioni>ation of the space between a H
and C elements when the electric field attains a certain critical which is 0/./Gv - Em for dry air at
AT, #548mmHg, 08E$. Eorona manifests itself by:
>isual Effects like faint glow which can be seen easily in darkness.
;issing 1ound can be heard in silence >one.
Pungent 1$ell which is produced due to the production of the o>one gas due to H.
Eorona is always produced due to B?.. Awing of conductor #gallop or dancing$ also increases
the chances of happening of the corona due to chances of increased ioni>ation.
(isad"antages:
/$ Po#er loss in the system due to leakage which may become e(cessively high under
bad weather conditions i.e. rain, snow, gusty wined #gate force$4 In such situation due to
the wetness in the air will affect the field.
0$ Radio interference: The T or radio waves are affected as a result of which noise is
produced. This is due to interference of the field from corona and that of radio waves.
Induced voltage is of broad spectrum with the range of few H> to few FH>.
The radio interference manifests itself by
0udi!le <oise in the ordinary AF radio receiver.
Ghite <oise .sno#$ in the receiver of T where the picture is amplitude modulated.
The communication lines are affected by corona if the lines are passing nearby the
transmission lines. It will cause noise in telephone receiver due to electromagnetic
interference. =) receiver does not take any response
=or$ula:

@ ! field stress in k-Em
< ! system voltage in k
9 ! space between conductors
r ! radius of conductor
?nder the critical situation when @ ! 0/./G-Em at AT,, the voltage at which the corona will
occur is:
< ! 0/./r ln 9 - r #in G$
The correction filter is used which is:
G ! mo
Where
= 1.70//p - #051 HT$
T! temperature #in Eelsius$ of environment not that of working
p ! atmospheric pressure
mo ! conductor surface irregularity factor whose values are given below
/ for smooth and polished conductors
8.71 to 8.76 for weather conductors i.e. they can be affected by environment
8.65 to 8.71 for conductors with more then 5 strand
8.6 to 8.65 for conductors having up to5 strand
If we use k factor then

< ! 0/./kr ln 9 - r
< ! 0/./ mo r ln 9 - r on set of audible corona
< ! 0/./ mv N/ H 8.1 - r ] ln 9 - r on set of visual corona
ln means natural log
LECTURE # P
.Corona contA d/
<egati"e Point Corona:
The name comes from the electrodes symmetry used in lab for study purpose.
In this procedure we apply negative H9E voltage at a point electrode. The plane electrode of
the arrangement is connected to the ground. Aometimes a series resistance is used having a
high value in order to limit the current with the event of breakdown. The series resistance is
directly connected between the H9E point and the terminal of H9E. The mechanism of the
corona is outlined as follows:
In the event of voltage applied between the point and the plane, attains-reaches a critical value.
The electric field connection in the vicinity of the tip of the electrode becomes sufficiently high to
accelerate random positive ions in the main gap sufficient velocities to impart energies greater
than the work function of the electrode material. ?nder favorable conditions L0 work function
, the Hve ions will neutrali>e to form a neutral atom where else the electrons e)ected out of metal
i.e. cathode, will be introduced in the main gap. Aince the field is intense in the vicinity of the point
electrode, the chances of collision ioni>ation is high as compared to the main gap away from the
point electrode where the field gradually decreases. The ioni>ation activity near the point
electrode will produce ioni>ation species i.e. free electrons and Hve ions. Therefore, the current
will increase following the e(ponential law according to Townsend formula
I ! Io @(p (
Where ( is the distance from the tip of the point electrode towards the plane electrode.
The current however, will not increase further beyond a certain value of the voltage, /, but it will
be chopped. This chopping can be e(plained as where there are sufficient Hve ions formed in the
vicinity of the intense field region #tip$ will distort the cathode field to an e(tend that the gap
current will cease. It must be remembered that electrons produced as ioni>ation species are
taken by the plane electrode leaving behind a cluster of the Hve ions in the intense field region i.e.
at the tip of the point electrode. At this stage the cluster of the Hve ions is neutrali>ed by the
electrons from the metal by the e(isting electric field. <nce the Hve ions are neutrali>ed the
process is then repeated. The current increases and then chops. The process is cumulative
because the mechanism of the Hve ions formation and its impact on the point electrode is
repeated again, which will result in gap current rise e(ponentially and will be chopped at certain
voltage, 0. The corona, therefore, shows its e(istence in the form pulses as shown in fig. these
pulses are called Trichle:s pulsesA named after the scientist who first observed this all
phenomenon. These TrichleIs ,ulses continue in progression till the final breakdown of the gap
occurs.
C?<>E<TI?< L> I<TRU)E<T1:
(1) 0$$eter in series #ith the a huge resistor :
.ig #/$ illustrates the arrangement of convention ammeter-milliammeter with its
re%uirements. It is connected in series with a high resistor of the order of mega ohm.
The resistor is connected because the H source is intensively high and it will burn
the ammeter if direct connected.
The resistor is made of either a single unit or multiple units stacked together in the
form of a string. Fa)ority of these resistors are made up of ceramic called Fargonite.
These resistors are generally produced in disk shaped with a centrally caved to
facilitate for string formation. The techni%ue for measurement is simple .i.e. the
assembly is directly connected to the H terminal of the device or e%uipment for
which measurement are to be made. When connection is made, this will result in a
current, I, flow which will be recorded by the ammeter or milliammeter. Gnowing the
total resistance of the stack or single unit "s, we can find out the voltage to be
measured, m.
?sing the ohmIs law:
m ! I "s m
Effect of the a$$eter resistance
As we know that the resistance of the ammeter with the comparison of the unit or
multiple stack resistors is too small so it has no such effect which can produce
measurable error in the reading.
Aome points must be remembered
1/ Tolerance of the stack resistor must be at least because it has high value
3/ To guard against the stray field from the H device, the system of measurement
must be shielded well by providing a cylindrical grounded mesh.
@/ The H devices must be earth well. The earth is the mi(ture of solid earth,
moisture, salt and with the cupper plates.
Ghen dealing #ith 0C, it is sometimes advisable to use capacitor stacks instead of
simple resistors. AE voltages or current involves fre%uency so that the reactance of a
capacitor can become sensible to fre%uency. Foreover, dc resistance is not same as
ac resistance.
Ac resistance is /.4 times dc resistance i.e.
Rac - 14F Rdc


(2) >olt$eter . >oltage di"ider rule /:
oltage divider rule also facilitates the use of conventional C voltmeter for the
measurement of H. The arrangement is shown in fig, where "/ T "0 are for a
potential divider between H and C voltmeter.
In this case "/ is much much greater than the "0 so that the greater share of the H
is taken up by "/. The terminal of the H system for which measurement are to be
made. Accordingly the voltage m can be obtained from the voltmeter reading and
the knowledge of value of "/ and "0.
! m "0 - #"/ H "0$
> - ' >$ >$ - > - '
Ghere k is the calibration constant.
"/ is designed either composed of a single unit or multiple units stacked together to
form a string similarly as we discussed before in the above article.
"0 is C resistor but must have a capable of high power. Aometimes heat sinks are
used with "0. Appropriate cooling method and air can increase in the precision of the
reading of the voltmeter. In case of short circuit occurs, heavy current flows in the
circuit, so for safety purpose we use gap to bypass so heavy current in case of fault.
Thus the voltmeter and "0 are well safe from any abnormal conditions.
LECTRUE # M
;> $easure$ent instru$ents
Electrostatic >olt$eter:
High voltage voltmeter is shown in fig below
Is consists of two electrodes, one on H side and the other is grounded.
The distance between them is let (. It is shielded with container which is well
grounded.
Aince ( will decrease as H increases due to attraction in between two electrodes.
There will change in the charge capacitance accordingly:
Work is: w ! R A%r #$E
dw ! R A%r #$ dE
'ut w ! .(
dw ! . d(
Ao R A%r #$ dE ! .d(
= - Q 1,r .>/ dC+d OOOO4 .1/
If we have parallel plateIs capacitor then capacitance will act on area, dielectric etc as
follows:
E ! A - (
dE-d( ! ; A - A%r#($
Beglecting the =ve sign and put this in e% #/$:
. ! R A%r #$ A - A%r#($ ! k A%r #$
= - Q 0 1,r .>+/ - ' 1,r .>/
. is directly proportional to s%uare of the
There is also used spring arrange$ent which decompresses the electrode while the
H compresses them.
Ahield arrangement basically used so that the system cannot be affected by e(ternal
field.
&uard shield has diameter so long needed for guard shield to be independent of the
main field.
Cet we apply voltage /.A known weight is put in the pan. Cet the weight be F. 9ue
to F the plates comes back to original position.
Then e% #/$ implies that:
./ ! k A%r #/$
/ ! ./- k
Bow we increase the voltage from / to 0. We have to add more weight to the pain.

0 ! .0- k
k is nothing but a calibration constant. We take many readings of force and
corresponding voltage and then plot it.
We use dynamometer to find out the tor%ue in Bm then dividing by length we get the
force. The dynamometer is installed between H and movable electrode as shown in
fig below.
Range: Its range is from 0k to 088k.
Pro!le$: Uero error chances and small range.
0!raha$:s >olt$eter:
It is slightly modified than ordinary voltmeter.
.
1/ Alightly change in electrodes i.e. the
outer !is- is $ieces a!e. The
electrodes are Fushroom type.
The gap is appropriate. The gap
between two pieces is the function of
the voltage .i.e greater the voltage
greater will be the gap and vice versa.
3/ All the apparatus is arranged
hori/ontall) i.e. hori>ontal arrangement

<perationK
When voltage is applied, electrostatic force is produced in between the electrode
and thus static electrode attracts the movable electrode and thus the disk rotates through some
angle. The pointer moves as well which gives reading in volt on the scale directly.
Benefits:
It is %uite easy in use because it will give you reading directly in volt and more over its range is
%uite high then the previous one.i.e. It can give you correct value up to IKK'>4
1phere Gap >olt$eter:
It consists of two spheres which are mainly made up of:
1/ 'rass
3/ Atainless steel
@/ Eupper
The surfaces are highly polished smooth so that dust does not affect them. Ailicon grease is used
for polishing purpose.
Condition:
It will give precise and accurate result when the below condition is fulfilled.
If d X R 9
Then it will give us error probability up to only 1V .2"e or R"e$
If R 9 X d X Y 9
Then it will give us error probability up to 3V .2"e or R"e$
Cali!ration:
Cet we apply known voltage. The spheres will get nearer and nearer relative to
each other. At one point there will be direct spark without corona because the field is uniform.
9ifferent readings are taken and then they are plotted.
9uring e(periment we will note the d and the corresponding value of to find the voltage.
9ue to sparking 0 things occur:
1/ Car!oni*ation
Ao we have to polish again after a discharge to remove carboni>ation.
3/ Pitting
If pitting is much more then we have to replace the spheres.
Ao it is %uite e(pensive but much more accurate.
Current li$iting resistant is used to limit the current.
Thumb rule for current limiting resistor is 1 + "
Ea$ple:
Cet us we have 9!/m and we need error up to ma(imum 1V.
Ao we have to keep d up to ma(im R 9 ! 38cm.
<o# if #e #ant to $easure $uch high "oltage through this gap "olt$eter so #hat #e ha"e
to doH
We have to increase the !ielectric strength. Ao using a high dielectric material gas in between the
0 spheres so that discharge can occur at much higher voltage
We can do it via the following ways:
using A.4
using air at high pressure
Ghy 1=FH
it is non;corrosive
it is non;to(ic
it much heavy and dense
and it has much high dielectric strength
9ischarge 9etectorK
We use discharge detector to know whether inside a sample apparatus,
there is any discharge occurring and it can be defined as 0the instruent *) &hich $artial
!ischarge insi!e a ca'it) can *e !etecte!1
.ollowing are the apparatus used:
CsA 1tandard capacitor with air filled. It is called loss free capacitor4
High voltage transfor$er
Protecti"e tu!e containing gas of lo# ioni*ation potential
The voltage at S$ is applied to ;= filter which therefore, as I-, to a$plifier 04 The <-,
of the A is given to CR?
?peration: When voltage is applied, there will be division of the voltage across Um and E(
)ust li'e potential di"ider. There fluctuation will occur around Um in case of the discharge. H.
filter will filter the low fre%uencies.




.;igh filter !eha"ior/
There is storage capability in E"<. It stores the signal and can be recorded.
Cet be the voltage difference of the peak value of the applied voltage applied and in peak
value of the voltage of the fluctuation.
E( ! % -
The charge that is discharged is
% ! E(
Ghy protecti"e tu!e is usedH
It is used because
if there short circuit occurs then there will be much
high current flow via Um or E( which will vanishes
Um and so H. filter. Ao to avoid the situation we
bypass the short circuit current through it which
contains gas at of low ioni>ation.
LECTURE # 1K
.;IG; >?LT0GE GE<ER0TI?</
Ghy not high "oltage fro$ generatorH
9ue to insulation problem
9ue to te$perature rise
We would have space pro!le$ because we will have ma(imi>e the space for more
insulation.
We use step up transformer for HAE
1ingle unit
A single transformer with primary turn Bp and secondary turns Bs
<n input side there is circuit breaker installed and on the secondary side "c, limiting current
resistor is used. "c has / - v value as thumb rule.
Cet s and p be the voltage at secondary and primary side respectively.
. .o
Then
s ! p B0 - B/
Where
B0 L B/
Rating: "ating of such transformers is /;;;;;;0GvA
@ Ginding Transfor$er:
In this kind of Transformer we have special kind of winding on 0ndary side. We use the number of
turns on the 0ndary side through a special switch called as change o"er s#itch4
It has totally 1 winding / on primary side and 0 one the 0ndary side. If we use both the windings
on 0ndary side then the voltage will be much high.
1ingle unit ;>A ;C Testing Transfor$er:
It can produce from few kv to /388kv.
Aometime we need moisture-wet test of insulation.
The testing includes on insulators with fog, rain-snow, moisture and fumes.
These are all the pollutants for the insulators.
9uring application of the insulators, they draw heavy currents due to these pollutants.
Ao we have to test a sample of insulator for all the above testing.
Ao we need H, HE #supply current$ transformer for such testing
Cascading Transfor$er:
This method is %uite simple. We do nothing but )ust cascade a few number of transformers in
cascading .i.e the output of one is the input of another one. It must be noted that all the testing
transformers are single phase unit.
Cet we have condition 028-/88'.we connect e/ to b0. We connect c/ to a0.
Bow let we calculate the voltage at point e/.
We know that
/88' ; e/ ! 028
1o e1 - 1KK'> % 3EK >
The difference between the ends-terminals of 0
nd
unit is the same i.e 028.
We will not connect the d0 to ground-tank because it will again give us /88k.
'ut we add dry insulator. We connect b0 T d0. Ao voltage at d0 ! /88' = 028.
Bow we would connect unit 1
rd
.
Bow 088' = e0 ! 028
Ao
e3 - 3KK'> R 3EK>
Bow output voltage is
>o - @KK7> OOOOOOO.0/
Where si ! output of the 1
st
unit. We use !ushes because we have not to ground the windings.
Foreover tank is grounded. Ao bushes are used to isolate the connection and tank.
Generali*ation:
Cet suppose we have n number of units which are connected in cascading. Cet suppose
si is the output of the /
st
unit in cascading series. Then the output can be driven from e%uation
#A$:
>o - @.1KK7>/ - @>si
Bow instead of 1 if we use n number of units then output is given as :
>o - n >si
There is chance of destruction of the specimen if the specimen is wire because there is chance of
accident of resonance when the wire capacitive reactance is e%ual to inductive reactance of the
transformer.
Characteristics of Resonance:
At resonance power factor is unity.
Eurrent is ma(imum.
The circuit behaves like pure resistive.
Tesla Coil:
The following is the Tesla coil. <ne the component either E or C is variable. We
have shown E as variable. The value is E is changed until PC and PE are e%ual. At this point the
natural fre%uency coincides with the force fre%uency
The %uality factor of the circuit is
Z ! PC - "
The out put is o ! Z @
>o - E TL + R OOOOOOO44 .1/
I

@%#/$ shows that:
>o is directly proportional to TL4
0lternate Circuit of Tesla Coil:
The following is the 0
nd
circuit of the tesla coil
Cet we apply voltage until we ad)ust the breakdown of gap e/.
C/ and E/ are designed to give resonance at .r with the bandwidth of the /8 kH> and /88kH>.The
advantage of this circuit is isolation safety4
If the specimen is short circuited, the resonance will be lost. Ao it is self
safe controlled. When E/ and C/ are at resonance, a high voltage is
applied at E0 via 0ndary windings of the air core transformer.
LECTURE # 11
.I)PUL1E GE<ER0TI?</
I$pulse H
A short peak voltage for a very short time is called impulse. Impulses
occur in form of surges. Impulse has profound effect on the system
Characteristics:
magnitude is too high
short persisting time #mostly in micro seconds$
1ource of I$pulse:
0 main sources
1% Eternal source
3% Internal source
.
1% The main cause of impulse is lightning
It may be direct or indirect.
3% Cet the load is released, the voltage will rise for a short time of period
Ao there must be some tolerance in the system.
The above two sources produce too high voltage and so large current up to /8k ;;; /88kA
Then #hat happensH
We define a constant, surge impedance.

It is denoted by Us. It value ranges from 188 to 488.
Take the least value of the current .i.e /8kA
Then voltage is
! Us I
! 1Fv
Insulators are not affected generally because of less time of impulse.
Portions of 1urge:
Time of surge is important
.ollowing are its two main parts:
front portion which is also called Ga"e =ront
In this portion the voltage is getting higher and higher.
Tail portion which also called Ga"e Tail
Cet ,/ cutoff at voltage ! /8V ,eak
,0 cutoff at voltage ! 78V ,eak
,1 cutoff at voltage ! 38V ,eak

,/ to ,0 are called #a"e front cutoff. ,1 is called #a"e tail cutoff4
<o$inal #a"e =ront Ti$eK
9uration from /8V of peak to 78V of peak is called nominal wave front time and defined as t/.
Fathematically it can be defined as:
t1 - T3 % T1

<o$inal Ga"e Tail Ti$e:
Time when voltage reaches to /8V of ,eak and then decreases to 38V of ,eak is called
nominal wave tail time.
Fathematically it can be defined as:
t3 - T@ % T1
In 'A system
t/ - t0 ! /sec - 38sec
In AA system
t/ - t0 ! /.3sec - 28sec
Insulation must withstand with this much time under the worse conditions.
.
Generation of I$pulse in La!:
Two ways to produce in lab
Bominal and tolerance test
This includes both dry and wet tests.
impulse voltage test
.1ingle 1tage I$pulse Generation Circuit:
.ollowing are the main components which are used in the generation of single phase impulse.
;>(C source from /8 to /88kv
input stage charging capacitor C1
spark gap G
Wave trail control resistor, R1
Wave front control resistor, R3
<ut put capacitor C3 or capacitance of insulator under test.
Thumb rule for "0 ! /8k
?peration:
?ne condition must be fulfilled:
R1 88 R3
A predetermined voltage is applied from H9E charging source.
The application of the voltage will charge the input stage capacitor, E/, to the full
charging voltage.
<nce the capacitor is charged, the H9E source is disconnected.
The gap & is carefully closed. The gap is controlled by some remote control system until
breakdowns occurs.
The charges of E/ will pas to out put capacitor E0 via "/ and "0. The capacitor will
charge.
The output voltage 0cross C3 is given as:
>.t/ - > U Ep .%t + R3C1/ % Ep .%t + R1C3/ B
v ! predetermined voltage from H9E source.
&raphical representation of #t$
The graph can be drawn as shown in the above fig. A is point of inflection.
A and <rigin should be a straight line and from A to ' the graph should be smooth curve. A line
is passing through point A from (;a(is is tangent.
)ultistage I$pulse Generation:
/8kv is applied to charge all the stage capacitors #E/, E0 S$." has nothing to do but )ust to
control the charging current during charging. Ao when all capacitors are charged, all will have
same voltage and they can be treated as they are in parallel. Ao the voltage across all stage
capacitors will be same .i.e .
The gap &/ is carefully broken up. -ow what ha..ens?
Across E/ a short circuit will occur. <n the right side of &0 the voltage will be =. Bow across &0 voltage will be
; #;$ ! 0.
When &0 breaks up then on trite side of &1 voltage will be ;0. Bow across &1 voltage will be ; #;0$ ! 1.
Ao after breakup of the &2 the voltage at
out put .i.e across E will be % E>4
If we want positive voltage across output
capacitor then we would )ust do one
thing .i.e )ust interchange the polarity of
the H9E source.
LECTURE # 13
Lightening 1tro'e:
It is seen that clouds accumulate charges on them. 'lack clouds have much more charges on them i.e more
concentrated. Bearer to the earth surface has temperature of %I Celsius degree.
0 or 1 km above the layer there is another layer of clouds which is at temperature of %EK Celsius degree./8 to
EK coulo$! charge is accumulated on the lower clouds. Two concepts are there to e(plain the charge on the
clouds:
D (ue the te$perature difference
D (ue to the actions of #ind
Foreover, the upper layer is Hvely charged and the lower is =vely charged. Ao the two layers act as a
capacitor. The lower layer induces voltage on the earth surface .i.e the earth layer gets positively charged.
The more =ve charged is accumulated on the lower clouds the more Hve charge is induced on ground.
@lectric field of order of k-m is created. This field is non;uniform because the charge on the cloud layer is not
uniformly distributed. Eorona is appears in the lower region of cloud which is near to ground called primary
corona. Then, this corona leads to 0ndary corona. In corona charge moves downward act as drain for charge.
The distance between charge centers reduces and the field will shoot up.
In mean while a heavy spark occurs called stepped leaderA pri$ary strea$er or stepped strea$er. It
moves towards ground. It will be dominant over others and will demonstrate others. 9ue to strong attraction
charges will start moving from ground towards that primary streamer. Thus the whole path is ioni>ed in form of
plasma. It produces /8k to /88kA current. ?p
to 088kA current is observed. This is called
stroke. It reestablishes itself and then a stroke
occurs. 3K to EK stro'es are involved per
lightening. The reestablishment time is so
small that one thinks that lightening is
continuous but in fact it is discrete in form of
strokes. The above stroke is called direct
stro'e4
1pecifications:
Time of stepped leader formation
is /8msec.
Time of formation of return
streamer is 28sec.
The intervals between
subse%uent strokes is 28msec
Indirect 1tro'e:
Aometime what happens that between two
layers lightening occurs, this is called intra cloud discharges. After that, lightening occurs on
surface of the earth, this is called indirect stroke which is not that much stronger or dangerous.
Effects on Trans$ission syste$:
It has diverse effects on a system. 9ue to heavy voltage induced in the system produces heavy current to flow
which has very serious problems. The energy that is carried by lightening is round about from /888 to /8,888
FJ. This much huge energy has temperature of /3888E. All lightening strokes produce impulse voltage
distribution in the transmission lines.
i ! I N # @(p #;t) @(p #t$ ]
v #t$ ! Us i
! Us I N # @(p #;t) @(p#t$ ]
Cet s ! IUs

Ao v #t$ ! s N # @(p #;t) @(p#t$ ]
Where Us is surge impedance

Half charge moves on each side.
Ao v ! R s N # @(p #;t) @(p#t$ ] is applied on each side.
Where and are constants
;o# to Guard Trans$ission Lines:
9ue to high voltage impose on the system, the insulator
may break down. When one string of insulation is broken on a
system, the whole system is useless because it provides a short
path to current. Cet us consider a string of insulators. Cet we
define ti$e lag which is the e%ual to statistical and for$ati"e
ti$e. Atatistical time is the duration between a.."ication o# the !o"tage an) a!ai"a+i"ity o# the #ree
e"ectrons and formative time is the duration between the a!ai"a+i"ity o# #ree e"ectrons to the .oint where
+rea/)own +eco$es se"# sustaine)%
Atatistical time is >ero when charges are available. Atatistical time is taken as >ero for solid insulators.
Two ways to &uard the Transmission lines systemK
;orne gap
1hielding #ire
;orne Gap:
Ts is unpredictable for gap because availability of electrons is
not confirmed.
The gap is so ad)usted that if stroke hits the transmission line,
it will break down and it will bypass all the current to ground
and will save the system from any destruction.
1hielding #ire:
<n the top of the tower there is a wire. This is called shielding wire which is earth. It is on the top of the all
transmission lines so that it may be /
st
which will be hit by thundering or it should be e(posed to thunder.
'asically it is connected directly with the tower. It acts as /
st
line protection. It is laid down such way that it will
give shielding at angle of 18 degrees.
K