EPA - Nutrient Control Design Manual

Nutrient Control Design Manual
STATE OF TECHNOLOGY REVIEW REPORT

Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory - Water Supply and Water Resources Division
EPA/600/R-09/012 | January 2009 | www.epa.gov/nrmrl
EPA/600/R09/012
January2009
NutrientControlDesignManual
StateofTechnologyReviewReport
by
TheCadmusGroup,Inc
57WaterStreet
Watertown,MA02472
Scientific,Technical,Research,Engineering,andModelingSupport(STREAMS)
TaskOrder68
ContractNo.EPC05058
GeorgeT.Moore,TaskOrderManager
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
OfficeofResearchandDevelopment/NationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory
26WestMartinLutherKingDrive,MailCode445
Cincinnati,Ohio,45268
NutrientControlDesignManual: ii January2009
Notice
ThisdocumentwaspreparedbyTheCadmusGroup,Inc.(Cadmus)underEPAContractNo.EPC
05058,TaskOrder68.TheCadmusTeamwasleadbyPatriciaHertzlerandLauraDufresnewithSenior
AdvisorsCliffordRandall,EmeritusProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatVirginiaTechand
DirectoroftheOccoquanWatershedMonitoringProgram;JamesBarnard,GlobalPracticeand
TechnologyLeaderatBlack&Veatch;DavidStensel,ProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringat
theUniversityofWashington;andJeanetteBrown,ExecutiveDirectoroftheStamfordWaterPollution
ControlAuthorityandAdjunctProfessorofEnvironmentalEngineeringatManhattanCollege.
Disclaimer
Theviewsexpressedinthisdocumentarethoseoftheindividualauthorsanddonotnecessarily,
reflecttheviewsandpoliciesoftheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Mentionoftrade
namesorcommercialproductsdoesnotconstituteendorsementorrecommendationforuse.This
documenthasbeenreviewedinaccordancewithEPAspeerandadministrativereviewpoliciesand
approvedforpublication.
NutrientControlDesignManual: iii January2009

Abstract
ThisEPAdocumentisaninterimproductinthedevelopmentofreviseddesignguidancefor
nitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWWTPs.Thisdocumentpresentsfindingsfroman
extensivereviewofnitrogenandphosphoruscontroltechnologiesandtechniquescurrentlyappliedand
emergingatmunicipalwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTP).Itincludesinformationontheimportance
ofnutrientremoval,thepropertiesandanalyticaltechniquesfornitrogenandphosphorusspecies,and
theprinciplesbehindbiologicalnitrogenandphosphorusremovalandchemicalphosphorus
precipitation.Thereportprofilesthelatestadvancesintechnologytoachieveconsistentlylownutrient
levelsinplanteffluent,includingeffluentfiltrationandadvancedclarificationtechniques,alongwithup
todateresearchontheremovalofemergingmicrocontaminantssuchasendocrinedisrupting
compounds.Othercontemporaryissuesincludehowmathematicalmodelingcanimproveprocess
design,nutrientremovalatsmallanddecentralizedtreatmentsystems,andsustainablenutrient
recovery.
ThisreportwassubmittedinfulfillmentofEPAContractNo.EPC05058,TaskOrder68,byThe
CadmusGroup,Inc.underthesponsorshipoftheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.This
reportcoversaperiodfromNovember2007throughSeptember2008andworkwascompletedasof
October2008.
NutrientControlDesignManual: iv January2009
Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.1 Purpose............................................................................................................................. 13
1.2 Methodology..................................................................................................................... 13
1.3 OrganizationoftheReport ............................................................................................... 13
2. NeedforNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalatWastewaterTreatmentPlants .......................... 15
2.1 StatusofWastewaterTreatmentintheU.S. .................................................................... 15
2.2 NutrientImpairmentofU.S.Waterways.......................................................................... 16
2.3 FederalandStateInitiativestoReduceNutrientPollution.............................................. 19
2.3.1 NPDESPermitting....................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 WaterQualityTrading................................................................................................ 20
2.3.3 TechnologyEvaluationandGuidance........................................................................ 20
2.4 IndustryInitiativesTheNutrientRemovalChallengeProgram..................................... 21
2.5 BarrierstoImplementingNutrientRemoval .................................................................... 22
3. NutrientConstituentsinWastewaterandMeasurementMethods ............................................. 24
3.1 Nitrogen............................................................................................................................ 24
3.2 Phosphorus ....................................................................................................................... 26
4. PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition.................................................................................. 28
4.1 Principles........................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 LocationofChemicalFeedandMixing............................................................................. 30
4.3 AdvancedSolidsSeparationProcesses............................................................................. 31
4.4 OtherDesignandOperationalIssues ............................................................................... 32
4.5 ImpactsonSludgeHandlingandProduction.................................................................... 32
5. BiologicalNitrogenRemoval.......................................................................................................... 33
5.1 Principles........................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.1 Nitrification................................................................................................................ 33
5.1.2 Denitrification............................................................................................................ 34
5.2 CurrentConfigurations ..................................................................................................... 35
5.2.1 BiologicalNitrogenRemovalProcessConfigurations................................................ 35
5.2.1.1SuspendedGrowthSystems ...................................................................................... 35
5.2.1.2AttachedGrowthandHybridSystems....................................................................... 38
5.2.2 SeparateStageNitrificationandDenitrificationSystems.......................................... 39
5.2.2.1SuspendedGrowthNitrification ................................................................................ 39
5.2.2.2AttachedGrowthNitrification ................................................................................... 40
5.2.2.3SeparateStageDenitrification................................................................................... 41
5.3 KeyDesignandOperationalIssues................................................................................... 42
5.4 GuidanceforSelectingProcessModifications.................................................................. 44
5.5 ImpactsonSludgeProductionandHandling.................................................................... 45
6. BiologicalPhosphorusRemovalandCombinationProcesses ....................................................... 46
6.1 Principles........................................................................................................................... 46
6.2 CurrentConfigurations ..................................................................................................... 48
6.2.1 Phoredox(A/O)and3StagePhoredox(A2/O)........................................................ 48
6.2.2 ModifiedBardenpho.................................................................................................. 49
6.2.3 UniversityofCapeTown(UCT)andModifiedUCT(MUCT) ...................................... 49
6.2.4 Johannesburg(JHB),ModifiedJohannesburgandWestbank ................................... 50
NutrientControlDesignManual: v January2009
6.2.5 OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority(OWASA) .......................................................... 51

6.2.6 OxidationDitches....................................................................................................... 52
6.2.7 SequencingBatchReactors(SBR) .............................................................................. 53
6.2.8 HybridChemical/BiologicalProcesses ..................................................................... 53
6.3 EmergingTechnologies..................................................................................................... 53
6.4 OperationalandDesignConsiderations ........................................................................... 54
6.4.1 COD:PRatio................................................................................................................ 54
6.4.2 RetentionTime .......................................................................................................... 56
6.4.3 Temperature.............................................................................................................. 57
6.4.4 PresenceofOxygenorNitrateintheAerobicZone .................................................. 57
6.4.5 AvoidingBackmixingofOxygen................................................................................. 57
6.4.6 pH............................................................................................................................... 57
6.4.7 AnaerobicRelease ..................................................................................................... 58
6.4.8 SufficientOxygenintheAerobicZone ...................................................................... 59
6.4.9 Inhibition.................................................................................................................... 59
6.4.10 FlowandLoadBalancing ........................................................................................... 60
6.5 ImpactsonSludgeHandlingandRemoval........................................................................ 60
6.6 GuidanceforSelectingProcessModifications.................................................................. 60
6.7 OngoingResearch............................................................................................................. 61
7. EffluentFiltration........................................................................................................................... 62
7.1 TypesofFilters.................................................................................................................. 62
7.1.1 ConventionalDownflowFilters ................................................................................ 62
7.1.2 DeepbedDownflowFilters...................................................................................... 63
7.1.3 ContinuousBackwashingUpflowSandFilters........................................................... 63
7.1.4 PulsedBedFilters....................................................................................................... 63
7.1.5 TravelingBridgeFilters .............................................................................................. 63
7.1.6 FuzzyFilters................................................................................................................ 63
7.1.7 Discfilters ................................................................................................................... 64
7.1.8 ClothMediaDiskFilters ............................................................................................. 64
7.1.9 Membranes................................................................................................................ 64
7.1.10 BluePRO
TM
Process.................................................................................................... 64
7.1.11 PressureFilters .......................................................................................................... 65
7.2 DesignandOperatingPrinciples....................................................................................... 65
7.3 OngoingResearchandEmergingTechnologies................................................................ 66
8. MathematicalModeling................................................................................................................. 67
8.1 TheNeedforModels ........................................................................................................ 67
8.2 OverviewofAvailableModels .......................................................................................... 67
8.3 ModelInputs..................................................................................................................... 69
8.4 ModelCalibration ............................................................................................................. 69
9. NutrientRemovalforSmallCommunitiesandDecentralizedWastewaterTreatmentSystems.. 70
9.1 PhosphorusRemoval ........................................................................................................ 70
9.2 NitrogenRemoval ............................................................................................................. 70
9.3 NitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies............................................................ 71
9.3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 71
9.3.2 NutrientRemovaltechnologies ................................................................................. 71
10. SustainableNutrientRecovery ...................................................................................................... 77
NutrientControlDesignManual: vi January2009
11. CoRemovalofEmergingContaminants........................................................................................ 79
11.1 BackgroundonEmergingContaminants .......................................................................... 79
11.2 RemovalofEmergingContaminantsbyNutrientRemovalTechnologies........................ 80
References ............................................................................................................................. 90
NutrientControlDesignManual: vii January2009

Tables
Table31. ResearchTopicsonDissolvedOrganicNitrogenMeasurement,Fate,and
EnvironmentalImpacts..................................................................................................... 26
Table81. AvailableActivatedSludgeModels................................................................................... 68
Table111. Estrogens .......................................................................................................................... 80
Table112. StudyDesignParameters.................................................................................................. 85
NutrientControlDesignManual: viii January2009

Figures
Figure21. PopulationservedbyPOTWsnationwide ........................................................................ 16
Figure51. ModifiedLudzckEttingerProcess..................................................................................... 36
Figure52. BardenphoProcess(FourStage) ...................................................................................... 36
Figure53. OxidationDitchwithAerobicandAnoxicZones............................................................... 37
Figure54. StepFeedBiologicalNitrognRemoval.............................................................................. 38
Figure61. Theoryofbiologicalphosphorusremovalinactivatedsludge......................................... 47
Figure62. PhoredoxProcess(A/O)................................................................................................... 49
Figure63. 3StagePhoredoxProcess(A2/O).................................................................................... 49
Figure64. UCTandModifiedUCTProcess ........................................................................................ 50
Figure65. JHBandModifiedJHBProcess.......................................................................................... 51
Figures66. WestbankProcess............................................................................................................. 51
Figure67. OWASAProcess ................................................................................................................ 52
Figure68. ExampleofSecondaryreleaseinSecondAnoxicZone..................................................... 58
NutrientControlDesignManual: ix January2009
AcronymsandAbbreviations
A/O Phoredox
A2/O 3StagePhoredox
AT3 AerationTank3
AOB AmmoniaOxidizingBacteria
ASM ActivatedSludgeModel
BABE BioAugmentationBatchEnhanced
BAF BiologicalAeratedFilter
BAR BioAugmentationRegeneration/Reaeration
BCFS BiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval
bDON BiodegradableFractionofDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
BHRC BallastedHighRateClarificationProcesses
BNR BiologicalNutrientRemoval
BOD BiochemicalOxygenDemand
BOD
5
BiochemicalOxygenDemand(5day)
BPR BiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
COD ChemicalOxygenDemand
CWA CleanWaterAct
CWSRF CleanWaterStateRevolvingFund
CSO CombinedSewerOverflow
DAF DissolvedAirFlotation
DO DissolvedOxygen
DON DissolvedOrganicNitrogen
E
1
Estrone
E
2
17estradiol
EBPR EnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
EDC EndocrineDisruptingChemicals
EDTA EthyleneDiamineTetraaceticAcid
EE
2
17ethynylestradiol
EPA U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
FFS FixedfilmSystems
FWPCA FederalWaterPollutionControlAct
FWS FreeWaterSurface
GAO GlycogenAccumulatingOrganism
HRSD HamptonRoadsSanitationDistrict
HRT HydraulicRetentionTime
iDON InertDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
ISF IntermittentSandFilter
IWA InternationalWaterAssociation
JHB Johannesburg
MAUREEN MainstreamAutotrophicRecycleEnhancedNremoval
MBR MembraneBioreactor
MBBR MovingBedBiofilmReactor
MGD MillionGallonsperDay
MLE ModifiedLudzackEttinger
NutrientControlDesignManual: x January2009
MUCT ModifiedUniversityofCapetown
N Nitrogen
NOAA NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration
NOB NitriteOxidizingBacteria
NPDES NationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem
NTT NitrogenTradingTool
ORD EPAOfficeofResearchandDevelopment
ORP OxidationReductionPotential
OWASA OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority
OWM EPAOfficeofWastewaterManagement
P Phosphorus
PAH PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons
PAO PhosphateAccumulatingOrganism
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates
PHB PolyBhydroxybutyrate
PHV Polyhydroxyvalerate
POTW PubliclyOwnedTreatmentWorks
PPCPs PharmaceuticalsandPersonalCareProducts
RAS ReturnActivatedSludge
RBC RotatingBiologicalContactor
rbCOD ReadilyBiodegradableChemicalOxygenDemand
rDON RecalcitrantDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
RO ReverseOsmosis
RSF RecirculatingSandFilters
SAV SubmergedAquaticVegetation
SBR SequencingBatchReactors
SHARON SingleReactorHighactivityAmmoniaRemovalOverNitrite
SND SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification
SRT SolidsRetentionTime
SSO SanitarySewerOverflow
STAC ChesapeakeBayProgramScientificandTechnicalAdvisory
Committee
SWIS SubsurfaceWastewaterInfiltrationSystem
TDS TotalDissolvedSolids
TKN TotalKjeldahlNitrogen
TMDL TotalMaximumDailyLoads
TN TotalNitrogen
TP TotalPhosphorus
TSS TotalSuspendedSolids
TUDP BioPModeloftheDelftUniversityofTechnology
UCT UniversityofCapetown
USDA U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture
USGS U.S.GeologicalSurvey
VIP VirginiaInitiativePlant
VFA VolatileFattyAcids
VSS VolatileSuspendedSolids
WAS WasteActivatedSludge
WEF WaterEnvironmentFederation
NutrientControlDesignManual: xi January2009
WERF WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation
WQS WaterQualityStandard
WWTP WastewaterTreatmentPlant
NutrientControlDesignManual: xii January2009

Acknowledgements
Theprincipleauthorsofthisdocument,titledNutrientControlDesignManual:Stateof
TechnologyReviewReport,were:
TheCadmusGroup,Inc.
Dr.CliffordRandall,ProfessorEmeritusofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatVirginiaTechand
DirectoroftheOccoquanWatershedMonitoringProgram
Dr.JamesBarnard,GlobalPracticeandTechnologyLeaderatBlack&Veatch
JeanetteBrown,ExecutiveDirectoroftheStamfordWaterPollutionControlAuthorityandAdjunct
ProfessorofEnvironmentalEngineeringatManhattanCollege
Dr.H.DavidStensel,ProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringattheUniversityofWashington
EPAtechnicalreviewsofthedocumentwereperformedby:
EPAOfficeofResearchandDevelopment
DonaldBrown
GeorgeMoore
DouglasGrosse
RichardBrenner
JamesSmith
MarcMills
DanMurray
EPAHeadquarters
DonaldAnderson
PhilZahreddine
JamesWheeler
EPARegions
DavidPincumbe,Region1
RogerJanson,Region1
DaveRagsdale,Region10,OfficeofWaterandWatersheds
NutrientControlDesignManual: xiii January2009

Externaltechnicalreviewsofthedocumentwereperformedby
DaleE.Kocarek,OhioWaterEnvironmentAssociation
Y.JeffreyYang,USEPAOfficeofResearchandDevelopment
Diagramsforillustrationofspecificconceptswereprovidedby:
Dr.JamesBarnard,BlackandVeatch
Dr.H.DavidStensel,UniversityofWashington
NutrientControlDesignManual: 13 January2009
1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
Thisdocumentpresentsfindingsfromanextensivestateofthetechnologyreviewofnitrogen
andphosphoruscontroltechnologiesandtechniquescurrentlyappliedandemergingatmunicipal
wastewatertreatmentplants(WWTP).Itincludesadescriptionoftechnologiesandidentifieskey
designandoperationalissues.BecausethemajorityofWWTPsintheUnitedStatesareequippedwith
secondarybiologicaltreatment,thefocusofthisreportisonprocessandtechnology
modifications/additionsfornutrientremovalatexistingWWTPs,ratherthanonnewtreatmentplant
design.Emergingissuessuchasnutrientremovalthroughdecentralizedtreatment,sustainable
technologies,andcoremovalofemergingcontaminantsarealsodiscussed.
EPAispublishingthisdocumentwhichisaninterimproductinthedevelopmentofrevised
designguidancefornitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWWTPs.Whiletheresultsofthe
stateofthetechnologyreviewandthetechnicalreferencelistpresentedhereinwillbethebasisforthe
reviseddesignguidancemanual,whichisscheduledtobepublishedintheFallof2009,theAgencyis
publishingthisdocumentatthistimetoprovidethismostcurrenttechnicalinformationinatimely
manner.
1.2 Methodology

Theprojectteambeganthereportwithanindepthliteraturereviewusingavarietyofsources
including:EPAresourcesacrossofficesandregions,peerreviewedjournalssuchasWaterResearchand
EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology,meetingpresentationsandworkshops,engineeringtexts,
internationalreports,governmentpublications,andinternetsearches.Industrypublicationssuchas
WaterEnvironment&TechnologyandtheWaterEnvironmentResearchFederationreportswerealso
reviewed.Wastewatertreatmentexpertsontheteamprovidedguidanceonthesourcesforthe
literaturereviewincludingunpublishedinformationoncurrentresearchprojectsinkeyareas.Basedon
theresultsoftheindepthliteraturereview,theteamidentifiedkeyfindingsandpreparedtechnical
summariesforinclusioninthisreport.
1.3 OrganizationoftheReport
Thisreportisorganizedinto11technicalchaptersasfollows:
Chapter2.NeedforNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalatWastewaterTreatment
PlantsreviewsthestatusofwastewatertreatmentintheU.S.,theimpairmentof
waterwaysbyexcessivenutrients,governmentandindustryinitiativestoreduce
nutrientpollution,andthebarrierstoimplementationofsuchinitiatives.
Chapter3.NutrientConstituentsinWastewaterandMeasurementMethods
describestheformsofnitrogenandphosphorusfoundinwastewaterandtheanalytical
techniquesusedtocharacterizeandmeasurethem.
Chapter4.PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAdditiondiscussestheprinciplesbehind
chemicalprecipitation,thetypesofchemicalsused,wheretheyareaddedinthe
processtrain,andtraditionalandadvancedsolidsseparationtechniques.Thechapter
alsoreviewsadditionaldesignandoperationalissuesaswellashowthechoiceof
chemicalimpactssludgehandling.
Chapter5.BiologicalNitrogenRemovalexaminestheprinciplesbehindtheprocess,
currentandemergingprocessconfigurations,keydesignandoperationalissuessuchas
carbonsourcesandtemperatureeffects,andpotentialimpactsonsludgehandling.
Chapter6.BiologicalPhosphorusRemovalandCombinationProcessesdiscussesthe
principlesbehindbiologicaltreatmenttoremovephosphorusandtreatment
configurationsthatcanremovebothphosphorusandnitrogenfromwastewater.The
chapterprovidesdescriptionsofseveralprocesses,providesguidanceonhowtochoose
amongthem,andreviewsoperationalanddesignconsiderationsincludingtheCOD:P
ratio,retentiontime,andtemperature.
Chapter7.EffluentFiltrationdiscussestypesoffiltersthatcanbeaddedasatertiary
treatmentprocesstoWWTPsandsummarizesdesignandoperatingprinciples.
Chapter8.MathematicalModelingexplainstheneedformodelsindesigningnutrient
removalprocessesandexaminesavailablemodelsincludingtheirinputandcalibration
requirements.
Chapter9.NutrientRemovalforSmallCommunitiesandDecentralizedWastewater
TreatmentSystemsdiscussesthelatesttreatmentoptionsforonsitewastewater
treatmentsystemsandclustereddevelopmentsystems.
Chapter10.SustainableNutrientRecoveryhighlightseffortstodeveloplowcostand
lowenergytechnologiestomakenutrientremovalmoreefficient,includingurine
separationtechnologyandresourcerecoveryfromsludge.
Chapter11.CoremovalofEmergingContaminantsdiscusseshowsomeadvanced
technologiestoremovenitrogen(N)andphosphorus(P)canachievetheadditional
benefitsofremovingsomemicrocontaminants,includingendocrinedisrupting
compounds(EDCs)andpharmaceuticalsfromwastewater.
TheReferencessectionattheendofthedocumentprovidesthefull,alphabetizedlistof
technicalreferencesreviewedinthedevelopmentofthisreport.
2. NeedforNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalatWastewaterTreatment
Plants
Thepurposeofthischapteristoprovideanoverviewofthemajorfactorsdrivingdecisionsto
enhancenutrientremovalatWWTPs.Section2.1characterizestheindustrybasedonU.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)surveyinformation.Section2.2describesthenegativeimpacts
ofnutrientenrichment,highlightingthehistoryofwaterqualitychangesinkeyregionsofthecountry.
EPAandStateinitiativestoreducenutrientpollutionfromwastewatertreatmentdischargesare
summarizedinSection2.3,followedbyadiscussionofkeyindustryinitiativesinSection2.4.Lastly,
Section2.5highlightsseveralbarrierstoenhancingnutrientremovalatwastewaterplants.
2.1 StatusofWastewaterTreatmentintheU.S.
The1972AmendmentstotheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct(FWPCA)(PublicLaw92500),
alsoknownastheCleanWaterAct(CWA),establishedthefoundationforwastewaterdischargecontrol
intheU.S.TheCWAsprimaryobjectiveistorestoreandmaintainthechemical,physical,and
biologicalintegrityoftheNationswaters.TheCWAestablishedaprogramtoensurecleanwaterby
requiringpermitsthatlimittheamountofpollutantsdischargedbyallmunicipalandindustrial
dischargersintoreceivingwaters.DischargesareregulatedundertheNationalPollutantDischarge
EliminationSystem(NPDES)permitprogram.Asof2004,therewere16,583municipalwastewater
utilities[alsoknownasPubliclyOwnedTreatmentWorks(POTWs)]regulatedundertheCWA,serving
approximately75percentoftheNationspopulation(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA,2008)with
theremainingpopulationservedbysepticorotheronsitesystems.
Wastewatertreatmenthasgenerallybeendefinedascontainingoneormoreofthefollowing
fourprocesses:(1)preliminary,(2)primary,(3)secondary,and(4)advancedalsoknownastertiary
treatment.Preliminarytreatmentconsistsofgritremoval,whichremovesdenseinertparticlesand
screeningtoremoveragsandotherlargedebris.Primarytreatmentinvolvesgravitysettlingtanksto
removesettleablesolids,includingsettleableorganicsolids.Theperformanceofprimarysettlingtanks
canbeenhancedbyaddingchemicalstocaptureandflocculatesmallersolidparticlesforremovalandto
precipitatephosphorus.Secondarytreatmentfollowsprimarytreatmentinmostplantsandemploys
biologicalprocessestoremovecolloidalandsolubleorganicmatter.Effluentdisinfectionisusually
includedinthedefinitionofsecondarytreatment.
EPAclassifiesadvancedtreatmentasaleveloftreatmentthatismorestringentthansecondary
orproducesasignificantreductioninconventional,nonconventional,ortoxicpollutantspresentinthe
wastewater(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA,2008).
Othertechnicalreferencessubdivide
advancedtreatment,usingthetermssecondarywithnutrientremovalwhennitrogen,phosphorus,or
bothareremovedandtertiaryremovaltorefertoadditionalreductioninsolidsbyfiltersor
microfilters(Tchobanoglousetal,2003).Effluentfiltrationandnutrientremovalarethemostcommon
advancedtreatmentprocesses.
TheCWArequiresthatallmunicipalwastewatertreatmentplantdischargesmeetaminimumof
secondarytreatment.Basedondatafromthe2004CleanWatershedsNeedsSurvey,16,543municipal
WWTPs(99.8percentofplantsinthecountry)meettheminimumsecondarywastewatertreatment
requirements.Ofthosethatprovideatleastsecondarytreatment,approximately44percentprovide
somekindofadvancedtreatment(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA,2008).Figure21showshow
secondaryandadvancedwastewatertreatmenthavebeenimplementedsince1940andalsoprovides
projectedtreatmentfor2024.NotethatNoDischargereferstosystemsthatdonotdischargetreated
wastewatertotheNationswaterwaysanddisposeofwastewaterviamethodssuchasindustrialreuse,
irrigation,orevaporation.
0.0%
20.0%
40.0%
60.0%
80.0%
100.0%
1940 1950 1962 1968 1972 1978 1982 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 Projected
Year
P
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r
c
e
n
t

o
f

T
o
t
a
l

U
.
S
.

P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
c
e
i
v
i
n
g

W
a
s
t
e
w
a
t
e
r

T
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t
No Discharge
Advanced
Secondary
Less Than Secondary
Raw
Figure21.PopulationservedbyPOTWsnationwideforselectyearsbetween1940and2004andprojectedto2024(ifallneedsaremet),
organizedbywastewatertreatmenttype.
Source:U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPACleanWatershedsNeedsSurveys2004ReporttoCongress(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA,
2008).
2.2 NutrientImpairmentofU.S.Waterways
Theharmfuleffectsofeutrophicationduetoexcessivenitrogenandphosphorusconcentrations
intheaquaticenvironmenthavebeenwelldocumented.Algaeandphytoplanktongrowthcanbe
acceleratedbyhigherconcentrationsofnutrientsastheycanobtainsufficientcarbonforgrowthfrom
carbondioxide.Inadditiontostimulatingeutrophication,nitrogenintheformofammoniacanexerta
directdemandondissolvedoxygen(DO)andcanbetoxictoaquaticlife.Evenifatreatmentplant
convertsammoniatonitratebyabiologicalnitrificationprocess,theresultantnitratecanstimulate
algaeandphytoplanktongrowth.Phosphorusalsocontributestothegrowthofalgae.Eithernitrogen
orphosphoruscanbethelimitingnutrientdependingonthecharacteristicsofthereceivingwater.
Nitrogenistypicallylimitinginestuarineandmarinesystemsandphosphorusinfreshwatersystems.
Accordingtothe2007reportEffectsofNutrientEnrichmentintheNationsEstuaries:ADecade
ofChange,
increasednutrientloadingspromoteaprogressionofsymptomsbeginningwithexcessive
growthofphytoplanktonandmacroalgaetothepointwheregrazerscannotcontrolgrowth(Brickeret
al.,2007).Thesebloomsmaybeproblematic,potentiallylastingformonthsatatimeandblocking
sunlighttolightdependentsubmergedaquaticvegetation(SAV).Inadditiontoincreasedgrowth,
changesinnaturallyoccurringratiosofnutrientsmayalsoaffectwhichspeciesdominate,potentially
leadingtonuisance/toxicalgalblooms.Thesebloomsmayalsoleadtoothermoreserioussymptoms
thataffectbiota,suchaslowDOandlossofSAV.Oncewatercolumnnutrientshavebeendepletedby
phytoplanktonandmacroalgaeandthesebloomsdie,thebacteriadecomposingthealgaethen
consumeoxygen,makingitlessavailabletosurroundingaerobicaquaticlife.Consequently,fishand
invertebratekillsmayoccurduetohypoxiaandanoxia,conditionsoflowtonoDO.Eutrophicconditions
mayalsocauseriskstohumanhealth,resultingfromconsumptionofshellfishcontaminatedwithalgal
toxinsordirectexposuretowaterbornetoxins.Eutrophicationcanalsocreateproblemsifthewateris
usedasasourceofdrinkingwater.Chemicalsusedtodisinfectdrinkingwaterwillreactwithorganic
compoundsinsourcewatertoformdisinfectionbyproducts,whicharepotentialcarcinogensandare
regulatedbyEPA.
Advancedeutrophicconditionscanleadtodeadzoneswithlimitedaquaticlife,which
describesthehypoxiaconditionthatexistsintheNorthernGulfofMexico.ArecentU.S.Geological
Survey(USGS)reporttitledDifferencesinPhosphorusandNitrogenDeliverytotheGulfofMexicofrom
theMississippiRiverBasindocumentsthecontributionofnitrogenandphosphorusfromagricultural
andnonagriculturalsourcesintheMississippiRiverbasin(Alexanderetal.,2008).OnJune16,2008the
jointfederalstateMississippiRiver/GulfofMexicoWatershedNutrientTaskForcereleasedits2008
ActionPlanforReducing,Mitigating,andControllingHypoxiaintheNorthernGulfofMexicoand
ImprovingWaterQualityintheMississippiRiverBasin,whichbuildsuponits2001planbyincorporating
emergingissues,innovativeapproaches,andthelatestscience,includingfindingsfromEPAsScience
AdvisoryBoard.ImprovementsincludemoreaccountabilitythroughanAnnualOperatingPlan,better
trackingofprogress,stateandfederalnutrientreductionstrategies,andaplantoincreaseawarenessof
theproblemandimplementationofsolutions(USEPA,2008b).
NutrientpollutionhasalsocausedsignificantproblemsintheChesapeakeBay.Elevatedlevels
ofbothnitrogenandphosphorusarethemaincauseofpoorwaterqualityandlossofaquatichabitatsin
theBay.Significantalgaebloomsonthewatersurfaceblockthesunsraysfromreachingunderwater
baygrasses.Withoutsunlight,baygrassescannotgrowandprovidecriticalfoodandhabitatforblue
crabs,waterfowl,andjuvenilefish.TheChesapeakeBayProgramestimatesthat22percentofthe
phosphorusloadingand19percentofthenitrogenloadingintheBaycomesfrommunicipaland
industrialwastewaterfacilities(ChesapeakeBayProgram,2008).
ThefirstnationalattentiontonutrientcontaminationoccurredintheGreatLakes.Inthe1960s
LakeEriewasdeclareddeadwhenexcessivenutrientsintheLakefosteredexcessivealgaeblooms
thatcoveredbeachesandkilledoffnativeaquaticspeciesduetooxygendepletion.Atthattime,
phosphoruswastheprimarynutrientofconcernduetotheadventofphosphatedetergentsand
inorganicfertilizers.WiththeenactmentoftheCWAandtheGreatLakesWaterQualityAgreementin
1972,aconcertedeffortwasundertakentoreducepollutantloadings,includingphosphorusintheLake.
AlthoughthehealthoftheLakeimproveddramatically,inrecentyears,therehasbeenrenewed
attentiontothereemergenceofadeadzoneinLakeErie,againduetonutrientloadings.Recent
studiesbyscientistsandtheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)havealso
hypothesizedarelationshipbetweenexcessivenutrientsintheLakeandthepresenceoftwoaquatic
invasivespeciesthezebramusselandthequaggamussel(Vanderploegetal.,2008).
DevelopmentandpopulationincreasesintheLongIslandSoundWatershedhaveresultedina
significantincreaseinnitrogenloadingtotheSound.Theincreasednitrogenloadshavestimulated
plantgrowth,increasedtheamountoforganicmattersettlingtothebenthiczone,loweredDOlevels,
andchangedhabitats.TheprimaryconcernsintheSoundincludehypoxia,thelossofseagrass,and
alterationsinthefoodweb.Managementeffortsarecurrentlyunderwaytoreducenitrogenpollution
bymorethanhalfwithafocusonupgradingWWTPswithnewtechnologiesandremovingnitrogenby
reducingpollutedrunoffthroughbestmanagementpracticesonfarmsandsuburbanareas(LongIsland
SoundStudy,2004).
Theaboverepresentfourexamplesofimpairedlargewaterbodiesimpactedbynutrient
loadings.Therearemorethan80additionalestuariesandbays,andthousandsofrivers,streams,and
lakesthatarealsoimpactedbynutrientsintheU.S.Infact,allbutonestateandtwoterritorieshave
CWAsection303(d)listed
1
waterbodyimpairmentsfornutrientpollution.Collectively,stateshave
listedover10,000nutrientandnutrientrelatedimpairments.
Climatechangemayalsobeasignificantinfluenceonthedevelopmentoffutureeutrophic
symptoms.AccordingtothereportEffectsofNutrientEnrichmentintheNationsEstuaries:ADecadeof
Change,thefactorsassociatedwithclimatechangethatareexpectedtohavethegreatestimpactson
coastaleutrophicationare:
Increasedtemperatures
Sealevelrise
Changesinprecipitationandfreshwaterrunoff
Increasedtemperatureswillhaveseveraleffectsoncoastaleutrophication.Mostcoastalspecies
areadaptedtoaspecificrangeoftemperatures.Increasesinwatertemperaturesmayleadtoexpanded
rangesofundesirablespecies.Highertemperaturesmayalsoleadtoincreasedalgalgrowthandlonger
growingseasons,potentiallyincreasingproblemsassociatedwithexcessivealgalgrowthand
nuisance/toxicblooms.Additionally,warmerwatersholdlessDO,thereforepotentiallyexacerbating
hypoxia.Temperaturerelatedstratificationofthewatercolumnmayalsoworsen,havingafurther
negativeeffectonDOlevels.
Climatechangemodelspredictincreasedmeltingofpolaricecapsandchangesinprecipitation
patterns,leadingtosealevelriseandchangesinwaterbalanceandcirculationpatternsincoastal
systems.Sealevelrisewillgraduallyinundatecoastallands,causingincreasederosionandsediment
deliverytowaterbodies,andpotentiallyfloodingwetlands.Theincreasedsedimentloadand
subsequentturbidityincreasemaycauseSAVloss.Thepositivefeedbackbetweenincreasederosionand
algalgrowth(aserosionincreases,sedimentassociatednutrientsalsoincrease,stimulatinggrowth)may
alsoincreaseturbidity.Thelossofwetlands,whichactasnutrientsinks,willfurtherincreasenutrient
deliverytoestuaries.
AnotherreporttitledAquaticEcosystemsandGlobalClimateChangePotentialImpactson
InlandFreshwaterandCoastalWetlandEcosystemsintheUnitedStatesnotesthatclimatechangeofthe
magnitudeprojectedfortheU.S.overthenext100yearswillcausesignificantchangestotemperature
regimesandprecipitationpatternsacrosstheU.S.(Poffetal.,2002).Suchalterationsinclimatepose
seriousrisksforinlandfreshwaterecosystems(lakes,streams,rivers,wetlands)andcoastalwetlands,
andmayadverselyaffectnumerouscriticalservicesprovidedtohumanpopulations.
Theseconclusionsindicateclimatechangeisasignificantthreattothespeciescompositionand
functionofaquaticecosystemsintheU.S.However,criticaluncertaintiesexistregardingthemannerin
whichspecificspeciesandwholeecosystemswillrespondtoclimatechange.Thesearisebothfrom
uncertaintiesabouthowregionalclimatewillchangeandhowcomplexecologicalsystemswillrespond.
Indeed,asclimatechangealtersecosystemproductivityandspeciescomposition,manyunforeseen
ecologicalchangesareexpectedthatmaythreatenthegoodsandservicesthatthesesystemsprovideto
humans.
1
RequiredbySection303(d)oftheCWA,the303(d)listisalistofstateswaterbodiesthatdonotmeetorarenot
expectedtomeetapplicableWaterQualityStandardswithtechnologybasedcontrolsalone.
2.3 FederalandStateInitiativestoReduceNutrientPollution
2.3.1 NPDESPermitting
EstablishedbytheFWPCAAmendmentof1972,EPAsNPDESpermitprogramhasbeenthe
primarymechanismforcontrollingpollutionfrompointsources.Pointsourcesarediscreteconveyances
suchaspipesormanmadeditches.Individualhomesthatareconnectedtoamunicipalsystem,usea
septicsystem,ordonothaveasurfacedischargedonotneedanNPDESpermit;however,POTWsand
otherfacilitiesmustobtainpermitsiftheydischargedirectlytosurfacewaters.
NPDESpermitsforwastewaterdischargescontain,amongotherinformation,effluentlimitsfor
conventionalpollutantssuchasbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD),totalsuspendedsolids(TSS),and
pHaswellaslimitsforspecifictoxicantsincludingvariousorganicandinorganicchemicals.Permitsmay
alsoincludeeffluentlimitsfornonconventionalpollutantssuchasnitrogenandphosphorus.Effluent
limitscanbetechnologybasedand/orwaterqualitybased.EPAhasestablishedtechnologybased,
secondarytreatmenteffluentlimitsforBODas5daybiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD
5
),TSS,andpH.
Waterqualitybasedeffluentlimitsaresetifthetechnologybasedlimitsarenotsufficienttomaintain
thewaterqualitystandards(WQS)ofthereceivingwater.
FederalandStateregulationsrelatedtoWQSsandTotalMaximumDailyLoads(TMDLs)are
expectedtodrivedownNPDESeffluentlimitsfornitrogenandphosphorus.WQSdefinethegoalsfora
waterbodybydesignatingitsuses,settingcriteriatoprotectthoseuses,andestablishingprovisionsto
protectwaterbodiesfrompollutants.Criteriacanbenarrativeornumeric.Regulatoryagenciescan
adoptnutrientcriteriatoprotectawaterbodyagainstnutrientoverenrichmentandeutrophication
causedbynitrogenandphosphorus.InJune1998,EPAissuedaNationalStrategyfortheDevelopment
ofRegionalNutrientCriteria.Thiswasfollowedbypublicationofrecommendednutrientcriteriafor
moststreamsandlakesin2001.InaJanuary9,2001FederalRegisternotice,EPArecommendedthat
statesandotherregulatoryagenciesdevelopanutrientcriteriaplantooutlinetheirprocessfor
adoptingsuchnutrientcriteria(FederalRegister,2001).AsofMay2007,onlyahandfulofStatesand
Territorieshadadoptednutrientcriteriafornitrogenandphosphorus(USEPA,2007a),althoughmany
havemadeprogressincriteriadevelopment.InamemodatedMay25,2007,EPAencouragedall
regulatoryagenciestoacceleratetheireffortsandgiveprioritytoadoptingnumericnutrient
standardsornumerictranslatorsfornarrativestandardsforallwatersinStatesandTerritoriesthat
contributenutrientloadingstoourwaterways(USEPA,2007b).
CWASection303(d)requiresstatestodevelopTMDLsforwaterbodiesonthe303(d)listof
impairedwaters.ATMDLisacalculationofthemaximumamountofapollutantawaterbodycan
receiveandstillmeetWQS.TMDLsserveasatoolforimplementingWQS.TheTMDLtargetsor
endpointsrepresentanumberwheretheapplicableWQSanddesignateduses(e.g.,suchaspublic
watersupply,contactrecreation,andthepropagationandgrowthofaquaticlife)areachievedand
maintainedinthewaterbodyofconcern.TMDLsidentifythelevelofpollutantcontrolnecessaryto
meetWQSandsupportthedesignatedusesofawaterbody.OnceaTMDLisset,thetotalloadis
allocatedamongallexistingsources.Theallocationisdividedintotwoportionsaloadallocation
representingnaturalandnonpointsourcesandawasteloadallocationrepresentingNPDESpermitted
pointsourcedischarges.Inmanyregions,waterbodieshaveapoorabilitytoassimilatenutrientsor
waterbodiesarealreadyimpairedfrompastpollutionandthewaterbodycannothandlelargeloadsof
additionalnutrients.Inthesecases,TMDLsmayrequirenutrientpermitlevelstobeevenlowerthan
whatmightbeallowedotherwisebynutrientcriteria.
2.3.2 WaterQualityTrading
Waterqualitytradingisamarketbasedapproachtoimproveandpreservewaterquality.
Tradingcanprovidegreaterefficiencyinachievingwaterqualitygoalsbyallowingonesourcetomeetits
regulatoryobligationsbyusingpollutantreductionscreatedbyanothersourcethathaslowerpollution
controlcosts.Forexample,underawaterqualitytradingprogram,aPOTWcouldcomplywithdischarge
requirementsbypayingdistributedsourcestoreducetheirdischargesbyacertainamount.Theuseof
geographicallybasedtradingratiosprovidesaneconomicincentive,encouragingactiontowardthe
mostcosteffectiveandenvironmentallybeneficialprojects.
EPAissuedaWaterQualityTradingPolicyin2003toprovideguidancetoStatesandTribeson
howtradingcanoccurundertheCWAanditsimplementingregulations.ThepolicydiscussesCWA
requirementsthatarerelevanttowaterqualitytradingincluding:requirementstoobtainpermits,
antibackslidingprovisions,developmentofWQSsincludinganantidegradationpolicy,NPDESpermit
regulations,TMDLsandwaterqualitymanagementplans.EPAalsodevelopedanumberoftoolsand
guidancedocumentstoassiststates,permittedfacilities,nonpointsources,andstakeholdersinvolved
inthedevelopmentoftradingprograms(www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/trading.htm).Recently,the
U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)NationalResourcesConservationServicereleasedaNitrogen
TradingTool(NTT)prototypeforcalculatingnitrogencreditsbasedontheNitrogenLossand
EnvironmentalAssessmentPackageModel(Grossetal.,2008).
Waterqualitytradingprogramshavebeensuccessfullyimplementedinseveralstatesand
individualwatershedsacrossthecounty.Forexample,nitrogenpollutionfrompointsourcesintothe
LongIslandSoundwasreducedbynearly25percentusinganinnovativeNitrogenCreditTrading
Program.InConnecticut,theprogramwasimplementedamong79sewagetreatmentplantsinthe
state.ThroughtheNitrogenCreditExchange,establishedin2002,theConnecticutprogramhasagoalof
reducingnitrogendischargesby58.5percentby2014.
ArecentAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersjournalarticlepointsout,however,thatregulatory
frameworksforwaterqualitytradingprogramshaveyettobeadoptedbythemajorityofStates.
Barrierstoadoptingsuchprogramsincludeuncertaintyin:(1)themechanismsfordetermining
appropriatecreditsandratiosbetweenpointsourcesanddistributedsources;and(2)approachesto
ensurethatpromisedreductionsactuallyoccur(Landers,2008).
2.3.3 TechnologyEvaluationandGuidance
Inadditiontoregulatoryandpolicyinitiatives,EPAhelpscontrolnutrientsthroughthe
developmentanddisseminationoftechnicalinformation.Forexample,EPAsOfficeofWastewater
Management(OWM)hasdevelopedanumberoftechnologyfactsheetsonsecondaryandadvanced
biologicaltreatment(USEPA,1999b;1999c).OWMhasalsopublishedseveraltechnologyreports
includingEmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeatherManagement
(USEPA,2008a).Thistechnologyguide,publishedinFebruary2008,isdesignedtohelpmunicipal
wastewatertreatmentsystemownersandoperatorsfindinformationonemergingwastewater
treatmentandinplantwetweathermanagement.OWMisalsofinalizingadocumenttitledMunicipal
NutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.Althoughstillindraft,volume1oftheTechnical
Reportisdesignedtoprovideperformanceandcostinformationtowastewaterfacilitiesonnutrient
removal.
Recently,EPARegion10initiatedaprojecttoevaluatemunicipalWWTPsthathave
demonstratedexemplaryphosphorusremovalthroughtheirtreatmentprocesses.InApril2007,the
Regionpublishedareporttitled,AdvancedWastewaterTreatmenttoAchieveLowConcentrationof
Phosphorus(EPARegion10,2007).
In1975,EPAsOfficeofResearchandDevelopment(ORD)publisheditsfirsttechnologydesign
guidancefornitrogenremoval:ProcessDesignManualforNitrogenControl.Themanualwasupdatedin
1993andfocusedonbiological/mechanicalprocessesthatwerefindingwidespreadapplicationfor
nitrificationandnitrogenremovalatthattime.Thedevelopmentofguidanceforphosphorusremoval
followedasimilarschedule,withORDpublishingthedocument,ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorus
Removal,in1971.In1976,themanualwasupdatedtoincludedesignguidanceforphosphorusremoval
usingmineraladditionandlimeaddition.In1987,EPApublishedtwotechnicaldocumentstoaddress
phosphoruscontrol:(1)anupdatetothe1976ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval,and(2)
ahandbooktitled,HandbookRetrofittingPOTWsforPhosphorusRemovalintheChesapeakeBay
DrainageBasin.Theprimarygoalofthisprojectwastoobtainandshareinformationaboutthe
technology,performance,andcostsofapplyingadvancedwastewatertreatmentforphosphorus
removal.EPAiscurrentlyrevisingthesematerialstoprovideupdated,stateofthetechnologydesign
guidanceforbothnitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWWTPs.ThisStateofTechnology
Reportisaninterimpublicationinthedevelopmentofthesedesignguidancedocuments.
2.4 IndustryInitiativesTheNutrientRemovalChallengeProgram
Inearly2007,TheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)createdaNutrientRemoval
Challengeprogramthegoalsofwhichareto:
Identify,assess,andmakerecommendationsforimprovementofsustainablewastewater
nutrientremovaltechnologies
Provideinformationtohelpagenciesmeetvariousreceivingwaterbodyrequirementsand
otherwastewatertreatmentgoals(e.g.,climatechange,sustainability,costeffectiveness,
reliability)
Researchtoinformregulatorydecisionmakingandhelppractitionerscomplywith
increasinglyhighlevelsofnitrogenandphosphorusremovalwithafocusonimprovingplant
performance
Thismultiyearprogramwillbefundedfor5yearswithWERFandexternalfundsanticipatedto
total$810million.Thisresearcheffortwill:
Promotecollaborativeeffortsandengagestakeholders
Increasetechnologyunderstanding,exploreLimitsofTechnology(LOT),andreducecosts
Providesoundscientificinformationtosupportregulators,wastewatertreatmentplant
ownersandoperators,andotherstakeholders
LeverageWERFresearchdollarstomaximizeprogramcontributionsandimpacts
AspartoftheNutrientChallenge'skickoffactivities,aWERFNutrientResearchStakeholder
WorkshopwasheldonMarch7and8,2007inBaltimore,MD,tofurtherrefinetheChallenge'sresearch
needsandtoseekfundingpartnersandcollaborators.Thefacilitatedworkshopdrewalmost100
participantsrepresentingallofthekeystakeholdergroupsintheindustry.Atotalof25priorityareas
wereidentified,manyofthemsimilartothoseidentifiedinasimilarworkshopconductedbyWERFin
2006.Generally,theseprojectsfallwithintheidentifiedtoppriorityresearchareasof:
Characterizationofeffluentorganicnitrogen
Accuracyofanalyticalmeasurementtechniquesforlowconcentrationsofphosphorus
Alternativecarbonsourcesfordenitrification
WERFwillalsobedevelopingaNutrientCompendium,acomprehensive,livingdocumentthat
describesthecurrentknowledgeofregulatoryandtechnologicalnutrientremovalissues.The
documentwilldescribethekeyknowledgeareasaffectingnutrientremovaltoverylowlevelsand
identifiesknowledgegapsrelatedtonutrientremoval.Seventopicshavebeenselectedasthetop
priority.Theseare:
Effluentdissolvedorganicnitrogen
Alternativecarbonsources
Regulatoryissuesforlowlevelnitrogenandphosphorus
Operations
Biologicaltreatmentprocessesforachievinglownitrogenandphosphoruseffluentlevels
Lowphosphorusconcentrationmeasurements
Tertiaryphosphorusremoval
2.5 BarrierstoImplementingNutrientRemoval

Thereareanumberofbarriersthatmayimpactforwardprogressinimplementingnutrient
removalprocessesandachievingreductionsinaquaticecosystemsbeyondthatwhichiscurrentlybeing
achieved,including:
Costs
Limitationsonphysicalexpansion
Stateresources
Increasedcarbonfootprint
Advancedoperationsandcontrol
Nutrientremovalcomesatacosttomunicipalwastewatertreatmentfacilitiesandtheir
ratepayers.AlthoughfundingfromtheCleanWaterStateRevolvingFund(CWSRF)isavailable,itisnot
sufficienttoaddressthemyriadofCWArelatedinfrastructureneeds(U.S.PublicHealthServiceand
USEPA,2008).
Asecondfactoraffectingthecostofnutrientremovalatwastewaterfacilitiesislimitationson
physicalexpansionofwastewatertreatmentfacilities.Someplantsarelocatedinurbanareasanddo
nothaveanywaytoobtainthephysicalspacenecessarytoexpand.Spacelimitationscanseverelylimit
thetypeofapproachesthatcanbeusedtoreducenutrients.
Insomecases,StatesarestrugglingtofindtheresourcestodevelopWQSstoaddressnutrient
criteria.AlthoughEPAhasdevelopednumeroustoolsandguidancedocuments,furthertechnical
assistancemaybeneededtoensureeffectiveforwardprogressinthisarea.
Twopotentiallynegativeenvironmentalimpactsofemployingadvancedtechnologiestoremove
nutrientsfromwastewateraretheincreaseinthecarbonfootprintandquantityofbiosolidsrequiring
disposal.Theincreasedcarbonfootprintwillresultnotonlyfromthenitrogenremovalprocessbutalso
fromtheincreasedenergyusagenecessarytopowerthetechnologyneededtoachievetheproposed
nutrientreductionlevels.ForutilitiesinstatessuchasCaliforniawheregreenhousegasreduction
requirementsareonthehorizon,increasedemissionsduetohigherenergyusageandnitrogenremoval
arecauseforseriousconcern.Higherenergyusagemayalsotranslateintoincreasedemissionsof
airbornenutrientsintheformofincreasednitrogenoxideemissions.
Operationofbiologicalprocessesfornitrogenandphosphorusremovalrequiresadvanced
knowledgeforsuccessfulandconsistentremovaltoloweffluentlevels.Thelevelofprocesscontrolis
muchgreaterthanforBOD
5
andTSSremoval.Inaddition,theseprocessesaresusceptibletowet
weather,coldweather,andinhibitorysubstancesenteringtheplants.Plantinfluentcharacteristicsvary
considerablyfromonecommunitytoanotherandmustbetakenintoaccountinthedesignand
operationofnutrientremovalfacilitiesintermsofitsimpactsontankvolumesandchemical
requirements.
Despitethechallengesassociatedwithnutrientremoval,newresearchandinformationare
steadilybecomingavailable.EPAandindustryinitiativesdiscussedearlierinthischapterwillcontinueto
helpdisseminatethisinformationtowastewaterprofessionalstoprovidethemwiththelatest
informationonnutrientremovalstrategies.
3. NutrientConstituentsinWastewaterandMeasurementMethods
Thischapterprovidesanoverviewofthesources,forms,andmeasurementmethodsfor
nitrogenandphosphorusinwastewater.
3.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogenisanessentialnutrientforplantsandanimals.Approximately80percentoftheearths
atmosphereiscomposedofnitrogenanditisakeyelementofproteinsandcells.Themajor
contributorsofnitrogentowastewaterarehumanactivitiessuchasfoodpreparation,showering,and
wasteexcretion.Thepercapitacontributionofnitrogenindomesticwastewaterisabout1/5
th
ofthat
forBOD.Totalnitrogenindomesticwastewatertypicallyrangesfrom20to70mg/Lforlowtohigh
strengthwastewater(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).Factorsaffectingconcentrationincludetheextentof
infiltrationandthepresenceofindustries.Influentconcentrationvariesduringthedayandcanvary
significantlyduringrainfallevents,asaresultofinflowandinfiltrationtothecollectionsystem.
Themostcommonformsofnitrogeninwastewaterare:
Ammonia(NH
3
)
Ammoniumion(NH
4
+
)
Nitrite(NO
2
Nitrate(NO
3
Organicnitrogen
Nitrogenindomesticwastewaterconsistsofapproximately60to70percentammonianitrogen
and30to40percentorganicnitrogen(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003;CritesandTchobanoglous,1998).
Mostoftheammonianitrogenisderivedfromurea,whichbreaksdownrapidlytoammoniain
wastewaterinfluent.
EPAapprovedmethodsformeasuringammonia,nitrate,andnitriteconcentrationuse
colorimetrictechniques.OrganicnitrogenisapproximatedusingthestandardmethodforTotalKjeldahl
Nitrogen(TKN)(APHA,AWWA,andWEF,1998).TheTKNmethodhasthreemajorsteps:(1)digestionto
convertorganicnitrogentoammoniumsulfate;(2)conversionofammoniumsulfateintocondensed
ammoniagasthroughadditionofastrongbaseandboiling;and(3)measurementusingcolorimetricor
titrationmethods.Becausethemeasuredconcentrationincludesammonia,theammonianitrogen
concentrationissubtractedfromtheTKNtodetermineorganicnitrogen.Nitrogencomponentsin
wastewateraretypicallyreportedonanasnitrogenbasissothatthetotalnitrogenconcentrationcan
beaccountedforastheinfluentnitrogencomponentsareconvertedtoothernitrogencompoundsin
wastewatertreatment.
WWTPsdesignedfornitrificationanddenitrificationcanremove80to95percentofinorganic
nitrogen,buttheremovaloforganicnitrogenistypicallymuchlessefficient(PehlivanogluMantasand
Sedlak,2006).Domesticwastewaterorganicnitrogenmaybepresentinparticulate,colloidalor
dissolvedformsandconsistofproteins,aminoacids,aliphaticNcompounds,refractorynatural
compoundsindrinkingwater(e.g.humicsubstances),orsyntheticcompounds(e.g.ethylenediamine
tetraaceticacid(EDTA)).Organicnitrogenmaybereleasedinsecondarytreatmentbymicroorganisms
eitherthroughmetabolismorupondeathandlysis.Somenitrogenmaybecontainedinrecondensation
products.Hydrolysisofparticulateandcolloidalmaterialbymicroorganismsreleasessomeorganic
nitrogenasdissolved,biodegradablecompounds.Aminoacidsarereadilydegradedduringsecondary
biologicaltreatment,with90to98percentremovalinactivatedsludgesystemsand76to96percent
removalintricklingfilters.However,otherformsoforganicnitrogenmaybemorepersistentin
wastewatertreatmentprocesses.
Theimportanceoforganicnitrogenhasincreasedaseffluentlimitsonnitrogenhavebecome
morestringent.Withmoreimpairedwaterwaysfromnutrientloads,effluentlimitsfortotalnitrogen
(TN)concentrationsof3.0mg/Lorlessarebecomingmorecommon.Thedissolvedorganicnitrogen
(DON)concentrationintheeffluentfrombiologicalnutrientremovaltreatmentfacilitieswasfoundto
rangefrom0.50to1.50mg/Lin80percentof188plantsreportedbyPagilla(STACWERF,2007)and
valuesashighas2.5mg/Lwereobserved.Thus,forsystemswithouteffluentfiltrationormembrane
bioreactors(MBRs)thataretryingtomeetaTNtreatmentgoalof3.0mg/L,theeffluentDON
contributioncaneasilybe20to50percentofthetotaleffluentnitrogenconcentration,comparedto
onlyabout10percentforconventionaltreatment(PehlivanogluMantasandSedlak,2004).
ThechemicalcompositionofDONinwastewatereffluentsisnotcompletelyunderstood.Sedlak
(2007)hassuggestedthatonlyabout20percentoftheDONhasbeenidentifiedasfreeandcombined
aminoacids,EDTA,andothertracenitrogencompounds.About45percentmaybeunidentifiedlow
molecularweightcompoundsandtheother35percentasunidentifiedhighmolecularweight
compoundscontaininghumicacidsandamides.SimilarresultswerefoundbyKhan(2007).Earlywork
byParkinandMcCarty(1981)suggestedthat40to60percentofeffluentDONisnonbioavailable.The
nonbioavailableportionisalsoreferredtoasrecalcitrantDON(rDON).
ToaddresstheseandotherwaterqualityissuesassociatedwithDON,WERFhasidentifiedDON
asahighpriorityresearcharea.InSeptember2007,theChesapeakeBayProgramScientificand
TechnicalAdvisoryCommittee(STAC)andWERFcohostedaworkshoptitledEstablishingaResearch
AgendaforAssessingtheBioavailabilityofWastewaterDerivedOrganicNitrogeninTreatmentSystems
andReceivingWaters.Theeventbroughttogetherleadersinthefieldtodiscussthecomposition,
bioavailability,measurement,andremovalofbiodegradableDON(bDON)inwastewatertreatmentand
thecompositionandtestprotocolmethodsforinertDON(iDON)inreceivingwaters.TheWERF
NutrientChallengeProgramhasidentifiedkeyresearchneedsonDONandisfosteringcollaborative
effortstomakeresearchmoreefficientandeffective.Anoverviewofkeyareasandresearchers
currentlyworkingonprojectsonDONissummarizedinTable31.
Table31.ResearchTopicsonDissolvedOrganicNitrogenMeasurement,Fate,and
EnvironmentalImpacts
a
InertDONtest
methods
BiodegradableDON
andfatein
wastewater
treatment
InertDON
Characteristics
Environmentalgradientand
DON
D.Sedlak
UCBerkeley
(WERF)
E.Khan
NorthDakotaState
University.
(DCWASA)
D.Sedlak
UCBerkeley
(WERF)
D.BronkandE.Canuel
CollegeofWilliamandMary
M.Mulholland
OldDominionUniversity
N.Love
UniversityofMichigan
(NSF)
J.MkiniaandK.
Czerwionka
GdanskUniversity
(PolandGovt)
R.Sharp
ManhattanCollege
(CityofStamford)
D.BronkandE.Canuel
CollegeofWilliamandMary
M.Mulholland
OldDominionUniversity
N.Love
UniversityofMichigan
(NSF)

K.Jones
HowardUniversity
(HDR)

K.Pagilla
IllinoisInstituteof
Technology
(HazenandSawyer)

J.MkiniaandK.Czerwionka
GdanskUniversity
(PolandGovt)

a. The sponsoring agency is shown in parentheses
3.2 Phosphorus
Totalphosphorus(TP)indomesticwastewatertypicallyrangesbetween4and8mg/Lbutcanbe
higherdependingonindustrialsources,waterconservation,orwhetheradetergentbanisinplace.
Sourcesofphosphorusarevaried.Somephosphorusispresentinallbiologicalmaterial,asitisan
essentialnutrientandpartofacellsenergycycle.Phosphorusisusedinfertilizers,detergents,and
cleaningagentsandispresentinhumanandanimalwaste.
Phosphorusinwastewaterisinoneofthreeforms:
Phosphate(alsocalledOrthophosphate)
Polyphosphate,or
Organicallyboundphosphorus.
Theorthophosphatefractionissolubleandcanbeinoneofseveralforms(e.g.,phosphoricacid,
phosphateion)dependingonthesolutionpH.Polyphosphatesarehighenergy,condensedphosphates
suchaspyrophosphateandtrimetaphosphate.Theyarealsosolublebutwillnotbeprecipitatedoutof
wastewaterbymetalsaltsorlime.Theycanbeconvertedtophosphatethroughhydrolysis,whichis
veryslow,orbybiologicalactivity(seeChapter6foradetaileddiscussionofbiodegradationof
phosphateandpolyphosphateinwastewater).
Organicallyboundphosphoruscaneitherbeintheformofsolublecolloidsorparticulate.Itcan
alsobedividedintobiodegradableandnonbiodegradablefractions.Particulateorganicallybound
phosphorusisgenerallyprecipitatedoutandremovedwiththesludge.Solubleorganicallybound
biodegradablephosphoruscanbehydrolyzedintoorthophosphateduringthetreatmentprocess.
Solubleorganicallyboundnonbiodegradablephosphoruswillpassthroughawastewatertreatment
plant.Atypicalwastewatercontains3to4mg/Lphosphorusasphosphate,2to3mg/Las
polyphosphate,and1mg/Lasorganicallyboundphosphorus(WEFandASCE,2006).
Phosphoruscontentinwastewatercanbemeasuredas
Orthophosphate
Dissolvedorthophosphate
Totalphosphorus
Totaldissolvedphosphorus(i.e.,allformsexceptparticulateorganicphosphorus)
EPAapprovedlaboratorymethodsrelyoncolorimetricanalysis.Colorimetricanalysismeasures
orthophosphateonly,soadigestionstepisneededtoconvertpolyphosphateandorganicphosphorus
toorthophosphatetomeasureTP.Thepersulfatemethodisreportedtobethemostcommonand
easiestmethod(WEFandASCE,2006).Todeterminedissolvedphosphorus(eithertotaldissolved
phosphorusortotaldissolvedorthophosphate),thesampleisfirstfilteredthrougha0.45micronfilter.
USEPAapprovedcolorimetricmethodsareroutinelyusedtomeasurephosphoruslevelsaslowas0.01
mg/L.Onlineanalyzersthatusethecolorimetricmethodareavailablefromvenders(e.g.,theHach
Phosphax
TM
SCphosphateanalyzer).
Ionchromatographyisasecondcommontechniqueusedtomeasureorthophosphatein
wastewater.Aswithcolorimetricmethods,digestionisrequiredforTPmeasurement,withpersulfate
digestionrecommended(WEFandASCE,2006).
AtaworkshopinMay2006,WERFmembersidentifiedaneedtodevelopastandardmethodfor
measurementofverylowphosphoruslevelsinwastewaterandcharacterizationoftheresidual
phosphorusfraction(Bott,2007).TheWERFNutrientChallengeResearchPlanfor2007/2008identified
LowPhosphorusAnalyticalMeasurementReliabilityasresearchtobefundedin2007or2008(WERF,
2007).
4. PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition
Thepurposeofthischapteristodescribetechniquesforphosphorusremovalbychemical
addition.Itsummarizesissuesassociatedwithchemicalfeedlocation,mixing,andsludgeproduction.
Anoverviewofadvancedsolidsseparationprocessesisalsoprovided.
4.1 Principles
Chemicalprecipitationforphosphorusremovalisareliable,timetested,wastewatertreatment
methodthathasnotdrasticallychangedovertheyears.Toachieveremoval,variouscoagulantaidsare
addedtowastewaterwheretheyreactwithsolublephosphatestoformprecipitates.Theprecipitates
areremovedusingasolidsseparationprocess,mostcommonlysettling(clarification).Chemical
precipitationistypicallyaccomplishedusingeitherlimeorametalsaltsuchasaluminumsulfate(alum)
orferricchloride.Theadditionofpolymersandothersubstancescanfurtherenhanceflocformation
andsolidssettling.Operatorscanuseexistingsecondaryclarifiersorretrofitprimaryclarifiersfortheir
specificpurposes.
AluminumandIronSalts

Alumandferricorferroussaltsarecommonlyusedascoagulantandsettlingaidsinboththe
waterandwastewaterindustry.Theyarelesscorrosive,createlesssludge,andaremorepopularwith
operatorscomparedtolime.Alumisavailableinliquidordryform,canbestoredonsiteinsteelormild
concrete,andhasanearunlimitedshelflife.Ferricchlorideissimilaralthoughcareisneededduring
handlingbecauseofcorrosivity.Ifanindustrialsourceisavailablesuchaswastepickleliquor,ferrous
chlorideorferroussulfatehavebeenusedforphosphorusremoval.Ferrousformsshouldbeadded
directlytoaerobicreactorsratherthantoanaerobicreactorssuchasprimarysettlingbasinsbecausethe
ferrousironneedstooxidizetoferricironforbestresults.

Thefollowingaresamplereactionsofaluminumandironsaltswithphosphorus:
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(14H
2
O)+2H
2
PO
4
+4HCO
3
2AlPO
4
+4CO
2
+3SO
4
2
+18H
2
O (41)
FeCl
3
(6H
2
O)+H
2
PO
4
+2HCO
3
FePO
4
+3Cl
+2CO
2
+8H
2
O (42)
Themolarratioofaluminumtophosphorusrequiredforphosphorusremovalrangesfrom
about1.38:1for75percentremoval,1.72:1for85percentremoval,and2.3:1for95percentremoval.
Forironcompounds,aratioofabout1:1isrequired,withasupplementalamountofiron(10mg/L)
addedtosatisfytheformationofhydroxide(WEFandASCE,1998).Foradditionalremovalof
phosphoruswithaluminumandironsalts,aratioofbetween2and6partsmetalsaltto1part
phosphorusmayberequiredforadequatephosphorusremoval.
Tosupplementstoichiometrycalculations,designersshouldconsiderjartestsand,insome
cases,fullscalepilotteststogaugetheeffectsontherequireddoseofcompetingreactions;the
influenceofpHandalkalinity,adsorption,andcoprecipitationreactions;andtheinteractionwith
polymersthatareaddedtoincreasecoagulationandflocculation(WEFandASCE,1998;Bottetal.
2007).
Aluminumorferricironsaltscanbeaddedtotheprimaryclarifier,secondaryclarifier,tertiary
clarifier,ordirectlyintotheactivatedsludgeaerationtank.Multipleadditionscanincreasephosphorus
removalefficiency.Ferroussaltscanonlybeaddedtotheaerationbasinsinceitneedstobeoxidizedto
ferrictoprecipitatethephosphorus.

ThesolubilityofaluminumandironsaltsisafunctionofpH.Theoptimumsolubilityforalum
waspreviouslyreportedtooccuratapHrangeof5.5to6.5,significantlylowerthanmostinfluent
wastewater.Recentstudies(Szaboetal.,2008)showedthattherangeforbothironandalumis
between3.5and7.5withthehighestefficiencybetweenpH5.5and7.

Chemicalssuchaslimecompounds,causticsoda,andsodaashcanbeusedtoraisethepHof
thewastestreampriortobiologicaltreatmentprocessesordischarge.Itisimportanttounderstandthat
alkalinityisconsumedduringtheprecipitationreactions,andprecipitationwillbeincompleteif
insufficientalkalinityispresent.
Lime
Althoughlimehadlostfavorduetoissuesassociatedwithchemicalhandling,sludgeproduction,
andrecarbonation,ithasrecentlybeenconsideredmoreoftenbecauseofitsabilitytoreduce
phosphorustoverylowlevelswhencombinedwitheffluentfiltrationandthemicrobialcontrol
propertiesassociatedwithitshighpH.Whenlimeisaddedtowastewater,itfirstreactswiththe
bicarbonatealkalinitytoformcalciumcarbonate(CaCO
3
).AsthepHincreasestomorethan10,excess
calciumionswillreactwithphosphatetoprecipitatehydroxylapatite[CA
5
(OH)(PO
4
)
3
].Becauseitreacts
firstwithalkalinity,thelimedoseisessentiallyindependentoftheinfluentphosphorusconcentration.
Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)estimatesthelimedosetotypicallybe1.4to1.6timesthetotalalkalinity
expressedasCaCO
3
.
Thetypicalreactionbetweencalciumcompoundsandphosphorusisrepresentedbelow:
5Ca
2+
+4OH
+3HPO
4
Ca
5
OH(PO
4
)
3
+3H
2
O (43)
Themolarratiorequiredforphosphorusprecipitationwithlimeisapproximately5:3,butcan
varyfrombetween1.3to2,dependingonthecompositionofthewastewater.Aswithironand
aluminumsalts,jartestscanbeusedtodeterminecorrectdosesforaspecificwastewaterstream(WEF,
1998).
LimeadditioncanraisethepHtogreaterthan11.Becauseactivatedsludgeprocessesrequire
pHlevelsbelow9,limecannotbeaddeddirectlytobiologicaltreatmentprocessesoritwillcause
processupsets.Limecanbeaddedtoprimarysedimentationtanksandremovedwiththeprimary
sludgeoritcanbeaddedasatertiarytreatmentprocessafterbiologicaltreatment.Whenaddedto
primarytanks,itwillalsoresultintheremovalofcolloidalmaterialthroughcoagulationandsettling,
withaconcomitantremovalofTSSupto80percentandchemicaloxygendemand(COD)upto60
percent.Ineithercase,pHadjustmentisneededandtypicallyaccomplishedbyaddingCO
2
oraliquid
acidsuchassulfuricacid,nitricacid,orhypochlorite(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003;USEPA,1999a).
Hortskotteetal.(1974)showedthatwhentheprimaryeffluentisdischargeddirectlytoanitrifying
activatedsludgeplant,thehydrogenionsproducedmayneutralizethehighpH.However,when
denitrificationispracticedandtheoperatorwishestomakeuseofthesolubleCODintheprimary
effluent,theeffluentmustbeneutralizedbeforedischargingittotheanoxiczone.
Limerequiresspecialhandlingandoperationspracticesthatfurthersetitapartfromchemical
precipitationbymetalsalts.Althoughtheformationofcarbonatescalingonequipmentandpipesisa
drawbackoflimetreatment,limeslaking,wherequicklime(CaO)isreactedwithwatertoformcalcium
hydroxide(Ca(OH)
2
),isthebiggestoperationaldisadvantage.
PerformanceData
Performancedataareavailableforchemicalphosphorusremovalatmanyplants,including
Breckenridge,CO,Dillon,CO,Parker,CO,Hillsboro,OR,Tigard,OR,(alum);Walton,NY(aluminum
chloride);Milford,MA(polyaluminumchloride);Alexandria,VA(ferricchlorideandalum);Upper
OccoquanSewageAuthorityPlantCentreville,VA(highlime);andtheNormanColeLowerPotomac
Plant,FairfaxCounty,VA(ferricchloride)(EPARegion10,2007).
4.2 LocationofChemicalFeedandMixing
Limeormetalsaltscanbeaddedatseverallocationsthroughoutthetreatmentplanttoremove
phosphorus.Preprecipitationiswhenchemicalsareaddedtorawwatertoprecipitatephosphorusin
theprimarysedimentationbasins.Coprecipitationinvolvesaddingchemicalstoformprecipitates
thatcanberemovedwithbiologicalsludge.Postprecipitationiswhenchemicalsareaddedafter
secondarysedimentationandprecipitantsareremovedinatertiaryprocesssuchassedimentationor
filtration(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).BecauseitrequiresahighpHtoachievealowphosphorus
concentration,limecannotbeaddeddirectlytobiologicalreactorsortothesecondaryclarifiers.Multi
pointadditionsofironoraluminumsaltshavebeenveryeffectiveandcantypicallyremovemore
phosphorusthansinglepointapplications.
Thereareseveraladvantagestopostprecipitatingphosphoroususingatertiarytreatment
technique(afterbiologicalprocessesinaseparatereactor):
Microorganismsrelyonphosphorusasafoodsource.Iftoomuchphosphorusisremoved
priortobiologicaltreatment,biologicalprocessesmaysuffer.Foractivatedsludge,the
minimumratioofphosphorustoBOD
5
forarapidlygrowing(lowsolidsretentiontime(SRT))
systemistypicallyabout1:100(WEFandASCE,1998).
Competingchemicalsintheprimarysedimentationbasinscanincreasetherequireddose.
Phosphorusentersthetreatmentplantassolubleorthophosphate,solublepolyphosphates,
andorganicallyboundphosphorus.Mostofthepolyphosphatesandmuchofthe
organicallyboundphosphorusareconvertedtomoresimpleorthophosphatesduring
biologicaltreatment.Iftheinfluentcontainssignificantpolyphosphatesand/ororganically
boundphosphorus,locatingchemicaltreatmentafterbiologicalprocesseswouldbemore
efficientandachievelowereffluentlevels.
Theremovalofcarbonatealkalinityandphosphorusbylimepriortobiologicaltreatment
canhaveanegativeimpactonnitrificationprocesses(WEFandASCE,1998).Also,removing
phosphorustoverylowconcentrationsupstreamofdenitrificationfilterscannegatively
affectthedenitrificationprocess.Previousstudiesshowedthatthehydroxidealkalinitycan
bebalancedbythehydrogenionsproducedduringnitrification.
Sludgerecalcificationcanbeusedtoachievehighremovalefficienciesusinglimeintertiary
treatment.
Onepotentialadvantagetoaddingchemicalsduringprimarytreatmentinsteadoftertiary
treatmentisreducedcapitalcostsandspacerequirementsasaresultofremovingadditionalBODand
TSSandreducingtheloadtodownstreamprocesses,therebyreducingthesizeofthesubsequent
activatedsludgebasinsandtheamountofoxygentransferneeded.
Chemicalsshouldbewellmixedwiththewastewatertoensurereactionwithsoluble
phosphatesandformationofprecipitates.Chemicalsmayeitherbemixedinseparatetanksorcanbe
addedatapointintheprocesswheremixingalreadyoccurs.Benchscaleandpilotscaletestsareoften
usedtodeterminethecorrectmixingrateforagivencompositionofwastewaterandchemicalsused,
includingpolymer(USEPA,1999a).
4.3 AdvancedSolidsSeparationProcesses

Theeffectivenessofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladditionishighlydependentonthesolids
separationprocessfollowingchemicalprecipitation.Directadditionofmetalsaltstoactivatedsludge
processesfollowedbyconventionalclarificationcantypicallyremoveTPtoeffluentlevelsbetween0.5
and1.0mg/L(Bottetal.,2007).Tertiaryprocesses(postsecondarytreatment)canbeusedtoremove
phosphorustoverylow(<0.1mg/L)concentrations.Forexample,Reardon(2005)reportsthatfour
WWTPwithtertiaryclarifiersachievedTPlevelsofbetween0.032and0.62mg/L.
Twocommontertiaryprocessesareclarificationandeffluentfiltration.Theseapproachescan
beusedseparatelyorincombination.Chapter7presentsadetaileddiscussionofeffluentfiltration.
Advancesintertiaryclarificationprocessesarediscussedbelow.
Thetypesofclarifiersusedfortertiaryprocessesincludeconventional,oneortwostagelime,
solidscontact,highrate,andballastedhighrate(BHRC).SeveralpatentedBHRCusingdifferenttypes
ofballastsuchasrecycledsludge,microsand,andmagneticballast(USEPA,2008a)havebeendeveloped
inrecentyears.Theadvantagesofhighrateclarificationarethattheclarifiershaveasmallerfootprint
andareabletotreatlargerquantitiesofwastewaterinashorterperiodoftime.Inaddition,asanadd
onduringwetweather,theycanhelppreventsanitaryseweroverflows(SSOs)andcombinedsewer
overflows(CSOs).Thefollowingpatentedprocessesareexamplesofhighrateclarificationincluding
performanceestimates:
DensaDegusesacoagulantinarapidmixbasintodestabilizesuspendedsolids.Thewater
flowsintoasecondtankwherepolymer(foraidingflocculation)andsludgeareadded.The
sludgeactsastheseedforformationofhighdensityfloc.Thisflocisremovedinsettling
tubes(USEPA,2008).Themainadvantagesofthisprocessareasmallerfootprintand
densersludgewhichiseasiertodewater.PilottestingforCityofFortWorth,Texasfounda
phosphorusremovalrateof8895%forDensaDeg(USEPA,2003).
Actiflousesacoagulantinarapidmixbasintodestabilizesuspendedsolids.Thewater
flowstoasecondtankwherepolymer(foraidingflocculation)andmicrosandareadded.
Microsandprovidesalargesurfaceontowhichsuspendedsolidsattach,creatingadense
flocthatsettlesoutquickly.Clarificationisassistedbylamellasettling.Productpilottesting
inFortWorth,Texasshowedaphosphorusremovalefficiencyof9296%forActiflo
(USEPA,2003).
TheCoMagprocessusestheadditionofmagneticballastwithmetalsaltstopromotefloc
formation.Settlingisfollowedbyhighgradientmagneticseparationforeffluentpolishing
andrecoveryofthemagneticballast(USEPA,2008a).CoMagiscurrentlyinoperationata
4.0milliongallonsperday(MGD)wastewatertreatmentplantinConcord,Massachusetts.
Thevendorhasguaranteedaneffluentphosphorusconcentrationnottoexceed0.05mg/L
(EPARegion10,2007).
4.4 OtherDesignandOperationalIssues
Phosphorusremovalbychemicaladditionislimitedtothesolublephosphatesinthewaste
stream.Organicallyboundphosphorusandpolyphosphateswillnotberemovedbychemicaltreatment
unlesstheyarecoagulatedwiththechemicalsandremovedinthesludge.AsnotedinSection4.2,
chemicalscanbeaddedafterbiologicaltreatmenttocapitalizeontheconversionofpolyphosphatesand
organicallyboundphosphorustophosphatesbymicroorganismsinactivatedsludge.
Thesuccessofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladditiondependsonproperinstrumentation
andcontrol.Dosagecontroltypicallytakestheformofmanualoperation(forsmallsystems),
adjustmentsbasedonautomaticflowmeasurements,orthemoreadvancedonlineanalyzerswith
computerassisteddosagecontrol.
Chemicalpropertiesofanywaterusedformakingsolutionsshouldbeconsideredtapwater
highinsuspendedsolidscouldcausesludgetoformwhenmixedwithcoagulants(WEFandASCE,1998)
andcouldleadtocloggingofchemicalfeedlines.Smithetal.(2008)foundthatfactorssuchaspH,
complexation,mixing,andthecoagulantusedcanlimittheremovalofphosphorus,especiallyinthe
rangeof<0.1mg/L.
4.5 ImpactsonSludgeHandlingandProduction
Sludgehandlingandproductionisgenerallyconsideredtobeoneofthemaindownsidesof
chemicaladdition.Chemicalprecipitationmethodsalwaysproduceadditionalsolidsduetogeneration
ofmetalorcalciumphosphateprecipitatesandadditionalsuspendedsolids(WEFandASCE,1998).
Chemicallytreatedsludgehasahigherinorganiccontentcomparedtoprimaryandactivatedsludgeand
willincreasetherequiredsizeofaerobicandanaerobicdigesters.Additionalsludgeproductioncanbe
estimatedusingreactionequations.
Theuseofmetalsaltscanresultinincreasedinorganicsalts(salinity)inthesludgeandinthe
effluent.Salinitycancreateproblemswhenbiosolidsarelandappliedorwhentheeffluentisreturned
toexistingwatersupplyreservoirs.BiologicalphosphorusremovalwasdevelopedinSouthAfricadueto
thehighrateofindirectrecyclingofwastewatereffluentwhichledtoexcessivetotaldissolvedsolids
(TDS)duringdryperiods.Hightotalsaltscanreducegerminationratesforcropsandnegativelyaffect
thesoilstructure.
Limetraditionallyproducesahighersludgevolumecomparedtometalsaltsbecauseofits
reactionwithnaturalalkalinity.Anadvantageoflimesludgeisthatsomestabilizationcanoccurdueto
thehighpHlevelsrequired.Onedisadvantageisthatlimecancausescalinginmechanicalthickening
anddewateringsystems.Therearealsodifferencesintheamountandcharacteristicsofsludge
generatedbyalumversusferricsalts.Althoughalumtendstoproducelesssludgethandoferricsalts,
alumsludgecanbemoredifficulttoconcentrateanddewatercomparedtoferricsludge.
5. BiologicalNitrogenRemoval
Thischapterprovidesanoverviewoftheprinciplesbehindbiologicalnitrogenremovaland
describesthecommondesignconfigurationsinusetoday.Itidentifieskeyoperationalanddesignissues
(includingimpactsonsludgehandlingandproduction),providesgeneralguidelinesonprocessselection,
andsummarizesongoingresearcheffortsinthisarea.Processconfigurationsthataredesignedto
removebothnitrogenandphosphorusaredescribedinChapter6.
5.1 Principles
Inwastewatertreatment,nitrogenremovaloccursintwosequentialprocesses:nitrificationand
denitrification.Anoverviewofeachprocessisprovidedbelow.
5.1.1 Nitrification
Nitrificationisanaerobicprocessinwhichautotrophicbacteriaoxidizeammoniaornitritefor
energyproduction.Nitrificationisnormallyatwostepaerobicbiologicalprocessfortheoxidationof
ammoniatonitrate.Ammonianitrogen(NH
3
N)isfirstconvertedtonitrite(NO
2
)byammoniaoxidizing
bacteria(AOB).Thenitriteproducedisthenconvertedtonitrate(NO
3
)bynitriteoxidizingbacteria
(NOB).Bothreactionsusuallyoccurinthesameprocessunitatawastewatertreatmentplant(e.g.,
activatedsludgemixedliquororfixedfilmbiofilm).
ThegroupofAOBmostassociatedwithnitrificationistheNitrosomonasgenus,althoughother
AOBsuchasNitrosococcusandNitrosospiracancontributetotheprocess.NitrobacteraretheNOB
mostassociatedwiththesecondstep,althoughotherbacteriaincludingNitrospina,Nitrococcus,and
Nitrospirahavebeenfoundtoalsooxidizenitrite(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003;USEPA,2007c).AOBand
NOBareclassifiedasautotrophicbacteriabecausetheyderiveenergyfromtheoxidationofreduced
inorganiccompounds(inthiscase,nitrogenouscompounds)anduseinorganiccarbon(CO
2
)asafood
source.Nitrifyingbacteriarequireasignificantamountofoxygentocompletethereactions,producea
smallamountofbiomass,andcausedestructionofalkalinitythroughtheconsumptionofcarbondioxide
andproductionofhydrogenions.Foreachgram(g)ofNH
3
Nconvertedtonitrate,4.57gofoxygenare
used,0.16gofnewcellsareformed,7.14gofalkalinityareremoved,and0.08gofinorganiccarbonare
utilizedinformationofnewcells(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).
Nitrifyingbacteriagrowslowerandhavemuchloweryieldsasafunctionofsubstrate
consumed,comparedtotheheterotrophicbacteriainbiologicaltreatmentprocesses.Themaximum
specificgrowthrateofthenitrifyingbacteriais10to20timeslessthanthemaximumspecificgrowth
rateofheterotrophicbacteriaresponsibleforoxidationofcarbonaceousorganiccompoundsin
wastewatertreatment.Thus,thenitrificationprocessneedsasignificantlyhigherSRTtowork
comparedtoconventionalactivatedsludgeprocesses.TheSRTneededfornitrificationinanactivated
sludgeprocessisafunctionofthemaximumspecificgrowthrate(whichisrelatedtotemperature),the
reactordissolvedoxygenconcentration,andpH.NitrificationratesdeclineastheDOconcentration
decreasesbelow3.0mg/LandthepHdecreasesbelow7.0mg/L.WithsufficientDOandadequatepH,
typicalnitrificationdesignSRTsrangefrom10to20daysat10
o
Cand4to7daysat20
o
C(Randalletal.,
1992).
5.1.2 Denitrification
Inmunicipalandindustrialwastewatertreatmentprocesses,denitrificationisthebiological
reductionofnitrateornitritetonitrogengas(N
2
)asindicatedbyequation51below.
2 2
-
2
-
3
N O N NO NO NO (51)
Itisaccomplishedbyavarietyofcommonheterotrophicmicroorganismsthatarenormallypresentin
aerobicbiologicalprocesses.Mostarefacultativeaerobicbacteriawiththeabilitytouseelemental
oxygen,nitrate,ornitriteastheirterminalelectronacceptorsfortheoxidationoforganicmaterial.
Heterotrophicbacteriacapableofdenitrificationincludethefollowinggenera:Achromobacter,
Acinetobacter,Agrobacterium,Alcaligenes,Arthrobacter,Bacillus,Chromobacterium,Corynebacterium,
Flavobacterium,Hypomicrobium,Moraxella,Nesseria,Paracoccus,Propionibacteria,Pseudomonas,
Rhizobium,Rhodopseudmonas,SpirillumandVibrio(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).Recentresearchhas
shownthatnitritereductionisaccomplishedbyamuchmorespecializedgroupofheterotrophic
bacteriathanthoseperformingtheconversionofnitratetonitrite(Katehis,2007).
Denitrificationbyheterotrophicnitrifyingbacteriaandbyautotrophicbacteriahasalsobeen
observed.AnexampleofaheterotrophicnitrifyingbacteriathatcandenitrifyisParococcuspantotropha,
whichobtainsenergybynitrateornitritereductionwhileoxidizingammoniaunderaerobicconditions.
Areadilyavailablecarbonsource,suchasacetate,isneeded(RobertsonandKuenen,1990).The
conditionsrequiredforthisformofdenitrificationarenotpracticalinbiologicalwastewatertreatment.
Anautotrophicdenitrifyingbacteriaofpracticalsignificanceinwastewatertreatmentisthatinthe
Anammoxprocessusedtoremovenitrogeninreturnstreamsfromanaerobicdigestionsludge
dewateringfiltrateorcentrate.Thesebacteriahavebeenidentifiedasamemberofbacteriaintheorder
Planctomycetales(Strousetal,1999).Underanaerobicconditions,ammoniaisoxidizedwiththe
reductionofnitritewiththefinalproductasnitrogengas.Thereactionisbestaccomplishedat
temperaturesabove25
Candtheyareslowgrowingorganisms.
Facultativedenitrifyingbacteriawillpreferentiallyuseoxygeninsteadofnitrate.Intheabsence
ofoxygen,however,theywillcarryoutnitriteand/ornitratereduction.Microbiologistsgenerallyuse
thetermanaerobictodescribebiologicalreactionsintheabsenceofoxygen.Todistinguishanaerobic
conditionsforwhichthebiologicalactivityoccursmainlywithnitrateornitriteastheelectronacceptor,
thetermanoxichasbeenapplied.
Althoughoxygenisknowntoinhibitdenitrification,denitrificationhasbeenobservedin
activatedsludgeandfixedfilmsystemsinwhichthebulkliquidDOconcentrationispositive.Thisisdue
totheestablishmentofananoxiczonewithintheflocorbiofilmdepth.Hence,asinglesystemcancarry
outsimultaneousnitrificationanddenitrification.TheDOconcentrationthatispossibleforsimultaneous
nitrificationanddenitrificationdependsonanumberoffactorsincludingthemixedliquor
concentration,temperature,andsubstrateloading.TheDOconcentrationabovewhichdenitrificationis
inhibitedmayvaryfrom0.10to0.50mg/L(WEFandASCE,2006;Tchobanoglousetal.,2003;Barkerand
Dold,1997).
Theorganiccarbonsourcefordenitrifyingbacteriacanbeintheformof:
Solubledegradableorganicsintheinfluentwastewater
Solubleorganicmaterialproducedbyhydrolysisofinfluentparticulatematerial
Organicmatterreleasedduringbiomassendogenousdecay
Ageneralruleofthumbisthat4gofwastewaterinfluentBODisneededpergofNO
3
Ntobe
removedthroughbiologicaltreatment(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).Whendenitrificationoccursafter
secondarytreatment,thereislittleBODremainingsoasupplementalcarbonsourceisoftenneeded.
Themostcommonexogenouscarbonsourceinuseismethanol;however,duetoissuesregardingits
safety,cost,andavailability,somewastewatersystemsareusingalternativecarbonsourcessuchas
aceticacid,ethanol,sugar,glycerol,andproprietarysolutionsdependingontheneedsoftheirparticular
facility(deBarbadilloetal.,2008).SeeSection5.3foradditionaldiscussiononsupplementalcarbon
sources.
Biologicaldenitrificationreactionsproducealkalinityandheterotrophicbiomass.Basedonthe
stoichiometryofthereactions,denitrificationwillproducea3.57mg/LofalkalinityasCaCO
3
foreach
mg/LofNO
3
Nconsumed.Heterotrophicbiomassproducedcanbeestimatedas0.4gvolatile
suspendedsolids(VSS)producedforeverygramofCODconsumed.Growthkineticsfordenitrifiersare
dependentonanumberoffactorsincludingcarbonsubstratetypeandconcentration,DO
concentration,alkalinity,pH,andtemperature,withcarbonsourcebeingthemostimportant.
5.2 CurrentConfigurations
Biologicalnitrogenremovalcanbeaccomplishedbyavarietyoftreatmentconfigurationsusing
suspendedgrowth,attachedgrowth,orcombinedsystems.Inthepast,someWWTPswererequiredto
onlyremoveammonianitrogeninwastewatertoreducetoxicitytoaquaticorganismswithnolimitson
nitrateortotalnitrogen.However,mosttreatmentplantsarenowrequiredtoremovenitrogen
becausebothammonianitrogenandnitratenitrogencanstimulatealgaeandphytoplanktongrowth
andleadtoeutrophicationofU.S.waterways(SeeChapter2foradditionaldiscussion).Forbiological
nitrogenremoval,itisessentialthatnitrificationoccurfirstfollowedbydenitrification.
Section5.2.1presentsprocessconfigurationsthataredesignedtoachievenitrificationand
denitrificationinasingleprocessunit.Section5.2.2discussesseparatestagenitrificationand
denitrificationdesigns.
5.2.1 BiologicalNitrogenRemovalProcessConfigurations
BiologicalnitrogenremovalsystemsachievenitrificationanddenitrificationalongwithBOD
reductioninbioreactorsfollowedbysecondaryclarification.Processescanbeeithersuspendedgrowth
orhybridsystemsthatuseacombinationofattachedgrowth(biofilms)andsuspendedgrowth
technologies.Configurationswithineachoftheseclassificationsarediscussedbelow.Notethat
biologicalprocessesthatremovalbothnitrogenandphosphorusarediscussedinChapter6.
5.2.1.1 SuspendedGrowthSystems
ModifiedLudzckEttinger(MLE)process
ThemostcommonnitrogenremovalprocessusedatWWTPsistheModifiedLudzckEttinger
(MLE)process,whichisconsideredapredenitrification,singlesludgesystem.Theprocessincludesan
initialanoxiczone,followedbyanaerobiczone.Intheanoxiczone,nitrateproducedintheaerobiczone
isreducedtonitrogengas.ThisprocessusessomeoftheBODintheincomingwaste.Nitrification
occursintheaerobiczonealongwiththeremovalofmostoftheremainingBOD.Attheendofthe
aerobiczone,pumpsrecyclethenitraterichmixedliquortotheanoxiczonefordenitrification.Total
nitrogenremovalfortheMLEprocessistypically80percent,andtheprocessachievestotaleffluent
nitrogenconcentrationsrangingfromapproximately5to8mg/Lwithinternalnitraterecycleratiosof2
to4basedontheinfluentflowrate(24Q).
Internal Recycle
Infl uent.
RAS
WAS
Internal Recycle
Infl uent.
RAS
WAS
Figure51ModifiedLudzckEttingerProcess
FourStageBardenphoProcess
ThefourstageBardenphoprocessbuildsontheMLEprocess,withthefirsttwostagesbeing
identicaltotheMLEsystem(anoxiczonefollowedbyanaerationzonewithanitraterichrecyclefrom
theaerationtotheanoxiczone).Thethirdstageisasecondaryanoxiczonetoprovidedenitrificationto
theportionoftheflowthatisnotrecycledtotheprimaryanoxiczone.Methanoloranothercarbon
sourcecanbeaddedtothiszonetoenhancedenitrification.Thefourthandfinalzoneisareaeration
zonethatservestostripanynitrogengasandincreasetheDOconcentrationbeforeclarification.Some
configurationshaveusedanoxidationditchinsteadofthefirsttwostages.Thisprocesscanachieve
effluentTNlevelsof3to5mg/L.
Figure52FourstageBardenphoProcess
SequencingBatchReactors
Sequencingbatchreactors(SBRs)arefillanddrawbatchsystemsinwhichalltreatmentsteps
areperformedinsequenceforadiscreetvolumeofwaterinasingleorsetofreactorbasins.SBRsuse
fourbasicphasesformostsystems:
Fill:waterisaddedtothebasinandisaeratedandmixed
React:Biologicalprocessesareperformed
Settle:Allaerationandmixingisturnedoffandthebiomassisallowedtosettle
Decant:Clarifiedeffluentisremovedandbiomassiswastedasnecessary
TheSBRcontrolsystemallowsittomimicmostothersuspendedgrowthprocessessuchasthe
MLEorFourStageBardenphosystem.Ittypicallycompletes4to6cyclesperdaypertankfordomestic
wastewater.Ifproperlydesignedandoperated,SBRscanachieveabout90percentremovalofnitrogen
(WEFandASCE,2006).SBRapplicationsforsmallsystemsarediscussedinSection9.3ofthisreport.
OxidationDitches
Oxidationditchesareloopedchannelsthatprovidecontinuouscirculationofwastewaterand
biomass.Anumberofoperatingmethodsanddesignshavebeendevelopedtoachievenitrogen
removal,allofwhichworkbycyclingtheflowwithintheditchbetweenaerobicandanoxicconditions.
DOcanbeaddedtotheaeratedzoneusinghorizontalbrushaerators,diffusedaeratorswith
submersiblemixers,orverticalshaftaerators(WEFandASCE,2006).Patenteddesignsincludethe
NITROXprocess,Carrousel,andBioDenitro(WERF,2000a).Manyoxidationditchconfigurationscan
achievesimultaneousnitrogenandphosphorusremoval.SeeSection6.2.6ofthisreportforadditional
information.
Figure53OxidationDitchwithAerobicandAnoxicZones
StepFeed
Thestepfeedbiologicalnitrogenremovalprocesssplitstheinfluentflowanddirectsaportionof
ittoeachofseveralanoxiczones,withthehighestproportionofinfluentflowgoingtothefirstzoneand
steadilydecreasinguntilthelastanoxiczonepriortoclarification.Thebiomassinthelaterstagesare
notjusttreatinginfluentflowbutarealsousedtoreducenitratefromtheupstreamzones.
Thestepfeedsystemprovidesflexibilityforsystemstohandlewetweatherevents.Itcanalso
becompatiblewithexistingconventionalplugflowactivatedsludgeprocessesanditdoesnotrequire
theinstallationofrecyclepumpsandpiping.DisadvantagesincludetheneedtocontroltheDO
concentrationofaerationzonesprecedingthedownstreamanoxiczonesandtheneedtocontrolthe
flowsplittingtothestepfeedpoints.
INFL.
RAS
WAS
Anoxic
Aerobic
INFL.
RAS
WAS
Anoxic
Aerobic
Figure54StepFeedBiologicalNitrogenRemoval
5.2.1.2 AttachedGrowthandHybridSystems
IntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)
Integratedfixedfilmactivatedsludge(IFAS)isanysuspendedgrowthsystem(e.g.,MLE,Four
StageBardenpho)thatincorporatesanattachedgrowthmediawithinthesuspendedgrowthreactorin
ordertoincreasetheamountofbiomassinthebasin.IFASsystemshavehighertreatmentratesthan
suspendedgrowthsystemsandgeneratesludgewithbettersettlingcharacteristics.Manytypesoffixed
andfloatingmediaareavailable,including:
Rope:alsocalledloopedcordorstrandmedia.Consistsofapolyvinylchloridebased
materialwovenintoropewithloopsalongthelengthtoprovidesurfaceareaforthe
biomass(WERF,2000b).ProprietarydesignsincludeRinglace,Bioweb,andBiomatrix
(USEPA,2008a).
MovingBedwithSponge:proprietaryproductsincludeCaptorandLinpor(USEPA,2008a).
PlasticMedia:severaltypesoffreefloatingplasticmediaareavailablefromKaldness.
Othermediatypesincludefabricmesh(e.g.,AccuWeb)andtextilematerial(Cleartec).
MovingBedBiofilmReactor(MBBR)
Themovingbedbiofilmreactor(MBBR)issimilartotheIFASsysteminthatitusesplasticmedia
withalargesurfaceareatoincreasebiomasswithinthebiologicalreactor.TheMBBRmediais
submergedinacompletelymixedanoxicoraerobiczone.Theplasticmediaaretypicallyshapedlike
smallcylinderstomaximizesurfaceareaforbiomassgrowth.ThedifferencebetweenMBBRandIFASis
thatMBBRdoesnotincorporatereturnsludge(WERF,2000b).
MembraneBioreactor(MBR)
MBRsarecommonlydesignedfornitrogenremoval,usingmembranesforliquidsolids
separationfollowingtheanoxicandaerobiczonesinsteadofconventionalclarification.Membranescan
besubmersedinthebiologicalreactororlocatedinaseparatestageorcompartment.Lowpressure
membranes(ultrafiltrationormicrofiltration)arecommonlyused.Systemscanbepressuredrivenor
vacuum.Allsystemsuseanairscourtechniquetoreducebuilduponthemembranes(USEPA,2007d;
USEPA,2008a).
Membranematerialsareeitherorganicpolymersorinorganicmaterialssuchasceramics.They
aredesignedinmodularunitsandaretypicallyconfiguredaseitherhollowfiberbundlesorplate
membranes(USEPA,2007d)
Forbiologicalnutrientremovalapplications,thedesignSRTsanddesignprincipalsforMBR
systemsaresimilartothoseusedforsystemswithsecondaryclarifiers.Oneofthemaindifferencesis
thattheMBRsystemsoperateatahigherMLSSconcentrationwhichresultsinsmallertanksandsmaller
spacerequirements.Inaddition,membraneseparationprovidesforgreatlyreducedTSSintheeffluent,
typicallybelow1.0mg/L,andhenceslightlygreaterremovalofnitrogenandphosphorus.Operational
issuesincludepotentialformembranebiofoulingandincreasepumpingcosts(USEPA,2007d;WEF,
2005).
5.2.2 SeparateStageNitrificationandDenitrificationSystems
5.2.2.1 SuspendedGrowthNitrification
SinglesludgesystemsforBODremovalandnitrificationrequirethatthebiomassinventorybe
retainedlongenoughtoestablishastablepopulationofnitrifiersandthattheHRTbesuchthatthe
biomasscanreactwiththeammonianitrogenenteringthesystem.Theoverallapproachfordesigning
suchsystemsistodeterminethetargetSRTforthesystembasedoninfluentcharacteristics(i.e.,BOD,
ammonianitrogen,organicnitrogen),environmentalconditionssuchastemperatureandflow
characteristics(i.e.,averagedaily,maximummonthly,diurnalpeak).
MostactivatedsludgetreatmentplantswillreadilynitrifyiftheyhavesufficientaerobicSRTand
candeliversufficientoxygenmaintaining2mg/LDOorgreater.Forplantshavingdifficultyinnitrifying
duetoinsufficienttankvolume,therearesomeemergingtechnologieswhichcanimprovetheprocess.
Oneoftheseisbioaugmentation.Bioaugmentationisaccomplishedbyseedingtheactivatedsludge
processwithanexternalsourceofnitrifyingbacteria(alsoknownasexternalbioaugmentation)or
makingprocessimprovementstoincreasetheactivityoforenrichthenitrifierpopulation(alsoknown
asinsitubioaugmentation).
Externalbioaugmentationuseseithercommercialsourcesofnitrifiersorsidestreamprocesses
togrownitrifiersonsite.Earlyexperienceswithcommercialsourceswerenotconsistent,somostwork
todatehasbeenwithsidestreamproductiononsite(USEPA,2008a).Twopatentedsidestream
configurationsforexternalbioaugmentationaretheSinglereactorHighactivityAmmoniaRemovalOver
Nitrite(SHARON)processandtheInNitriprocess.Bothprovidehightemperaturesidestream
nitrificationusingammoniafromtheanaerobicallydigestedsludgedewateringliquidordigested
supernatant.Thenitrifiersgrowninthesidestreamreactorarefedtothemainliquidtreatmentstream.
Bothuseflowthroughreactorswithhydraulicretentiontimes(HRT)inthe2to3dayrange.Inthe
SHARONprocess,nitrificationisstoppedmainlyatnitritebysuchprocesscontrolmethodsaslowDO
concentration,lowpHand/orlowSRT.FullscaleoperatingsystemsfortheSHARONprocessinclude
installationsatUtrecht,Rotterdam,Zwolle,Beverwijk,Groningen,TheHagueintheNetherlands,anda
systemisexpectedtostartupinNewYorkCityin2009.Seedingfromadiffusedairbiologicalnutrient
removalprocesstostimulatenitrificationinaparalleloxygenprocesshasprovedsuccessfulatanumber
oflocations(Bottetal.,2007).
Emerginginsitubioaugmentationtechnologiesusedtoenhancenitrifiergrowthandshownto
besuccessfulinbench,pilot,and/orfullscaletrialsaredescribedbrieflybelow(USEPA,2008a):
TheBioAugmentationRegeneration/Reaeration(BAR)processwasdevelopedintheU.S.andis
identicaltotheRegenerationDeNitrification(RDN)processdevelopedindependentlyinthe
CzechRepublic.Itworksbyrecyclingammonialadenfiltrateorcentratefromdewateringof
aerobicallydigestedsludgetotheheadoftheaerationtank.Thesidestreamisfullynitrified,
seedingtheaerationtankwithadditionalnitrifyingbacteriawhichallowsforreducedSRT.
TherearenumerousfullscaleapplicationsintheCzechRepublic,U.S.,andCanada.The
AerationTank3(AT3)issimilartotheBARprocessexceptthatitsendsasmallerfractionofthe
returnactivatedsludge(RAS)totheaerationtankinordertostopthenitrificationprocessatthe
nitritestage.
BioAugmentationBatchEnhanced(BABE)processusesaSBRtogrownitrifiersbyfeedingitRAS
andrejectwaterfromthesludgedewateringprocess.Aftertreatment,concentratednitrifiers
arerecycledtotheheadoftheaerationtank.
TheMainstreamAutotrophicRecycleEnhancedNremoval(MAUREEN)Processwasdeveloped
forthetwosludgetreatmentconfigurationattheBluePlainsAdvancedWastewaterTreatment
PlantinWashington,DC.TheprocessinvolvessidestreamtreatmentofWASfromthesecond
stagetopreferentiallyselectAOBforbioaugmentationtothefirstsludgestage.
5.2.2.2 AttachedGrowthNitrification
Attachedgrowthprocesseswillalsonitrify.Tricklingfiltersandrotatingbiologicalcontactors
(RBCs)havehistoricallybeenusedforbiologicaltreatmentofwastewaterandcanachievenitrification
withaloworganicloadingandarelativelyhighmediavolume.Typically,nitrificationisachievedonthe
mediaaftermostoftheBODisremovedsincetheheterotrophicpopulationcompeteswiththenitrifying
organismsforoxygenandspaceonthemedia.Amajordisadvantageofthesetechnologiescompared
tosuspendedgrowthsystemsisthatdenitrificationisfullydependentonadditionofasupplemental
carbonsource.Suspendedgrowthprocesses,ontheotherhand,canbedesignedtodenitrify80
percentormoreofnitrateusingtheincomingBODasthecarbonsource,whichisalowercostsolution.
Consequently,tricklingfiltersandRBCshavefallenoutoffavorfornutrientremovalapplications.
Inrecentyears,manufacturershavedevelopednewtechnologiescalledbiologicalaeratedfilters
(BAF)toachieveBODremovalandnitrification.USEPA(2008a)identifiestwoexistingBAFdesignsas
establishedtechnologies:theBioforsystemandtheBiostyrsystem.TheBioforfiltrationsystemisa
fixedbed,upflowsystemwithadensegranularmediathatisdesignedtoexpandduringfiltration.Airis
sprayedintothefiltertomaintainanaerobicenvironment.TheBiostyrsystemissimilarbutusesa
mediathatislessdensethanwaterandheldinplaceduringoperationbyascreenatthetopofthecell.
BAFcanbeconfiguredinseriestoremoveBODinoneunitandammonianitrogeninthenextor
itcanbedesignedforBODremovalandnitrificationinasingleunitdependingonprocessgoals.
AdvantagesofBAFincludeitssmallerfootprint,higherhydraulicloadingrates,andlesssusceptibilityto
washoutthansuspendedsludgesystems(Vermaetal.,2006).
Anotherfixedfilmprocessthathasgainedpopularitylatelyismovingbedbiofilmreactors
(MBBR).Thesereactorsinvolvebiofilmattachedtoaplasticmediainaseriesoffluidizedbedreactors.
Theplasticmediahelppromotespecializationofthebiofilmwithineachreactorforeithernitrification
ordenitrification(WEFandASCE,2006).Mixersormediumbubblediffuseaerationareusedtokeepthe
mediasuspended,dependingonwhetherthesystemisanaerobicoraerobic.MBBRhasashorterSRT
andsmallerfootprintthanactivatedsludgeprocesses.Ithasalsoproventobeeffectiveincold
temperatures(Bottetal.,2007).
5.2.2.3 SeparateStageDenitrification
Aseparatestagedenitrificationsystemmaybeappropriateforplantsthatareregularly
achievingnitrificationandneedtoadddenitrificationcapabilities.Attachedgrowthsystems
(denitrifyingfilters)aremorecommonthansuspendedgrowthsystems,althoughsuspendedgrowth
systemshavebeenusedforsometreatmentplants.Suspendedgrowthreactorstypicallyhaveshort
SRTs(2to3hrs)andasmallaeratedzonefollowingthedenitrificationzonetooxidizeexcessmethanol
andreleasecontainednitrogengasbubbles(WEFandASCE,2006).
Denitrificationfilterstypicallyhaveasmallfootprintcomparedtosuspendedgrowthsystems
andhavetheaddedadvantageofachievingdenitrificationandsolidsremovalsimultaneously.They
werefirstinstalledinthe1970sandhaveevolvedintotwomainprocessconfigurations(USEPA,2007c):
Downflowdenitrificationfiltersaredeepbedfiltersconsistingofmedia,supportgravel,and
ablockunderdrainsystem.Wastewaterflowisdirectedoverweirsontothetopofthefilter
whereasupplementalcarbonsource,typicallymethanol,isadded.Backwashing(typically
airscouringandbackwashingwithairandwater)isconductedatregularintervalstoremove
entrappedsolidsfromthefilter.Duringoperation,nitrateisconvertedtonitrogengasand
becomesentrainedinthefiltermedia,increasingheadlossthroughthefilter.Torelease
entrainednitrogen,mostdenitrificationsystemshaveanitrogenreleasecycleoperation
thatessentiallybumpsthefilterbyturningonthebackwashpump(s)forashortperiodof
time.
Upflowcontinuousbackflowfiltersdonothavetobetakenofflineforbackwashing,asitis
anintegralpartofthefilteringprocess.Wastewaterentersthebottomofthefilterwherea
carbonsource,typicallymethanol,isadded.Waterflowsupthroughaninfluentpipeandis
dispersedintothefiltermediathroughdistributors.Filteredwaterdischargesatthetopof
thefilter.Filtermediacontinuouslytravelsdownward,isdrawnintoanairliftpipeatthe
centerofthefilter,andisscouredbeforebeingreturnedtothefilterbed.
Performanceofdenitrifyingfiltersdependsonmanyfactorsincluding:
Influentweirconfiguration
Filtermedia
Underdrainsystem
Backwashsystem
Flowandmethanolfeedcontrol
OnewastewatersysteminConnecticutreportedthatkeydesignissuesforthemwereinfluent
pipingdesigntominimizeaeration,maintainingaconsistentflowtothefilters,andcontrolofmethanol
feedbasedoninfluentCOD(Pearsonetal.,2008).
5.3 KeyDesignandOperationalIssues
Temperature
Ingeneral,astemperatureofthewastewaterincreases,therateofnitrificationand
denitrificationincreases.Forthetypicalrangeofliquidtemperaturesbetween10and25
o
C,the
nitrificationratewillapproximatelydoubleforevery8to10
o
Cincreaseintemperature(WEFandASCE,
2006).Rapiddecreasesintemperaturewithoutacclimationtimewill,however,causeevenslower
nitrificationratesthanpredicted,strictlybythetemperaturechange.Denitrificationrateswillalso
increasewithincreasingtemperature,althoughnotatthesamemagnitudeasnitrificationrates.
DissolvedOxygen
NitrifyingbacteriaarealsomoresensitivetoDOlevelsascomparedtoaerobicheterotrophic
bacteria,withgrowthratesstartingtodeclinebelow3to4mg/Lwithsignificantreductionbelow2
mg/L.ThenitrificationrateataDOconcentrationof0.50mg/Lisonlyabout60percentofthatata2.0
mg/LDOconcentration.Studieshaveshownthattheamountofoxygenavailabletonitrifyingbacteria
canbelimitedbyflocsize,requiringhigherbulkDOconcentrationsunderhigherorganicloading
conditions(StenstromandSong,1991).AtDOconcentrationslessthan0.5mg/L,theeffectisgreater
forNitrobacterthanforNitrosomonas.ThiscanresultinhigherNO
2
Nintheeffluentandhavea
negativeimpactonchlorinedisinfectionas1gofNO
2
Nconsumes5gchlorineforoxidation.Asnoted
inSection5.1,DOmustnormallybelessthan0.2to0.5mg/L,otherwisetherewillbeinhibitionofthe
denitrificationprocess.
pHandAlkalinity
NitrificationgenerallyoperateswellwithinapHrangeof6.8to8.0(WEFandASCE,2006).At
lowerpHvaluesthenitrificationrateismuchslowerandatpHvaluesnear6.0thenitrificationratemay
onlybeabout20percentofthatwithapHof7.0(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).Alkalinityisconsumed
duringthenitrificationprocessbutpartiallyreplenished(upto62.5percent)duringthedenitrification
process.Dependingontheinfluentwastewateralkalinity,theremaybeasufficientalkalinityreduction
duetonitrificationtodecreasetounacceptablelevels.Additionofchemicalssuchaslime,sodium
hydroxide,orsodaashcanbeusedtoreplacethealkalinityconsumedbynitrificationtomaintain
acceptablepHlevels.
CarbonSourcesforDenitrification
Denitrifyingbacterianeedareadilyavailablecarbonfoodsource,suchassolubleBOD,to
ultimatelyconvertnitratetonitrogengas.WWTPsthatmeetverylowtotalnitrogenlimitstypicallyuse
asecondaryanoxiczoneinwhichsupplementalcarbonisadded.Supplementalsourcescanbe
internalsuchasfermentedwastewaterorsludge,orexternalsourcessuchaspurchasedchemicals.
Methanoliscurrentlythemostcommonexternalcarbonsourceusedindenitrificationbecause
ofitlowcost.Ithasseveraldrawbacks,however,namely:
Itishighlyflammableandimplicatedinsomestoragetankexplosionsandfires(Dolan,
2007);howeverwithproperdesignandoperationproblemscanbeminimized.
Itisnotthemostefficientsourceformosttreatmentconfigurations.
Costshavebeguntofluctuatewidely(deBarbadilloetal.,2008).
Availabilityisaprobleminsomeareas(Neethlingetal.2008).
Reportedlowgrowthratesundercoldtemperatures(Doldetal.2008).
Othersourcesofcarbonincludeethanol,aceticacid,cornsyrup,molasses,glucose,glycerol,and
industrialwasteproducts.TheWEFNutrientChallengeResearchPlan(2007)identifiedresearchon
alternativecarbonsourcesaspriorityforoperators,owners,andengineersofwastewatersystems.In
Decemberof2007,the2
nd
ExternalCarbonWorkshopwasheldinWashington,DCtodiscussthestateof
thetechnologyandresearchneeds.WERFisalsocurrentlyformulatingastandardprotocolfor
evaluationofexternalcarbonalternatives.
NitrificationInhibitionfromToxicChemicals
Nitrifyingbacteriaareverysensitivetoheavymetalsandotherinorganiccompoundsin
wastewater.TheLocalLimitsDevelopmentGuidanceManual(USEPA2004)hasbeenthemainsource
ofinformationoninhibitoryeffectsforavarietyofwastewatertreatmentprocessesincluding
nitrification.AppendixGofthe2004versionprovidesasummarytablewiththereportedrangeof
nitrificationinhibitionthresholdlevelsforanumberofmetals,nonmetalinorganics,andorganic
compounds.Actualinhibitoryeffectsaresitespecificanddependonmanyfactorsincludingthenature
ofbiodegradableorganicmaterial,microorganismspeciation,acclimationeffects,temperature,and
waterqualityconditions.
WetWeatherEvents
Wetweathereventscanincreaseinflowandinfiltrationintothecollectionsystemand
subsequentlyincreasethehydraulicloadtothewastewatertreatmentplant.Thiscaninturnreducethe
SRTleadingtoreducedperformanceofnitrificationprocessunits.Inaddition,wetweatherflowshave
differentcharacteristicsthantypicalwastewaterinfluentflowandcanbelessfavorablefornitrification
anddenitrification.Conditionsthatarelessfavorablefornitrificationincludedecreasedalkalinityand
suddentemperaturedrops.LowerbiodegradableCODconcentrationsandincreasedDOmakewet
weatherflowslessamenabletodenitrification.
Flowequalizationbasinscanbeusedtohandlewetweatherevents;however,thisrequires
availablespaceandcapitalinvestment.USEPA(2008a)identifiesanumberofinnovativestorageand
treatmenttechnologiesusedtomanageinfluentflowsduringwetweatherevents.
5.4 GuidanceforSelectingProcessModifications
Nitrogenremovalrequiresfirstthatabiologicalnitrificationprocessbepresentorthatthe
facilitybemodifiedtoaccomplishnitrification.Considerablymorevolumeisneededforactivated
sludgenitrificationcomparedtodesignsforBODremovalonly.Ifthereisinsufficientspaceto
accommodatetheincreasedvolume,suspendedgrowthorhybridprocessoptionsthatrequireless
spacesuchastheMBRprocessorIFASsystemswithsuspendedmediaintheactivatedsludgeprocess
shouldbeconsidered.Anotheroptionistouseafixedfilmnitrificationprocessafterthesuspended
growthprocessclarificationstep.ThiscouldbeaBAForaplasticmediatricklingfilter.However,if
nitrogenremovalisrequired,anexogenouscarbonsourceisneeded,whichhashigheroperatingcosts
thanusingtheinfluentBODfordenitrification.
NitrificationsystemsneedsufficientoxygentransferforammoniaoxidationinadditiontoBOD
removal.Suchsystemsshouldconsidertheimpacttodiurnalloadingsandammoniaadditioninrecycle
streams.TheinfluentTNconcentrationmayhavedailypeakvaluesthatare1.5to2.0timesthedaily
averageloading.HigherpeakloadingsrequirelongerSRTstoassurethatsufficientnitrifyingbacteria
arepresenttoremoveammoniaatagreaterrate,whilemaintainingaloweffluentammonia
concentration.Oftenanaerobicdigestersludgedewateringoperationsoccurduringthedayand
producereturnrecyclestreamshighinammoniaconcentration(5001000mg/L)attimesthatcoincide
withthehighinfluentdiurnalammonialoads.Recycleequalizationortreatmenthelpstoprovideamore
stablenitrificationsystemandlowereffluentNH
3
Nconcentrations.
Inmanycases,itisadvantageoustoincorporateadenitrificationpreanoxicstepwith
nitrification(MLEprocess)duetothemanybenefitsandimprovedoperationalstability.Theadvantages
include1)lessaerationenergyasthenitrateproducedcanbeusedforBODremoval,2)theproduction
ofalkalinitytooffsetthealkalinityusedbynitrification,whichinsomecaseseliminatestheneedto
purchasealkalinity,and3)amorestable,bettersettlingactivatedsludgeprocessastheanoxicaerobic
processesfavorgoodsettlingflocformingbacteriaoverfilamentousgrowth.
Theeffluentnitrogengoalsgreatlyaffecttheprocessdesignchoicesandsystemoperation.For
aneffluentgoalof10mg/LTN,anMLEprocessisoftensufficientforactivatedsludgetreatmentwith
secondaryclarifiersormembraneseparation.However,withwaterconservationleadingtomore
concentratedwastewater,theseprocessesalonemaynotbesufficientduetothefactthattheyare
limitedto8085%removaloftheinfluentTN.
ForTNeffluentgoalsof3to5mg/Lorlower,someformofpostanoxictreatmentisgenerally
needed.OneoptionistoconvertanMLEprocesstoaBardenphoprocessbyaddinganotheranoxic
aerobicsetoftanks.Althoughtheendogenousrespirationrateofthebacteriacanbeusedtoconsume
nitrateinthepostanoxictanks,itisoftennecessarytoaddanexogenouscarbonsource.Other
alternativestousingexogenouscarbonsourcesincludedenitrificationfiltersinsteadofaddingmore
activatedsludgetankvolume,stepfeedwithcarbonadditioninthelastpass,andIFASprocesses.
Denitrificationprocessesrequiresufficientcarbontodrivethenitrate/nitritereduction
reactions.Characterizationoftheinfluentwastewaterwithregardtoitsorganicstrengthandsoluble
fractionandtheTNandammoniaconcentrationsisneededtofullyunderstandasystemscarbonneeds.
Inaddition,designandoperatingmethodsthateliminateorminimizeDOfeedingtoanoxiczonescan
reducetheamountofexogenouscarbonneededandprovideamorestableoperation.LowDOzones
priortodownstreamanoxictanksorforwithdrawalofrecycletopreanoxiczonesshouldbeconsidered.
5.5 ImpactsonSludgeProductionandHandling
IthasbeendocumentedbybothresearchandfullscaleexperimentsthatBODremovalby
activatedsludgeusingnitrateastheelectronacceptorinsteadofDOwillresultina20%ormore
reductioninwasteactivatedsludge(WAS)productionforthesameoperatingconditions.Fullscale
investigationsnearMelbourne,Australiaachievedashighasa40%reductioninWAS,and
implementationofnitrogenremovalattheYorkRiver,VA,plantresultedinareductionofmorethan
50%inWASproduction.Theimpactthiswillhaveontotalsludgeproductionbyatreatmentplantwill
dependuponhowmuchwastesludgeisproducedbyothertreatmentunitssuchasprimaryclarifiers
andchemicaltreatmentwithprecipitatingchemicals.Additionally,implementationofnitrogenremoval
atconventionalactivatedsludgeplantscanimprovethethickeningcharacteristicsduetodecreasingthe
amountsoffilamentousbacteriaintheactivatedsludge.Ifanexternalcarbonsourceisaddedto
improvetherateofdenitrification,therewillbeanincreaseinWASproductioncomparedtowhenno
externalcarbonsourceisadded.Ifanexternalcarbonsourceisusedtosupplementdenitrification,itis
likelythatthesmallincreaseinsolidsproductionwillbeoffsetbyendogenousrespirationduetolonger
SRTs.Solidsproducedfromnitrogenremovalprocessesgenerallythickenanddewaterwellandshow
nonegativeimpactonanysolidsprocessingsystem.
6. BiologicalPhosphorusRemovalandCombinationProcesses
Thischapterprovidesanoverviewoftheprinciplesbehindbiologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR).
Itdescribesexistingconfigurationsthatcanachievephosphorusremovalandinmanycases,
simultaneousnitrogenremoval.Keyoperationalissues,impactsonsludgehandling,andasummaryof
ongoingresearchrelatedtoBPRremovalarealsoprovided.
6.1 Principles
Biologicalphosphorusremovalisachievedbycontactingphosphorusaccumulatingorganisms
(PAOs)intheRASwithfeed,containingvolatilefattyacids(VFA),inazonefreeofnitratesandDO
(anaerobiczone).PhosphorusisreleasedinthiszoneprovidingenergyforuptakeofVFAsthatare
polymerizedandstoredinsidethePAOcells.Theanaerobiczoneisfollowedbyanaerationzonewhere
thepolymerizedVFAsaremetabolizedandphosphorusistakenupagaintostoreexcessenergyfrom
themetabolism.Thephosphoruscontentofthemixedliquorsuspendedsolids(MLSS)wouldbesimilar
tothatofthewasteactivatedsludge(WAS).Whennitrificationoccursintheaerationbasin,nitrateswill
bepresentintheRAS,resultinginsomemetabolismoftheVFAbeforestorage,therebyreducing
subsequentphosphorusuptake.Someformofdenitrification(anoxiczones)mustbeusedto
reduce/removethenitratesfromtheRAS.TheprocessflowsheetsnowknownasPhoredox(A/O)and
3StagePhoredox(A2/O)aswellasthemodifiedBardenphoprocesswerefirstpublishedbyBarnard
(1975)asthePhoredoxflowsheetsfortheremovalofphosphorus.Thetheoryforthefunctioningof
thePAOwasfirstsuggestedbyFuhs&Chen(1975)andcanbrieflybedescribedinconjunctionwith
Figure6.1below.
Fuhs&ChenTheory
PAOshavetheabilitytostorealargemassofphosphorusintheircellsintheformof
polyphosphates.Polyphosphatesareformedbyaseriesofhighenergybonds.Theorganismscan
subsequentlygetenergyfrombreakingthesebonds.Thepolyphosphateglobuleswithinthecells
functionjustlikeenergystoragebatteries.Thestorageofpolyphosphates(energy),takesplaceinthe
aerationzone.Intheanaerobiczone,theseobligateaerobicbacteriacantakeupshortchainVFAsuch
asacetateandpropionateandstorethemintheformofintermediateproductssuchaspolyhydroxy
butyrate(PHB).Theenergyfortransferringthefoodacrossthecellmembranesintheanaerobiczoneis
derivedfrombreakingphosphorusbonds.Excessphosphatesarereleasedtotheliquidintheanaerobic
zone.Somemagnesiumandpotassiumionsarecotransportedacrossthecellwallswithphosphates.
PAOscanonlygetenergyfromthefoodtheyhavetakenupintheanaerobiczonewhentheypasstothe
aerobiczonewhereoxygenisavailable.Theyuseoxygentometabolizethestoredproducts,deriving
enoughenergytotakeupallthereleasedphosphatesaswellasthoseintheinfluent,andstorethemin
thecells.TheWASwillcontainsufficientphosphateenrichedPAOstoremovemostofthephosphorus
fromthewastesteamonceenhancedBPRisestablished.
Figure61Theoryofbiologicalphosphorusremovalinactivatedsludge
Therightcarbonsource,inthiscaseacombinationofacetatesandpropionates,isessentialfor
BPR.Thewastewatercharacteristicsarethusimportant.Ingeneral,itcanbesaidthatyouneedatleast
40:1COD:TPorabout18:1BOD
5
:TPintheprocessinfluentwastewatertoreduceeffluentphosphorusto
lessthan1.0mg/L.Inaddition,someoftheCODshouldconsistofshortchainVFAs.MoreCODmaybe
requiredifnitratesmustalsobedenitrified.
Biologicalphosphorusremovalcanworkinwithorwithoutnitrification.Whennitrification
occurs,denitrificationwithintheprocessisimportanttoreducethenitratesthatmaybereturnedwith
theRAS.WhiletheanaerobiczoneservesmostlyasacontactzoneforVFAsandPAOs,some
fermentationofeasilybiodegradablecarboncompounds(rbCOD)toacetateandpropionatemaytake
place.Inmostplantsthereadilybiodegradablematerialisinshortsupplyandmustbereservedforthe
PAOs.
Whennitrateoroxygenisdischargedtotheanaerobiczone,twothingsmayhappen,both
undesirable:
TheywillpreventfermentationofrbCODtoaceticandpropionicacid
NitratesorDOcouldserveaselectronacceptorsforPAOsandotherorganismsthatwill
metabolizetheVFAandsodeprivethePAOsofthesubstancethattheyneedtostorefor
growthandphosphorusremoval.
IntheabsenceofelectronacceptorssuchasDOandnitratesintheanaerobiczone,PAOsare
favoredtogrowsincetheycantakeupandstoretheVFAunderanaerobicconditions,therebymakingit
unavailableforotheraerobicandfacultativeheterotrophsintheaerobiczone.
BiologicalremovalofbothnitrogenandphosphorusatthesameWWTPiscommon.Both
functionsrequireacarbonsource.Whiledenitrificationorganismscanfeedonquiteanumberofeasily
degradablematerialssuchasmethanol,sugar,glucose,acetateandpropionate,PAOsarerestrictedto
thelattertwoforpolymerizationandstorage(e.g.addingmethanoltotheanaerobiczonewillreduce
nitratesbutnotassistintheremovalofphosphorus).Seesection6.4.1fordetaileddiscussionon
carbonsourcesforbiologicalphosphorusremoval.
6.2 CurrentConfigurations
Thebasicdesignofanaerobic,anoxic,andaerobiczones,inthatorder,hasbeenachievedin
manydifferentconfigurations.Theconfigurationsvaryinthenumberofstages,thenatureandlocation
ofrecycles,andtheoperationoftheprocess.Eachprocesswasmodifiedfromthestandardbiological
activatedsludgedesigninordertoaccomplishvariousdesigngoals(e.g.,protectionoftheanaerobic
zonefromexcessnitraterecycle).Theprimaryprocessesarelistedbelow.Ofthese,allwillalso
biologicallyremovenitrogenexceptforthePhoredoxprocess.
Phoredox(A/O)
3StagePhoredox(A2/O)
ModifiedBardenpho
UniversityofCapetown(UCT)andModifiedUCT(MUCT)
Johannesburg(JHB),ModifiedJohannesburg,andWestbank
OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority(OWASA)
Oxidationditcheswithanaerobiczonesorphasesadded
SBRoperatedwithananaerobicphase
Hybridchemical/biologicalprocesses
Theperformanceofthesetechnologiesdependsonmanysitespecificfactors,includingbutnot
limitedtotemperature,hydraulicandorganicloading,recyclerates,andreturnstreams.The
technologiesdescribedinthissectionaregenerallycapableofphosphorusremovaltoeffluentlevels
between0.5and1.0mg/L.Operatingstrategiesthatcanbeusedtoenhancebiologicaltreatmentand
achievetheseand,insomecases,evenlowereffluentlevelsaredescribedinSection6.4.
Biologicalphosphorusremovalcanbecombinedwithothertechnologiestoachieveverylow
effluentconcentrations(<0.2mg/L).Chemicaladditioncombinedwithbiologicalremovalof
phosphorushasbeenusedtoconsistentlyachievelowlevels.WEFandASCE(1998)recommendthat
WWTPshavechemicaladditioncapabilitiesevenforwelloperatingBPRplantstoprovidebackup
phosphorusremovalintheeventofpoweroutages,pipebreaks,orotherunforeseenevents.
Solidsremovalcanalsobealimitingfactorinachievingphosphorusremovalbelow0.2mg/L.
VerylowphosphoruslevelsgenerallyrequireaTSSleveloflessthan5mg/L.Tertiaryfiltration(see
Chapter7),membranebioreactors(seeChapter5),andadvancedclarificationprocesses(seeChapter4)
canachieveTSSlevelslessthan5mg/L.
6.2.1 Phoredox(A/O)and3StagePhoredox(A2/O)
ThePhoredox(A/O)processisaconventionalactivatedsludgesystemwithananaerobiczone
attheheadoftheaerationbasin.TheRASispumpedfromtheclarifiertotheanaerobiczone.Itisa
lowSRTprocess,operatedtoavoidnitrification.WithnonitratesintheRAStheprocessisreliableand
easytooperateexceptattemperaturesinexcessof25Cwhennitrificationisdifficulttoavoid.The3
StagePhoredox(A2/O)processaddsananoxiczoneaftertheanaerobiczonetoachievedenitrification.
Inaddition,anitraterichliquorisrecycledfromtheendoftheaerobiczonetotheheadoftheanoxic
zonetoenhancedenitrification.Ashortcomingofthe3StagePhoredoxprocessisthattherewillbe
nitratespresentintheRAS,potentiallymakingtheprocessunreliable.
Figure62PhoredoxProcess(A/O)
Figure633StagePhoredoxProcess(A2/O)
ThereareexistingPhoredoxplantsinPontiac,MIandTitusville,FL.Performancedataforthese
plantsexistsinWEF(1998).Performancedataon3StagePhoredoxplantsinLargo,FL;Fayetteville,AR;
MontgomeryCounty,PA;Warminster,PA;Newark,OH;Goldsboro,NC;Frederick,MD;andSodRun,MD
areavailableinWEF(1998)andWEFandASCE(2006).Neethlingetal.(2005)reporteddatafor3Stage
PhoredoxplantsinDurham,NCandNineSprings,WIandforPhoredoxplantsinMissoula,MTand
GrandPrairie,Alberta.
6.2.2 ModifiedBardenpho
TheBardenphoprocessremovesnitrogentolowconcentrations.Theadditionofananaerobic
zoneattheheadoftheprocessenablesphosphorusremovalaswell.Theprocessconsistsof5stages:
ananaerobicstagefollowedbyalternatinganoxicandaerobicstages.Anitraterichliquorisrecycled
fromthefirstaerobicstage,designedforcompletenitrification,tothefirstanoxicstage.TheRASis
recycledfromtheclarifiertothebeginningoftheanaerobiczone.SincethenitratesintheRASranges
from1to3mg/L,itdoesnotseriouslyinterferewiththemechanismforphosphorusremovalascan
happeninthe3StagePhoredoxprocess.
PerformancedataonexistingplantsinPalmetto,FL;Kelowna,BC;OrangeCounty,FL;Fort
Myers,FL;CityofCocoa,FL;TarponSprings,FL;Johannesburg,SouthAfrica(Goudkoppies);and
MedfordLakes,NJarepublishedinWEF(1998)andWEFandASCE(2006).Neethlingetal.(2005)
reportedperformancedataonmodifiedBardenphoplantsatReedyCreek(DisneyWorld)andIron
Bridge,FL.
6.2.3 UniversityofCapeTown(UCT)andModifiedUCT(MUCT)
TheUCTprocesswasdesignedtoreducenitratestotheanaerobiczonewhenhighremovalof
nitratesintheeffluentisnotrequired.Itconsistsofthreestages:ananaerobicstage,ananoxicstage,
andanaerobicstage.TheRASisreturnedfromtheclarifiertotheanoxiczoneinsteadoftheanaerobic
zonetoallowfordenitrificationandtoavoidinterferencefromnitratewiththeactivationofthePAOsin
theanaerobicstage.Anitraterichstreamisrecycledfromtheaerobiczonetotheanoxiczone.
Denitrifiedmixedliquorisrecycledfromtheanoxiczonetotheanaerobiczone.
Figure64UCTandModifiedUCTProcess
Severalmodificationsoftheprocessexist.Sometimesitcanbedifficulttoachievethelevelof
denitrificationintheanoxiczonerequiredtoprotecttheanaerobiczonefromnitrateswhenthezoneis
receivingbothRASandhighinternalnitraterecycleflows.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentofthe
modifiedUCTprocess,whichsplitstheanoxiczoneintotwostages.Thenitraterichrecyclefromthe
aerobiczoneisrecycledtotheheadofthesecondanoxicstage.ThenitratecontainingRASisrecycled
tothefirstanoxicstagewhereitisdenitrified.Next,thedenitrifiedRASisrecycledfromtheendofthe
firstanoxicstagebacktotheheadoftheanaerobicstageandmixedwiththeincomingwastewater.The
VirginiaInitiativePlant(VIP)issimilartotheUCTprocess,buttheanaerobicandanoxiczonesarebaffled
intotwoormoresectionseachtoincreaseratesofreactioninthefirstsectionofeachzone,thereby
firmlyestablishingthedesiredanaerobicandanoxicconditioninthesecondsection.
PerformancedataforexistingVIPplantsoperatedbytheHamptonRoadsSanitationDistrict
(HRSD)atNorfolkandNansemond,VA,forUCTplantsinTraverseCity,MI,andLethbridge,Albertaand
formodifiedUCTplantsinKingCountySouth,WAandKalispell,MTareavailableinWEFandASCE
(2006).PerformancedataarealsoavailablefortheHRSDVIPplantsalongwiththemodifiedUCTplants
atKalispell,MTandMcDowellCreek,NCinNeethlingetal.(2005).
6.2.4 Johannesburg(JHB),ModifiedJohannesburgandWestbank
TheJHBprocessissimilartothe3StagePhoredoxprocess,buthasapreanoxictankaheadof
theanaerobiczonetoprotectthezonefromnitrateswhenloweffluentnitratesarenotrequired.The
lowCODofthewastewaterlimitedthedenitrificationcapacityintheoriginalplant(NothernWorks),
resultinginnitratesintheRAS.ThisreducedBPRsomuchthatapreanoxictankwasincludedonthe
RASlinetoremovethenitratesfromtheRASflowusingendogenousrespiration,beforetheflow
enteredtheanaerobiczone.ThemodifiedJHBprocessaddsarecyclefromtheendoftheanaerobic
zonetotheheadofthepreanoxiczonetoprovideresidual,readilybiodegradablecompoundsfor
denitrification.
TheWestbankprocessissimilartotheJHBprocessbutaddssomeprimaryeffluenttothe
anaerobiczonetoassistindenitrificationwiththeremainderoftheprimaryeffluentbeingdischargedto
theanaerobiczone.Duringstormflows,excessflowispasseddirectlytothemainanoxiczone.VFA
obtainedfromacidfermentationoftheprimarysludgeispassedtotheanaerobiczone.
Figure65JHBandModifiedJHBProcess
Figures66WestbankProcess
6.2.5 OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority(OWASA)
TheOWASAprocesswasdevelopedbyaddingactivatedsludgefromabiologicalnitrogen
removalprocesstoatricklingfilterplant.Then,nitrifiedeffluentfromthetricklingfilterisfedtothe
aerobiczoneoftheactivatedsludgesystem.BecausetheVFAshavebeendestroyedbythetrickling
filter,itisnecessarytofermentthesettledorganicsolidsfromtheprimaryclarifiertoproducesufficient
VFAsforBPR.Next,thefermentedsupernatantispassedtoananaerobic(nutrition)zoneandmixed
withtheRAStoinitiateBPR.
Mixedliquorthenflowsfromthenutritionzonetoananoxiczoneandthentoanaerobic
zone.Alternatively,simultaneousnitrificationanddenitrificationtakesplaceintheaerationzone,as
showninFigure67.PerformancedatafortheoriginalplantinOrangeCounty,NC,areavailableinWEF
andASCE(2006).
Figure67OWASAProcess
6.2.6 OxidationDitches
Thereareseveraloxidationditchdesignsthatcanremovephosphorus.Theynormallyconsist
ofananaerobiczoneaheadoftheoxidationditchwhereassimultaneousnitrificationanddenitrification
takesplacewithintheditches.Oxidationditchestypicallyoperateasracetrackconfigurationsarounda
centralbarrier,withforwardmixedliquorflowsofapproximately1footpersecondormore.Itis
possible,bymanipulatingtheDOtransferredtothemixedliquor,toestablishbothanoxic,aerobicand
nearanaerobiczoneswithintheracetrackconfiguration,eventhoughthehighflowvelocities
accomplishcompletemixingofthewastewaterwiththeRAS.
Therearemanyformsofoxidationditches,suchastheCarousel,thePasveerDitchandthe
Orbalprocess.TheOrbalprocesscreatesanaerobicandanoxiczonesintheouterofthreeconcentric
ovalshapedditcheswiththeRASrecycledfromtheclarifiertotheanoxiczone.Itisalsopossibleto
introduceananaerobictankbeforetheditchtoaccomplishBPRinthecombinedsystem.ThePasveer
DitchandtheCarouselsystemalsocanbeusedinconjunctionwithananaerobiczonetoaccomplish
BPR,inadditiontosimultaneousnitrificationanddenitrificationwithintheditches.Becauseofthevery
highinternalrecyclewithintheditches,verylownitrateconcentrationscanbeachievedinthemixed
liquorbeforesettling,andanaerobicconditionsareeasytomaintainintheanaerobiczone,thereby
resultinginefficientBPR.ThelayoutwouldresembleaPhoredoxprocesswithsimultaneous
nitrificationdenitrification(SND)intheaerationbasin.AlternativelytheCarouselorPasveerDitchcould
beusedastheaerationstageineitherthe3StagePhoredoxortheModifiedBardenphoprocess.
TheVT2processatBowie,MD,operatestwoPasveerditchesinserieswithdedicatedanoxic,
nearanaerobicandaerobiczones.Italsohasasidestreamanaerobiczonethatreceivesonly30percent
oftheinfluentflowtoenhanceBPR.DenitrifiedMLSSfortheanaerobiczoneareobtainedfromtheend
ofthenearanaerobiczoneoftheadjacentditch.Operatedwithoutprimarysedimentation,thesystem
consistentlyobtainsverylow(<0.25mg/L)effluentTPwithoutchemicalsoreffluentfiltration.The
ditchesareoperatedinseriesbecausetheplanthaslimitedclarificationcapacity,andseriesoperation
resultsinlowerMLSSconcentrationstotheclarifiers.Thebiodeniphoprocessalsousespairsofditches.
Theditchesinthebiodeniphoprocessoperateinalternatinganoxicaerobicmodes.Ananaerobictankis
placedbeforetheditchesforBPRandtheditchesarealternatedbetweennitrificationandde
nitrification.
PerformancedataforexistingplantsatBowie,MDandNorthCary,NCareavailableinWEFand
ASCE(2006).
6.2.7 SequencingBatchReactors(SBR)
SBRsarefillanddrawreactorsthatoperatesequentiallythroughthevariousphasesbymeans
ofadjustingthemixingandaeration.Thereactorphasescanbesetandautomatedtoallowthemixed
liquortogothroughananaerobic/anoxic/aerobicprogressionasisnecessaryforremovalofphosphorus
andnitrates.BecauseofthefillanddrawnatureofSBRs,itactuallyisnecessarytoremovethenitrates
remainingfromthepreviouscyclebeforeanaerobicconditionscanbeestablished,thusthetypical
treatmentprogressionbecomesanoxic/anaerobic/aerobic.However,SBRsarealmostalwaysoperated
withoutprimarysedimentation,sotheystillusuallyhaveafavorableBOD
5
:TPratioforeffluentTPof
somewhatlessthan1.0mg/Lduringthesettlingphase.
PerformancedataforplantsinOakPoint,MI;GrundyCenterIA;CulverCity,IN;Armada,MI;and
Manchester,MIareinWEFandASCE(2006).
6.2.8 HybridChemical/BiologicalProcesses
ThePhoStripconfiguration,usedmainlyinnonnitrifyingplants,pullsasidestreamofftheRAS
inaconventionalactivatedsludgeplant.Thesidestreamisconcentratedandretainedforadayormore
inathickeningtankwherethesolidsblanketisdeepenoughtoproduceanaerobicconditionsand
fermentation,resultinginthereleaseofphosphatesbythemicroorganisms.Limeisthenaddedtothe
supernatantstreamtoprecipitateandremovephosphate.Thethickened,fermentedsludgeispassed
backtothemainaerationbasin.ExistingplantsincludeSenecaFalls,NY;Lansdale,PA;Adrian,MI;
Savage,MD;Southtowns,NY;Amherst,NY;andRenoSparks,NV.
TheBiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval(BCFS)configurationissimilartothe
modifiedUCTprocess.Inthisprocess,asludgestreamisremovedfromtheanaerobiczone.Ferric
chlorideisaddedtothesludgethickenertoremovephosphate.Thisprovidesanadvantageover
chemicaladditiontothesecondaryclarifierbecauseitdoesnotrequirethechemicalsludgetobe
recycled.ThereisanexistingplantatHoltenintheNetherlands(WEFandASCE,2006),butno
performancedataareavailable.
6.3 EmergingTechnologies
ManyplantsthatarenotspecificallyconfiguredforBPRneverthelessachievephosphorus
removaltolessthan1mg/L.Thefirstsuchobservationinanitrifyingplantwasinafourstage
Bardenphoplantwheremixedliquorwasrecycledfromthesecondanoxiczonetoanunstirred
fermenter,thenreturnedtotheanoxiczone.TheCATABOLandCannibalProcessesclaimtoreduce
excesssecondarysludgeproductionbypassingmixedliquororRASthroughananaerobic(fermenting)
stageandthenbacktothemainstreamaerationsystem.Inaddition,bothprocessespassthemixed
liquorthroughaprocessforremovalofsomeoftheinertsolids.Bothprocessesclaimtogetsimilar
phosphorusremovaltothatfortheBardenphoplantdescribedabove.Alloftheseprocessesrelyonthe
fermentationofsomeofthemixedliquorforproducingVFAthatassistsinthebiologicalremovalof
phosphorus.TheTownofCary,NC,hasbeenusingasystembywhichsomeofthesludgeinthereturn
streamsofabiologicalnitrogenremovalplantissubjectedtoanaerobicconditionssimilartothatofthe
otherprocessesdescribedaboveresultinginaneffluentphosphorusconcentrationoflessthan0.5
mg/L.
Thereisasimilaritybetweentheseprocessesandadhocprocessesforswitchingoffaerationin
plugflowplantsforpromotingphosphorusremoval.Theseadhocprocessestakevariousforms.The
PineyWater,CO,plantisa5stageBardenphoplantwithnoprimarysedimentationandlittleVFAinthe
influent,whichresultedinlittlephosphorusremoval.Byswitchingoffamixerinoneoftheanaerobic
zones,sludgesettledtothebottomandfermented,whichsuppliedtheVFAsforreducingtheortho
phosphorustolessthan0.2mg/L.AsimilaroperationattheHenderson,NV,plantinaJHBtypeprocess
hadthesameeffect.Someplugflowaerationplantssucceededinreducingphosphorustobelow1
mg/Lbyturningoffaerationatthefeedendoftheplant,suchastheBlueLakesandSenecaplants
operatedbytheMetropolitanCouncilEnvironmentalServiceinMinnesotaandtheSt.Cloud,MN,plant.
TheJoppatowneplantoperatedbyHarfordCounty,MD,consistsofanMLEplantwithsomesludge
accumulationintheanoxiczonewhilereducingthephosphorusfrom7mg/Lintheinfluenttoaround1
mg/Lintheeffluent.
Alloftheseplantsusethesameprincipleoffermentingsomeofthemixedliquorsludgeor
underflowfromthefinalclarifiers,eitherinsidethemainstreamtanksorinasidestreambasin.There
aremanyinstanceswhereenterprisingoperatorscanachieve80percentormorephosphorusremoval
byturningoffairormixersinconventionaltreatmentplants.
ThereisaCatabolplantinCartersville,GA(USEPA,2008a);however,therearenopublished
dataforthisplant.
6.4 OperationalandDesignConsiderations
ImportantfactorsthataffectBPRinclude:
BioavailableCOD:Pratiointheanaerobiczoneinfluent,includingadjustmentsbyVFA
additionandsludgefermentation
SRTandHRT
Presenceofoxygenornitrateintheanaerobiczone
Backmixingofoxygen
Temperature
pH
Secondaryreleaseunderanaerobicconditions
Sufficientoxygenintheaerobiczone
Inhibition
Flowandloadbalancing
6.4.1 COD:PRatio
ThePAOsneedVFAsintheformofaceticandpropionicacid.Theseacidsmaybeinthefeedor
canbeproducedthroughfermentationofsolublerbCODsuchassugar,ethanol,etc.,intheanaerobic
zone.Asaroughestimateofthepropensityforphosphorusremovaltoaneffluentconcentrationless
than1.0mg/L,theCOD:Pratiotypicallyshouldbeabout40ormore.
VFAisproducedthroughfermentationofmunicipalwastewateroritcanbeaddedasa
commercialorwasteproduct.Somewastewatercollectionsystemsthatarerelativelyflatandhavelong
collectiontimesmayhavesufficientfermentationinthecollectionsystemtoprovidethenecessary
VFAs,butitwillvarymonthlydependinguponthetemperatureandflowconditionsinthecollection
system.ForcemainsareexcellentfermentersfortheproductionofVFA.Systemsthatdonothavea
COD/Pratioofatleast40willmostlikelyneedtosupplementVFAstoachieveeffluentphosphorus
concentrationsbelow1.0mg/L.However,theywillstillachievesubstantialBPRwithlowerratiosif
appropriatelyoperated.SeebelowforamoredetaileddiscussionofVFAs.
RecentstudiessuggestthattheinstantaneousCOD:Pratioismoreimportantthantheoverall
average(Neethlingetal.,2005).ShorttermdropsintheBOD:Pratiointheprimaryeffluenttobelow
thatrequiredforsustainablephosphorusremovalcorrelatedwellwithrisesineffluentphosphorus.
IntermittentrecyclesofphosphorusrichreturnstreamsmaycauseshorttermvariabilityintheBOD:P
ratio.Controllingoreliminatingtheserecyclescanimproveplantperformance.Weekendchangesin
theBOD:Pratioalsocanaffectperformance.
Anothergroupoforganisms,glycogenaccumulatingorganisms(GAOs),alsohastheabilityto
takeupacetateintheanaerobiczone,notbyusingenergyinphosphatebondsbutbyusingstored
glycogenastheenergysource.Undercertainconditions,suchashightemperaturesorlowphosphorus
concentrationsrelativetotheinfluentbioavailableCOD,theymayoutcompetePAOsfortheVFAs,
whichwouldresultinlessornoreleaseofphosphorusintheanaerobiczone.Thisinturnwillresultin
lessornooverallphosphorusremoval.GAOsusethestoredenergyintheformofglycogentotakeup
VFAsandstorethemasacomplexcarbohydratecontainingpolyhydroxyvalerate(PHV),insteadofPHB
formedwithpolyphosphorusastheenergysource.Whenthisbeginstohappen,thereisaslowdecline
ofphosphorusremovalbythebiologicalsystem.
ThereisstilladebateamongstresearchersabouttheconditionslikelytofavorGAOsoverPAOs.
Summarizinganumberofpublications,itwouldappearthatthefollowingconditionsfavorthegrowth
ofGAOsoverthatofPAOs:
HighSRT
Hightemperatureover28C
Longernonaeratedzones
StrongerwasteswithlowTKNcontent
PeriodsofintermittentlowBODloads
IftheVFAconsistsmostlyofeitheracetateorpropionate
Polysaccharidessuchasglucosearefedtotheanaerobiczone.
LowpHintheaerobiczone
Furtherconfirmationisneededforsomeofthesefactors.
VolatileFattyAcidAddition
OnlyVFAssuchasaceticandpropionicaretakenupbyPAOs.ReporteddosesofVFAfor
successfulphosphorusremovalrangefrom3to20mg/LVFApergramofphosphorusremoved.These
numbers,however,donottakeintoaccounttherbCODthatisfermentedintheanaerobiczone.Itis
moreaccuratetolookattherbCOD/Pratioforgoodphosphorusremoval,whichrangesfrom10to16.
(Barnard,2006).SurveysshowthatitisrareforaWWTPtreatingmunicipalsewagetoachievemore
than95percentremovalofphosphorusbybiologicalprocesseswithoutaddingVFAs(Neethlingetal.,
2005).
AnAustralianstudyshowsthatwhilebothPAOsandGAOscoulduseacetate,PAOswillhavea
competitiveadvantagewhentheVFAsconsistofroughlyequalpartsofaceticandpropionicacidasa
growthmedium.PAOsthatarefedonacetateareabletoswitchtopropionatemuchmorequicklyand
effectivelythanGAOs(Oehmenetal.,2005).Thisfindingledtoastrategytofeedequalamountsof
aceticacidandpropionicacidastheoptimalforstimulatingPAOgrowth(Oehmenetal.,2006,Bottet
al.,2007).OnestudyshowsthatisovalericaciddrivesBPRevenbetterthanaceticacid(Bottetal.,
2007).Isovalericacid,however,ismuchmoreexpensivethanaceticacidandismoreodorous.Italsois
notsignificantlygeneratedintheprimarysludgefermentationprocess.AdditionofrbCODsuchas
sugarsandalcoholscontainingtwocarbonsormorecanincreasephosphorusuptakebyPAOswhen
addedtotheanaerobiczonebutmaycausesludgebulkingifdosedinexcess(JenkinsandHarper,2003).
SludgeFermentation
AnaerobicfermentationproducesVFAconsistingmainlyofaceticandpropionicacid.Some
configurations,suchastheWestbankandOWASAconfigurations,makeuseofanaerobicfermentation
oftheprimarysludgetoprovideVFAstothenutrientremovalprocess.Afermentationprocess,
however,canbeaddedtoanyconfigurationtoprovideVFAs,especiallyinareaswherelittle
fermentationtakesplaceinthecollectionsystem.FermentationoftheprimarysludgeortheRASwill
produceVFA.Primarysludgefermentationisusedmorefrequently.
Thereareseveralprimarysludgefermenterdesignsthatcanaccomplishthis.Thesimplest
configurationinvolvesallowingtheformationofathickersludgeblanketintheprimaryclarifieritself
andreturningsomeofthethickenedsludgetoeithertheprimaryclarifierortoamixingtankaheadof
theprimaryclarifiertoallowelutriationoftheVFAtotheprimaryeffluent.Thisisreferredtoasan
activatedprimarysedimentationtank(Barnard,1984).Anothervariationistopumpsomesludgetoa
completemixtankaheadoftheprimaryclarifier,toaccomplishfermentation.Thesludgeisthenpassed
totheprimaryclarifierforelutriationoftheVFA.Bothoftheseprocessesleadtoanincreasedloadon
theprimaryclarifierandsomeVFAmaybelostduetoaerationbetweentheprimaryclarifierandthe
anaerobiczone.Sludgeageshouldalsobecontrolledtopreventmethanogenicbacteriafromgrowing
andconvertingtheVFAtomethane.Usually,aSRTlessthan4daysissufficientforthis.
Alternativemethodsaccomplishfermentationinagravitysludgethickenerbyholdingthesludge
underanaerobicconditionsfor4to8days.Thesupernatantcanthenbefeddirectlytotheanaerobic
zoneandahighloadontheprimaryclarifiercanbeavoided.Thickeningcaneitherbeaccomplished
withasinglethickenerorintwostages.Thetwostageprocesscaneitherbeacompletemixtank,
followedbyathickenerortwothickenersinseries.Ithasbeenshownthataddingmolassesorother
sourcesofreadilybiodegrableCODcanimprovetheperformanceoffermenters(Bottetal.,2007).

RAScanalsobefermentedinasidestreamprocess.Thefermentationzoneissimilartothe
anaerobicoranoxiczoneofmanybiologicalprocesses.RASfermentationcouldbeusedinanyBPR
process,butismostcommoninprocesseswithoutprimaryclarifiers.
Researchandexperiencehaverevealedsomekeydesignconsiderationsforprimaryfermenters
(WEFandASCE,2006).Theseprocessescanhavehighsolidscontentandmayneedapositive
displacementpumptooperateproperly.BecausefermentationcanlowerthepHandproducecarbon
dioxideandhydrogensulfide,corrosionresistantmaterialsshouldbeused.Odorcontrolmayalsobe
necessaryifhydrogensulfideisproduced.MonitoringofpHandoxidationreductionpotential(ORP)
maybedesirabletocontroltheprocess.
6.4.2 RetentionTime
TheconcentrationofphosphorusinthesludgetypicallyincreasesastheSRTincreases,although
theimpactisverysmallovertheSRTrangeof4to30days.Efficientphosphorusuptaketypically
requiresaminimumSRTof3to4daysdependingontemperature.HigherSRTswillnotincrease
phosphorusuptake,giventhereissufficientVFAsavailable.IfSRTbecomestoogreat,however,effluent
qualitycandegrade.Thiscanbeduetoreleaseofphosphorusasbiomassdegrades(WEFandASCE,
2006).
BothanaerobicandaerobicHRTcanaffecttheamountofphosphorusstoredbyPAOs.
SufficienttimeshouldbeallowedfortheformationofVFAsandstorageofthepolyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs)intheanaerobiczone,althoughthereactionsarerelativelyfast.Ifthetimeistooshort,
phosphorusuptakeintheaerobiczonewillbelowerthanachievablebecauseinsufficientPHAswere
storedintheanaerobiczone.IthasbeenreportedthattheratioofHRTintheanaerobiczonetothe
HRTintheaerobiczoneisimportant.Onestudyfoundthataratioofbetween3and4foraerobicHRT
toanaerobicHRTledtooptimalplantoperation(Neethlingetal.,2005).
6.4.3 Temperature
Hightemperaturescanhaveanadverseeffectonphosphorusremoval.Attemperaturesgreater
than28C,phosphorusremovalwillgenerallybeimpaired,apparentlybythepredominanceoftheGAOs
(Bottetal.,2007).Atthelowendofthetemperaturescale,Erdaletal.(2002)foundthatPAOs
outcompetedGAOsat5CeventhoughthePAOmetabolismwasslowerat5Cthanat20
o
C.TheGAOs
virtuallydisappearedinthe5Creactor.
ModelingstudieshaveshownthatGAOscanpredominateathighertemperaturesbecauseof
theirincreasedabilitytouptakeacetateatthosetemperaturescomparedtoPAOs(Whangetal.,2007).
Lowtemperaturescanalsolowerphosphorusuptakebuthavebeenshowntonotbeanissueinwell
operatedandproperlyacclimatizedplants(WEFandASCE,2006).
6.4.4 PresenceofOxygenorNitrateintheAerobicZone
Ifoxygenornitrateispresentintheanaerobiczone,organismsthatuseoxygenornitratesas
electronacceptorswillpreferentiallygrowbyfullyoxidizingtheorganicstoCO
2
andH
2
O,thereby
reducingtheVFAsavailableforpolymerizationandstoragebythePAOs.Nitratecanalsoinhibit
fermentationofrbCODbecausemostofthefermentersarefacultativeandcanusethenitrateasan
electronacceptortofullyoxidizetherbCODinsteadofproducingVFAsasanendproductof
fermentation,thusdeprivingthePAOsoforganicstheycanpolymerizeandstore.Therefore,recycleof
streamscontaininghighDOandnitrateconcentrationstotheanaerobiczoneshouldbeavoided.
Introductionofoxygenthroughpumpsandotherdevicesshouldalsobeavoided.
6.4.5 AvoidingBackmixingofOxygen
Anotherpotentialsourceofoxygenandnitratestotheanaerobiczoneisbackmixingfrom
downstreamzones.Inconfigurationswheretheanaerobiczoneisfollowedimmediatelybyananoxicor
aerobiczone,backmixingcancauseelevatedconcentrationsofnitratesand/orDOintheanaerobiczone
leadingtofavoringoforganismsotherthanPAOs.Theproblemcanbeavoidedbyincreasedbafflingor
changingthemixingrates.Thisproblemismorelikelytooccurwhenthedownstreamzoneisaerated,
becauseaerationofmixedliquorincreasestheliquiddepth,makingtheliquidlevelintheaerobiczone
higherthaninthenonaeratedzone.
6.4.6 pH
LowpHcanreduceandevenpreventBPR.BelowpH6.9theprocesshasbeenshownto
declineinefficiency(WEFandASCE,2006).ThisispossiblyduetocompetitionwithGAOs.Filipe,etal.
(2001),foundthatGAOsgrowfasterthanPAOsatapHoflessthan7.25.Becausemanywastewater
processessuchaschemicaladditionandnitrificationcanlowerpH,thisshouldbemonitoredand
adjustedifnecessary.Italsohasbeenshownthatitisnotpossibletoestablishenhancedbiological
phosphorusremoval(EBPR)whenthepHislessthan5.5,eventhoughanabundantamountofacetic
acidispresentintheanaerobiczone(TracyandFlammino,1987;RandallandChapin,1997).
6.4.7 AnaerobicRelease
SecondaryreleaseofphosphorusoccurswhenthePAOsareunderanaerobicconditionsinthe
absenceofasourceofVFA.Theenergystoredaspolyphosphateisusedforcellmaintenanceand
phosphorusisreleasedtotheliquidphase(Barnard,1984).Therewillthenbenostoredfoodtosupply
energyfortheuptakeofphosphorusuponsubsequentaeration.Thismayoccurinthefollowingprocess
stages:
IntheanaerobiczoneiftheretentiontimeistoohighandtheVFAisdepletedwellwithin
therequiredretentiontime.
Inthemainanoxiczonewhenthatrunsoutofnitrates.
InthesecondanoxiczoneasshowninFigure6.8whentherearenonitratestoberemoved.
InthesludgeblanketsoffinalclarifierswhentheRASrateistoolowandsludgeisnot
removedfastenough.
Additionally,releasemayhappeninaerobiczonesthataretoolarge,resultinginstored
substratedepletionanddestructionofPAOcellsbyendogenousmetabolism.
Sincetherewasnofoodstorageassociatedwiththephosphorusrelease,additionalcarbonis
thenrequiredtotakeupthephosphorusreleased,buttheamountintheinfluentmaybeinsufficient.
Therefore,chemicalsmustbeaddedtoremovetheexcessphosphorus.Overdesignofbiological
nutrientremovalsystemscouldthusleadtoahigherdemandforanexternalsourceofVFA.
Figure68ExampleofSecondaryreleaseinSecondAnoxicZone
Phosphoruswillbereleasedinsludgetreatmentprocessesthatareanaerobic.Gravity
thickeningofBPRsludgecanleadtophosphorusreleaseiflongretentiontimesareused.Using
mechanicaldewateringinsteadofgravitydewateringallowslessretentiontimeandlessphosphorus
release(Bottetal.,2007).Itisusuallyrecommendedthatdissolvedairflotation(DAF)beusedto
thickenBPRsludgetoreducetheamountofphosphorusrelease.DAFthickeningcanbequitesuccessful
forthereductionofrelease,butifthethickenedsludgeisleftontheDAFbeachtoolongbefore
removal,excessivereleasewilloccur,justasitwillwhenthesludgeislefttoolonginagravitythickener.
Anaerobicdigestionwillalsoleadtophosphorusreleasealthoughsomephosphoruswillbe
precipitatedaseitherametalsalt(e.g.calciumphosphate)orasstruvite(magnesiumammonium
phosphate,MgNH
4
PO
4
).BPRsludgetakesupandreleasesmagnesiumalongwithphosphates,andthese
twoionscombinewithammonium,alsopresentinabundanceinanaerobicdigesters,toformstruvite.
Struviteformationisveryfast,andwillcontinueuntiloneofthethreeionsisreducedtothations
solubilitylevel.Magnesiumisusuallypresentinthelowestconcentration,anditsdepletiontypically
limitsstruviteformationwithintheanaerobicdigester.Calciumphosphateprecipitatesalsotendto
forminanaerobicdigesters,buttheyformmuchmoreslowlythanstruviteandtheformationtendsto
benonstoichiometric.Ifsubstantialamountsofphosphatesareprecipitatedbycalciumalongwiththe
struviteformation,therewillbelittleifanypropensityforstruvitetoformwhenthesludgeexitsthe
anaerobicdigesters.Also,ifthedigestedsludgeiscompostedafterdewatering,theresultingClassA
sludgewillbeenrichedinmagnesium,phosphorus,nitrogen,and,toalesserextent,potassium,which
alsoistakenupandreleasedwithphosphorusbyPAOs.Thirtypercentofthephosphorusenteringthe
anaerobicdigestersattheYorkRiverplantduringBPRexperimentationwasrecycledbacktothe
headworksfrombeltfilterpressdewatering(Randalletal.,1992).
Alternativestoanaerobicdigestionsuchascomposting,drying,oralkalinetreatmentcanbe
usedtoreducephosphorusrelease.Therehavebeenseveralstudieswhichhaveexaminedusing
struviteprecipitationasawayofrecoveringphosphorusfromsupernatantfromdigesters.These
processeshavebeentestedonfullscalefacilitiesinTreviso,ItalyandVancouver,Canada(SCOPE,2004).
Whenanaerobicreleaseofphosphorusoccurs,recyclingthesestreamscanoverload
phosphorusremovalprocesses.Theeffectcanbeworsenedwhenthewastehandlingprocessisonly
operatedintermittently.Insomeinstancesthereisahighdegreeofphosphorusprecipitationinthe
anaerobicdigestersandwithsufficientVFAintheinfluentthereturnedphosphorusmayberemoved.
However,inmostcircumstances,somechemicalsneedtobeaddedtothereturnstreamsortothe
anaerobicdigesteritselfsothatthemetalprecipitatewillberemovedwiththedewateredsludge.
6.4.8 SufficientOxygenintheAerobicZone
Itisnecessaryforoxygentobepresentintheaerobiczoneforphosphorustobetakenupand
retainedintheactivatedsludge.MaintainingasufficientlyhighDOtransferintheaerobiczone
enhancesprocessstabilityandhasbeenfoundtobeakeyfactorinphosphorusremoval.(Bottetal.,
2007)
6.4.9 Inhibition
EBPR,likeanybiologicalprocess,canbeinhibitedbychemicalstoxictotheorganisms.Although
notassensitivetoinhibitionasnitrificationandrareinpractice,theBPRprocesscanbeinhibitedby
toxicchemicals,includinghighconcentrationsofacetate(RandallandChapin,1997).
6.4.10 FlowandLoadBalancing
Flowsandloadstowastewatertreatmentplantscanvarywidelybecauseofregulardiurnaluse
patternsandbecauseoflarger,moreirregulardisturbancessuchasstormevents.Peaksineitherflow,
ornutrientloadcanstressthesystemandcausepoorperformance.Peakscanbeevenedoutusing
equalizationtankstobalancetheflow.Equalizationtanksincombinationwithnutrientsensorscanalso
beusedtobalancenutrientloads.Inthiscase,recyclestreamshighinnutrientconcentrationssuchas
digestersupernatantcanbestoredduringpeaknutrientloadsandrecycledduringtimeswhen
concentrationsarelower.
6.5 ImpactsonSludgeHandlingandRemoval
Storedphosphorusaddsdryweighttothesludge;however,theactualPAOVSSproductionwill
belessbecausethereactionislessefficientthanheterotrophicmetabolismusingDOastheelectron
acceptor.
SludgefromBPRwillbesimilartosludgefromconventionalactivatedsludgeplants,althoughit
willhaveahigherphosphoruscontent.Varyingresultshavebeenfoundwithsomeplantsreporting
littleornochangeinsettlinganddewatering(Knockeetal.,1992)andothersreportingenhanced
settlinganddewateringproperties(Bottetal.,2007).Thesludgeproducedfromtheprocesswillalso
havehighermagnesiumandpotassiumconcentrationsduetocouptakeoftheseelementswith
phosphorus.
Struvitecanprecipitateinanaerobicprocesses.Withabundantphosphorusandammoniaitis
usuallyonlythemagnesiumthatisinshortsupply.Somemagnesiumisreleasedfromthedigestedcells
withthephosphorusandmayincreasestruviteprecipitation.Someprocesseshaveproposed
precipitatingoutstruviteorotherphosphatesolidstoavoidphosphorusreturninrecyclestreams(Bott
etal.,2007).Thestruvitecrystals,however,dependinguponwheretheyform,canplugcentrifugeports,
andpumpsandpipesusedtoconveythesludge,ifnotcontrolled.Pluggedlinesareverydifficultto
clean.
6.6 GuidanceforSelectingProcessModifications
IfanexistingactivatedsludgeWWTPneedstolowerphosphoruslevelsinitseffluent,anumber
ofoptionsareavailable.Somekeyconsiderationsaresummarizedbelow.
ForsystemsthatdonothaveBPR,ananaerobiczonecanbeaddedattheheadoftheplant.
Thismaybeachievedbyswitchingoffaeratorsattheheadofthereactororbyaddingaseparate
reactor.Mixingintheanaerobiczoneshouldbesufficienttoretainbiologicalsolidsinsuspension
withoutintroducingoxygen.Ifbafflingisnotalreadypresent,itcouldbeaddedtoachieveseparationof
theanaerobicandaerobiczones.Notethatbafflingisessentialtopreventbackmixingbecausethe
liquidlevelintheaeratedzonewillalwaysbehigherthanthatinthenonaeratedzone.Therefore,an
overflowbaffleshouldbeusedbetweenzones.Considerationsshouldalsobemadeforadditional
pumpingneededforanyrecyclestreams.Propersizingoftheanaerobiczoneisimportanttoensure
sufficientVFAisformedandtakenupintheaerationbasin.Ifanaerobiczoneisconvertedtoan
anaerobiczone,careshouldbetakentoensurethattheremainingaerobiczoneissufficientlysizedto
achievetreatmentobjectives.Thisusuallyisnotaproblembecausetheanaerobiczoneseldomneeds
tobemorethan15percentofthetotalvolume,andcanbeconsiderablylessiffermentationispracticed
orVFAareadded.NotethatmuchoftheBODintypicalmunicipalsewagewillberemovedfrom
solutionintheanaerobiczone,andthisreducestherequiredsizeoftheaerobiczone,eventhoughmost
ofthestoredBODwillbestabilizedineithertheanoxicoraerobiczone,orboth.
ForplantsthatalreadyhaveBPRbutneedadditionalphosphorusremoval,thedesignersshould
startbyidentifyingareasthatmaybelimitingthecurrentprocess.Forexample,ifrecyclestreamsare
intermittent,overloadingoftheprocessmayoccurduringrecycleandtheprocessperformancemay
suffer.Flowequalizationtoenableconstantrecycleflowsmaybeanoptioninthesecases.RASwhen
returnedtotheanaerobiczonemayintroducenitratesoroxygenthatwillinterferewithPAO
performance.Thephosphoruscontentofthereturnstreamscouldbereducedbyaddingsome
chemicalstoprecipitatesomeofthephosphorus.Reducingoxygenintroductiontotheanaerobiczone
fromupstreamprocessesmaybeneededtooptimizephosphorusremoval.
Plantslookingtoimprovephosphorusremovalperformanceshouldalsocloselyexaminethe
plantforsecondaryreleaseofphosphorus.Ifsludgeblanketsinclarifiersaretoodeep,anaerobic
conditionscandevelopandcausesecondaryphosphorusrelease.Thiscanbeminimizedbyusing
deeperclarifiers,maintaininglowsludgeblankets,andincreasingtheRASrate,sothatthereleased
phosphorusispumpedfromthebottomoftheclarifierratherthanflowingovertheeffluentweir.
Sludgehandlingcanalsocauseexcessivephosphorusreleasesuchasingravitythickeners,DAFsand
anaerobicdigesters.Ifsupernatantfromtheseprocesseswhenpoorlymanagedisrecycled,itcan
overloadtheprocess.Optionsinthiscasewouldbetoeliminatetherecycle,improveoperationofthe
process,changetheprocess,ortreattherecyclestreamtoremovephosphorusbeforeitisreturnedto
theplant.
AnotherareatoexamineinseekingimprovedphosphorusremovalistheCOD:Pratio.Ifthe
ratioislow,supplementingthecurrentprocesswithVFAsmayprovideadditionalremoval.VFAscan
eitherbeaddedasachemicaladditionprocessorproducedthroughfermentationofprimaryor
secondarysludge.
OtherwaysofimprovingTPremovalincludefiltrationandchemicaladdition.Phosphorusis
oftenattachedtocolloidalparticlesandverylowphosphoruslevelsusuallyrequireremovalofTSS.
Membranebioreactors(MBR)incombinationwithbiologicaland/orchemicalphosphorusremovalcan
resultinveryloweffluentlevelsduetoenhancedsolidsremoval.Chemicaladditionwithorwithout
filtrationcanalsoachievelowphosphoruslevels.
6.7 OngoingResearch
ResearchintoBPRisongoing.TheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundationhascommittedto
severalresearchgoalsconsideredhighpriorityinthisarea.Theseincluderesearchonselectingthebest
externalcarbonsourcesandanalyticalmethodsforlowphosphorusdetection.Otherresearchisbeing
conductedintothecompetitionbetweenPAOsandGAOsandtheconditionsfavoringPAOgrowth.
Researchintocarbonaugmentationisalsoongoing.
7. EffluentFiltration
Effluentfiltrationincombinationwithchemicalprecipitationcanbeusedtoremove
phosphorousdowntoverylowlevels(<0.1mg/L).USEPARegion10(2007)foundthat2stagefiltration
throughuseofafirstandsecondstagefilterorbyprovidingtertiaryclarificationpriortofiltration,
resultedinthelowesteffluentphosphorusconcentrationsof23WWTPsevaluated.Effluentfiltration
canalsobeusedtoremovesolubleorganicnitrogenthatisnotremovedthroughbiologicaltreatmentor
settling.
Awidevarietyoffiltertypeshavebeenusedforwastewatertreatment,including:
Conventionaldownflowfilters
Deepbeddownflowfilters
Continuousbackwashingupflowsandfilters
Pulsedbedfilters
Travelingbridgefilters
Fuzzyfilters
Discfilter
Clothmediadiskfilters
Membranes
BluePRO
TM
process
Pressurefilters
Thischapterdescribesthevariousfilterslistedabove,presentskeydesignandoperatingprinciples,and
summarizesongoingresearchandemergingtechnologiesinthisarea.
7.1 TypesofFilters
7.1.1 ConventionalDownflowFilters
Thesefiltersconsistoffixedmediabedstypicallyupto3feetindepthandaresimilartofilters
usedtotreatdrinkingwater.Mediacanbesinglemedia,dualmedia,ormultimedia.Singlemediais
typicallysandoranthracite.Dualmediacombinesanthraciteandsand.Multimediafiltersincludea
layerofgarnetorilmenite.Flowinthesefiltersisbygravityfromthetopdown.Mostoftheremoval
occursinthetopfewinchesofthemedia.Thefiltermustbetakenofflineperiodicallytobackwashthe
filtertopreventcloggingandtoohighofapressureloss.
PerformancedataonplantsinBreckenridge(FarmersKorner),CO;Dillon,CO;Hillsboro,OR;
Tigard,OR;Alexandria,VA;Occoquan,VA;andFairfax,VAcanbefoundinUSEPARegion10(2007).
7.1.2 DeepbedDownflowFilters
Thesefiltersaresimilartoconventionaldownflowfiltersbuthavedeeperbedsandlarger
mediasize.Thisgivestheadvantageoflongerruntimesbetweenbackwashes.Thesizeofthemediais
limitedbytheabilitytobackwashthefilter.Becausethesefiltersaremoredifficulttobackwash,air
scourisnecessarytofullycleanthefilterbed.
7.1.3 ContinuousBackwashingUpflowSandFilters
Duringoperationofthecontinuousbackwashingupflowfilter,waterisintroducedthrough
risersatthebottomofadeepsandbed.Waterflowsupwardthroughthesandbedandoveran
overflowweir.Sandandtrappedsolidsflowdownwardthroughthefilterandaredrawnintothe
suctionofanairliftpipeinthecenterofthefilter.Asthesandtravelsuptheairliftpipe,energyfromthe
airscourstheparticlesandseparatesthesandfromfilteredsolids.Atthetopoftheairliftpipe,the
cleansandsettlesbackontothetopofthefilterandthesolidsarecarriedawayintoarejectline.
Thesefiltershavetheadvantageofhavingnomovingpartsotherthantheaircompressorand
requiringlessenergyandmaintenancethantraditionallybackwashedfilters.Theyaresometimes
referredtobythetradenameDynasand.
EPARegion10s(2007)reportonplantswithLOTphosphorusremovalincludesperformance
dataforthesefiltersinplantsinAurora,CO;Breckenridge(IowaHill),CO;Stamford,NY;andWalton,NY.
7.1.4 PulsedBedFilters
Pulsedbedfiltersareshallowfilterswithanunstratifiedfinesandmedia.Anairpulsedisturbs
themediaandallowspenetrationofsolidsintomediabed,allowingtheentirefilterbedtobeusedfor
removalofsolids.Thepulseisdesignedtoexpandthefilteroperationandreducethenumberof
backwashcycles,althoughthefiltermuststillbeperiodicallybackwashedtoremovethesolids.
7.1.5 TravelingBridgeFilters
Travelingbridgefiltersconsistoflongshallowbedsofgranularmedia.Wastewaterisappliedto
thetopofthemediaandflowsdownward.Eachcellisindividuallybackwashedbyatravelingbridge
whiletheothercellscontinuetooperate.Thebridgeusesfilteredwatertobackwashthefiltersand
includessurfacewashtobreakupmattedsolidsorclumpsofsolids.
EPARegion10s(2007)reportonplantswithLOTphosphorusremovalincludesperformance
dataforthefiltersinplantsinMcMinneville,ORandMilford,MA.
7.1.6 FuzzyFilters
Thefuzzyfilterusesaproprietarysyntheticfiltermediathatishighlyporous.Waterflowsnot
onlyaroundthemediabutalsothroughit,allowingmuchhigherfiltrationrates.Themediaisheldin
placebyametalplateandflowisfromthebottomofthebedupwards.Thefilterisbackwashedby
raisingtheplateandintroducingahorizontalairstreamfromalternatingsidescausingthemediatoroll
backandforth.Theeffluentisreturnedtotheplant.
Plantsinthefollowinglocationshavefuzzyfilters:Columbus,GA(CSO);ClaytonCountyNE,GA;
Yountville,CA;Rogersville,MO;GoldenPoultry/GoldenKist,NC;OrangeCounty,CA;andKingCounty,
Seattle,WA.Performancedatafortheseplantswerenotavailable.
7.1.7 Discfilters
Discfiltersareaseriesofparallelmounteddisksusedtosupportaclothfiltermedia.Water
entersacentraltubeandflowsoutbetweenthetwolayersofclothineachdisk.Thedisksrotateand
arenormally60to70percentsubmerged.Theportionabovethewaterisbackwashedusingspray
nozzles.
7.1.8 ClothMediaDiskFilters
Theclothmediadiskfilterissimilartothediscfilterlistedabove.Inthiscasethewaterflows
fromtheoutsideofthepartiallysubmergedclothdisksandintoacenterpipe.Diskscontinuetorotate
duringbackwashandwaterissuckedintothediscusingsuctionheads.
7.1.9 Membranes
Membranesystemsuseapressureheadtodrivewaterthroughapermeablemembrane.
Membranefiltersaretypicallyclassifiedbytheirporesizewhichinturndeterminesthesizeofthe
particlestheyexclude.Microfiltration,ultrafiltration,nanofiltration,andreverseosmosis(RO)remove
increasinglysmallerparticles.Microfiltrationandultrafiltrationremove3to6logsofbacteria,95
percentormoreBOD,alongwithmostparticles(WEF,2006).Nanofiltrationremovesnearlyallparticles
includingsomeviruses.ROremovesallparticlesaswellasmostlargedissolvedconstituents.The
energycostforapplyingthepressureheadandtheneedtoreplacemembranesmakemembrane
filtrationamoreexpensivetechnology.Itcanachieveverylowconcentrationsofnutrientsandother
contaminants,however,andiscommoninwaterreuseprojects.
Membranescanbeconfiguredanumberofwaysincludinghollowfiber,spiralwound,plateand
frame,cartridge,orinpressurevessels.Membranescanfoulfromorganics,biologicalactivity,ormetals
inthewastewater.Typicallythewatermustbepretreatedbeforeusingthesemembranes.Pre
treatmentcouldbeconventionalfilters,cartridgefilters,orlargermembranefilters.Disinfectionmay
alsoberequiredtopreventbiologicalfouling.
EPARegion10s(2007)reportonplantswithphosphorusremovalincludesperformancedata
forthefiltersinplantsinClifton,CO;GrandGorge,NY;Ashland,OR;andParker,CO.
7.1.10 BluePRO
TM
Process
TheBluePRO
TM
processusesacontinuousbackwashingfilterthatisdesignedremove
phosphorus.Filterscanberuninseriesforevengreaterremoval.Thefiltermedia(sand)iscoatedwith
ahydrousferricoxidecoating,whichenhancesphosphorusremovalthroughadsorption.Aferricsaltis
addedpriortothefiltertoaidincoagulationandtoreplacetheferriccoatingwhichisabradedfromthe
sand.Waterflowsupthroughthefilterwhilethesandtravelsdown.Anairlifttubeatthebottomof
thefiltercarriesthesandupward.Turbulencefromthecompressedairknocksaccumulatedironand
phosphorusalongwithanysolidsofftheparticleasittravelsupward.Theiron,phosphorus,and
particlesarewasted,whilethecleansandisdepositedonthetopofthebed.Thefilterscanberun
biologicallyactivetoachievedenitrification.
TheBluCATprocesscombinestheBluProprocesswithadditionofadvancedoxidants.Early
pilottestsshowthatthisprocessiscapableofremovingotheremergingcontaminantsalongwith
phosphorusandmicroorganisms(USEPA,2008a).
PerformancedataareavailablefromaplantinHayden,OH(USEPARegion10,2007)andfroma
demonstrationplantinFlorida(BlueWaterTechnologies,2008).
7.1.11 PressureFilters
Pressurefiltersaresimilartoconventionalmediafiltersexcepttheyarecontainedinclosed
containersandarefilteredunderpressure.Theincreasedpressurecreatesagreaterheadlossand
allowslongertimesbetweenbackwashes.
7.2 DesignandOperatingPrinciples
Filtrationismainlyaffectedbytheconcentrationandsizedistributionofparticlesenteringthe
filter.Turbidityisoftenusedasasurrogateforparticleconcentration.Theconcentrationofparticles
willaffectruntimeinfiltersandwillalsoaffecttherequiredsurfaceareatoachievethedesired
filtration.Thesizedistributionoftheparticlesanditsrelevancetoporesizeofthegranularor
membranefilterswillaffecttheremovalmechanisms.
Filtrationrateisalsoanimportantdesignparameter.Toofastofafiltrationratecancausefloc
tobreakupandpassthroughthefilter.Theoptimalfiltrationratedependsonflocstrength,whichin
turndependsonthebiologicaltreatmentprocessespriortofiltration(e.g.,HigherSRTsleadtoweaker
flocs).Thefiltrationrate,alongwiththeloadingratewilldeterminetheareaofthefilterrequired.The
highertheloadingrate,themorefrequentbackwasheswillberequiredandthegreatertheheadloss
acrossthefilters.Typicalfiltrationratesare5to15metersperhourforgravityfiltersandupto20
metersperhourforpressurefilters(WEFandASCE,1998).
Additionofpolymersorothercoagulantaidscangreatlyaidfiltration.Typicaldosesforfilter
influentare0.05to0.15mg/Loforganicpolyelectrolyte(WEFandASCE,1998),althoughjartestsare
conductedtodeterminetheproperdose.Toolowadosecanallowuncoagulatedparticlesthroughthe
filterandtoohighadosecanleadtomudballsandfilterclogging.
Thereareseveralwaystheflowratecanbecontrolledinfilters.Constantratefixedhead
filtrationmaintainsaconstantflowthroughthefilter.Thiswillleadtoanincreasedheadabovethe
filterasthefilterrunprogresses.Inconstantratevariableheadfiltrationtherateiskeptthesameand
thefilterisbackwashedwhentheheadreachesacertainvalue.Invariableratefiltration,therateof
filtrationdecreasesthroughoutthefilterrununtilitreachesaminimumvalueandisbackwashed.
Variableratefiltrationislesscommonthanconstantratefiltration.
Properbackwashingisalsoimportanttofilteroperation.Withoutproperbackwashingthere
canbebreakthroughofparticlesandturbidity.Lackofaproperbackwashcanalsoleadtoaccumulation
ofmaterialsonthesurfaceofthefilterthatcanformmudballsandcracks,whichcanallowsolidstopass
throughthefilter.Asurfacewashorairscourmayalsobehelpfultopreventaccumulationofmudballs
orgrease.Surfacewashorairscourisalsohelpfulfortravelingbridgefilters.Withoutsurfacewash
travelingbridgefiltersarelimitedtoaninfluentTSSconcentrationof40to50mg/L(WEFandASCE,
1998).
Ifmembranefiltersareused,foulingcanbeanimportantconsideration.Celluloseacetate
membranescanbedamagedbybiologicalactivity.Disinfectionisoftenusedtopreventbiological
foulingofthemembranes.Somemembranematerialssuchaspolyacramides,however,canbe
damagedbychlorine.Thiscanbeavoidedbyusinganalternativedisinfectant,adifferentmembrane
material,orbydechlorination.LoweringthepHcanhelptopreventmineralfoulingofnanofiltrationor
reverseosmosismembranes.Besidespretreatment,chemicalcleaningofthemembranesmayalsobe
requiredperiodically.Monitoringofeffluentqualityandpressuredifferentialcanbeimportanttohelp
identifymembranefoulingorfailure.
7.3 OngoingResearchandEmergingTechnologies
Theuseofmembranesastertiaryfiltrationisanareathathasrecentlyexpanded.Research
continuesonvariousmembraneconfigurationsalongwithtopicssuchaspretreatment,membrane
cleaning,andremovalofemergingcontaminants.Fuzzyfiltersarealsoaninnovativetechnologythatis
beginningtobeestablishedinthewastewatercommunitywithseveralfullscaleprojects.Other
researchhasfocusedonenhancementstoexistingtechnology.Forexample,theBlueProsystem
combinescontinuousbackwashingfilters,awellknowntechnology,withahydrousferricoxidecoating
andferricsaltadditiontoremovephosphorusbyadsorptionaswellasfiltration.
8. MathematicalModeling
8.1 TheNeedforModels
WWTPsarecomplexsystemsthatdependonnumerousbiological,chemical,andphysical
processestoachieveeffluentgoals.Becauseofthecomplexbehavioroftheprocessesandthe
variabilityinwastewatercharacteristics,biologicalpopulations,andplantdesign,itisnotalways
possibletopredicthowchanginganyonevariablewillaffecttheeffluentquality.Plantdesignsthat
workforoneinfluentwastewaterandclimatemaynotperformwellindifferentconditions.Pilotscale
orfullscaletrialscanhelptodeterminetheeffectofvariousparameters,butcostsandtimetocoverall
possibilitiesmaybeprohibitive.Therefore,modelsfillanimportantneedbyenablingsimulationofa
processandestimatingtheimpactthatchangingparameterswillhaveonthetreatmenteffectiveness.
ModelscanbeusedforanumberofpurposesincludingthedesignofnewWWTPs,thedesignof
retrofitsorupgradestoexistingplants,determininghowchangesinoperationsmayaffecteffluent
concentrationsofpermittedcontaminants,determininghowplantswillrespondtochangesininfluent
qualityorflow,andfortrainingoperators.Notallmodelscanachieveallofthesepurposes,somodels
shouldbeselectedwiththedesireduseinmind.
Thereissomedisagreementintheliteratureintheuseofthetermmodel.Somereferencesuse
thetermtorefertosetsofmathematicalequationsthatcharacterizeaprocess,otherreferencesuse
modeltorefertothecomputerprogramusedtosolvetheseequations.Thischapterwillusetheformer
andwillusethetermsimulatortodescribethecomputerprogram.
8.2 OverviewofAvailableModels
Modelsaresetsofequations,generallybasedontheoryandgroundedinempiricaldata,that
representawastewatertreatmentprocess.Eachunitprocessisrepresentedbyitsownmodel.Model
equationsforprocessessuchasclarificationandsettlingarewellknownandfairlysimple.Modeling
biologicalwastewaterprocessessuchasactivatedsludge,however,ismuchmorecomplicated.The
primarysetofmodelsforactivatedsludgeprocesseshasbeencompiledbytheInternationalWater
Association(IWA).Thefirstmodelwasdevelopedin1986andwascalledtheactivatedsludgemodel
(ASM).LaterknownasASM1,thismodelwasabletomodelthebiologicaloxidationofcarbon,
nitrification,anddenitrification.
AlthoughtheASMmodelgainedwidespreaduseamongbothacademiaandindustry,ithad
limitations.ForexamplethemodelassumedconstanttemperatureandpH,didnotincludeEBPR,and
thebiologicalreactionsdidnotdependonthecarbonsource.Inordertoimprovethemodel,IWA
developedfourotherASMmodels;ASM2,ASM2d,ASM3,andASM3withBioP.ASM2andASM2dwere
intendedtoaddEBPR.TheASM3modelswereintendedtodealwithlimitationssuchasthe
independenceoftheASM1modeloftemperatureandcarbonsource.Inaddition,othermodelswere
developedtoseektoimproveupontheASMmodel.Themetabolicbiologicalphosphorusmodelofthe
DelftUniversityofTechnology(TUDP)wasdevelopedtofullyaccountforthemetabolismoccurringin
PAOsduringEBPR.BarkerandDold(1997)developedamodel(B&D)toincludedifferentratesof
growthdependingonthecarbonsource.
Table81listseachmathematicalmodelforwastewatertreatment,theprocessesitcan
simulate,andthereferencewherethemodelequationsalongwithitslimitationsandvalidrangeof
operatingparameterscanbefound.Whenselectingmodels,theprocessesrequiredandtherangeof
normaloperatingparametersfortheplantshouldbeconsideredandcomparedtotheavailablemodels.
Forexample,ifchemicalphosphorusremovalistobeusedinaplant,theplantislimitedtousingeither
theASM2orASM2dmodels.EachmodelalsohasarangeoftemperaturesandpHoverwhichitisvalid.
Table81AvailableActivatedSludgeModels
ModelName WastewaterTreatmentUnitProcesses Reference
ASM1 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification Henzeetal.1987
ASM2 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation,chemical
phosphorusremoval
Henzeetal.1995
ASM2d Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation,chemical
phosphorusremoval
Henzeetal.1999
ASM3 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification Henzeetal.1999
ASM3w/BioP Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced
biologicalphosphorusremoval
Reigeretal.2001
TUDP Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation
Brdjanovicetal.2000
B&D Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation
BarkerandDold1997
Sources:WERF2003,Gernaeyetal.2004
Fixedfilmprocessesaregainingpopularityinnutrientremoval.Themodelingofthese
processesismorecomplicatedbecauseoftheaddeddimensionofdiffusiontoandfromthebiofilm.An
equivalenttotheASMmodelsdoesnotexistforfixedfilmprocesses.IWA,however,didpublisha
referencein2006(Wanneretal.,2006)listingallofthemodelequationsavailableforfixedfilm
processes.Thesemodelsfallintothreecategories:semiempiricalmodels,1dimensionalmodels,and
2dimensionalmodels.3dimensionalmodelsexist,butdonotyieldsignificantlybetterresultsforthe
addedcomputationtime.Semiempiricalmodelscanbesolvedanalytically,runthefastest,andrequire
moreassumptionsonthelimitingfactorsinthereactorandbiofilm.1dimensionaland2dimensional
modelsmustbesolvednumerically.Semiempiricalvaluesforkineticconstants,carbonremoval,
nitrification,denitrification,andbiomassgrowthcanincreaserunspeeds.Thereferencealsodiscusses
methodsforsolvingthesetsofequationsgoverningfixedfilmprocesses.Solutionmethodsvaryfrom
analyticalsolutionsformoresimplifiedsetsofequationstonumericalsolutionsformorecomplexmodel
equations.Manysimulatorsnowcanaccommodatethesenewequationsaswell.
Therearenumeroussimulatorsavailablethatruncombinationsofthevariousmodels.
Simulatorstypicallyhaveagraphicalinterfacewhichallowstheusertospecifytheunitprocesses
includedintheplant.Mostsimulatorsallowtheselectionfromanumberofmodelsappropriateforthe
unitprocessestoberepresented.Differentsimulatorsrundifferentsetsofmodelssotheselectionof
therightsimulatorisimportant.Inadditiontoselectingtherequiredprocesses,theuseralsosetsthe
flowratesincludingrecyclestreamsandtheinfluentwastewatercharacteristics.Parameterssuchas
kineticconstantsforbiologicalgrowthandstoichiometricconstantsforreactionscanbespecified,orthe
usercanselectdefaultvalues.Giventheprocesslayout,theinputparameters,andtheselectedmodel,
thesimulatorsolvesthesystemofequationstopredictthewastewatercharacteristicsthroughoutthe
plant.
Simulatorscurrentlyavailableinclude:GPSX,EFOR,STOAT,BioWin,ASIM,SIMBA,WEST,
AQUASIM,andAQUIFAS.Simulatorsvaryinthemodelstheycanrun,thedegreeofskillrequiredtorun
thesimulator,theuserinterface,andthecost.Somemodelsallowahighdegreeofcustomization,but
willrequiregreateruserknowledgeoftheunderlyingmodels.Othersaremoreuserfriendlyforless
skilledusersbutinsuchcasesthelimitationsofthemodelsmaynotbeasobvioustotheuser.
8.3 ModelInputs
Modelparametersaretheinputvariablesenteredbytheuserandfallintothreecategories:
Parametersdefiningreactionswithintheprocess
Wastewatercharacteristics
Processinputs
Parametersdefiningthereactionsareselectedwhentheuserselectsthemodel.Insomecases
theusermaywishtomodifyamodeldefaultvalue.Processinputsincludetheflowsforeachstream,
recycleflows,andthesizeofeachprocess.Theseinputsaregenerallydesignparametersorareknown
valuesinthecaseofanexistingplant.WastewatercharacteristicsincludeinfluentBODorCOD,
nitrogen,andphosphorusalongwithtemperatureandpH.Mostmodelsaskfordetailedbreakdownsof
theseparameters.CODisusuallybrokendownintoslowlybiodegradable,readilybiodegradable,
particulateunbiodegradable,andsolubleunbiodegradable.Nitrogenistypicallybrokenintoammonia,
solubleunbiodegradableTKN,biodegradableTKN,andparticulateunbiodegradableTKN.Formodels
withEBPR,orthophosphate,solubleunbiodegradablephosphorus,organicallyboundbiodegradable
phosphorus,andparticulateunbiodegradablephosphorusfractionsarerequired.Somemodelsrequire
thewastewatercharacteristicsasconcentrationswhileothersrequirebothtotalconcentrationand
fractions.
Additionalsamplingandlaboratoryanalysistocharacterizetheinfluentwastewaterisneededto
fulfillmodelinputrequirements.Ataminimum,thefractionsofeachofthewastewatercomponents
mustbedetermined.Itmayalsobebeneficialtodeterminesomereactionconstantsthrough
laboratoryexperimentswiththebiomasstobeused.Forexample,thenitrifiergrowthratefrequently
variesfromplanttoplantandmeasuringitdirectlymayyieldbetterdesignresults.
8.4 ModelCalibration
Becausethemodelsarenotexactdescriptionsoftheprocessandbecausemeasurementof
parametersisnotexact,everymodelwillneedtobecalibrated.Amodeliscalibratedbyrunningthe
simulatorandcomparingpredictedvaluesofwastewatercomponentswithmeasuredvaluesthroughout
theplant,orthroughasimilarplant.Modelparametersarethenadjustedtoobtainthebestfit
betweenthesimulatorresultsandtheplantdata.Ingeneraltheparametersforwhichtheinputvalues
aretheleastcertainaretheonesthatareadjusted.Parametersthatarecommonlyadjustedincludethe
sludgewasterateornitrifiergrowthrate.Parametersarenotadjustedunlesstheysignificantlyimprove
themodelfitandtheresultingparameterisstillwithinrealisticbounds.Theparametersareadjustedso
themodelisvalidoverthewidestrangepossibleratherthantryingtogetascloseafitaspossiblefora
singlesetofcircumstances.
9. NutrientRemovalforSmallCommunitiesandDecentralizedWastewater
TreatmentSystems
Approximately25percentoftheU.S.populationisservedbyonsitesepticordecentralized
systems.Onsitesepticsystemstreatanddisposeofeffluentonthesamepropertythatproducesthe
wastewater,whereasdecentralizedtreatmentreferstoonsiteorclustersystemsthatareusedtotreat
anddisposeofrelativelysmallvolumesofwastewater,generallyfromdwellingsandbusinessesthatare
locatedrelativelyclosetogether.Inmanycases,wastewaterfromseveralhomesispretreatedonsiteby
individualseptictanksbeforebeingtransportedthroughalternativesewerstoanoffsitedecentralized
treatmentunitthatisrelativelysimpletooperateandmaintain.Theremaining75percentofthe
populationisservedbycentralizedwastewatertreatmentfacilities,whichcollectandtreatlarge
volumesofwastewater.
Thereis,infact,agrowingmovementtowarddecentralizedorclusteredwastewatertreatment
systemstoreducecost,toprovidegroundwaterrechargenearthesource,andforspeedandeasein
sitingsincetheyaregenerallylocatedunderground.Theuseofresidentialclusterdevelopmentis
gaininginpopularityacrosstheU.S.asameanstopermanentlyprotectopenspace,preserve
agriculturalland,andprotectwildlifehabitat(Megaetal.,1998).Aspartofthesedevelopments,
wastewatersystemssuchascommunitydrainfields,irrigationsystems,andpackageplantsarebeing
installedtoreduceinfrastructureinvestmentandminimizeadverseenvironmentalimpacts.Additional
alternativesthatincludeaerobictanks,sandfilters,andconstructedwetlandscanbeusedtoreduce
nutrientpollution;particularlyinsensitivecoastalareasoroversensitive,unconfinedaquifersusedfor
drinkingwater(AndersonandGustafson,1998).
9.1 PhosphorusRemoval
Fewphosphorusremovalprocessesarewelldevelopedforonsitewastewatersystems
application(USEPA,2008e).Thecontrolledadditionofchemicalssuchasaluminum,iron,andcalcium
compoundswithsubsequentflocculationandsedimentationhashadonlylimitedsuccessbecauseof
inadequateoperationandmaintenanceofmechanicalequipmentandexcessivesludgeproduction.
Mostnotablesuccesseshavecomewithspecialfiltermaterialsthatarenaturallyhighintheir
concentrationoftheabovechemicals,buttheirservicelivesarefinite.Studiesofhighironsandsand
highaluminummudsindicatethat50to95percentofthephosphoruscanberemoved.However,the
lifeofthesesystemshasyettobedetermined,afterwhichthefiltermediawillhavetoberemovedand
replaced.Useofsupplementalironpowdermixedwithnaturalsandsisalsobeingresearched.Aside
fromspecializedfiltermedia,themostlikelyphosphorusreductionsystemsareironrichintermittent
sandfilter(ISF)mediaandSBRs.Thesearediscussedinmoredetailbelow.
9.2 NitrogenRemoval
Processesthatremove25to50percentoftotalnitrogenincludeaerobicbiologicalsystemsand
mediafilters,especiallyrecirculatingfilters(USEPA,2008f).Thevastmajorityofonsiteandcluster
nitrogenremovalsystemsemploynitrificationanddenitrificationbiologicalreactions.Mostnotableof
thesearerecirculatingsandfilters(RSFs)withenhancedanoxicmodifications,SBRs,andanarrayof
aerobicnitrificationprocessescombinedwithananoxic/anaerobicprocesstoperformdenitrification.
Someofthecombinationsareproprietary.Afewrecentlydevelopedhighlyinstrumentedsystemsthat
utilizemembranesolidsseparationfollowingbiologicalnitrificationanddenitrificationarecapableof
removingtotalnitrogendowntoverylowconcentrations(i.e.34mg/LTN).
Nitrogenremovalsystemsgenerallyarelocatedlastinthetreatmenttrainpriortosubsurface
wastewaterinfiltrationsystem(SWIS)disposalorsurfacewaterdisposal,inwhichcaseadisinfection
stepistypicallyrequired.Usually,theminimumtotalnitrogenstandardthatcanberegularlymetis
about10mg/L.Thesetechnologiescanbeeitherabovegroundorbelowground.
9.3 NitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
9.3.1 Introduction
Thissectionprovidesinformationonanumberofdifferenttechnologiesthatcanreduce
nitrogenandphosphoruslevels.Theactualtechnologyselectedwillbesitespecificanddependenton
manyfactorsincludingsoilconditions,influentwaterquality,requiredeffluentlevels,disposaloptions,
availabilityofland,cost,etc.Insomecases,acombinationoftechnologiesmaybenecessaryto
effectivelyremoveallthecontaminantsofconcern.Smallsystemownersandoperatorsshouldwork
closelywiththeirstateonsiteanddecentralizedprogramstaffaswellasengineerstoensurethatthe
technologiesselectedwillworkeffectivelyincombinationtoachievetheeffluentgoals.
9.3.2 NutrientRemovalTechnologies
FixedfilmsystemsAerobic/anaerobictricklingfilterpackageplant
Fixedfilmsystems(FFSs)arebiologicaltreatmentprocessesthatemployamediumsuchasrock,
plastic,wood,orothernaturalorsyntheticsolidmaterialthatwillsupportbiomassonitssurfaceand
withinitsporousstructure(USEPA,2008c).TricklingfilterFFSsaretypicallyconstructedasbedsof
mediathroughwhichwastewaterflows.Oxygenisnormallyprovidedbynaturalorforcedventilation.
Commercialonsitesystemsusesyntheticmediaandreceivewastewaterfromoverlyingsprayheadsfor
aerobictreatmentandnitrification.Nitrifiedeffluentreturnstotheanoxiczonetomixwitheitherseptic
tankcontentsorincomingseptictankeffluentfordenitrification.Aportionofthedenitrifiedeffluentis
dischargedfordisposalorfurthertreatment.Aerobictanksareavailableinresidentialorsmall
communitysizes.Typicaltricklingfilterssystemscurrentlyavailablearecapableofproducingeffluent
BODandTSSconcentrationsof5to40mg/L.Nitrogenremovaltypicallyvariesfrom0to35percent
althoughremovalpercentagesashighas65%havebeendemonstratedthroughUSEPAsEnvironmental
TechnologyVerification(ETV)program.Phosphorusremovalistypically10to15percent.Higher
removaloccursatlowloadingratesinwarmclimates.Systemscanbeconfiguredforsinglepassuse
wherethetreatedwaterisappliedtothetricklingfilteroncebeforebeingdisposedof,orformultipass
usewhereaportionofthetreatedwateriscycledbacktotheseptictankandretreatedviaaclosed
loop.MultipasssystemsresultinhighertreatmentqualityandassistinremovingTotalNitrogen(TN)
levelsbypromotingnitrificationintheaerobicmediabedanddenitrificationintheanaerobicseptic
tank.
Factorsaffectingperformanceincludeinfluentwastewatercharacteristics,hydraulicandorganic
loading,mediumtype,maintenanceofoptimalDOlevels,andrecirculationrates.
Sequencingbatchreactor(SBR)

TheSBRprocessisasequentialsuspendedgrowth(activatedsludge)processinwhichallmajor
stepsoccurinthesametankinsequentialorder(USEPA,2008d).TheSBRsystemistypicallyfoundin
packagedconfigurationsforonsiteandsmallcommunityorclusterapplications.Themajorcomponents
ofthepackageincludethebatchtank,aerator,mixer,decanterdevice,processcontrolsystem(including
timers),pumps,piping,andappurtenances.Aerationmaybeprovidedbydiffusedairormechanical
devices.SBRsareoftensizedtoprovidemixingaswellandareoperatedbytheprocesscontroltimers.
Mechanicalaeratorshavetheaddedvalueofpotentialoperationasmixersoraerators.Thedecanteris
acriticalelementintheprocess.Severaldecanterconfigurationsareavailable,includingfixedand
floatingunits.Atleastonecommercialpackageemploysathermalprocessingstepfortheexcesssludge
producedandwastedduringtheidlestep.ThekeytotheSBRprocessisthecontrolsystem,which
consistsofacombinationoflevelsensors,timers,andmicroprocessorswhichcanbeconfiguredtomeet
theneedsofthesystem.
SBRscanbedesignedandoperatedtoenhanceremovalofnitrogen,phosphorus,andammonia,
inadditiontoremovingTSSandBOD.PackageplantSBRsaresuitableforareaswithlittleland,stringent
treatmentrequirements,andsmallwastewaterflowssuchasRVparksormobilehomes,campgrounds,
constructionsites,ruralschools,hotels,andothersmallapplications.Thesesystemsarealsousefulfor
treatingpharmaceutical,brewery,dairy,pulpandpaper,andchemicalwastes(USEPA,2000d).
Intermittentsandfilters(ISF)
ISFisusedtodescribeavarietyofpackedbedfiltersofsandorothergranularmaterials
availableonthemarket(USEPA,2008g).Sandfiltersprovideadvancedsecondarytreatmentofsettled
wastewaterorseptictankeffluent.Theyconsistofalined(e.g.,imperviousPVClineronsandbedding)
excavationorstructurefilledwithuniformwashedsandthatisplacedoveranunderdrainsystem.The
wastewaterisdirectedontothesurfaceofthesandthroughadistributionnetworkandallowedto
percolatethroughthesandtotheunderdrainsystem.Theunderdrainsystemcollectsthefiltereffluent
forfurtherprocessingordischarge.
Sandfiltersareaerobic,fixedfilmbioreactors.Bioslimesfromthegrowthofmicroorganisms
developasfilmsonthesandparticlesurfaces.Themicroorganismsintheslimescapturesolubleand
colloidalwastematerialsinthewastewaterasitpercolatesoverthesandsurfaces.Thecaptured
materialsaremetabolizedintonewcellmassordegradedunderaerobicconditionstocarbondioxide
andwater.Mostbiochemicaltreatmentoccurswithinapproximately6inchesofthefiltersurface.
Othertreatmentmechanismsthatoccurinsandfiltersincludephysicalprocesses,suchas
strainingandsedimentation,toremovesuspendedsolidswithintheporesofthemedia.Most
suspendedsolidsarestrainedoutatthefiltersurface.Chemicaladsorptioncanoccurthroughoutthe
mediabed.Adsorptionsitesinthemediaareusuallylimited,however.Thecapacityofthemediato
retainionsdependsonthetargetconstituent,thepH,andthemineralogyofthemedia.Phosphorousis
oneelementofconcerninwastewaterthatcanberemovedinthismanner,butthenumberofavailable
adsorptionsitesislimitedbythecharacteristicsofthemedia.
Sandfilterscanbeusedforabroadrangeofapplications,includingsinglefamilyresidences,
largecommercialestablishments,andsmallcommunities.Sandfiltersarefrequentlyusedtopretreat
septictankeffluentpriortosubsurfaceinfiltrationonsitewherethesoilhasinsufficientunsaturated
depthabovegroundwaterorbedrocktoachieveadequatetreatment.Theyarealsousedtomeet
waterqualityrequirements(withthepossibleexceptionoffecalcoliformremoval)beforedirect
dischargetosurfacewater.Sandfiltersareusedprimarilytotreatdomesticwastewater,buttheyhave
beenusedsuccessfullyintreatmenttrainstotreatwastewatershighinorganicmaterialssuchasthose
fromrestaurantsandsupermarkets.SinglepassISFfiltersaremostfrequentlyusedforsmaller
applicationsandsiteswherenitrogenremovalisnotrequired.However,theycanbecombinedwith
anoxicprocessestosignificantlyincreasenitrogenremoval.
Recirculatingsandfilters(RSF)

Recirculatingfiltersusingsand,gravel,orothermediaprovideadvancedsecondarytreatmentof
settledwastewaterorseptictankeffluent(USEPA,2008h).Theyconsistofalined(e.g.,imperviousPVC
lineronsandbedding)excavationorstructurefilledwithuniformwashedsandthatisplacedoveran
underdrainsystem.Thewastewaterisdirectedontothesurfaceofthesandthroughadistribution
networkandallowedtopercolatethroughthesandtotheunderdrainsystem.Theunderdrainsystem
collectsandrecyclesthefiltereffluenttotherecirculationtankforfurtherprocessingordischarge.
Thebasiccomponentsofrecirculatingfiltersincludearecirculation/dosingtank,pumpand
controls,distributionnetwork,filterbedwithanunderdrainsystem,andareturnline.Thereturnlineor
theunderdrainmustsplittheflowtorecycleaportionofthefiltratetotherecirculation/dosingtank.A
smallvolumeofwastewaterandfiltrateisdosedtothefiltersurfaceonatimedcycle1to3timesper
hour.Recirculationratiosaretypicallybetween3:1and5:1.Intherecirculationtank,thereturned
aerobicfiltratemixeswiththeanaerobicseptictankeffluentbeforebeingreappliedtothefilter.
RSFscanbeusedforabroadrangeofapplications,includingsinglefamilyresidences,large
commercialestablishments,andsmallcommunities.Theyproduceahighqualityeffluentwith
approximately85to95percentBODandTSSremoval.Inaddition,almostcompletenitrificationis
achieved.DenitrificationalsohasbeenshowntooccurinRSFs.Dependingonmodificationsindesign
andoperation,50percentormoreofappliednitrogencanberemoved(USEPA,1999).Toenhancethis
capability,theycanbecombinedwithagreatersupplyofbiodegradableorganiccarbon,time,and
mixingthanisnormallyavailablefromtheconventionalrecirculationtank.
NaturalSystems
Thenaturalsystemsdescribedhereincludeconstructedwetlandsandfloatingaquaticplant
treatmentsystems.Wetlandsystemsaretypicallydescribedintermsofthepositionofthewater
surfaceand/orthetypeofvegetationgrown.Mostnaturalwetlandsarefreewatersurface(FWS)
systemswherethewatersurfaceisexposedtotheatmosphere;theseincludebogs(primaryvegetation
mosses),swamps(primaryvegetationtrees),andmarshes(primaryvegetationgrassesandemergent
macrophytes)(USEPA,2000e).subsurfaceflow(SF)wetlandsarespecificallydesignedtotreatorpolish
wastewaterandaretypicallyconstructedasabedorchannelcontainingappropriatemedia.
Constructedwetlandstreatwastewaterbybacterialdecomposition,settling,andfiltering.Asin
tankdesigns,bacteriabreakdownorganicmatterinthewastewater,aerobically,anoxicallyand
anaerobically.Oxygenforaerobicdecompositionissuppliedbytheplantsgrowinginthewetland.
Solidsarefilteredandfinallysettleoutofthewastewaterwithinthewetland.Afterabouttwoweeksin
thewetland,effluentisusuallydischargedbygravitytoanunlinedwetlandbed.Ifthesesystems
dischargeeffluenttosurfaceditches,theyrequireaNPDESpermit.
Thesubmergedplantrootsdoprovidesubstrateformicrobialprocesses.However,theamount
ofoxygenthatemergentmacrophytescantransmitfromtheleavestotheirrootsisnegligiblecompared
totheoxygendemandofwastewater.Thereforesubsurfaceflowwetlandsaredevoidofoxygen.The
lackofoxygeninthesesubsurfaceflowsystemsmeansthatammoniaoxidationviabiological
nitrificationwillnotoccurwithouttheuseofanadditionalunitprocess,suchasagraveltricklingfilter
fornitrificationofthewastewaterammonia.Verticalflowwetlandbedsareamodificationof
subsurfaceflowwetlandswhichcontaingravelorcoarsesandandareloadedintermittentlyatthetop
surface.Unlikeammoniaoxidation,nitrateremovalinasubsurfaceflowwetlandcanberapidand
effectivebecausetheanoxicconditionsandcarbonsourcesnecessarytosupportthetreatment
reactionsoccurnaturallyinthesesystems.
FWSwetlandswithlongdetentiontimescanremoveminoramountsofphosphorusthrough
plantuptake,adsorption,complexation,andprecipitation.However,removalviaplantuptakeislimited
tophosphorusretainedinplantlitterthatisburiedbysedimentsbeforeplantdecompositionoccurs(i.e.
peatbuildingprocess).Phosphorusremovalistypicallygreaterinthefirstyearortwobecauseofsoil
absorptionandrapidlyexpandingvegetationbutdecreaseswhenthesystemreachesequilibrium,and
unburiedplantlitterreleasesphosphorusbackintothewaterasitdecomposes.Phosphorusremovalis
alsopossiblewiththeuseofanadditionprocess,suchaschemicaladditionandmixingpriortoafinal
deepsettlingpond.
Aquaticsystemsusingduckweedhavebeenusedforanumberofyearstotreatwastewaterfor
variouspurposes(WEF,2001).Duckweed(Lemnaspp.)arefloatingmacrophytes.Duckweedfrondscan
doubletheirmassintwodaysunderidealconditionsofnutrientavailability,sunlight,andtemperature.
Althoughduckweedcanbefoundinmostregions,therateofgrowthisoptimalat20to30
o
Candthey
growbestinapHrangeof3.5to8.5.DuckweedcangrowaboutsixmonthsperyearinmostU.S.
climates.HighlevelsofBODandTSSremovalhavebeenobservedfromduckweedsystems.Toachieve
secondarytreatmentmostduckweedsystemsarecoupledwitheitherfacultativeoraeratedponds.
Nitrogenisremovedbyplantuptakeandharvesting,bydenitrification,oracombinationofthetwo.
Typicallylessthan1mg/Lofphosphoruscanberemovedbyplantuptakeandharvest.Ifsignificant
phosphorusremovalisrequired,chemicalprecipitationwithalum,ferricchloride,orotherchemicals
usedinaseparatetreatmentstepisnecessary.Themajordisadvantageofduckweedsystemsisthe
largeamountofbiomassproducedbytherapidlygrowingplants,whichcreatesasolidshandling
requirementsimilartohandlingsludgeatanaerobicwastewatertreatmentfacility.
ProprietaryFilters/ImprovedandEmergingTechnologies
Anumberofcompanieshavedevelopedproprietarynitrogenandphosphorusremoval
technologiesthatcanbeusedatcentralizedwastewatertreatmentfacilitiesaswellasatonsite,
decentralizedsystems.Thissectionprovidesageneraldescriptionofsomeofthesetechnologies
withoutmentioningspecifictradenames.Additionalinformationonproprietaryandemerging
technologiesisavailablefromtheWastewaterVirtualTradeShowhostedbyEPANewEngland'sCenter
forEnvironmentalIndustryandTechnology(CEIT),availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/ne/assistance/ceitts/wastewater/index.html.
Inoneonsitetechnologysystem,thehousehold'sgreywater(washwater)andblackwater(toilet
andkitchensinkwastes)areplumbedseparatelyandflowtoseparateseptictanks.Thesystemconsists
oftwoseptictanks,afilter,andaconventionalleachingfacility,allofwhicharelocatedbelowthe
groundsurface.Insomesituationsthesystemmaybepassive,requiringnopumpsorothermoving
mechanicalparts(unlessfinishedeffluentmustbepumpeduptoanelevatedleachingfieldtoachieve
adequateseparationtogroundwater).Theblackwaterflowsfromtheseptictanktoaproprietary
aerobicfilterwhereitisnitrifiedandthenflowstotheanaerobicgreywaterseptictankfor
denitrification.Thefilteritselfiscomposedofseverallayersofindrainswhichareoverlainbylayersof
sandandfiltercloth.Theindrainsarecomposedofproprietarymaterialandprovideairtothefilterso
thatitremainsaerobic.Theindrainmediaandthesandsupportthegrowthofnitrifyingbacteria.As
theeffluenttricklesthroughthefilter,nitrificationoccurs.Theeffluentiscollectedbyadrainatthe
bottomofthefilterfromwhichitflowsintothegreywaterseptictank.Thegreywaterseptictankis
anaerobicandthegreywaterprovidesarichsourceofcarbonwhichsupportsthegrowthofdenitrifying
bacteria.Denitrificationoftheeffluentisaccomplishedbypassivemixingofthefiltertreatedblackwater
withthegreywaterinthisseptictank.Aftertreatmentinthistank,finishedeffluentflowstothe
leachingfacilityfordisposal.Initialdataindicatethatthesystemiscapableofproducingfinished
effluentwithtotalnitrogencontentof19mg/L.Limiteddatashowthatthesystemmayalsobecapable
ofapproximately50%removalofphosphorus.Thesystemhasalsobeenmodifiedforcommercialuse.
AcentralizedsystemfornitrogenremovalhasbeenusedatfullscaleintheNetherlands
althoughitisjustinpilotsystemphasehereintheU.S.Thissinglereactorsystemfornitrogenremoval
isbasedontwocoreconcepts:1)thatattemperaturesbetween3040
0
C,thegrowthrateofammonia
oxidizingbacteriaisgreaterthanthegrowthofnitrateoxidizingbacteria;and2)denitrifyingbacteriaare
capableofanoxicconversionsofnitritetonitrogengas.Thereactorconvertsammoniamainlytonitrite
byoxidationataminimalsludgeretentiontime.Thenitriteisthenanoxicallyconvertedtonitrogengas.
ApassivewastewaternitrogenremovalsystemhasbeendevelopedattheUniversityof
Waterloo,OntarioandhasbeentestedinseveralfacilitiesintheU.S.Thissystem,whichcanreduce
wastewaternitrogenlevelsto3mg/L,hasbeendemonstratedtobeeffectiveforindividualpropertiesas
wellasclusterandcentralizedwastewatersystems.Theproprietarypatentednitratereactivemedia
thatconvertsnitratetoinertnitrogengas(denitrification)iscontainedinaprefabricatedtankor,for
largerinstallations,inanengineeredexcavation.Nitratecontaminatedwastewaterisgravitationallyfed
throughthetreatmentmodule.Forseptictankapplications,anoxidativepretreatmentstepisrequired
toconvertammonium(NH
4
+
)tonitrate(NO
3
)beforethefiltercanperformthereductivedenitrification
step.Pretreatmentcanbeachievedwithanyoftheexistingoxidativetechnologiescommonlyusedin
wastewatertreatment.Thenitratefreeeffluentfromthefilteristhendischargedtoaconventionaltile
bedorreceivingwaterbody.Thefiltershavealsobeenusedasapermeablereactivebarriertoremove
groundwaternutrientsclosetoreceivingwaterbodies.
ApassivephosphoruswastewaterremovalsystemhasalsobeendevelopedattheUniversityof
Waterloothatincorporatesproprietarymediaandafilterfollowingprimarytreatment/septictanksand
priortosoildispersal.Thissystemhasbeendemonstratedtoreducephosphoruseffluentby94percent,
nitrogenby54percentandBODby86percentatatestcenterinMassachusetts.Theprocess
incorporatesreductiveirondissolutionandmineralizationofphosphorus.
Anothermanufacturerutilizesattachedgrowthairliftreactortechnologywithafullyopen,fully
protectedbiomasscarrierwithaerationandmixingdesigntoprovidehighBODandtotalnitrogen
removalcapability.Thisisafixedbiofilmmovingbedprocess,utilizingsuspendedbiomasscarrierswith
highspecificsurfaceareaforbiofilmgrowth,alongwithcarefullydesignedreactorhydraulics.Thisdual
actiondenitrificationandeffluentfiltrationsolutiontechnologyhasbeendesignedforsmalland
mediumsizedWWTPsaswellasotherindustrialapplicationssuchasfoodandbeverage,pulpand
paper,oilandgas,biofuel,chemicals,pharmaceuticals,reuse,andaquaculture.
Avarietyofmembranesandbioreactortechnologies,manyusingimprovedfixedfilmprocesses,
arealsobeingdevelopedformaximumexposureofwastestreamstoactivatedsludgethatdigestswaste
fromplantproductioneffluentstreams.Sincethemembranescanretainactivatedsludgeathigh
concentrations,BODandnitrogencanberemovedmoreefficiently.Manyofthesecanbeintegratedas
anupgrade/retrofitintoexistingtreatmentsystemsorusedaspackageplantsinsmallerinstallations
suchasresidentialandcommercialdevelopmentprojects,industrialapplications,militarybases,and
officeparks.
10. SustainableNutrientRecovery
WhiletheU.S.isprimarilyaddressingnutrientremovalconcernsthroughdevelopmentofWQSs
andtreatmentatcentralizedwastewaterfacilities,anumberofEuropeancountriesincluding
Switzerland,Sweden,andtheNetherlandsareconductingresearchoninnovativesustainablenutrient
recoverysystems.Theconceptbehindthesenewtechnologiesistoseparateandtreattoiletwaste
beforeitleavesthehomeorbuildingandmixeswiththelargerwastestreamtobecarriedtoWWTPs.
Recentstudieshaveshownthatabout80percentofthenitrogenand50percentofthephosphorusin
wastewaterarederivedfromurinealthoughurinemakesuponly1percentofthevolumeof
wastewater(LarsenandLeinert,2007).Separatingtheurinefromwastewatercouldoffervarious
advantages:WWTPscouldbebuiltonasmallerscale,waterbodieswillbebetterprotectedfrom
nitrogenandphosphoruspollution,nutrientscouldberecycledforagriculturaluse,andvarious
constituentsofconcernincludinghormonesandpharmaceuticalcompoundscouldberemovedbefore
beingmixedwithwastewaterandreleasedtotheenvironment.Amajorbenefitwouldbereduced
energyconsumptionatWWTPsasaresultofreducedtreatmentrequirementsfornitrogen.Also,
separating50to60percentofurinecouldreduceinplantnitrogengasdischargesandresultinfewer
impuritiesinmethanecapturedfromsludgedigestion.
OrganizationssuchastheSwissFederalInstituteofAquaticScienceandTechnology(Eawag)are
currentlyexperimentingwiththedevelopmentandapplicationofNoMixtechnologytoseparateurine
fromsolidwasteatthetoiletbowl.Whilesimilarinsizeandshapetocurrenttoilets,thisnew
technologyhastwowastepipesasmallfrontonethatcollectsanddivertsurineintoastoragetank,
andalargerrearwastepipethatoperateslikeastandardtoilet.Thefirstofthesetoiletswereinstalled
intwoecovillagesinSwedenin1994andsincethenhavespreadtootherlocationsthroughoutthe
countryandtoDenmark,theNetherlands,andSwitzerland.TheconceptisnowtakingholdinAustria
andGermany.Whilethepollutantfreeurine,orurevit,canbesprayapplieddirectlyontoagricultural
fields;intheNetherlands,acompanycalledGrontmijtrucksstoredurinetoaspecialtreatmentplant
wherethephosphateisprecipitatedoutasamineralcalledstruviteandusedasafertilizer.Novaquatis,
abranchofEawagisexperimentingwithextractingnitrogenandpotassiumfromurinethatcanbe
sprayeddirectlyontocrops.Eawagisalsoexperimentingwithapilotdecentralizedbasementsewage
plantwheredomesticwastewateristreatedinaMBRsoitcanbereusedforflushingthetoiletsor
wateringthegardenandthesewagesludgeiscomposted.Whilestillexperimental,someofthese
technologiesmayhavepracticalfutureapplicationsifwidelyapplicablelowcostsolutionscanbefound
forurinetransport,orstableandcosteffectivetechnologiescanbedevelopedfordecentralized
treatment.Whilestudiesofconsumerattitudesandacceptanceappeartobepositive,technological
improvementsarestillneededtopreventclogginginpipes,toidentifybesttreatmentoptionsthatcan
beappliedinpractice;andtoidentifyhowandwheretoconverturinetofertilizer.
Sustainabilityconcernsarealsodrivingthewastewatertreatmentindustrytostartlookingat
sludgeasarenewableresource.Historically,agriculturalusehasbeenthetraditionalapproachfor
disposalofmunicipalsludgeduetoitshighnutrientcontentforfertilizingcrops,anditslowcost
approach.Asscientificadvancesdetectsmallerandsmallerquantitiesofcontaminants(i.e.,heavy
metals,pathogenicmicroorganisms,pharmaceuticals,andpersonalcareproducts),thepublic,farming
organizations,andthefoodindustryareraisingconcernsaboutcontinuingthispractice.Asnoted
above,researchersarediscoveringthatvaluableproductscanbegeneratedfromsewagetreatment
byproductssuchasenergyextractedfromanaerobicdigestion,constructionmaterialssuchasbricks,
andnutrientssuchasphosphorusthatcanbeextractedfromsludgeandusedasfertilizer.
InFebruary2008,thenonprofitGlobalWaterResearchCoalition,aninternationalwater
researchallianceformedby12worldleadingresearchorganizations,releasedareporttitled,Stateof
ScienceReport:EnergyandResourceRecoveryfromSludge(KalogoandMonteith,2008).Thereport
focuseson:
Theinternationalsituationofenergyandresourcerecoveryfromsludge
Howtheuseofdifferentsludgetreatmentprocessesaffectsthepossibilityofrecovering
energyand/ormaterialsfromtheresidualsludge
Theinfluenceofmarketandregulatorydriversonthefateofthesludgeendproduct
Thefeasibilityofenergyandresourcerecoveryfromsludge
Thesocial,economic,andenvironmentalperformance(triplebottomlineorTBL
assessment)ofcurrentalternativestechnologies
Fourmarketdriversareidentifiedanddiscussedincluding:
- Sustainabilityandenvironmentalconcerns,suchasthethreatofsoilpollution,global
warmingandresourcedepletion
- Risingenergycostsandtheneedofmoreelectricityandheattooperatetheplants
- Requirementsforhighqualityofresourcesforindustrialapplications,suchascalcium
phosphateforthephosphateindustry
- Regulationasafactorstimulatingthedevelopmentofnewtechnologies
Inthereport,energyrecoverytechnologiesareclassifiedintosludgetobiogasprocesses,
sludgetosyngasprocesses,sludgetooilprocesses,andsludgetoliquidprocesses.Thetechnologies
availableforresourcerecoverydiscussedinthereportincludethosetorecoverphosphorus,building
materials,nitrogen,andvolatileacids.Thereport,whichcoversbothestablishedaswellasemerging
technologies,willbeusedasthebasisfordevelopmentofthecoalitionsfuturestrategicresearchplan
onenergyandrecoveryfromsludge.Asatechnicalresource,itprovidesavaluableoverviewofsludge
disposalpracticesinvariouscountriessuchastheU.S.,theNetherlands,theUnitedKingdom,Germany,
Sweden,Japan,andChina;andpresentsanumberoftreatmentprocessesforresourcerecovery.
Othergroupshavelookedatrecoveringphosphorusfromthesupernatantfromanaerobic
digestion.Severaldifferentprocesseshavebeenproposedthatrelyonprecipitationofthephosphorus
aseitherstruviteorcalciumphosphate.WorkisunderwayonprojectsinItaly,Germany,the
Netherlands,andCanada(SCOPE,2004).
11. CoRemovalofEmergingContaminants
Thischapterprovidesabriefbackgroundonemergingcontaminantsandkeyfindingsfrom
studiesonthecoremovalofemergingcontaminantsbynutrientremovaltechnologies.
11.1 BackgroundonEmergingContaminants
Thetermemergingcontaminantsrefersbroadlytothosesyntheticornaturallyoccurring
chemicals,ortoanymicrobiologicalorganisms,thathavenotbeencommonlymonitoredinthe
environmentbutwhichareofincreasingconcernbecauseoftheirknownorsuspectedadverse
ecologicalorhumanhealtheffects.Emergingcontaminantscanfallintoawiderangeofgroupsdefined
bytheireffects,uses,orbytheirkeychemicalormicrobiologicalcharacteristics.Twogroupsof
emergingcontaminantsthatareofparticularinterestandconcernatpresentareendocrinedisrupting
chemicals(EDCs)andpharmaceuticalandpersonalcareproducts(PPCPs).Thesecompoundsarefound
intheenvironment,oftenasaresultofhumanactivities.
EDCsmayinterferewiththeendocrinesystemsbydamaginghormoneproducingtissues,
changingtheprocessesbywhichhormonesaremadeormetabolized,ormimickinghormones.In
additiontonaturalandsyntheticformsofhumanhormonesthatarereleasedintotheenvironment,
thereareamultitudeofsyntheticorganiccompoundsthatareabletodisrupttheendocrinesystem.
PublicconcernaboutEDCsintheenvironmenthasbeenrapidlyincreasingsincethe1990swhen
researchersreportedunusualsexualcharacteristicsinwildlife.AreportbytheUSGS,foundthatfishin
manystreamshadatypicalratiosofmaleandfemalesexhormones(Goodbredetal.,1997).InEngland,
researchersfoundthatmaletroutkeptincagesnearWWTPoutfallsweredevelopingeggsontheir
testesandhadincreasedlevelsoftheproteinthatisresponsibleforeggproduction(vitellogenin)
(Sumpter,1995;Kaiser,1996).Followuplaboratorystudiesshowedthatsyntheticformsofestrogen
(17ethynylestradiol(EE
2
))couldincreasevitellogeninproductioninfishatlevelsaslowas110ng/L,
withpositiveresponsesseendowntothe0.10.5ng/Llevel(Purdometal.,1994).
Humanestrogenshavetheabilitytoaltersexualcharacteristicsofaquaticspeciesattrace
concentrationsaslowas1ng/L(Purdometal.,1994).WWTPeffluentshavebeenidentifiedasa
primarysourceforEDCsintheenvironment,withthebulkoftheirendocrinedisruptingactivityresulting
fromhumanestrogencompounds(Desbrowetal.,1998,Snyderetal.,2001)(Table111).Thesynthetic
estrogen,EE
2
,andthenaturalestrogens,estrone(E
1
)and17estradiol(E
2
),arethegreatest
contributorstoendocrinedisruptingactivityinWWTPeffluent(Johnsonetal.,2001)withEE
2
showing
thegreatestrecalcitranceinWWTPs(Jossetal.,2004).Influentconcentrationsrangefrombelow
detectionto70ng/LforEE
2
,670ng/LforE
1
and150ng/LforE
2
(Vethaaketal.,2005,Claraetal.,
2005b).
OtherEDCsincludetributyltin,whichwaspreviouslyusedinpaintstopreventmarine
organismsfromstickingtoships,nonylphenol(asurfactant),andbisphenolA(platicizerand
preservative).
PPCPsencompassawidevarietyofproductsthatareusedbyindividualsforpersonalhealthor
cosmeticreasons,andalsoincludecertainagriculturalandveterinarymedicineproducts.PPCPs
compriseadiversecollectionofthousandsofchemicalsubstances,includingprescriptionandoverthe
countertherapeuticdrugs,veterinarydrugs,fragrances,sunscreenproducts,vitamins,andcosmetics.
Manyoftheseproducts,notablythepharmaceuticalsforhumanoranimaluse,arespecificallydesigned
tobebiologicallyactive,andsomePPCPsmayalsofallintothecategoryofEDCsdescribedpreviously.
Table111.EstrogensofConcern
Name Chemical Structure Name Chemical Structure

E
1

Estrone
C
18
H
22
O
2

E
2

17-estradiol
C
18
H
24
O
2

E
3

Estriol
C
18
H
24
O
3

EE
2

17-
ethynylestradiol
C
20
H
24
O
2

Currently,municipalsewagetreatmentplantsareengineeredtoremoveconventionalpollutants
suchassolidsandbiodegradableorganicmaterialbutarenotspecificallydesignedforPPCPremovalor
forotherunregulatedcontaminants.Wastewatertreatmentcommonlyconsistsofprimarysettling
followedbybiologicaltreatment,secondarysettling,anddisinfection.Thistreatmentcanremovemore
than90percentofmanyofthemostcommonlyknownorsuspectedEDCsfoundinwastewaterinfluent;
however,lowconcentrationsofsomesuspectedEDCsmayremaininthewastewatertreatmentsludge
oreffluent(WERF,2005).Asdiscussedinthenextsection,studieshaveshownenhancednutrient
removaltechnologiestobeeffectiveinremovinglowconcentrationsofsomeemergingcontaminants.
11.2 RemovalofEmergingContaminantsbyNutrientRemovalTechnologies
Severalstudieshaveexaminedtheeffectivenessofcurrentwastewatertreatmenttechnologies
intheremovalofemergingcontaminants.Someofthesestudiesarediscussedbelowandtheirmajor
findingsareorganizedunderthreesubsections:roleofactivatedsludgeSRTinremovalefficiency,role
ofnitrifyingbacteriainbiodegradation,anduseofROtoimproveremovalefficiencies.Detailsregarding
thestudydesign,suchasevaluatedtreatmentsandcontaminants,andasummaryofmajorstudy
findingsareprovidedbyauthorinTable112attheendofthischapter.Thesignificantfindingsarealso
presentedasfollows:
RemovalefficiencieswereenhancedforseveralinvestigatedcontaminantsatlongerSRTs,with
criticalSRTsforsomebeyondwhichremovalratesdidnotimprove.
LongerSRTsallowfortheestablishmentofslowergrowingbacteria(e.g.,nitrifyingbacteriain
activatedsludge),whichinturnprovideamorediversecommunityofmicroorganismswith
broaderphysiologicalcapabilities.
Nitrifyingbacteriamayplayakeyroleinbiodegradationbuttheroleofheterotrophicbacteria
mayalsoplayasignificantrole.
ReverseosmosishasbeenfoundtoeffectivelyremovePPCPsbelowdetectionlimitsincluding
thosethatthatwerenotconsistentlyremovedatlongerSRTs.
Onecaveatregardingstudiesonemergingcontaminantsisthattheirconcentrationsin
wastewaterinfluentareoftenquitelow(e.g.,concentrationsofng/Ltog/Lrange)andmaybecloseto
methoddetectionlimits.Therefore,smallvariationsbetweenmeasuredinfluentandeffluent
concentrationsmayshowlargevariationsinapparentremovalefficiencies,possiblyevenproducing
negativecalculatedremovals.
RoleofSolidsRetentionTimeinRemovalEfficiency
ThefocusofseveralstudieshasbeentherelationshipoftheSRTtotheremovalofemerging
contaminants.Inparticular,manyinvestigatedwhetherlongerSRTswouldresultinincreasedremoval
efficienciesforestrogensandothercategoriesofPPCPs.LongeractivatedsludgeSRTsallowforthe
establishmentofslowergrowingbacteria(e.g.,nitrifyingbacteriainactivatedsludge),whichinturn
provideamorediversecommunityofmicroorganismswithbroaderphysiologicalcapabilities.
Claraetal.(2005a),Kreuzingeretal.(2004),andOppenheimeretal.(2007)observedenhanced
removalwithincreasingSRTsformostoftheEDCsandpharmaceuticalstestedandfoundnosignificant
differencesinremovalperformancesbetweenconventionalactivatedsludgesystemsandMBRwhen
operatedatsimilarSRT
10C
.Thisislikelyduetothemolecularweightofthestudycompounds,which
wassmallerthanthemolecularweightcutoffoftheultrafiltrationmembranesintheMBR.
Researchershaveobservedsimilarfindingsfornaturalestrogenswithhigherremoval
percentagesatlongerSRTs.Effluentconcentrationsforthreenaturalestrogensweremeasurednear
theirdetectionlimitsatSRTs
10C
higherthan10days,withtheircriticalSRTs
10C
estimatedbetween5and
10days(Claraetal.,2005a).Highremovalratesof>90percentwerealsoobservedbyJossetal.(2004)
inastudyinwhichtheyevaluatedtheremovalofE
1
,E
2
,andEE
2
underaerobicandanaerobicconditions
inWWTPsdesignedfornutrientremoval.Jossetal.(2004)alsoreportedthatthemaximumefficiencyis
dependentonredoxconditions,withthehighestremovalrateoccurringduringthereductionofE
1
toE
2
underaerobicconditions.Claraetal.(2005a)citedexampleswhereconflictingresultswereobtained
forEE
2
.Ternesetal.(1999)foundnosignificanteliminationofthiscompoundduringbatch
experiments;however,Barontietal.(2000)andJossetal.(2004)reportgreaterthan85percent
removalinfullscaleWWTPs.
Forthepharmaceuticalsibuprofenandbezafibrate,Claraetal.(2005a)reportedmorethan95
percentremovalduringtreatmentandcalculatedthecriticalvalueforSRT
10C
at5daysforibuprofen
andabout10daysforbezafibrate.Analogousremovalresultswereobtainedinseveralotherstudies
(Stumpfetal.,1998;Buseretal.,1999;Zwieneretal.,2001,ascitedinClaraetal.,2005a;Oppenheimer
etal.,2007).Claraetal.(2005b)notednoorslightremovalofthesetwopharmaceuticalsandtwomusk
fragrances(tonalideandgalaxolide)ataWWTPwithalowSRTof1to2days(thisplantisahighloaded
plant,designedtoremovecarbononly.)Claraetal.(2005a,2005b)alsofoundthatthepharmaceutical
carbamazepinewasnotremovedduringwastewatertreatment.Inaddition,thesestudiesfound
contradictoryresultsfordiclofenac(e.g.,removalratesrangedfromnoremovalto>70percentatSRTs
of>10days(Claraetal.,2005b)).Claraetal.(2005a)alsocitedseveralexampleswhereconflicting
resultswereobtainedfordiclofenac.NosignificantremovalwasreportedbyBuseretal.(1999)and
Heberer(2002a);whereas,Ternesetal.(1998)observedeliminationratesofupto70percent.
Claraetal.(2005a,2005b)concludedthattheremovalpotentialforconventionalWWTPsand
MBRsdependsontheSRT.TheyfurtherconcludedthathighremovalratescanbeachievedatSRTs
10C
ofmorethan10days.Theseparameterscorrespondtothedesigncriteriafornitrogenremovalinthe
GermanAssociationforWater,WastewaterandWaste(ATVDVWK,2000)andtheurbanwastewater
directiveoftheEuropeanCommunity(91/271/EEC)forWWTPsinsensitiveareas.
Inits2005,technicalbrief,EndocrineDisruptingCompoundsandImplicationsforWastewater
Treatment,WERFsummarizedinformationfromseveralstudiesthatexaminedtheeffectivenessof
currentwastewatertreatmenttechnologiesintheremovalofEDCs.TheclassesofEDCsincluded:
steroids/sterols(naturallyoccurring,synthetic,andphytoestrogens),organohalides,
metals/organometals,alkylphenols,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)/crudeoil,andplasticizers.
AlthoughtheWERF2005technicalbriefstatesthatingeneral,EDCtreatmenteffectivenessisimproved
withincreasedSRT,itdoesnotprovidethespecificSRTsthatareassociatedwiththecitedremoval
rates.
Oppenheimeretal.(2007)examinedtherelationshipofSRTtotreatmentremovalefficiencies
for20PPCPsthatarecommonlyfoundintheinfluentofU.S.treatmentfacilities.Manyofthestudies
alreadydiscussedherehavebeenconductedprimarilyinEurope,wereconductedatsmallscaleWWTPs
andbench/pilotplantsundercontrolledconditions,andfocusedonestrogensandprescription
pharmaceuticalsratherthanPPCPs.TheOppenheimeretal.(2007)studyalsonotedtrendsregarding
theeffectofHRTandpureoxygensystemscomparedtoconventionalaerationsystemsonPPCP
removal.
Oppenheimeretal.(2007)definedaminimumcriticalSRTastheminimumtimeneededto
consistentlydemonstrategreaterthan80percentremoval.Theresultsofthestudyshowedthatthis
criticalSRTwascompounddependentbutthatthemajorityofthe20PPCPswereconsistentlyremoved
inthosetreatmentplantsoperatingatSRTsof5to15days.Specifically,9of12frequentlyoccurring
PPCPswereeffectivelyremovedthroughsecondarytreatment(e.g.,ibuprofen).Conversely,six
compoundsthatareroutinelydetectedininfluent(i.e.,detectedinatleast20percentoftheinfluent
samples)werenotwellremovedbysecondarytreatment(BHA,DEET,muskketone,triclosan,
benzophenone,galaxolide).TheresultsforgalaxolideconflictedwiththosereportedbyClaraetal.
(2005b)whogenerallyfoundhighremovalrateswithSRTs>10daysandKreuzingeretal.(2004)who
reportedremovalatSRTbetween25to40days.Oppenheimeretal.(2007)foundthatsome
compoundssuchasoctylphenol,tri(chloroethyl)phosphate,andtriphenylphosphatewerenotwell
removedbysecondarytreatment;however,thesewereseldomdetectedintheinfluentsamples.
Basedontheseresults,Oppenheimeretal.(2007)concludedthatsecondarytreatmentprovidesan
effectivefirstbarrierforthe20PPCPsinthestudy.
Oppenheimeretal.(2007)alsonotedtrendsregardingtheeffectofHRTandpureoxygen
systemscomparedtoconventionalaerationsystemsonPPCPremovalbutdeterminedthatinsufficient
dataexistedtomakeanydefinitiveconclusions.WhenthePPCPremovalperformanceofahighpurity
oxygenatedactivatedsludgeplantwascomparedtoaconventionalaerationsystem,thepureoxygen
systemshowedhigherremovalratesalthoughitsSRTwasshorterthantheconventionalaerationplant
(i.e.,1dayversus3days).Inaddition,differentHRTsoperatingatsimilarSRTshadsimilarremoval
rates,andthereforesuggestedthatHRTdoesnotsignificantlyaffectremovaleffectivenessinthe
investigatedPPCPs.
RoleofNitrifyingBacteriainBiodegradation
Asdiscussedabove,longerSRTsallowfortheestablishmentofslowgrowingnitrifyingbacteria
(i.e.,ammoniaoxidizingbacteriaandnitriteoxidizingbacteria).Severalstudiesevaluatedwhether
nitrifyingbacteriaimprovethebiodegradationofcertainemergingcontaminants.Majorfindingsfrom
someofthesestudiesarediscussedinthissection.
TheWERF(2005)technicalbriefindicatedthatsecondarybiologicaltreatmentthatincludes
nitrification,nutrientremoval,anddisinfectionmayremovemorethan90percentofcertainsteroids,
and>95percentofalkylphenols;whereas,secondarybiologicaltreatmentwithoutnitrificationand
disinfectionmaydecreaseremovalofthesebymorethan15percent.
Battetal.(2006)investigatedtheroleofnitrifyingbacteriainactivatedsludgeinthe
biodegradationoftwopharmaceuticals,iopromideandtrimethoprim.Thebiodegradationofthese
compoundswasconductedintwolabscalebioreactorsusingbiomassfromastage2activatedsludge
WWTP(operatedatanSRTof49days).Inoneofthebioreactors,nitrificationwasnotinhibited(Batch
1reactor);intheother,nitrificationwasinhibitedwithallylthiourea(Batch2reactor).Monitoringwas
alsoconductedintheWWTPandcomparedtoresultsobtainedfromthebatchreactors.
Bothreactorsexhibitedhighremovalratesforiopromide;howeverfortrimethoprim,Batch1
showedahighremovalrateof70percent,contrastedtotheBatch2reactorremovalrateof
approximately25percentwithnitrificationinhibited.Removalrateswithinthetreatmentplant,
however,wereconsistentforbothpharmaceuticals,showingsignificantlyhigherremovalrateafter
nitrification(approx.60percentforiopromideand50percentfortrimethoprim)comparedtoactivated
sludgetreatmentonly(<1percentforboth).Basedontheseresults,Battetal.(2006)concludedthat
nitrifyingbacteriahaveakeyroleinthebiodegradationofpharmaceuticalsinWWTPthatareoperated
athigherSRTs.ThisconclusionissupportedbyMarttinenetal.(2003),whoinvestigatedthefateof
phthalatesinaWWTPwithnitrogenremovalandobservedthataboutonethirdoftheremoval
occurredinthenitrification/denitrificationtreatmentphase.
StudiesbyYiandHarper(2007),Khunjaretal.(2007),andothershavefocusedonthe
mechanismsofestrogenremovalduringnitrification.Possiblemechanismsincludesorptionof
estrogenstosolidsandbiotransformationwithinthetreatmentfacility,especiallyinthepresenceof
nitrifyingactivatedsludges(Khunjaretal.,2007).Ammoniaoxidizingbacteriahavemonoxygenase
enzymesforammoniaoxidationandtheseenzymeshavebeenshownpreviouslytobenonspecificand
abletoaccomplishcometabolicdegradationofrecalcitrantorganics.Cometabolicdegradationisa
reasonablehypothesisforestrogendegradationbecausethiscompoundispresentatlowng/L
concentrationsthatarebelowthoseexpectedtosupportmicrobialgrowthonthatcompoundalone.
OnegoaloftheYiandHarper(2007)studywastoestablishwhetherbiotransformationofEE
2
is
duetocometabolicactivity.Theyconductedbatchexperimentsusingenrichedculturesofautotrophic
ammoniaoxiders.Theirstudyandothers(Vaderetal.,2000,Shietal.,2004,asreportedinYiand
Harper,2007)showedastrongrelationshipbetweennitrificationandEE
2
removalinenrichednitrifying
cultures.Basedonbatchtestswithandwithoutanitrifyingbacteriainhibitor,theyconcludedthatEE
2
biotransformationcanbecometabolicallymediatedinbioreactorsthatareenrichedforautotrophic
nitrifiers.However,YiandHarper(2007)notedthattheheterotrophicmicroorganisms,ifpresentin
activatedsludgeprocesses,mayalsoberesponsibleforsomemicropollutantbiotransformations.
FurtherworkisneededinthisareaasthesetestsdidnotidentifytheEE
2
degradationproductto
confirmcometabolicdegradationandtheroleofheterotrophswasnotaccountedforinsometests.
ThefocusofaKhunjaretal.(2007)studywastoidentifytheroleofammoniaoxidizingbacteria
comparedtoheterotrophicbacteriainthebiotransformationofEE
2.
Theyusedpureculturesof
ammoniaoxidizingNitrosomonaseuropaeaandheterotrophicculturesthatwereenrichedwith
monooxygenaseanddioxygenaseenzymesystems.Nitrifyingactivatedsludgemixedliquorsweretaken
fromtwoWWTPstoseedthecultures.EE
2
concentrationswere1015g/L.Theresultsoftheirstudy
showedsignificantsorptionofEE
2
tothepredominantlyheterotrophicculturebutnonetotheN.
europaeaculture.Inaddition,biotransformationofEE
2
wassignificantintheN.europaeaculture.They
observedthreemajorEE
2
metabolitesatdifferentphasesofN.europaeaculturegrowththatsuggest
differentialactiononeachbyproductbythenitrifyingbacteria;however,additionalworkisneededto
identifythesebyproducts.Theauthorsalsonotedthatadditionalresearchisneededwithcontinuous
flowcultivatedN.europaeatodeterminewhetherthesemetabolitesarelikelytobepresentinnitrifying
activatedsludge.Also,N.europaeawasnotsignificantlyinhibitedatEE
2
concentrationsatorbelow10
gEE
2
/L,suggestingthatammoniaoxidationmaynotbesignificantlyimpactedbyconcentrationsofEE
2
thatmaybetypicalofthosefoundintheenvironment.
UseofReverseOsmosistoImproveRemovalEfficiencies
SeveralstudiesdescribetheeffectivenessofROintheremovalofPPCPandEDCsfrom
secondarywastewatereffluent.Braghettaetal.(2002)calculatedtheremovalsratesthatcouldbe
achievedwithaROstepfollowingtertiarytreatmentfor17PPCPs.Theyestimatedremovalstobe>90
percentformostoftheselectedcompounds.Lowerremovalrateswereestimatedfordiclofenac(55.2
to62percent),ketoprofen(64.3percent),andparaxanthine(73.7percent).
Aspreviouslydiscussed,theWERF(2005)technicalbriefevaluatedROremovalratesforseveral
compounds.Specifically,theWERFbriefcitesnumerousstudiesinwhichROachievedremovalratesof
90percentorbetterfornaturallyoccurringandsyntheticsteroids,organohalides,metals/organometals,
andalkylphenols.Inaddition,Oppenheimeretal.(2007)foundthatROwaseffectiveinremovingall20
investigatedPPCPsbelowthedetectionlimitincludingthosethatwerenotconsistentlyremovedatSRTs
of30days(i.e.,galaxolide)usingconventionalactivatedsludgetreatmentormediafiltration.Similar
findingswerereportedbySnyder(2003)andEverestetal.(2003)(ascitedinOppenheimeretal.,2007).
Table112. StudyDesignParameters
Table112.StudyDesignParameters
Authors StudyLocation StudyContaminants
1
TreatmentsEvaluated MajorFindings
Battetal. Amherst,NY Pharmaceuticals:iopromide;trimethoprim Fullscaletreatmentplant: Bothcompoundsmoreeffectively
(2006)
Nitrification,SRT=49d
removedinnitrifyingactivatedsludge
(SRT49d)thanconventional
2Laboratoryscaletests:
activatedsludge(SRT6d).
Nitrificationwasinhibitedinone
bioreactorbutnottheother.
Braghettaetal. Northern 17PPCPs 2WWTPs:Bothuseanthracite Calculatedremovalsusingreverse
(2002) California
1allergymedicine:diphenhydramine filtrationastertiarytreatment.
osmosis(RO)>90%formost
investigatedPPCPs.
3analgesics:acetaminophen;diclofenac;
- PlantAconventionalactivated
ketoprofen
sludge
- PlantBtricklingfilters/biofilters.
2antibiotics:sulfamethoxazole;
trimethoprim
Note:SRTswerenotspecified.
1antiepileptic:carbamezipine
1antihypertensive:diltiazem
1bloodglucoseregulator:metformin
1bronchodilator:albuterol
2lipidregulators:fenofibrate;gemfibrozil
3stimulant/stimulantmetabolites:caffeine;
cotinine;paraxanthine;
2ulcermedicine/histaminereceptor
antagonists:cimetidine;ranitidine
Table112.StudyDe sign Parameters
1
Claraet
(2005a)
al. Notspecified

EDC:bisphenolA
3NaturalEstrogens:17estradiole
estrone(E
1
);estriole(E
3
)
5Pharmaceuticals:bezafibrate;
carbamazepine;diclofenac;17
ethynylestradiole(EE
2
);ibuprofen
(E
2
);

-
-
4Fullscaleplants:MostwithNand
o
Premoval,SRT
10 C
from2>100d.
1Pilotplant:Membranebioreactor
o
(MBR);ultrafiltration,SRT
10 C
from
2288d.
4Laboratoryscaletests:
o
1SBRwithSRT
10 C
of1d.
o
3Bioreactors,Nremoval,SRT
10 C
from1068d.

Enhancedremovalwith
increasingSRTformost
investigatedcompounds.
CriticalSRTcanbedefined,
beyondwhichremovalrates
donotimprove.
Nosignificantdifferencesin
removalperformances
betweenconventional
activatedsludgesystemsand
MBRwhenoperatedatsimilar
SRTs.
Claraet
(2005b)
al. MBRandWWTP
(colocated)in
ruralcommunity
southeastof
Austria;2WWTPs
inAustria.

9EDCs:bisphenolA;nonylphenol;
nonylphenoldiethoxylate;nonylphenol
monoethoxylate;nonylphenoxyaceticacid;
nonylphenoxyethoxyaceticacid;octylphenol;
octylphenoldiethoxylate;octylphenol
monoethoxylate
2MuskFragrances:galaxolide;tonalide
carbamazepine;diazepam;diclofenac;
ibuprofen;iopromide;roxithromycin;
sulfamethoazole

-
-
-

3Fullscaleplants:
1NandPremoval,SRT52237d,6.8
22.1C
1Cremoval,SRT2d,13.5C.
1nutrientremoval,SRT46d,10.4
C.
1Pilotplant:(colocatedat1
WWTP):MBR,ultrafiltration
membrane,nitrification,
denitrification,SRTfrom1055d,
5.527.2C.
Seefindings
(2004a)
underClaraetal.
Jossetal.(2004) 1WWTPin
Kloten/Opfikon,
Switzerland;1in
Altenrhein,
Switzerland

2NaturalEstrogens:E1,E
2
1Pharmaceutical:17ethynylestradiole
(EE
2
)

-
2Fullscaleplants:Both
conventionalactivatedsludge
treatmentplantsand
denitrification/nitrification.
1includedPremoval,SRTof1012d,
runinparallelw/pilotMBR
Biologicaldegradation>90%of
investigatedcompoundsobserved
withnitrificationanddenitrification
(SRTof1215d).
- 1runinparallelwithfixbedreactor,
1
SRTof2224d.

1Pilotplant:MBR,anaerobic&
anoxiccompartments,aerobic
filtrationcompartments,3
membranefilters(poresize,0.4m,
0.1m,0.04m),SRTof30d.
Batchexperiments:Aeratedwith
airforaerobicexperimentsandwith
Nforanaerobicexperiments.
Kreuzinger
(2004)
etal. Austria

EDC:bisphenolA
2MuskFragrances:galaxolide;tonalide
3NaturalEstrogens:E1,E
2
,E
3
carbamazepine;diazepam;diclofenac;
ethynylestradiol;ibuprofen;iopromide;
roxithromycin;sulfathometoxazol

4Fullscaleplants:3aresingle
stageactivatedsludge,1is2stage;
allhavePremoval,3alsoinclude
o
nitrification/denitrification,SRT
20 C
of<1>100d.
o
1Pilotplant:Ultrafiltration,SRT
20 C
of1141d.
o
Laboratoryscaleplants:SRT
20 C
of
126d.
Enhancedremovalwithincreasing
SRTformostinvestigated
compounds.
Khunjar
(2007)
etal. Virginia EDC:EE
2
Laboratoryscaleplant:MBR
Note:Descriptionprovidedin
whichwasnotreviewed.
Yi(2006),

Significantsorptiononto
heterotrophicbiomassversus
ammoniaoxidizingbiomass.
EE
2
istransformedinthe
presenceofmonocultureN.

europaea.
InhibitionofN.europaeaby
EE
2
isnotexpectedat
concentrationstypicallyfound
inenvironment.
1
Marttinenetal. Finland Plasticizer:Bis(2ethylhexyl)phthalate Fullscaleplant: 94%removalfromwater
(2003) Nitrification/denitrification,
of21dat18.5C.
Premoval,SRT

phase,primarilybysorptionto
sludges.
29%removedduring
nitrification/denitrification
(calculated)
32%duringanaerobic
digestion(calculated)
32%remainedinthedigested
anddewateredsludge
(calculated).
62%overallremovalrate
(calculated).
Oppenheimer Notspecified 20PPCPs 6Fullscaleplants:1activated Enhancedremovalwith
(2007)

2antioxidants:butylatedhydroxyanisol(BHA),
methylparaben
1detergentsurfactant:octylphenol
2fireretardants:tri(chloroethyl)phosphate;
tripheylphosphate
5fragrances:ethyl3phenylpropionate;
galaxolide;methyl3phenylpropionate;musk
ketone;3phenylproprionate
2germicides:triclosan;chloroxylenol
1insectrepellent:N,Ndiethyl3
methylbenzamide(DEET)
2pharmacueticals:caffeine(includesnon
pharmaceutical);ibuprofen
1plasticizer:butylbenzylphthalate
4sunscreens:benzophenone;benzyl
salicylate;octylmethoxycinnamate;
oxybenzone

sludge,1highpurityoxygenated
activatedsludge,4
nitrification/denitrification(1of
whichalsoincludesgranular
microfiltration/RO,and3include
UV),SRTsfrom0.5to30d.
2PilotscaleMBRs:1includes
nitrification/denitrification,SRTsof
14&15d.

ROremovedall20
investigatedPPCPs<detection
limit.includingthosenot
consistentlyremovedatSRTs
of30d.
1
WERF(2005) Notspecified EDCs(onlycategorieswereprovided)

Alkylphenols(e.g.,nonylphenol,bisphenol
Metals/organometals(e.g.,tributyltin,
cadmium,lead)
Organohalides
PAHs/crudeoil
Plasticizers(e.g.,phthalates)
Steriods:naturallyoccurring;synthetic;
phytoestrogens
A)
Indicatedtypesoftreatmentsonly:
Physical:primarysettling,secondary
settling,filtration(e.g.,sand).
Biological:activatedsludge,trickling
filter,anaerobicdigestion.
Chemical:chemicaladdition(e.g.,
phosphorusremoval,polymers),
disinfection(chlorination,ozonation,
ultravioletlight).
Advancedtreatment:activated
carbon,membraneseparation,RO,
andionexchange.

Enhancedremovalwith
Watertemperaturemay
negativelyimpactthe
effectivenessofEDCremoval.
ROremovalrates90%for
steroids,organohalides,
metals/organometals,andalkyl
phenols.
Yiand
(2007)
Harper Auburn,AL EDC:EE
2
Laboratoryscale:
mixedstirredtank
Nitrifyingcompletely
reactor,SRTof20d.

Strongrelationshipbetween
nitrificationandEE
2
removal.
Contributionofheterotrophic
microorganismsto
biotransformationisunclear.
1
Althoughsome
determination.
ofthestudycontaminantsarelistedasEDCs;othersaresuspectedtobeEDCsbutrequireadditionalresearch(e.g.,healtheffectsstudies)tomakethat
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Nutrient Control Design Manual

STATE OF TECHNOLOGY REVIEW REPORT

NutrientControlDesignManual: iii January2009

6.2.5 OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority(OWASA) .......................................................... 51

NutrientControlDesignManual: vii January2009

Table111. Estrogens .......................................................................................................................... 80

NutrientControlDesignManual: viii January2009

Figure52. BardenphoProcess(FourStage) ...................................................................................... 36

Figure64. UCTandModifiedUCTProcess ........................................................................................ 50

Figure67. OWASAProcess ................................................................................................................ 52

NutrientControlDesignManual: xii January2009

NutrientControlDesignManual: xiii January2009

WERF(2005) Notspecified EDCs(onlycategorieswereprovided)

NutrientControlDesignManual: 100 January2009

NutrientControlDesignManual: 101 January2009

NutrientControlDesignManual: 102 January2009

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