1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1POWER QUALITY
Power quality is a set of electrical boundaries that allows equipment to
function in its intended manner without significant loss of performance or life
expectancy.
Use of Non-Linear loads and devices in power systems is expected to grow
rapidly. These loads inject harmonic currents into the power system. Active
filtering of electric power has now become a mature technology for harmonic and
reactive power compensation in two-wire (single phase), three-wire (three phase
without neutral), and four-wire (three phase with neutral) ac power networks with
non-linear loads. Current harmonics are one of the most common power quality
problems and are usually resolved by the use of shunt passive of active filters.
1.2 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
1.2.1 Voltage sags (or dips)
Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on
parallel feeders).Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely
microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, etc) that may lead to a process
stoppage. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.




2

1.2.2 Very short interruptions
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic re-closure of protection devices
to decommission a faulty section of the network. The main fault causes are
insulation failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and
malfunction of data processing equipment. Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such
as PCs, PLCs, if theyre not prepared to deal with this situation.
1.2.3. Long interruptions
Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects (trees,
cars, etc) striking liner poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure of
protection devices.
Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.
1.2.4. Voltage spike
Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors,
disconnection of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic components)
and of insulation materials, data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic
interference.
1.2.5. Voltage swell
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly
regulated transformers (mainly during off-peak hours).



3

Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage
of sensitive equipment, if the voltage values are too high.
1.2.6. Harmonic distortion
Causes: Electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve
(magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush
motors. All non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs,
switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high efficiency
lighting.
Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload
in 3-phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in
electric machines, electromagnetic interference with communication systems, and
errors in measuring harmonics when using average reading meters, nuisance
tripping of thermal protections.
1.2.7. Voltage fluctuation
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance
elevators), oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to under voltages. The most
perceptible consequence is the flickering of lighting and screens, giving the
impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.
1.2.8. Noise
Causes: Electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves such as
microwaves, television diffusion, and radiation due to welding machines, arc
furnaces, and electronic equipment. Improper grounding may also be a cause.



4

Consequences: Disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment, usually not
destructive. May cause data loss and data processing errors.

Fig1.1 Solution to power quality problems
1.3 HARMONICS
"Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
integer multiple of the supply frequency". It is becoming a major concern for
electric utility company and consumers. It is produced by power electronics and
other equipments which are called non-linear loads. Examples of nonlinear loads
are computers, fluorescent lamp and television in residential while variable speed
drives, inverters and arc furnaces which are mostly common in industrial areas.
Increasing numbers of these loads in electrical system for the purpose of, such as
improving energy efficiency, has caused an increase in harmonics pollution. These
loads draw non-sinusoidal current from the system. The waveform is normally
periodic according to supply frequency which is either 50Hz or 60Hz depending on
the country.



5

Effect of high level of voltage or current harmonics can cause transformer
heating, nuisance tripping of fuse, circuit breaker and protective devices, high
current in neutral conductor and distorted voltage waveform. Capacitors are
sensitive to harmonic voltage while transformers are sensitive to current
harmonics. There are many researches which study the effect of harmonics which
affects both utility and consumers. Greater concerns have been expressed by
industries which have equipment or processes that are sensitive to distortion on the
supply voltage which affect their plant operation and productivity. Resonance is
another problem related to harmonics. It occurs when harmonic current produced
by non-linear load interacts with system impedance to produce high harmonic
voltage.
All triplen harmonics (odd multiples of three i.e. 3, 9, 15 ) is zero
sequence and cannot flow in a balanced three-wire systems or loads. Therefore, the
delta-wye-grounded transformer at the entrance of industrial plant can block the
triplen harmonic from entering utility distribution system. However, triplen
harmonic current flows in neutral conductor and are three times in magnitude.






Fig. 1.2Harmonically related sine wave



6

1.4 HARMONIC STANDARDS
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has come out with
standards and guidelines regarding harmonics. One of the standards, IEEE
Standard 519-1992, provides comprehensive recommended guidelines on
investigation, assessment and measurement of harmonics in power system. The
standard includes steady state limits on current harmonic and harmonic voltages at
all system voltage levels. The limit was set for a steady state operation and for
worst case scenario.
Another international standards and conformity assessment body,
International Electro technical Commission (IEC), produced a standard, IEC
61000-3-6, which also provides guidelines to address harmonics issue with sets of
steady state limits. Both standards are in common where the limits were derived
based on a basic principle of insuring voltage quality and shared responsibility
between utility and customer (Halpin, 2005).
Both lay the responsibility on consumer to limit the penetration of current
harmonic into power system while utility company is responsible to limit harmonic
voltage at point of common coupling (PCC). According to IEEE definition, point
of common coupling is a point anywhere in the entire system where utility and
consumer can have access for direct measurement and the indices is meaningful to
both.
Example of steady state harmonic voltage limit from IEEE Std. 519-1992 at
PCC for medium voltage level (< 69 kV) is 5% THD and 3% individual voltage
distortion. In reality, harmonic is time-variant and it changes over time due to
several factors. Both standards recognize this condition and allow the limits to be
exceeded for short duration. IEC has provided a set of time-varying limits based on



7

percentile over a period of time i.e. 95
th
and 99
th
for very short time (3 second) and
short time (10 minute) aggregate measurements.
1.5 ESTIMATION OF HARMONICS
IEEE PES Winter Meeting 1998 provides basic harmonic theory which
according to Fourier theorem, periodic non-sinusoidal or complex voltage (Figure
1.2) or current waveforms can be represented by the sum of a series of multiple
frequency terms of varying magnitudes and phases as shown in equation (1.1).

)] cos( [ ) (
0 n n
q t n a a t f
(1.1)
Where,
n
a
is the magnitude of the n
th
harmonic frequency
o
a
is the d.c. component
n
q
is the phase angle of the n
th
harmonic frequency
is the fundamental frequency
n=1, 2, 3.

Fig 1.3 Harmonic Current and Voltage Distortion
a.
b) Resulting voltage distortion due to non-sinusoidal current
Non-linear current
Supply
voltage
(a)
(b)
V
time
Distorted
Voltage
waveform
time



8

Harmonic is measured using total harmonic distortion (THD) which is also
known as distortion factor and can be applied to current and voltage. It is a square-
root of sum of all harmonic magnitudes over the fundamental. Equation (1.2)
shows the calculation for voltage total harmonic distortion (THD
v
).
1
2
2
V
V
THD
n
n
V

(1.2)
where:
1
V
is the magnitude of fundamental frequency voltage
n
V
is the magnitude of n
th
harmonic frequency voltage
For a balanced three-phase network with three-phase non-linear loads,
harmonic current or voltage has phase sequences. Equations (1.3) until (1.7)
describe the equation for each phase for the first three harmonics.
) 3 sin( ) 2 sin( ) sin( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1
t I t I t I t i
o o o a (1.3)
)
3
6
3 sin( )
3
4
2 sin( )
3
2
sin( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1

t I t I t I t i
o o o b (1.4)
)
3
6
3 sin( )
3
4
2 sin( )
3
2
sin( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1

t I t I t I t i
o o o c (1.5)
where:
n
I
is the n
th
current harmonic magnitude
o

is the fundamental frequency

9

n

is the n
th
harmonic phase angle
n= 1,2,3
Equation (1.4) and (1.5) can also be described as follows:
) 0 3 sin( )
3
2
2 sin( )
3
2
sin( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1

t I t I t I t i
o o o b (1.6)
) 0 3 sin( )
3
2
2 sin( )
3
2
sin( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1

t I t I t I t i
o o o c (1.7)
magnitude of all phases for all harmonic frequencies is equal for a balanced system.
Looking at equations (1.3), (1.6) and (1.7), the first harmonic or the fundamental is
positive sequence since i
b
(t) lags i
a
(t) by 120
o
and i
c
(t) leads i
a
(t) by 120
o
. The second
harmonic is negative sequence since and i
b
(t) leads i
a
(t) by 120
o
and i
c
(t) lags i
a
(t) by
120
o
. The third harmonic is zero sequence since i
b
(t) and i
c
(t) are in phase with i
a
(t). The
sequence pattern for each harmonic order is shown in table 1.1
Table 1.1Harmonic Phase Sequence
Harmonic order Phase Sequence
1 +
2 -
3 0
4 +



10

5 -
6 0
7 +
8 -
9 0
10 +
11 -
12 0
13 +
15 0

1.6 INSTRUMENT USED FOR MEASURING HARMONICS
1.6.1 HARMONICANALYZERS
Harmonic analyzers or harmonic meters are relatively simple instruments for
measuring and recording harmonic distortion data. Typically, harmonic analyzers



11

contain meter with a waveform display screen, voltage leads, and current probes.
Some of the analyzers are handheld devices and others are intended for tabletop
use. Some instruments provide a snapshot of the waveform and harmonic
distortion pertaining to the instant during which the measurement is made. Other
instruments are capable of recording snapshots as well as a continuous record of
harmonic distortion over time. This particular instrument is a single-phase
measurement device capable of being used in circuits of up to 600 V.
1.6.2 TRANSIENT DISTURBANCE ANALYZERS
Transient-disturbance analyzers are advanced data acquisition devices for
capturing, storing, and presenting short-duration, sub cycle power system
disturbances. As one might expect, the sampling rates for these instruments are
high. It is not un typical for transient-disturbance recorders to have sampling rates
in the range of 2 to4 million samples per second. Higher sampling rates provide
greater accuracy in describing transient events in terms of their amplitude and
frequency content.
1.6.3 OSCILLOSCOPES
Oscilloscopes are useful for measuring repetitive high-frequency waveforms
or waveforms containing superimposed high-frequency noise on power and control
circuits. Oscilloscopes have sampling rates far higher than transient-disturbance
analyzers. Oscilloscopes with sampling rates of several hundred million samples
per-second are common. This allows the instrument to accurately record recurring
noise and high-frequency waveforms. Such data are not within the capabilities of
harmonic analyzers and transient-disturbance recorders. Digital storage
oscilloscopes have the ability to capture and store waveform data for later use.
Using multiple-channel, digital storage oscilloscopes, more than one electrical



12

parameter may be viewed and stored. The noise in the ground circuit was
responsible for production shut down at this facility.
1.6.4 DATA LOGGERS AND CHART RECORDERS
Data loggers and chart recorders are sometimes used to record voltage,
current, demand, and temperature data in electrical power systems. Data loggers
and chart recorders are slow-response devices that are useful for measuring steady-
state data over a long period of time. These devices record one sample of the event
at predetermined duration, such as 1 sec, 2 sec, 5 sec, etc. The data are normally
stored within the loggers until they are retrieved for analysis. The data from data
loggers and chart recorders are sufficient for determining variation of the voltage
or current at a particular location over an extended period and if there is no need to
determine instantaneous changes in the values.
1.7 HARMONIC FILTERS
Harmonic filters are used to eliminate the harmonic distortion caused by
nonlinear loads. Specifically, harmonic filters are designed to attenuate or in some
filters eliminate the potentially dangerous effects of harmonic currents active
within the power distribution system. Filters can be designed to trap these currents
and, through the use of a series of capacitors, coils, and resistors, shunt them to
ground. A filter may contain several of these elements, each designed to
compensate a particular frequency or an array of frequencies.
1.8 TYPES OF HARMONIC FILTERS
Filters are often the most common solution that is used to mitigate
harmonics from a power system. Unlike other solutions, filters offer a simpler
inexpensive alternative with high benefits. There are three different types of filters



13

each offering their own unique solution to reduce and eliminate harmonics. These
harmonic filters are broadly classified into passive, active and hybrid structures.
The choice of filter used is dependent upon the nature of the problem and the
economic cost associated with implementation.
1.8.1 PASSIVE FILTERS
A passive filter is composed of only passive elements such as inductors,
capacitors and resistors thus not requiring any operational amplifiers. Passive
filters are inexpensive compared with most other mitigating devices. Its structure
may be either of the series or parallel type. The structure chosen for
implementation depends on the type of harmonic source present. Internally, they
cause the harmonic current to resonate at its frequency. Through this approach, the
harmonic currents are attenuated in the LC circuits tuned to the harmonic orders
requiring filtering. This prevents the severe harmonic currents travelling upstream
to the power source causing increased widespread problems.
Shunt passive filters have been widely used because of their low cost and
low loss. This is because the components are common but also because no active
elements are required. The performances of the filters are very sensitive to the
power system impedance and series or parallel resonance with the power system
impedance may occur. Also, the effective compensation with the variation of the
voltage cannot be carried out with passive filters.
1.8.1.1 PARALLEL-PASSIVE FILTER:
The configuration shown in figure 1.4 is that of a parallel passive filter (PPF). The
PPF contains resonant LC tuned components corresponding to a particular



14

harmonic frequency. The filter is designed to provide a high impedance block at
the load or harmonic current source. This high impedance path effectively blocks
currents of the tuned harmonic order, thus acting as a harmonic current sink.

Fig.1.4 Basic parallel-passive filter for current-source nonlinear loads
1.8.1.2 SERIES-PASSIVE FILTER
The configuration shown in figure is that of a series passive filter (SPF).
Unlike the PPF, the SPF acts like a current harmonic dam providing high
impedance blocks to the harmonic voltages of a specific order which is tuned by
the resonant LC components. In figure 1.5, three resonant passive filters are
connected in series of which each LC component is tuned for the respective 5th,
7th and 11th harmonic orders. The three resonant circuits provide a high
impedance path specifically designed to block the 5th, 7th and 11th harmonic
orders respectively. The ultimate circuit of the SPF is an inductor.



15


Fig. 1.5 Basic series-passive filter for voltage-source nonlinear loads
1.8.2 ACTIVE FILTERS
The technology of active power filter has been developed during the past
two decades reaching maturity for harmonics compensation, reactive power, and
voltage balance in ac power networks. All active power filters are developed with
pulse width modulated (PWM) converters (current-source or voltage-source
inverters). The current-fed PWM inverter bridge structure behaves as a non-
sinusoidal current source to meet the harmonic current requirement of the non-
linear load. It has a self-supported dc reactor that ensures the continuous
circulation of the dc current. They present good reliability, but have important
losses and require higher values of parallel capacitor filters at the ac terminals to
remove unwanted current harmonics. Moreover, they cannot be used in multilevel
or multistep modes configurations to allow compensation in higher power ratings.
The other converter used in active power filter topologies is the PWM
voltage-source inverter (PWM-VSI). This converter is more convenient for active
power filtering applications since it is lighter, cheaper, and expandable to
multilevel and multi step versions, to improve its performance for high power
rating compensation with lower switching frequencies. The PWMVSI has to be



16

connected to the ac mains through coupling reactors. An electrolytic capacitor
keeps a dc voltage constant and ripple free.
.

Fig 1.6 Active power filter topology
The different active power filter topologies are shown Shunt active power
filters are widely used to compensate current harmonics, reactive power, and load
current unbalanced. It can also be used as a static VAR generator in power system
networks for stabilizing and improving voltage profile. Series active power filters
is connected before the load in series with the ac mains, through a coupling
transformer to eliminate voltage harmonics and to balance and regulate the
terminal voltage of the load or line.
The hybrid configuration is a combination of series active filter and passive
shunt filter .This topology is very convenient for the compensation of high power



17

systems, because the rated power of the active filter is significantly reduced (about
10% of the load size), since the major part of the hybrid filter consists of the
passive shunt LC filter used to compensate lower order current harmonics and
reactive power at fundamental frequency. Due to the operation constraint, shunt or
series active power filters can compensate only specific power quality problems.
Therefore, the selection of the type of active power filter to improve power quality
depends on the source of the problem as given in the table

Table 1.2 Active filter solution to power quality problem







18

CHAPTER-2
SHUNT ACTIVE FILTERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Active power filters provide a cost effective and flexible solution for system
harmonic control. Although the predominance of electronic equipment in our
professional environment makes work more convenient, these devices complicate
demands on facility wiring and power utilities. Most facilities employ employ a
variety of devices such as multiple switch mode power supplies, motors, fans, and
other non linear loads. Among the adverse effects of multiple non linear loads are
voltage distortion, excessive neutral return currents, reduced utilization of available
power, and power factor penalties. Harmonic currents in particular are receiving
more attention as a critical power quality concern, with an estimated 60percent of
electricity now passing through non linear loads. Ironically, the equipment used to
boost productivity and efficiency is also generating increases in non productive
power consumption, power pollution, and low power factor.
An active filter compensates for harmonics and corrects the power factor by
supplying the harmonic currents drawn by non linear loads and it is controlled to
generate the required compensation currents ,so the mains only needs to supply
the fundamental current and of good quality.
2.2 OPERATION
A shunt Active Filters(APF)is a device connected in parallel to group of
loads.APF cancels the reactive and harmonics currents drawn by the load so as to
make supply current sinusoidal. Active Power Filter plays a vital role in present
day liberalized energy market. Active Power Filter is explored for executing



19

different power conditioning function simultaneously along with harmonic
elimination due to increase in non-linear and unbalanced load at the point of
coupling. Shunt active filters are by far the most widely accept and dominant filter
of choice in most industrial processes. The active filter is connected in parallel at
the PCC and is fed from the main power circuit. The objective of the shunt active
filter is to supply opposing harmonic current to the nonlinear load effectively to
reduce net harmonic current. This means that the supply signals remain purely
fundamental. Shunt filters also have the additional benefit of contributing to
reactive power compensation and balancing of three-phase currents. Since the
active filter is connected in parallel to the PCC, only the compensation current plus
a small amount of active fundamental current is carried in the unit. For an
increased range of power ratings, several shunt active filters can be combined
together to withstand higher currents. This configuration consists of four distinct
categories of circuit, namely inverter configurations, switched-capacitor circuits,
lattice-structured filters and voltage-regulator-type filters.

Fig 2.1 Shunt active filter



20

In the SAPF compensator system, the transformer inductance L
ts
with filter
capacitor C
f
forms a filter shown in Fig. 2.2(a). Here inductance L
ts
is the sum of
leakage inductance of primary and secondary of the injection transformer, i
inv
is the
inverter output current, i
Load
is load current and i
c
is the capacitor branch (filter)
current. v
inv
is the inverter output voltage whose polarity will depend upon the
switching signal obtained by hysteresis controller. The LC combination leads to a
second order characteristic equation and hence the SAPF voltage trajectory is a
second order response between the two boundaries. The parabolic trajectory can be
attributed in this nature. Due to these oscillations over the capacitor voltage, when
it reaches upper or lower boundary, a linear return is not ensured even though a
reverse dc voltage is applied using control algorithm. This may lead to frequent
violation, results in poor quality of load voltage with increased THD.

Fig 2.2 (a) Conventional Filter Circuit (b) its tracking response to band
controller



21


Table 2.1 Summary of shunt Active filter
A Shunt Active Filters (SAF) has following advantages:
Controlled as a current source with a simple control algorithm,
Its operation is not affected by supply voltage harmonics,
Can be installed as a black box,
Can be installed as parallel units to obtain higher kVA rating,
Has the same power circuit and equal control algorithm to PWM
Rectifier. Therefore, has possibility of system integration with
active front-ends,
Do not create displacement factor problems.



22

CHAPTER 3
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
In Pulse Width Modulation, variable speed drives are increasingly applied in
many new industrial applications that require superior performance. Recently,
developments in power electronics and semiconductor technology have lead
improvements in power electronic systems. Hence, different circuit configurations
namely multilevel inverters have become popular and considerable interest by
researcher are given on them. Variable voltage and frequency supply to a.c drives
is invariably obtained from a three-phase voltage source inverter. A number of
Pulse width modulation (PWM) schemes are used to obtain variable voltage and
frequency supply. The most widely used PWM schemes for three-phase voltage
source inverters are carrier-based sinusoidal PWM and space vector PWM
(SVPWM).
Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control
within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width
modulation control used within an inverter. In this method, a fixed dc input voltage
is given to the inverter and a controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting
the on and off periods of the inverter components. This is the most popular method
of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as Pulse-Width
Modulation (PWM) Control.
The advantages possessed by PWM techniques are as under:
(i) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any
additional components.



23

(ii) In this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along
with its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily,
the filtering requirements are minimized.
The main disadvantage of this method is that SCRs are expensive as they must
possess low turn-on and turn-off times. PWM inverters are quite popular in
industrial applications. PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude
pulses. The width of these pulses is however modulated to obtain inverter output
voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content.
3.2 SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:
In SPWM methods in order to produce 120 out-of-phase load voltages,
three modulating signals that are 120 out of phase are used. Fig. 8 shows the ideal
waveforms of three-phase VSI SPWM. In order to use a single carrier signal and
preserve the features of the PWM technique, the normalized carrier frequency mf
should be an odd multiple of 3. Thus, all phase voltages (v
aN
, v
bN
, and v
cN
) are
identical but 120 out of phase without even harmonics; moreover, harmonics at
frequencies a multiple of 3 are identical in amplitude and phase in all phases. For
instance, if the ninth harmonic in phase
aN
is
Thus, the ac output line voltage v
ab
= v
aN
- v
bN
will not contain the ninth
harmonic. Therefore, for odd multiple of 3 values of the normalized carrier
frequency m
f
, the harmonics in the ac output voltage appear at normalized
frequencies f
h
centred around m
f
and its multiples, specifically, at
h = lm
f
k l=1, 2



24

Where l =1, 3, 5...for k = 2, 4, 6 ; and l =2, 4, 6.for k =1, 5, 7 .;
such that h is not a multiple of 3. Therefore, the harmonics will be at mf 2, mf
4 . . . 2mf 1, 2mf 5 . . ., 3mf 2, 3mf 4. . ., 4mf 1, 4mf 5 . . .
For nearly sinusoidal ac load current, the harmonics in the dc link current are
at frequencies given by
h = lm
f
k 1 l=1, 2.
Where l = 0, 2, 4. for k=1, 5, 7.and l =1, 3, 5. for k = 2, 4, 6 . such
that h =l * mf k is positive and not a multiple of 3. For instance, Fig. 7h shows
the sixth harmonic (h = 6), which is due to h =(l * 9) - 2 1 =6.
The identical conclusions can be drawn for the operation at small and large
values of mf as for the single-phase configurations. However, because the
maximum amplitude of the fundamental phase voltage in the linear region (ma
<=1) is vi/2 , the maximum amplitude of the fundamental ac output line voltage is
v^ab1 = (3vi)/2. Therefore, one can write,
v
ab1=
m
a
3 v
i
/ 2, 0<m
a
1
To further increase the amplitude of the load voltage, the amplitude of the
modulating signal v^c can be made higher than the amplitude of the carrier signal
v^, which leads to over modulation. The relationship between the amplitude of
the fundamental ac output line voltage and the dc link voltage becomes nonlinear
as in single-phase VSIs. Thus, in the over modulation region, the line voltages
range in 3 v
i
/2 <v
ab1=
v
bc1
=v
ca1
< 4/3 v
i
/ 2




25





DISADVANTAGES OF SPWM:
Sinusoidal PWM has been a very popular technique used in AC motor
control. This relatively unsophisticated method employs a triangular carrier wave
modulated by a sine wave and the points of intersection determine the switching

Fig 3.1 The three-phase VSI. Ideal waveforms for the SPWM (ma = 0.8, mf = 0.9):
(a) carrier and modulating signals; (b) switch S1 state; (c)switch S3 state; (d) ac output voltage; (e)
ac output voltage spectrum; (f) ac output current; (g) dc current; (h) dc current spectrum; (i) switch S1
current; (j) diode D1 current.



26

points of the power devices in the inverter. However, this method is unable to
make full use of the inverters supply voltage and the asymmetrical nature of the
PWM switching characteristics produces relatively high harmonic distortion in the
supply
3.3 SPACE VECTOR MODULATION:
Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) is a more sophisticated technique for
generating a fundamental sine wave that provides a higher voltage to the motor and
lower total harmonic distortion, it is also compatible for use in vector control
(Field orientation) of AC motors.
Three phase voltage-fed PWM inverters are recently showing growing
popularity for multi-megawatt industrial drive applications. The main reasons for
this popularity are easy sharing of large voltage between the series devices and the
improvement of the harmonic quality at the output as compared to a two level
inverter. In the lower end of power, GTO devices are being replaced by IGBTs
because of their rapid evolution in voltage and current ratings and higher switching
frequency.
The Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation of a three level inverter provides
the additional advantage of superior harmonic quality and larger under-modulation
range that extends the modulation factor to 90.7% from the traditional value of
78.5% in Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation.
The desired three phase voltages at the output of the inverter could be
represented by an equivalent vector V rotating in the counter clock wise direction
as shown in Fig. 3.2. The magnitude of this vector is related to the magnitude of



27

the output voltage and the time this vector takes to complete one revolution is the
same as the fundamental time period of the output voltage.





Let us consider the situation when the desired line-to-line output voltage
vector V is in sector 1 as shown in Fig. 3.4. This vector could be synthesized by
the pulse-width modulation (PWM) of the two adjacent SSVs V1 (pnn) and V2
(ppn), the duty cycle of each being d1 and d2, respectively, and the zero vector (
V7(nnn) / V8(ppp) ) of duty cycle d0:
Fig 3.2 Output voltage vector in the
plane
Fig 3.3 Output line voltages in time domain



28



Where, 0 m 0.866, is the modulation index. This would correspond to a maximum line-to-
line voltage of 1.0Vg, which is 15% more than conventional sinusoidal PWM as shown.

Fig 3.4 Synthesis of the required output voltage vector in sector1
All SVM schemes and most of the other PWM algorithms use Eqns. (1) and
(2) for the output voltage synthesis. The modulation algorithms that use non-
adjacent SSVs have been shown to produce higher THD and/or switching losses
and are not analyzed here, although some of them, e.g. hysteresis, can be very
simple to implement and can provide faster transient response. The duty cycles d1,
d2, and d0, are uniquely determined by Eqns. (1) and (2) , the only difference
between PWM schemes that use adjacent vectors is the choice of the zero vector(s)
and the sequence in which the vectors are applied within the switching cycle.

d
1
V
1
+ d
2
V
2
=V=m V
g

................(1)

d
1
+d
2
+d
0
=1 ................(2)



29

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF SPACE VECTOR MODULATUON:
Space Vector Modulation for a three phase UPS inverter makes it possible to
adapt the switching behaviour to different situations such as: half load, full load,
linear load, non-linear load, static load, pulsating load, etc. In combination with a
zigzag three phase transformer in the output this provides the following
advantages:
Very low values can be reached for the output voltage THD (<2% for linear
loads., <3% for non linear loads)
Robust dynamic response (<3% deviation at 100% load step, recovery time to
<1%: <20ms)
The efficiency of the inverter can be optimized, for each load condition.
SVM enables more efficient use of the DC voltage (15% more than
conventional PWM techniques the inverter will accept a 15% lower DC
voltage making full use of the available battery energy)
By changing the switching behaviour of the inverter, the audible noise can also
be influenced and therefore be minimized.
Space Vector Modulation provides excellent output performance, optimized
efficiency, and high reliability compared to similar inverters with conventional
Pulse Width Modulation.
3.5 UNINTERRUPTABLE POWER SUPPLY
A UPS is basically built up with a rectifier at the input and an inverter at the
output (fig 3.5.) The rectifier converts the AC utility voltage into DC voltage. The



30

inverter does exactly the opposite, it converts the DC voltage back into AC voltage
to supply the critical load. In case the utility fails or is out of tolerance, the rectifier
will be switched off and the batteries will supply the inverter with DC voltage.
A UPS is usually supplying a critical load, mostly equipment like computers,
mainframes, medical equipment, etc.. Such equipment is sensitive to disturbances
on the utility. For example, a dip in the utility voltage can cause hard disks to
crash.


Fig 3.5 Block diagram of UPS
Disturbances on the utility can not only damage equipment, but also cause
productivity losses and discontinuity in processes. Medical equipment like digital
X/ray and CT scanners are pulsating loads, which means that there are significant
variations in the current. These loads are switched on and off all the time, within
milliseconds. If such equipment is protected with a UPS, the inverter of that UPS
should be able to maintain the output voltage wave shape (sine wave) within
tolerance, in order to not jeopardize the functionality of the equipment



31

Similar performance is required for non-linear loads where the output
current is different in shape than the output voltage. Typically computers are
equipped with power supplies that act as non-linear loads.
With such requirements, the expectations of the performance of the inverter
of the UPS are high. Conventional ways to control the inverter provide good
results, but many times the UPS needs to be oversized to maintain the
performance. More advanced ways of control are required to prevent this and to
make a UPS cost effective.
The main task of the control system in a UPS unit is to minimize the output
voltage total harmonic distortion in different loading profiles. In addition, it should
provide the proper mechanism to recharge the battery set and maintain high input
power factor and low total input current harmonic distortion. Other factors
considered for a good control technique are nearly zero steady-state inverter output
voltage error, good voltage regulation, robustness, fast transient response, and
protection of the inverter against overload under linear/non-linear loads. The most
common switching technique is Sinusoidal PWM. This method can be utilized for
both single-phase and three phase systems. The advantage of this method is low
output voltage harmonic and robustness. This strategy uses a single feedback loop
to provide well-regulated output voltage with low THD. The feedback control can
be continuous or discontinuous. Analog techniques are used in continuous
approach.
The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) can be of natural sampling type, average
type, or instantaneous type .In natural sampling type, the peak value of the output
voltage is detected and compared with a reference voltage in order to obtain the
error, which is used to control the reference to the modulator. The average



32

approach is basically the same; but, the sensed voltage is converted to an average
value and after that, is compared with a reference signal. These approaches control
only the amplitude of the output voltage and are good only at high frequencies. In
an instantaneous voltage feedback SPWM control, the output voltage is
continuously compared with the reference signal improving the dynamic
performance of the UPS inverter.
A typical block diagram of a three-phase DC/AC inverter for UPS systems
and SPWM switching control technique is shown in the above fig 3.5. The
disadvantage of this method is lack of flexibility for non-linear loads. Other
programmed PWM techniques such as selective harmonic elimination, minimum
THD, minimum loss, minimum current ripple, and reduced acoustic noise may be
used for the inverter. Better performance even with non-linear and step-changing
loads can be achieved by multiple control loop strategies.
As shown in Fig 3.6, there are two control loops: an outer and an inner. The
outer control loop uses the output voltage as a feedback signal, which is compared
with a reference signal. The error is compensated by a PI-integrator to achieve
stable output voltage under steady-state operation. This error is also used as a
reference signal for the inner current regulator loop, which uses the inductor or the
capacitor output filter current as the feedback signal. The minor current loop
ensures fast dynamic responses enabling good performance with non-linear or
step-changing loads.





33



Fig 3.6 (a) Configuration of a three-phase DC/AC inverter for UPS systems and (b) simple
voltage controller using PWM technique.









34

CHAPTER 4
MATLAB SIMULINK
4.1 MATLAB INTRODUCTION:
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It
integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use
environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical
notation. Typical uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that
does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
time it would take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C
or FORTRAN.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally
written to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and



35

EISPACK projects. Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and
BLAS libraries, embedding the state of the art in software for matrix computation
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In
university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and
advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB
is the tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called
toolboxes Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn
and apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of
MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve
particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include
signal processing, control, systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets,
simulation, and many others.
4.2 FEATURES OF MATLAB AND SIMULINK
Matlab (*.m):
Schematic (Easy to model complicated systems)
Not easy to change parameters
Simulink (*.mdl):
Only text code (Not easy to model complicated systems)
Easy to edit figures
Cannot edit figures



36

Matlab (*.m) + Simulink (*.mdl): Best choice
Schematic: Simulink
Easy to change parameters: Matlab (m file for parameter initialization)
Edit figures: Simulink (To Workspace)
Matlab (m file for plot)
Simulink
Control System Toolbox
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox
Embedded Target for Motorola MCP555
Embedded Target for TI C6000 DSP
Fixed-Point Blockset
MPC Blocks
NCD Blockset
Neural Network Blockset
Real-Time Windows Target
Real-Time Workshop
Report Generator
S-function demos



37

SimMechanics
SimPowerSystems
Simulink Extras
4.3 SIMPOWER SYSTEMS
SimPower Systems and other products of the Physical Modeling product
family work together with Simulink to model electrical, mechanical, and control
systems. SimPower Systems operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore,
before starting this user's guide, you should be familiar with Simulink. For help
with Simulink, see the Simulink documentation. Or, if you apply Simulink to
signal processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control system design
tasks), see the Signal Processing Block set documentation.
4.4 ROLE OF SIMULATION IN DESIGN
Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and
electromechanical devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this
discipline are constantly improving the performance of the systems. Requirements
for drastically increased efficiency have forced power system designers to use
power electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts that tax
traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst's role is
the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is
through simulation .Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or
other devices is not the only use of power systems. A common attribute of these
systems is their use of power electronics and control systems to achieve their
performance objectives. SimPower Systems is a modern design tool that allows
scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power



38

systems. SimPower Systems uses the Simulink environment, allowing you to build
a model using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can you draw the circuit
topology rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with
mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the
electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modeling
library. Since Simulink uses MATLAB as its computational engine, designers
can also use MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPower Systems and
Sim Mechanics share a special Physical Modelling block and connection line
interface.
4.5 SIMPOWER SYSTEMS LIBRARIES:
The libraries contain models of typical power equipment such as
transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven
ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the
Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Qubec, a large
North American utility located in Canada, and also on the experience of Evolve de
Technologies superior and Universities Laval.
The capabilities of SimPower Systems for modeling a typical electrical
system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who want to refresh
their knowledge of power system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.
The SimPower Systems main library, power lib, organizes its blocks into libraries
according to their behaviour.






39

CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION & RESULTS
The simulation circuit of a non linear load system without shunt active filter is
shown in fig 5.1. In this circuit, UPS and Asynchronous motor is taken as non
linear load, its corresponding line current is measured and FFT analysis have been
performed and the results have been shown in fig 5.2 and 5.3.The THD value is
found to be 38.05%.

Fig 5.1 NON LINEAR LOAD SYSTEM WITHOUT SHUNT ACTIVE
FILTER



40



Fig 5.2 LINE CURRENT

Fig 5.3 FFT ANALYSIS WITHOUT SHUNT ACTIVE FILTER



41

The simulation circuit of a non-linear load system with shunt active filter is
shown in fig 5.4. In this method, space vector modulation is used. When the shunt
active power filter block is operating it injects currents equal in magnitude but in
phase opposition to harmonic current. This compensates the harmonic distortion
and makes the source current balanced sinusoidal while the load current remains
nonlinear.
In this circuit, UPS and Asynchronous motor is taken as non linear load, its
corresponding line current is measured and FFT analysis have been performed and
the results have been shown in fig 5.5 and 5.6.The THD value is found to be
2.31%.


Fig 5.4 NON LINEAR LOAD SYSTEM WITH SHUNT ACTIVE FILTER



42

Fig 5.5 LINE CURRENT

Fig 5.6 FFT ANALYSIS WITH SHUNT ACTIVE FILTER



43

CHAPTER-6
HARDWARE
6.1. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The available AC voltage of 220V is given to the primary side of the
transformer from a source. The transformer is used to step-down the voltage from
an AC voltage of 220V to 24V and 24V is given to the bridge rectifiers. The
rectifier converts the AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage .To filter the pulsations
present in the DC output voltage of the rectifier the capacitor is connected across
them The three-phase inverter is driven by the driver circuit with an angle of 120
mode. The gate signals are controlled by the micro controller PIC 16F84A.
The constant DC voltage as the input supply of micro controller (5V dc) is
obtained by a circuit which consists of rectifier (W04, 300V, 1A), capacitors
(1000F, 25PF).
The drive circuits, which are controlled by micro controller, consist of opto-
coupler. Circuits, which are controlled by microcontroller, consist of opto-coupler
to isolate the circuits of controller and drive circuit operated at different voltage
levels. The input supply for drive circuits is obtained by using the step-down
transformer (230/12)V. The drive- circuit gives 12V to the corresponding gates of
MOSFETs.
The hardware involves the following sections,
Main source circuit
Micro controller circuit



44

Driver circuit
Inverter circuit
6.1.1. MAIN SOURCE CIRCUIT
The circuit consists of the following parts
Power supply circuit
Transformer
Bridge rectifier
6.1.1.1. POWER SUPPLYCIRCUIT
The main source section of hardware unit is shown in Figure 5.2.Here input
voltage is 24v ac which is getting from step down transformer. This 24v is
converted to DC and regulated by means of regulator 7805.After passing through
regulator the voltage maintain constant value.

Fig 6.1 power supply unit



45

6.1.1.2 TRANSFORMER
It is used to step up/step-down the ac supply voltage to suit the requirement
of the electronics devices and the circuit fed by the dc power supply. It also
provides the isolation from the supply line. In this project supply input voltage is
230v ac and output is step-down voltage of 24v ac is shown in Figure 5.3.

Fig 6.2 Rectifier circuit.
6.1.1.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Fig. 6.2 is rectifier circuit, which converts ac voltage in to pulsating dc
voltage. In this diagonally opposite pair of diodes are made to conduct by giving ac
supply. The bridge rectifier converts the given ac voltage to dc voltage.
6.1.1.4 FILTER
The function of the circuit element is to remove the fluctuation /
pulsation (called as ripple) present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier. It
cannot give a ripple free voltage as that of dc battery, but it approaches so closely
that the power supply performs so well.



46

6.1.1.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant
even when
Ac input voltage to the transformer varies
The load varies
It is impossible to get 100% constant voltage but minor variation is acceptable.
6.2 INTRODUCTION OF PIC16F84A
The PIC16F84A belongs to the mid-range family of the PIC micro
microcontroller devices. The program memory contains 1K words, which
translates to 1024 instructions, since each 14-bit program memory word is the
same width as each device instruction. The data memory (RAM) contains 68 bytes.
Data EEPROM is 64 bytes. There are also 13 I/O pins that are user-configured on
a pin-to-pin basis. Some pins are multiplexed with other device functions. These
functions include:
External interrupt
Change on PORTB interrupt
Timer0 clock input
6.2.1 High Performance RISC CPU Features:
Only 35 single word instructions to learn



47

All instructions single-cycle except for program branches which are two-
cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
1024 words of program memory
68 bytes of Data RAM
64 bytes of Data EEPROM
14-bit wide instruction words
8-bit wide data bytes
15 Special Function Hardware registers
Eight-level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Four interrupt sources:
- External RB0/INT pin
- TMR0 timer overflow
- PORTB<7:4> interrupt-on-change
- Data EEPROM write complete
6.2.2PERIPHERAL FEATURES:
13 I/O pins with individual direction control



48

High current sink/source for direct LED drive
- 25 mA sink max. per pin
- 25 mA source max. per pin
TMR0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit programmable prescalar.
6.2.3 Special Microcontroller Features:
10,000 erase/write cycles Enhanced FLASH Program memory typical
10,000,000 typical erase/write cycles EEPROM Data memory typical
EEPROM Data Retention > 40 years
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins
Power-on Reset (POR), Power-up Timer (PWRT), Oscillator Start-up
Timer (OST)
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own On-Chip RC Oscillator for reliable
operation
Code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable oscillator options
6.2.4 CMOS Enhanced FLASH/EEPROM Technology:
Low power, high speed technology
Fully static design



49

Wide operating voltage range:
- Commercial: 2.0V to 5.5V
- Industrial: 2.0V to 5.5V
Low power consumption:
- < 2 mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz
- 15 mA typical @ 2V, 32 kHz
- < 0.5 mA typical standby current @ 2V


Fig 6.3 Pin Diagram of PIC 16F84A
6.3 DRIVER CIRCUIT IR2110
Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation
Fully operational to +500V or +600V
Tolerant to negative transient voltage dv/dt immune



50

Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V
Under-voltage lockout for both channels
3.3V logic compatible
Separate logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V
Logic and power ground 5V offset
CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down
Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic
Matched propagation delay for both channels
Outputs in phase with inputs

Fig 6.4 Driver Circuit
6.3.1DESCRIPTION
The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and IGBT
drivers with independent high and low side referenced output channels.



51

Proprietary HVIC and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized
monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible with standard CMOS or
LSTTL output, down to 3.3V logic. The output drivers feature a high pulse current
buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross-conduction. Propagation delays
are matched to simplify use in high frequency applications. The floating channel
can be used to drive an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side
configuration which operates up to 500 or 600 volts.
6.4 MOSFET:
The N-channel MOSFET enhancement mode silicon gate power field effect
transistor is an advanced power MOSFET designed, tested, and guaranteed to
withstand a specified level of energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of
operation. All of these power MOSFETs are designed for applications such as
switching regulators, switching converter, motor -drives, relay drivers and drivers
for high power bipolar switching transistors requiring high speed and low gate
drive power.
6.4.1 FEATURES:
8A,500V
R
ds
=0.850
Single pulse avalanche energy rated
SOA is power dissipation limited



52


Fig 6.5 Hardware Kit Diagram

Fig 6.6 Source Current waveform




53

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
This project presents a shunt active power filter as a reliable and cost-
effective solution to power quality problems.
The filter presents good dynamic and steady-state response and it can be a
much better solution for current harmonics compensation than the conventional
approach (capacitors to correct the power factor and passive filters to compensate
for current harmonics). Besides, the shunt active filter can also compensate for
load current unbalances. Therefore this active filter allows the power source to see
an unbalanced reactive non-linear load, as a symmetrical resistive load.
The proposed method allows the use of a large number of low-power active
filters in the same facility, close to each problematic load (or group of loads),
avoiding the circulation of current harmonics. This solution reduces the power
lines losses and voltage drops, and avoids voltage distortions at the loads terminals.
The simulation results show that the active power filter can filter harmonic
currents. The THD of the non-linear system with shunt active filter is evaluated
and is found to be within limits.







54

CHAPTER 8
APPENDIX
CODING FOR PIC MICROCONTROLLER
org 000h
bsf STATUS, 5
movlw 00h
start:movlw 51h
movwf PORTB
call delay
movlw 01h
movwf PORTB
call delay
movlw 03h
movwf PORTB
call delay
movlw 0ah
movwf PORTB
call delay
movlw 18h
movwf PORTB



55

call delay
movlw 20h
movwf PORTB
call delay
Goto start
delay:
movlw 03h
movwf del2
loop1: movlw 245
movwf del
loop: nop
nop
nop
nop
nop
decfsz del, 1
Goto loop
decfsz del2, 1
Goto loop1
Return




56




HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION










57

CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES
1. .Md. AshfanoorKabir and Upal Mahbub Synchronous Detection and Digital
control of Shunt Active Power Filter in Power Quality Improvement Department
of EEE Bangladesh University Dhaka, Bangladesh,2011 IEEE
2. M. George and K. P. Basu, Three-phase shunt active power filter, American
Journal of Applied Sciences, vol. 5 (8), pp. 909916, 2008.
3. Joao Afonso, Mauricio Aredes, Edson Watanabe, Julio Martins Shunt active
filter for power quality improvement International Conference UIE 2000
Electricity for a Sustainable Urban Development Lisboa, Portugal, 1-4
November 2001, pp. 683-691.
4. Dorin O. Neacsu SPACE VECTOR MODULATION An Introduction 27th
Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society,2001.
5. Zhuo Fang, Yang Jun, Wang Zhaoan and Hu Junfei, Active power filter for
three-phase four-wire system, Journal of XiAnJiaotong University, vol.34,
pp.8790, March 2000.
6. R.C. Dugan, M.F. Mc Granaghan, S. Santoso and H.W. Beaty, Electrical Power
Systems Quality, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
7. Power Electronics, Circuits, Devices, and Applications, 2nd ed., MH Rashid,
Prentice Hall 1993.
8. C. Sankaran, Power Quality. CRC press, 2001.



58

CHAPTER 10
CONFERENCE DETAILS
Published paper in National Conference on Electrical Engineering Trends
(NCEET 2K12).
Organised by Department of EEE Bhajarang Engineering College.
Date: 7
th
April 2012