Design of Welded Structures

BY
rner
ES F. LIMGOLN ARC WELDING FOUNDATION
CLEVELAND OHIO
Published as a Seroice to Education
by
S F. LINCOLN ARC WELDING FOUN
First Printing 5,000 June 1966
Second Printing 10,000 November 1966
Third Printing 15,000 August 1967
Fourth Printing 15,000 July 1968
Fifth Printing 10,000 May 1972
Sixth Printing 10,000 February 1974
Seventh Printing 10,000 October 1975
Eighth Printing 10,000 July 1976
Special acknowledgment is herewith made to
Watson N. Nordquist
who has contributed much to the editing
a d organization of the material from
which this manual has been prepared
rustees of the Foundation:
E. E. Dreese, Chairman; The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
T. V. Koykka, Partner, Arter and Haddcn,
Cleveland, Ohio
R. C. Palmer, Vice President, Central National Bank,
Cleveland, Ohio
fficerr:
Secretary-Richard S. Sabo, Cleveland, Ohio
Price:
in U.S.A. (Postage included)
Ocerseas and Quantity Prices Upon Request
FB-37
Library of Congress Catalog Card Alumbe?: 66-23123
Printed in U.S.A.
Permission to reprodnce any material contained herein will be granted upon
request, providcd proper credit is given to The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding
Foundation, P. 0. Box 3035, Cleveland, Ohio, 44117.
Copyright 1966 by The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
WELDED STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS have long been used in the
coristrnction of buildings, bridges, and other strnctures. Tho first \\&led buildings
were erectcd in the '20s-the greatest application being in low-level buildings of
many types. The American Welding Society first puhlislxd specifications for
welded bridges in 1936. Hut earl!. progress came slowly.
During that ycar, 1936, The Jalncs F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
was created by The Linwln Electric Company to help advance the progress in
welded dcsign and construction. Through its award programs and educational
activities, the Foundation providcd an exchange of experience and gave impehls
to the growing application of welding.
Thus, within the last decadc and particularly the past few years, unitized
welded design llas become widely accepted for high-rise buildings and bridges
of nobler proportions in addition to the broad base of more modest structures.
Now, the Foundation publishes this manna1 for fi~rther guidance and
cl~allenge to architects, strtrctural engineers, fabricators and contractors who
will build the structures of tomorrow . . . and to the educators who will prepare
young people for thest: professions. This material represents an interpretation
of the best in accumulated esperiencc of all w11o have participated in prior
Foundation activities. The autlior has coordinated this \vith a continuing study
of current welding research conducted hoth in the United States and Eumpe,
and against a background of participation on various code-writing cominittees.
Much of the direct instructional information that resulted has been pretested
in over 70 structural seminars attended by over 4000 engineers.
Tho prodnction of this manual has spanned several years during \&ch
constant effort \vas made to eliminate errors. The author will appreciate having
callcd to his attentiorr any errors that have escaped his attention and inliitcs
corrr~~pcmdei~ce on subjects about which the reader may have questions. Neither
the author nor the pbl i sher, howover, can assume responsibility for the results
of designers using values and forniulas contained in the manual since so many
variables affect every design.
The Jomer F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
June 1966
ITS
The author and the publisher firatefully acl<nowledge the organi-
zations and individuals who ha w contributed photographs or
other ihstrativo material:
Allied Stcrl Corporation Nathan N. Hoffman
Allison Steel Mfg. Co.
HoyIc, Doran & B e q
Allison Structural Steel Co. Inland Steel Company
American Bridge Division, Jackson & hloreland Division,
U.S. Steel Corporation United Engineers and Conshxctors, Inc.
.4merican Institute of Steel Constmction Kaiser Steel Corp.
American Iron & Steel Institute
Kansas City Stn~ctural Steel Co.
American Welding Society Felix hl. Krans, Consulting Engineer
Barb~r-Magee 8 Hoffman
1.rhigh Construction Company
John F. Beasley Constmction Co. Lehigh University, Fritz Enginecsing Laboratmy
Bethlehem Fabricating Co. Robert Charles Lesser, Architect
Bethlehem Steel Corporation R. C. Mahon Company
J. G. Bouwkamp
P. H. Mvllog Co.
Bnrklrardt Steel Company
McGaw-Hill Book Co.
The California Co.
Midwest Steel & Iron Works
California State Division of Highways
Xelson Shld Welding Division,
Canadian Wuirling Magazine Gregory Industries, Inc.
J. A. Cappuccilli, .4rchitect
New England Construction Magazine
Columi Resellrch Council Pacific Car 8 Foundry Co.
Connecticut Statc Highway Dept.
Pacific lron and Steel Corporation
I hwi ddi o Constmction Company Phillips-Carter-Osbom, Inc.
-
uominion Brrdge Company, Ltd. Pittsburgh-Des Mo~nes Steei Co.
Dominion Structural Steel Co., Ltd. H. Platt Company
B. M. Domblatt 8 Associates, Inc. Port 01 New Yo& Authority
Dreier Structural Steel Co. Product Engineering Magazine
Edmundson, KochendotlEer S. Kennedy Hqi i bl i ~ Sl ed Corporation
Enginecring News-Record Joseph T. Ryerson 8 Sons, Inc.
Englert Engineering Company Van Renssrlser P. Saxe, Engineer
Flint Steel Corporation Schact Steel Construction, Inc.
Frankel Stecl Company Steel Joist Instihrte
General Electric Company,
Tonnessec Gas Pipeline Co.
In~iwtrial Heating Dcpt.
United States Stccl Corporation
David R. Graham & Asswiates I'eimont Stnictural Steel Ca.
Granco Steel Products Co. Paul Weidlinger, Consulting Engineers
Harley, Ellington, Cuwin 8 Stirton, Inc. Welding Engineer Magazine
I i avmdusch Co. Welding Reseavch Co~mcil
Horzberg & Associates West Coast Stccl Works
Hewitt-Robins, Inc.
hlinom Yamasaki-Smith, Hinchman & Grylls
In certain sobjeot areas, the author hns made adaptations of work
done by cailier investigators, to wit:
Friedrich Bleich S. Timoshenko
"Buckling Strength of Metal Stru~tures" "Theory of Elasticity"
hlcCraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y1
McGraw-Hi11 Book Co., New York, N. Y.
Raymond Roark
S. Timoshcnko and S. Woinowsky Krieger
"Formulas for Strcss and Strain"
"Theory of Platcs and Shells"
McGraw-IiiIl Book Co., Sew Yor11, N. Y. McCraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y.
F. K. Shanley
S. Timoshenko and James Gerc
'Strcn@h of Materials"
"Theory of Elastic Stability"
McCraw-Hill Dook Co., New York, N. Y. .McCTrawHill Book Co., New York, N. Y.
The publisher regrets any omissions from this list, and would
apprwiate being advised about them so that tho records can
be corrected.
G FOUNDATION
Mctcils und How to Wel d Thcm. This dnal purpose texthook and
reference manual cle;irly describes thc internal strnctnrc of metals and
its relation to ri~eehanical end physical properties and weldnbility. The
book thoroughly disc~~sses the metai1nrgic:rl aspects of welding various
metals used in Indnstry. drscrihing welding processes and procedures
that are applicable in each case. 400 pages, 195 illustrations. $2.00 U.S.A.,
postpaid.
Modern Wcl dcd Strz~cttrrcs. Vol. I. h behind-the-scenes look at how
83 notcd arcliitrcts, enginwrs :md drsignars chose welded design to
economically improvc the fmiction and aesthetic appeal of varied strnc-
tures. -4dapted from outstanding papers submitted in the 1962 Awards
Program for Progress in the Desigri of Arc Welded Stmcturcs sponsored
by The James F. Lincoin -4re Welding Foundation. Each study relates
the ilesign problem, then tells and explains the soli~tion found with
arc-wclded steol. 150 pngcs, 335 illilstrations. 52.00 U.S.A., postpaid.
Modem IYoldetE Structtjrcs, Vol. 11. Welded design aspccts of 64 excit-
ing projects developed by sonic of thc ~quntry' s leading architects and
engineers are described in this book. These men tell you in their own
w-ords how they approached the dcsign problem and solved it; how they
applied the latest concepts and techniques in arc-a&ed design :ind
construction to improve function, add beauty, lower costs. Studies are
adaptcd from the best entries in 'Ilx janies F. Lincoln Arc Welding
Foundation's 1964 Awards Program for Progress in the Design of .4rc
Viield~d Structures. 280 pages, 335 illustrations. $2.50 U.S.A., postpaid.
Design of Wcldmenfs. Anthoriiative combined textbook and reference
manual describes in detail many desig~i techniques for creating macl3in-
cry &signs in arc-\vt:ided steel. h41ieh of this material riot available
elsen~here. Thcoreticnl analysis and prohlen~-solution examples explain
how to &sign machiiicry comporlcnts for manufacturing economies
and improvement of product performance. 464 pages, 823 illustrations,
nomograpi~s and charts. $5.00 U.S.A., postpaid.
Overseas and Quuntity Prices Avoiluble Uy~on Request
The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
P. 0. Box 3035, Cleveland, Ohio, 44117
Introduction to Welded Construction 1. 1
Part One
Part Two
ANALYSIS
Analysis of Compression 3.1
Design of Compression Members 3.2
Part Three
Column Bases 3.3
fdumn Splices 3 4
COLUMN-RELATED
~earing-Pin Connections
3.5 DESIGN
Designing Built-Up Columns 3.6
Part Four
Part Five
ELDED-CON N ECTI
ESIGN
Part Six
DESIGN
Part Seven
JOINT DESIGN
AND PRODUCTION
Part Eight
EFERENCE DESIGN
FORMULAS
h m rlkrgrruns and Formulas 8.1
Yo& Membw Diagrams and formulas 8.2
n = angular acceleration (radians/sec/sec); in-
cluded angle of beam cwvature (degrees);
form +actor
A = perpendici~lar deflection (in.), bending (A*)
or shear (As)
E = unit strain, elongation or emtraction (in./in.)
c, = unit shear strain (in./in.)
v = Poisson's ratio (steel = 0.3 usually); unit
shear force
o = leg size of fillet weld (in.); rate of angular
motion about an axis (radians/sec)
+ = unit angular twist (radians/linear inch); in-
cluded angle; angle of rotation
E = sum
u = nonnd stress, tensile or compressive (psi);
strength (psi)
ub = bending stress (psi)
u? = yield strength (psi)
T = shear stress (psi); shear strength ((pi)
0 =, anglc of twist (radians; I radian = 57.3 d e
gets); angle of rotation (radians); slope of
tapered girder; any speckled angle
a = area of section beyond plane where stress is
desired or applied (in.'); langtb of plate
(in.); ncceleration or docelmation (ft/min,
ft/sec); clear distance between transverse
stiffeners of girder (in.)
b = width of section (in. ); distance of area's cen
tcr of gravity to reference axis (i n. )
c = distance from neutral axis to extreme Fibex
(i n. ); distance of elastic center from refer-
ence axis
d = depth of section (in. ) ; moment arm of force
(in.); distance (in.); distance betwcen cen-
ters of gravily of girder flanges ( i l l . )
d, = clear distanm: between girder flanges (in.)
e = eccentricity of applied load (in.); total axial
strain (in.); moment arm of force (in.); d-
fective width (in.); length of Tee section. in
open-web girder (in.)
f = force per linear inch of weld (lbs/in. ); hori-
zontal shear force (lbs/in.); (vectorial) re-
sultant force (lbs/in.); allowable strength of
weld (lbs/in.)
f,' = mmpressiw strmrgth of concrete ( p i )
g = accelrration of gravity (386,4"/seG)
h = height; height of i d ; distance oi expansion
on open-web girder (in.)
k = any specified mnstnnt or amplification factor
m = mass; statical moment of transformed con-
crete (composite mnstmction)
n = distance of section's neutral axis from refer-
ence axis (in.); mmber of mi t s in scrics
p -- internal pressure (psi)
q = allowable force on shcar connector
r = radius (in. ); radius of gyration
s == length of curved beam segment (in. ); clear
distance betwecu ends of increments of weld
(in. )
t -- thickness of scrtim (i n. ); time (min.); time
interval (sec)
u = material's tensile rnodulus of resilience
(in..lb/in!)
u, .= mat eri al ' s ul t i mat e cner gy resi st ance
(in.-Ib/in.*)
w = uniformly distributed load (Ibs/linear inch)
x = length of moment arm ( cuned beam)
y == distance of area's center of gravity to neutral
axis of entir? se~.tion (in.)
A = arrm (in.'); Iota1 area of cross-section
C r= stiffness factor used in moment distribution;
any specified constant
E = modulus of elasticity, tension (psi ); arc volt-
age (volts)
E, .-- modulus of elslsticity in shear (psi)
Ek =r tangential modulus of elasticity (psi)
El, =r l<inetic energy
E, = potential cncrgy
F -- total force (Ibs); radial force (Ibs)
I = moment of inertia ( h 4 ) ; welding current
(amps)
J u polar momtmt of incrtia (i n?); heat input
( joulcs/in. or watt-sec/in.)
K -- ratio of minimum to maximum load (fatigue,;
ratio of web doptl~ to wkb thichness; distance
from outer face of beam flange to web toe of
fillet (in. ); thermal conductivity; any speci-
fied constant
L =. length of mcmber ( i n 01. ft. ); span between
supports (iu.)
L, = effpctive length of column
M = bending moment (in.-lbs)
M, -- applied bending momcnt (in.-lbs)
M, = plastic moment at connection (in-lbs)
N = numbrr of service cyclcs; minimum bearing
Imgth of beam on scat (in.)
P = conceiitrated load (Ibs)
Q = shear centw; statical moment of cover plate
area about neutral axis of cowr-plated beam
section
R = reattion (11,s); torsiu~ral resistance of mem-
ber (in."; weld cooling rate ("F/scc)
S : section modulus ( i d ) = I/c
T = torque or twisting momcnt (i wl bs); tem-
perature ('F)
U = stored energy
V := vertical shear load (l bs); shear reaction;
velocity; vnlume; arc s p e ~ d (in./min)
W = total load (lbs); weight (Ibs); total width
(in.)
Y =- effective bearing length on base plate (in.)
Z :=- plastic section modulus ( h 3 )
C.G. = cmtcr of gravity
HP = horsepower
N.A. = ncut r ~l axis
RPM = revolutions per minute
1. WELDING'S IMPORTANCE TO STRUCTURAL
FIELD
Welding has been an important factor in our economy.
The progressmade in welding equipment and elec-
t r ode, the advancing art and science of designing for
welding, and the growth in trust and acceptance of
welding havo combined to make welding a powerful
implemcnt for an espanding constrnction industry.
More and more buildings and bridges are being
built according to the precepts of good welded design.
The economies inherent in welding are helping to offset
evolutionary incrcases in the prices of materials and
cost of labor. In addition, the short end production
cycles, made possible by wclding, have helped cffect
a quickening in the pace of new construction.
Welded constrnction has paid off handsomely for
many architects, structural engineers, contractors, and
thcir client-customers. It will become increasingly im-
portant as more people acqnirc a greater depth of
knowledge and experience with it.
2. RECOGNITION OF WELDING
The widespread recognition of welding as a safe mcans
of making structural connections has come about only
after years of diligent effort, pioneering action by the
more progressive enginaers and buildcrs, and heavy
documentation of research findings and successes at-
tained.
Today, thcre just arcn't marly rncn in industry who
speak disparagingly of welding. Most regnlatory agen-
cies of local and federal government now acccpt welded
joints which moet thr reqnirements imposed by code-
writing bodies such as the American Institiitc of Steel
Construction and the Arneri ~i n Welding Society.
With this acceptarrcr. there rcmains however a
considerable task of education and simple dissemin:ition
of inionnation to achieve maximum efficiency in the
application of welded design. And, there is even a
continning need for more thorough understanding of
welding by codewriting bodies who fail to use the full
streugth of welded joints.
ELDED CONSTRUCTION?
There are ninny reasons for using welded design and
constrnction, hut probably the two basic ones are 1)
welded design offcrs the opportnnity to i~cliieue more
efficient nse of inateriais, and 2 ) thc speed of fabrica-
tion and erection can holp compress production sclied-
nles, enabling the entire industry to he more sensitive
and react faster to rapidly shifting market needs.
Freedom of Design
Welding pem~i t s the architect and structurd engineer
complete freedom of design-freedorn to dcvclop and
use modem economical design principles, freedom to
FIG. 1 Indicative of the design free-
dom offered by unitized welding
design, the Yale Rare Book Library's
four outside walls are each a
5-story high Vierendeel truss. Each
is a network of Greek-type crosses.
The structure i s all welded-shop
and field.
employ the most elementary or most daring concepts
of form, proportion and balance to satisfy the need for
greater aesthetic value. Just about anything the de-
signer may envision can ~i o w be given reality . . .
bcca~ise of welding.
Welded constmction imposes no restrictions on
tlie thinking of the designer. Already, this has resulted
in wide usage of such outstanding design advancements
as open-web expandc~l beams and girders, tapered
beams and girders, Vierendcel trusses, cellular floor
construction, orthotropic bridge decks, composite floor
constrrrction, and tubular columns and trusses.
eld Met al Superior t o Base Met al
A welded joint basically is one-piece construction. All
of the other methods of connecting members are
mechanical lap joints. A properly welded joint is
stronger than the mat <~i al joined. The fused joints
create a rigid structure in contrast to the nonrigid
structure made with rncchanical joints. The compact-
ness and calculable degree of greater rigidity permits
design assumptions to be realized more accurately.
Welded joints are better for fatigue loads, impact loads,
and severe vibration.
Welding Saves Wei ght, Cuts Costs
Connecting steel plates are reduced or eliminated since
they often are not required. Welded connections save
steel because no dedw;tions need he made for holes
in the plate: the gross section is effective in carrying
loads. They offer the best method of making rigid
connections, resdting in reduced beam depth and
weight.
This reduced beam depth can noticeably lower the
overall height of a building. The weight uf the structure
and therefore static loatling is greatly reduced. This
saves column steel, walls and partitions, facia, and
reduced foundation requirements.
Welded connections are well suited to the new
field of plastic design, resrllting in further appreciable
weight savings ovcr conventional rigid frame design.
Savings in transportation, handling time, and erec-
tion are proportional to the weight savings.
Available Standards
Arc welding, either in the shop or in the field, has been
used long enough to have bcen proved tlioroughly
dependable. The AWS and AISC have set up depend-
able standards for all phases of strnctural activity. These
standards are hacked I I ~ by years of research and
a c t d testing. They simplify the design of welded con-
nections and facilitate acceptance by purchasers and
inspectors.
Other Advantages
Less time is required on detailing, layout and fahrica-
tion since fewer pieces are used. Punching or drilling,
and reaming or countersinking are eliminated-a snh-
stantid saving on large projects.
The typical welded joint produces a smooth, un-
cluttered connection that can be left exposed, without
detracting from the appearance of the structure. Welded
FIG. 2 The athletic unit of Ladue Jr. High School (Missouri) features an all-welded steel
lamella roof frame spanning 252', expressing the strength of one-piece welded con-
struction.
introduction t a ei ded Const r uct i on / 1.1-3
joints exhibit less corrosion and require little or 110
maintenance. The smooth wcldeil joints also make it
easier to install masonry, facia and other close iitting
members, often reducing tire thickness of walls or
floors in buildings.
Structnrcs can be erected in rclativo silence, a
definite asst,t in lxiilding in tlouiiliown art2ns, near office
b~iildings or hospitals.
4. HOW GOOD I S A WELD?
Many engineers are unaware of the great reserve of
strength that welds have, ;ind in many cases this is not
recognized by code bodies.
Notice in Table 1 that the minimum yield strengtl~s
of the ordinmy E6Oxx electrodes are about 50% higher
than the corresponding values of the A7, A373 and A36
structural steels with which they would be used.
e n d Steels
Moteri al
Minimum
I Yield Strength
AWS A5.1 &
ASTM A233
Weld
Metoi
ioi welded)
ASTM
S t e i s
Mi ni mum
Tensile Strength
62,000 psi
67,000
62,000
62,000
72,000
60.000 to 75,000
58,000 to 75,000
58,000 to 80,000
63.000
67,000
70.000
Many of the commercial Ef3Oxu electrodes also
meet E70xs specifications. Used on the same A7, A373
and A36 steals, they have about 75% higher yield
strength than the steel.
There are numerous reasons why weld metal has
higher strength than the corresporiding plate. The two
most important 'we:
1. Thc core wire wed in the electrode is of pre-
mium steel, held to closer specifications than the plate.
2. There is complete shielding of the molten metal
during welding. This, plus the scavenging and deoxidiz-
ing agents and other ingredients in the electrode coat-
ing, produces ;I uniformity of crystal strncture and
physical pmpertirs on a p:x with electric furnace steel.
Recamse of tllesc, propt:rly deposited welds have a
tremendous rcservc of strength or factor of safety,
far beyond wliat irrdnstry specifications iisually recog-
nize. Rut cven witliout a reduced safety factor, there is
a considerabic cost :idvantage.
inspection and Qual i f y
hlnch money is spcnt :ninoally by industry and goverm
merit in obt;iining ai d inspecting for a specified weld
q~xdity. Usually tlic weld quality specifiod is obtained,
bxt too often the quality specified has little or no rela-
tion to sorvice requirements.
Welds that meet the ;rcti~al scrvice requirements,
at thc least possible cost, are the result of-
1) proper design of connections and joints,
2) good welding procedure,
3) good weldor technique and workmanship, 2111d
1) intelligent, responsible inspection.
In the follo\ving exnmpl(s (Figures 3, 4, 5 :md 6 )
test specimens exhibit undercut; ondrrsize, lack of
fusion, and porosity. In spite of tlic:se adverse conditions,
REDUCTI ON iM PLATE
Si LTi oN (iN PERCCNT)
7.6 % q6% /5%
FIG. 3 Test samples prepared to show effect of
undercut. Samples were pulled in tension under a
stotic Iood; in al l cases foilure occurred in the plate
ond not in the weld.
FIG. 4 One rule of thumb says fillet size should equal
3/q plote thickness to develop full plate strength.
Using this method, a 3/8" fillet weld on fi" plate
should "beat the plate". But so di d 11/32" and
5/16" fillets. Not until fillet size was reduced t o G''
did weld foilure occur . . . at a stress of 12,300
Ibs/lineor in., more than 5 times the AWS allowable.
1.1-4 / I nt r oduct i on
considered individually, the weld imclcr steady tensile
load was found to be stronger than the plate. Thcsc
examples are not neari it to show that the standard of
w-eld quality should Be lowered. However, they are
striking evidence of how easy it is to make full-strength
welds, welds stronger than the plate.
Welding is the only process that prodt~ces a
unitized, or one-piece, construction. The welded plate
is so sound, strong, and ductile as to permit somc
trsting procedures that froq~ent l y are impossible or
impractical to perform \ritli other conr~ection methods.
The weld is so duvtile that it can bc readily bent
FIG. 5 Weld somples were mode, with
varying degrees of lack of fusion, 0s
reduced-section tensile specimens. Welds
were mochined flush before testing, ond
weld failure did no? occur until the un-
penetroted throo? dimension hod reached
31% of the total ioint throat.
around a sniall radius. Figure 7. Apparently because
it is possible to do so, bend tests are often reqnircd.
Unfortunately, il-bend tcst results do not correlate
wcll with actual service performance,
Reca~ise it is possible to examine a welded joint by
radiographic inspection, some engineers feel this must
be done.
Most radiographic inspection is based on respon-
sible standards. These specifications assure the quality
reqnircd, yet are realistic. Frequenly, however, local
decisions arc made to require more perfect radiographic
soundness than the specifications demand.
ALL WELDS MACHI NED FLUS#
-
FIG. 6 Excessive porosity (weld 1) os
shown by rodiogroph did not weaken the
joint. Weld 2 shows perfect. In both canes
the weld wos stronger than the plofe.
Specimens broke in the plate ot opproxi-
mately 60,100 psi.
l nt r oduc~i on t o el ded Co~s t r uc t i on / 1.1-5
Ho w lmportont i s Porosity?
Normally, porosity if it should cxist is not a problem,
because each void is spherical. It does not represent
a notch. Even with a slight loss in section because of
the void, its spherical shape allows a smooth flow of
stress around the void without any measurable loss in
strength.
Tests have shown that a weld can contain a large
amount of porosity without materially changing the
tensile or impact strength and ductility of the weld.
This porosity cwuld amount in total volume to a void
equal to 7% of the weld's cross-section without impair-
ing the joint's performance.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec-
tion VIIS and X, will allow porosity in a weld to the
extent shown on charts incorporated into the Code.
These charts consider size, distribution, and alignment
of voids, versus plate thickness.
The AWS Building Code will allow a slight poros-
ity if well dispersed in the weld. This is defined as "gas
pockets and any similar generally globular type voids."
The AWS Bridge Specification allows some poros-
ity. For porosity above Xt;" in void size, a table shows
minimum clearance between voids and maximum size
of void for any given plate thiclaess.
5. DESIGN FOR WELDING
A designer must know the fundamental differences bc-
tween welding and other assembly methods if he is to
detail economical welded members. If a welded girder,
FIG. 7 Wel d mefol in
wel l - desi gned j oi nts
d e mo n s t r a t e mu c h
gr eat er duct i l i t y t han
would be required in any
type of structures.
for example, were constructed with multiple cover
plates, the cost would be excessive. The use of only
one flange plate with a reasonable number of butt
welded splices, at points where the plate thickness
can be reduced, is usually adequate and also gives
improved fatigue resistance.
The selection of a connecting system should be
made at the design level; for some types of structures,
may even influence the architectural concept itself.
FIG. 8 Many contemporory structures are using exposed steel framing as part of the
ortistic scheme. Welding provides the unencumbered simplicity of form essential to
the modern look in architecture, typified in this showcase building.
The most efficient t ~s c of steel is achieved with wl ded
design, the adva~~t ages of whicl~ grow with the sizc of
the structure. In fact, the full advantages of using
steel in competition with other materials will only he
realized whm the structure is erected as a welded
design, and when fabricators and erectors use modern
techniques of welding, production scheduling, and
materials handling.
A welded office building in Dallas, Texas, is an
example of the rxxmomies possible in structural weld-
ing. The building is 413 feet high, has 34 floors, and
contains 600,000 square feet of usable floor space. The
savings are impressive. The contractor states that by
FIG. 9 Welded connectior~s contributed t o sofer and
more economical erection of the stately 33-story
Hartford Building in Son Francisco, California's
tallest skyscraper. Semi-automatic welding, using
self-shielding cored electrode, speeded completion
of 80 beam-to-column connections per floor.
designing for welding he saved 650 tons of steel. Com-
parison estimates show an additional saving of approxi-
mately $16.00 per ton in fabrication and erection.
Futhermore, approxin~ately six months in construction
time will be saved as a result of using a welded steel
frame.
Comparative experience has proved that had this
type structure involved welded connections that were
simply converted from another type of connection, there
still would have been savings hut substantially less
than when designing specifically for welding.
6. WELDED DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
The taller that buildings grow, tho greater the role of
welding. This applies to the shop fabrication of columns
and other structurals, and also to the field welding
associated with erection.
A majority of the more recently built skyscrapers
are of welded design. These arc found in all sections
of the country, including eartliquake-prone San Fran-
cisco.
Expanded open-web hcams and girders-fabri-
cated from standard rolled beams-are providing great
savings in both bridge and huilding design. An open-
web girder dcsigned to have the required momcnt
05 inertia will result in a weight saving as high as 50%.
In mnlti-story buildings, where utility supply lincs can
be nui through these beams and girders rather than
suspended below, the overall building height is sub-
stantially shortened. This results in significant savings
in material costs-for columns, facia, stairs, etc.
Tlra ease with which tapered beams a ~i d girders
can be fabricated from standard rolled hcams permits
an endless variety of savings in building design. Tap-
ered spandrel beams are often made deep enough at
the column end to reduce the bending force and di m-
-
inate need for column stiffeners. The spandrel beam
is shop welded to the column for lowest cost and
shipped to the site.
Special built-up columns can be used to ob-
tain open, column-free interiors, to inonnt facia eco-
nomically, to provide the steel-and-glass look whiclr
dominates today's downtown and industrial park arch-
tccture.
The new look in building design-especially re-
search centers, office buildings, libraries a ~ i d museum
--calls for a heavy use of exposed stecls, including the
corrosion-resistant steels such as ASTM A242. The clean
trim lines which are demand~d wit11 this use of exposed
steel can be acliievcd only by welding.
Light, airy roof supporting space frames-tl~rea-
ili~nensiorial truss systems-arc being shop-fabricated
in sections, final assrmhled on the ground at thc, site
and liftcd into plxcc. Welding facilitates the use of
I nt roduct i on to elded Constructi on / 1.1-7
srich drxsigns, since there is a lack of estraneom ma-
tcrial in the multiplicity of coimections as would be the
ulsc with any other means of assembly.
Plastic dr:sign does not use the conventional allow-
able stresses, but rather the calculated ultimate load-
carrying capacity of the striicturc. In the case of rigid
framing, plastic design rcquires less engineering time
than docs conventional elastic dcsign and, in most
cases, rcsirlts in sigriificant savings in steel over the
use of elastic design. Welding is the most practical
method of making connections for plastic design. This
is becaiise the conrrection must allow the members to
reach their full plastic moments with srifficicnt strcngtli.
adequate rotational ability, and proper stiflness.
ELDED CONST RUCT I ON O F BRI
Today bridges of every type-suspension, arch, truss,
plate and hox girder, etc.-are constrncted of steel be-
cause of strength, dependability. and permalielice. Be-
cause tlierc are no limitations placcd on welding, the
bridge engine~m is not limited or restricted in his think-
ing. Due to this new freedom of design effected by
welding, some rather unusual and nnique bridges have
ap&)eared in recent years.
The State of Connc:dicut has favored welding
design for its high:hwa)- h1idgr.s for over 20 years. Tl ~e
Turnpike has 28 all-welded bridges, thc largest of
which is the 24-span. 2661-foot Miam~s River Bridge: at
Greenwich. The esperierrce of thc States of Connecticut.
New York, Texas, California and Kansas has clearly
show11 that substantial savings are possible in properly
designed welded bridges.
Bridge girders of variable depth enhancta the!
appcaronce of the strlicture, while placing the metal
where needed ; ~nd takiug i t away wherc shallower
section dcpth is pcrn~issibk-thereby saving toris of
steel.
.!I '300' 1m1g weldcd hridge spanning tlrc tr;lcks of
the Erie Railroad or1 the: Ncw I'ork ThrnwaY had to
be shaped to meet sitc rrquirerncnts. Tilt. Thrti\va); at
this point is on both n vrrtical grxd(~ wid a 11orizont;rl
curve, r n i r i g srrperr1~:v;ition. It is rstirr~ated that
morr-Bexiblr: \vcldrd design also dew-loped ;t 50% sav-
ings in thc weight of steel.
In both building arid trridgo construction, tire
developmc~nt of wcldcd sht w coiincctors and sp~,cial-
izccl welding equipmmt for attactiiog such coiincctors
has ;iccclcr;ited tlrc use of compositr floor constroction
-ud~ere th? concrete m~cl st wl act to get lit:^ wit11 a
strength greater tkitirr either compont:nt. resulting in
large savings.
Orthotn>pic bridgr, design, long accepted in Eli-
rope:, is coming into pnminencc i l l Amrrica as a major
approach to reduction of bridge costs. This coucmpt calls
FIG. 10 Large bridge sections are shop-fobricoted,
shipped to the site, and lifted into position. This
lowers erection costs ond compresses the project
tirnetoble.
for tlrt, romplctc deck to act as a nnit. Olihotropic
dcsign could not he rxecr~ted without welding.
8. WEL DED CONST RUCT 1 0
STRUCTURES
\V&iing h;is f;wilit;itcd thr. design and construction of
:t grrat mriety of strnctirres with the mntrmporary look.
liven \v;itcr to\vcrs hiivc takm oir o bcauty that comple-
nients adjncrrrt ar(.hitccturt,.
Stadiums for big-lc;igt~c sports clubs and for Eig-
xunc collcgrs arta lmiring Ilcavily on wc~lding. Among
tllcsc ar<, Shca St ndi ~~m, l nni r t h' s w w liomc for the
hgc l s , and othms. A v1~y iinirliic~ fcnturc of tllc modern
stadium I-esultir~g from wddcd st wl dcsign is the
C t i l l ~ i l t T ~ ~ < d roof whi~11 rlsmoVCS cO~ll1n11s as O~ S ~ TUC-
tio~is to slx3ctator vision mid plrastire.
Towers, space 11wdi ~~s. h g c ridio t ~l ~scop( . s, radar
antcrmns, OK-sllorc drilling rigs, ore ~rriloadc~rs, and
many other structurc~s are 11rir1g designed for welded
constructio~~.
8 / I nt r oduct i on
9. REVOLUTION IN SHOP FABRlCATlON &
ERECTION
Today's structure goes up quickly diie to welding. The
trcnd is to build the structure on a sob-assembly basis,
doing as much work as possible ui ~der ideal shop con-
ditions wbrre mass-production techniqries can be fully
employed.
Tilt, progress made in I-ecent ycars in auton~atic and
semi-automatic welding cqrripmrmt and in positionors
and manipulators has made shop iahricotion of spccial
girders, knees, and built-up colirlnns extremely attrac-
tive. In many cases, tlw ingeirio~is disignt>r can make
tremendous savings tl~roogh tlic design of special
stnictirral members, This irrcludes members lraving
complex cross-sectional coriGguration and hybrid mcm-
bers that are a mix of steels iraving different analyses.
Modern strnctui-nl fabricating shops have fixtures
for assembling plates into colum~rs anti girders, manip-
ulators for welding aotom:itically, ;md positioners for
supporting ~nernhers so that att:icIring plates may bc
welded in thc flat position.
Welding developments in the past few- ycars haw
greatly incrcased welding speeds, while assuring high
quality welds. In sribmerged-arc welding the use of
multiple arcs, will1 two and three, welding heads has
trmn~endor~sly increased welding sp~eds. Contintioris
wire processes for semi-meclranized welding for both
shop am1 field applications have substantially increasd
prodoctivity.
Mtich progress has been made in automatic manip-
r~lators, enabling the welding head to be pi t into
proper aligninel~t with the joint of the membcr in a
matter of scconds. This alignment is automatically
maintainctl along the length of the joir~t during wclding.
Thtrse manipulators represent :I major cost rcductioii
pssi l di t y. As the size of the struclurc increases, tlrc
total arc time on a n.eldcd job becomcs a decreasingly
smaller percentag<z oi the total fabricating time. Thus
savings in handling tinre and increasing nramfact~iring
cycle dficieilcy are thc major potc~ltinls for cost re-
d uclion.
Semi-automatic field welding is spceding up ercc-
tion and lowering costs. Snbmrrged-arc has long hem
ut i d in the field for Rat welding. Recently the use of
self-shirlding cored electrode wire, automatically fed,
has greatly extended tht: speed and uniforrn quality
ir~liere~it with semi-automatic welding. This process is
rapidly winning gentmil ii~ceptance. It is not affected
by rather scvere wiird and other adverse climatic con-
ditions. I3otlr siibmcrgcd-arc and certain cored electrode
pr-ocessczs arc cousidered low hydrogen.
WELDING METHOD
ARC SPEED
IN. /MIN.
STICK ELECTRODE ( E7028) 5%
SINGLE ARC SEMI-AUTOMATIC (SUB-ARC) 12
J
SINGLE ARC SEMI-AUTOMATIC (INNERSHIELD) I 2
SINGLE ARC AUTOMATIC (SUB-ARC ) 15
TWIN ARC AUTOMATIC (SUB-ARC 1 2 5
/ TANDEM ARC AUTOMATIC (SUB-ARC) 1 3 0 1
TANDEM AUTOMATICS (SUB -ARC) O 18
BOTH WELDS O AND @
SIMULTANEOUSLY = 3 6 IN, $12 FILLET/MIN. ) ( 2 . 3 6 )
TRIPLE TANDEM AUTOMATICS (SUB-ARC) O 2 5
BOTH WELDS AND @
2. 50
J- wuLTANEousw = 5 0 IN. '/2 FILLEI/M1N) :
FIG. 11 Many fabricating shops have realized substantial savings through
step up in selection of welding process and equipment. This chart shows
numerous ways to make the %" fillet weld, which i s common to many
large structural members.
1. I MPORT ANCE O F PROPERTI ES
Pill ma!vri:ils have certain properties which must he
kno\vn in order to promote their proper use. These
proper tic,^ art. t.sscntia1 to srlcction of the best material
for a given mcmlwr.*
111 tlit: design of structural nrcmbers, the properties
nf materials which are of primary concern are those
that indicatt. matorial behavior tunder certain types of
load. Some property of matcrial is called for in each of
the hasic desigri formi~las.
I'rolwrtics corninonly found in angineering hand-
books and suppliers catalogs are these:
1. ultimate tmsilc strrngth
2. yield streiigtli in tension
?. elongation
4, modulus of elasticity
5. compressivc strength
6. shear strength
7. fatigue strength
Otlier properties such as modulus of resilience and
ultimate energy resistance, may also bc given.
Tables I and 2 present physical properties and
c;l~rmical composition of various stecls. These are pro-
-. -
Also see "Metals and HOW to Weld Them" by T. B, Jefferson
;iod G. Woods; J a nr s F. Lincoln Arc Welding kmdat i on.
prictai-y stwls that are not pmvidcd for by the ASTM
specifications for basic steels used in the strtlctural field.
The specification steels are covered in Srctio~i 7.1 on
the Selection of Structural Stcel.
FIG. i Tensile test specimen before ond after
testing to failure, showing maximum elongation,
TABLE 1-Properties and Composi ti on of Const ruct i onal Al l oy Steels
I
Yield Uif Nominol Composition. %
Producer
I
Alloy point, Strength, El mg . , C Mn si Cu Mo C i Nl
~ l i 04 % Other
Jooei & Lovghlin Jolloy-5-90
Jalloy-S-100
Jalloy-S-1 10
Lukcnr Steel / i - 1 100.000 115,000 18 0.15 0.80 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.60 0.85 V. 8
Republic Sfeel 1 Republic 65
I 70
Youngitown Sheet 65,000 95.000 20 0 12 0.60 0.30 1 .OO 1.80
a i ube
I
--Table courtesy PRODUCT ENGINEERING Magazine
2.1-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
TABLE ?-Properties and Composition of Wigh-Strength Low Alloy Steels
Yield Ult. Nomi nal Composition, %
Al l oy
Point, Strength, Elong.. c M, si cu Ma Cr Ni Other
031 0 4 ?6
Producer
Alon Woad Steel
Arrnco Steel Hi gh Strength No, I
2
Bethiehein Steel Mayor; R
Medi um Mangoneae
Manganese Vonadi um
Crucible Steel
of America
Col orado Fuel
& Iron
Joltcn No. i
2
R
Koirer Steel
Kni rol oy No. I
2
-
Structural Hi gh Strength
Cor-Ten Lukenr Steel
Nat i onal Steel
IGreat Loker
steel ond
Wei rt on Steel]
V ~ A ~ X Hi gh Mangonci e
Pittsburgh Steel
Republic Steel
'it, Ten No, i
US Steel
Youngstown
Sheet & lube
'"Icy
' ai oy A242
' oloy E HSX
'olay EHS
'oioy M-k
' oiay M ~ B
' 010~ 45W
' oloy 5 0 W
Propert i es of Materials / 2.1-3
FIG. 2 A tensile testing machine applies a
pulling force on the test piece. The moximum
load applied before failure of the piece,
divided by the original cross-section, equals
the material's ultimate tensile strength.
The various properties are hest defined by a
description of what happens when a specimen of the
material is subjected to load during laboratory tests.
2. TENSI LE PROPERTIES
In a tensile test, the machined and ground specimen
of the material is rnarked with a centcrpunch at two
points 2" apart, as shown in Figure 1. The specimen
is placed iu a tensile testing machine, and an axial load
is applied to it by pulling the jaws hol di ~g the ends of
the specimen in opposing directions at a slow and
constant ratc of speed, Figure 2.
As the pulling progresses, the specimen elongates
at a nnifol-m rate which is proportionate to the rate at
which the load or pulling force increases. The load
, , .
I I I I I I I I
0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0100 4125 0150 0175 Q200 4225
Strain, in./in.
FIG. 3 A stress-strain diagram for mild steel,
showing ultimate tensile strength and other
properties. Here, the most critical portion of
the curve is magnified.
divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen
within thr gage marks reprcsrnts the unit stress or
resistance of the rnatcrial to the pulling or tensile force.
This sfrcss (a) is expressed in pounds per square inch,
psi. The rlongation of the specimen represents the
strain ( E ) induced in the material and is expressed in
inches pcr inch of length, in./in. Stress and strain are
plotted in a diagram, shown in simplified form in
Figun: 3.
The proportional relationship of load to elongation,
or of stress to strain, continucs until a point is reached
where the elongation begins to increase at a faster rate.
This poiirt, beyond which the elongatior~ of the speci-
men no longer is proportional to the loading, is the
proporlionol elastic limit of the material. When t he
load is removcd, the specimen returns to its original
dimensions.
Hryond the clastic limit, further movmnent of the
test machine j aw in opposing directions canses a
permanent elongation or defor~nation of the specimen
~naterial. In the case of a l ow or mediurn-carbon steel,
a point is roaehcd he yo~~d which the metal stretches
briefly withont an incrcase in load. This is the. yield
point.
For lo\v- and n1cdinn-c3rhon steels. the nnit stress
at the yirld point is considered to be the material's
tensile yield strcnclh (a,).* For other metals, the yield
strength is the stress required to strain the specimen by
a specifled small amount l~eyond the clastic limit. For
ordinary co~nmereial purposes, the elastic limit is as-
sumed to coincide with the yield strength.
Beyond the material's elastic limit, continued pull-
ing causes the specimen to neck down across its
diameter or widtl~. This action is ;~ccompanied by a
-
"'The symbols conimonly used for yield strength, ultimate
strerigth, and a r i d strain do oat indicate the type of load.
further acceleration of the axial elongation, which is
now largely confined within the relatively short necked-
down section.
The pulling force eventually reaches a maximum
value and then falls off rapidly, with Iittle additional
elongation of the specimen before failure occurs. In
failing, the specimm breaks in two within the necked-
down portion. The maximum pulling load, expressed
us a stress in psi of tlie original cross-sectional area of
the specimen, is the material's ultimate tcnsile strength
(a").
Duct i l i t y and Efasti ci ty
The two halves of the specimen are then put together,
and the distance bctween the two punch marks is
measured (Fig. 1). The increase in length gives the
clongation of the specirncn in 2", and is usually ex-
pressed as a percentage. The cross-section at point of
failure is also measured to give the reduciion in area,
-
which is usually expressed as a perccntage. Both elon-
gation perccntage and reduction of area percentage
indicate the material's ductility.
In the design of most members, it is essential to
keep the stresses resulting from loading within the
elastic range. If the elastic limit (very close to the
material's yield strength) is exceeded, permanent defor-
mation takes place duc to plastic flow or slippage along
molecular slip planes. When this happens, the material
is strain-hardened and tbercafter has a higher effective
elastic limit and higher yield strength.
Under the same amount of stress, some materials
stretch less than others. The modulus of elasticity ( E)
of a material simplifies the comparison of its stiffness
Strain, in./in.
FIG. 4 Stress-strain curves for several materials
show their relative elasticity. Only that portion
of curve displaying a proportional relationship
between stress and strain is diagrammed.
with that of another material. This property is the ratio
of the stress to the strain within tile elastic range:
Stress a
-- - Modulils of elasticity E
Strain c
On a stress-strain diagram, the modulus of elas-
ticity is represented visually by the straight portion of
the curve where the stress is directly proportional
to the strain. The steeper the ctlrve, the higher the
modulus of elasticity and the stiffer the material
(Fix, 4 ) .
Any steel has a modillus of elasticity in tension of
approximately 301000,000 psi. AISC in their specifica-
tions still llse a rnore conservative value of 29,000,000
psi for the modulus of elasticity of steel. The modulus
of elasticity will vary for other metals. Steel, however,
has the highexst value of any commercially available
metal used in the stri~ctural field.
MPRESSl VE ST RENGT H
The general design practice is to assume that the
compressive streligth of a steel is equal to its teusile
strength. This practice is also adhered to in some
rigidity d~s i gn ~dculations, where the modulus of
elasticity of the m;lterial in tension is ilsrd even though
the loading is compressive.
The actual ultimate comprcssiuc strength of steels
may be sonrewhat greater than the ultimate tensile
strength. Tlic variation in coniprcssive valnes is at
least partially dependent on the condition of the steel:
the compressive strength of an annealed steel is closer
to its tensile strength than would be the case with a
cold-worked steel. (There is less of a relationship
between the cornpressive strength and the tensile
strength of cast iron and non-ferrous metals.)
A compressive test is conducted similar to that
ior tensile propcrtics, but a sllort specimen is subjected
to a compressive load. That is, force is applied on the
specimen from two directions in axial opposition. The
i~ltimate compressive strength is reachcd when the
specimen fails by crnshing.
A stress-strain diagram is developed during the
test, and values are obtained for compressioe yield
strcngth and other properties. IIowcver, instead of the
Young's modrrlus of elasticity conventionally used, the
tungential modulus of chsticity (E, ) is usually ob-
tained. This will be cliscussed in Section 3.1 on Com-
pression.
Compression of long colurnns is more complex,
since failure develops under the influcncc of a bend-
ing moment that increases as tlre deaection increases.
Geometry of the member has much to do with its
capacity to withstand cornpressive loads, and this will
Properties of Materials / 2.1-5
FIG. 5 Fatigue test results ore plotted on u-N
diogrom; stress vs, number of cycles before
failure.
be di se~~ssed more completely under Section 3.1.
With long columrrs, the effect of eccentric loading
is more severe in the cast. of cornpression than tension.
4. SHEAR STRENGTH
There is no r(u)gnizetl standard method of t<,sting
for shear streugth of a material. Forhlnately, pure
shrar loads are seldom encountered in structural mcrn-
bers but shear stnwes frequently develop as a by-
prodnct of principal stresses or the application of
transverse forcrs.
The ultimate shear strvngth is often obtained from
an actual she:tring of the metal, usually in a punch-and-
die setup using a ram moving slowly at a constant rate
of speed. The rnzrxim~~m load requirtd to punch through
the metal is obsrrvad, and ultimate shear strength is
calculated from this.
Where it is not practical to physically determine
it_ the ultimate shcnr strcngth ( r ) is generally assumed
to be 3/4 the material's ultimate tensile strength for
most strurh~ral steels.
5. FATIGUE STRENGT
When tho load on a rncrnber is constantly varying in
value, is repeated at relatively high frtquency, or
constitntes a co~nplete reversal of stresses with each
operating cycle, thc materiai's fatigue strength must
be substituted for the ultimate strength where called
for by the design formulas.
linder high load values, the variable or fatiguc
mode of loading n:(lnces the matcrial's effective ulti-
mate strength as thc n11rr11)t~r of cyclos incrtwes. At
a givcn high str'ss value, the material has a definite
service life, <,xprt:ssed 21s "Pi" cycles of operation.
.4 series of idcntird specimens are tcsted, each
rlndcr a specific load value cxprrssible as a unit stress.
Tlie wi t strcss is plottcd for each specimen against
the number of cycles before failnre. The result is a
u-N diagram (Fig. 5 ) .
The cnnlz~rnncr! limit (usually u,) is the niaximum
stress to which the material can bc subjected for an
indefinite service life. Although the standards vary
lor variot~s types of m<mbrrs and different industries,
it is a commo~i practice to acccpt the assumption that
carrying a certain load for sevcral million cycles of
stress reversals indicates that loud can be carried for
an indefinite time.
Theoretically the load on tlw test specimens should
be of the same natr~ro :is the load on the proposed
nicmber, i.e. tcirsile, torsional. etc. (Fig. 6) .
Since the geometry of the mcmber, the presence
of local areas of high s t r m concentration, and the
condition of the material have considerable influence
on the real fatigue strength. prototypes of the member
or its section would give thr most reliable information
as tast specimt:ns. Tiiis is not always practical how-
ever. Lacking ;illy test data or handbook values on
endurance limit, see Section 2.0 on Fatigue.
6. IMPACT PR
Impuct sircngfl~ is the ability of a metal to absorb the
energy of a load rapidly delivered onto the member.
A metal may haw good tznsile strength and good
ductility under static loading, and yet break if subjected
to a high-velocity blow.
The t u ~ most irnportant properties that indicate
the material's resistance to impact loading are obtained
from the stress-strain diagram (Fig. 7 ) . The first of
these is the modulus of resilience ( u ) which is a
measure of how well the material absorbs euergy pro-
viding it is not stresscd al)ove the elastic limit or yield
- -
LEVER
TEST SPECIMEN
TURNBWKLE
VARUBLE CCCEN
WILSON FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE
FIG. 6 Typical setup for fatigue testing undel
pulsating axiol stresses.
2.1-6 / Lood & Stress Analysis
FIG. 7 in the stress-strain dio-
grom for impact, the elongation
ot moment of ultimate stress i s
a factor in determining the
toughness of the material in
terms of ultimate energy re-
sistonce.
point. It indicates the material's resistance to deforma-
tion from impact loading. (See Section 2.8 on Impact.)
The modulus of rrsilienct: (11) is the triangular
area OAB under the stress-strain curve having its apex
at the elastic limit. For practiczrlity let the yield strength
( u ) be the altitude of the right triangle and the
resultant strain (ei) he the base. Thus,
where E = n~odulus of elasticity.
Since tht: absorption of energy is ;rctually a volu-
metric property, the 11 in psi = 11 in in.-lbs/cu. in.
When impact loading oxceeds the rlastic limit (or
yield strength) of the material, it calls for toughness
in the material rather than rrsilicnce. Toughliess, the
ability of the metal to resist fracture under impact
loading, is indicated by its ultimatc energy resistance
(u,). This is a measure of how well the material
absorbs energy withont fracture.
The ultimate mergy resistance ( I ) is the total
area OACD under the strrss-strain curve. For practi-
cality the following formula can be used:
where:
u7 = mntrrial's shear strength
cr, = material's ultimate strength
E . = strain of the material at point of
ultimate stress
Since the absorption of cnrrgy is actually a volu-
metric propeey, the 11, in psi = u,, in in.-lbs/cu. in.
Tests developed f or dct rrmi ni ng t he impact
strength of n1att:ri:lls are often misleading in their
rcsults. Nearly all testing is done with notched speci-
mcns, in which casr it is more accnrately the testing
lor noteh toughness.
The two standard tests are the Izod and Charpy.
The two types of specimens used in these tests and
the method ol applying the load are shown in Figure 8.
Both tests can bc made in a nnivcrsal impact testing
machine. The minimum amount of energy in a falling
pendulum required to fracture the specimen is con-
sidered to be a measure of the material's impact
strength. In actuality, test conditions are seldom dupli-
cated in the working member and application of these
test data is unrealistic.
FIG. 8 Typicol lzod (left) and
of opplying the test load. The
V-notch specimens shown hove
an included ongle of 45' ond o
----
bottom rodius of 0.010" in the
notch.
1. IMPORTANCE OF SECTION PROPERTY
The basic formulas nsed in the design of structural
members include as one factor the critical property of
the material and as another factor the corresponding
critical property of the mcmber's cross-section. The
property of the section dictates how efficiently the
property of the material will be utilizcd.
The property of section having the greatest im-
portance is the section's area ( A) . I-lowever, most
design problems are not so simple that the area is
used directly. Irlsteati therr is usually a bending aspect
to the problem and, therefore, the rigidity factor nor-
mally is the section's moment of inertia ( I ) and the
simple strength factor is the section moctulus ( S) .
Another property of section that is of major i n-
portance is the section's torsional resistance ( R) , a
modified valuc for standard sections.
2. AREA OF THE SECTION (A)
The area (A) of the member's cross-section is used
directly in computations for simple tension, compres-
sion, and shear. Area ( A) is expressed in square inches.
If the section is not uniform throughout the length
of the member, it is necessary to determine the section
in which the greatest nnit stresses will he incurred.
3. MOMENT OF INERTIA (1)
Whereas a moment is the tcndency toward rotation
about an axis, the moment of incrlia of the cross-section
of a structural member is a measure of the resistance to
rotation offered by the section's geometry and size.
Thus, the moment oP inertia is a useful property in
solving design problems where a bending moment is
involved.
The moment of inertia is needed in solving any
rigidity problem in which the member is a beam or
long column. It is a measure of the stiffness of a beam.
Moment of inertia is also rcqnired for figuring the value
of the polar moment of inertia ( J) , unless a formula is
available for finding torsional resistance ( R) .
The moment of inertia ( I ) is used in finding the
section modulus ( S) and thus has a role in solving
simple strength designs as well as rigidity designs. The
moment of inertia of a section is expressed in inches
raised to the fourth power (; xi ).
Finding the Neutral Axi s
In working with the scction's moment of inertia, the
ncutrul axis ( N. A. ) of thc section must he located. In
a member snhject to a bending load for example, the
neutral axis extends through the length of the member
parallel to the menrher's structural axis and perpen-
dicular to the line of applied force. The neutral axis
represents zero strain and therefore zero stress. Fibers
between the nentral axis and the surface to the inside
of the arc caused by dellection rmder load, are mider
compression. Fibers between the nmtral axis and the
surface to the outside of the arc caused by deflection
under load, are under tension.
For practical purposcs this neutral axis is assumed
to have a fixed relationship ( n ) to some reference axis,
usually along the top or bottom of the section. In
Figure 1, the refrrence axis is taken through the base
line of the section. The total section is next broken
into rectangular elements. The moment ( M) of each
element about the section's reference axis, is deter-
mined:
M = area of element multiplied by the distance
( y) of element's center of gravity from refer-
ence axis of section
The moments of the various elements are then
all added together. This summation of moments is
next divided by tlie total area ( A) of the section.
This gives the distance ( n) of the neutral axis from
the reference axis, which in this case is the base line
or extreme fiber.
Neut ral
Axi s
Base Line
FIGURE 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . ( 3 )
where b = width of rectangle, and
8"
d = depth of rectangle
F
L I d--A k1.T
"6.
FI GURE 2
The neutral axis of the compound section shown in
Figure 2 is located in the following manner:
1 n = - or s u n of all moments
. . . . . . . . . .
total area
(1)
Thus, the neutral axis is located 6.8" above the
reference axis or base line and i~ parallel to it.
Finding the Moment oi Inertia
There are various methods to select from to get the
value of moment of inertia ( I ) . Four good methods
are presented here.
Moment of Inertia for Typical Sections
(First Method)
The first method for finding the moment of inertia is
to use the simplified formulas given for typical sections.
These are shown in Table 1. This method for finding I
is the most appropriate for simple sections that cannot
he broken down into smaller elements. In using these
formulas, be sure to take the moment of inertia about
the correct line. Notice that the moment of inertia for
a rectangle about its neutral axis is -
Moment of lnertia by Elements (Second
In the second method, the whole section is broken into
rectangular elements. The neutral axis of the whole
section is first found. Each clement has a moment of
inertia about its own centroid or center of gravity
(C.G.) equal to that obtained by the formula shown
for rectangular sections. (See Table 1.)
In addition, there is a much greater moment of
inertia for each element because of the distance of its
center of gravity to the neutral axis of the whole
section. This moment of inertia is equal to the area
of the element multiplied by the distance of its C.G.
to the neutral axis squared.
Thus, the moment of inertia of the entire section
about its neutral axis equals the summation of the two
moments of inertia of the individual elements.
I Problem 2 1
Having already located the neutral axis of the section
in F i y e 2, the resulting moment of inertia of the
section (detailed further in Fig. 3) about its neutral
axis is found as follows:
but the moment of inertia for a rectangle about its
base line is - FI GURE 3
Moment of lnertio by Adding Apeas (Third Method)
With thc third method it is possihle to figwe moment
of intirtia of 1111ilt-np wctions without first d i n ~ t l y
making a calculation for thr, neutral axis.
This method is recommended for use with built-up
girders and c~l umns 11txa11se thc designer can stop
briefly as a plate is added to quickly find the new
rnornent of inertia. If this v:iluc is not high enough, he
simply continues to add more plate and again checks
this value without losing any of his previous calcula-
tions. Likewix if the value is too high, the designer
may deduct some of the plates and again check his
resnlt. This is done in the same manner as one using
an adding machine, whcrehy you can stop at any time
during adding and take a sub-total, and then proceed
along without disrupting the previous figures.
Using thc parallel axis theorem for shifting the
axis for a momcnt of inertia, the momelit of inertia
of the whole st:ction about thc reference line y-y is -
total moments about base - M
Since * =
total area - A
M
and of course n2 = -
AY
Substituting this back into equation ( 5) :
A M" Note: neutral axis ( n )
I, = I, - --
A2 1 has dropped out
Thus :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 6)
where:
I. = moinent of inertia of whole section about its
nelltraI axis, n-n
I, = sum of the moments of inertia of all elements
about a common reference axis, y-y
M -- sum of the moments of all elements about
the same reference axis, y-y
A = total area, or sum of the areas of all elements
of section
Although I, for my individual element is equal
to its area ( A ) multiplied by the distance squared
from its center of gravity to the reference axis (y2),
Properties of Sections / 2.2-3
TABLE I-Properties of Standard Sections
sccl i oo
Modulus
S
bd'
. . . .
6
. . . . . . .
bd'
-
3
bd'
-
24
bd2
-
12
lid3
-
32
n (D4--dd]
--
12 D
no'b
--
4
..... .
"I db -Zd)
40
each element has in addition a moment of inertia (I,)
about its own center of gravity. This must be added
in if it is large enough, although in most cases it may
be neglected:
The best way to illustrate this method is to work
a problem.
FIGURE 4
The base of this section will be used as a reference
axis, y-y. Every time a plate is added, its dimensions
are put down in table form, along with its distance ( y)
from the reference axis. No other information is needed.
It is suggested that the plate section size be listed as
width times depth ( b X d ) ; that is, its width first and
depth last.
Total I I I I
The above table has been filled out with all of the
given infonnntion from the plates. The rest of the
<:omputations are very quickly done on slide rule or
calculator and placed into the table. Notice how easy
and fast each plate is taken care of.
Starting with plate A, 10" is multiplied by 4" to
givc an x e a of 40 sq. in. This value is entered into
the table under A. Without resetting the slide rule,
tl~is figure for A is multiplied by (distance y) 2," to
givc 80 inches c u l ~ d . This value for the element's
moment is placed under M in the table. Without
resetting the slide rule, this figure for M is multiplied
by (distance y) 2" again to give 160 inches to the
fourth power. This value For the element's moment of
inertia about the common reference axis y-y is recorded
under (I,) in the table.
If the moment of inertia (I,) of the plate about
its own center of gravity appears to be significant,
this value is figured by multiplying the width of the
plate by the cube of its depth and dividing by 12.
This value for I, is then placed in the extreme right-
hand column, to be later added in with the sum of
I,. Thus,
Usually the value of I, is small enough that it
need not be considered. In our example, this value
of 53.3 could be considered, although it will not make
much difference in the final value. The greater the
depth of ' my element relative to the maximum width
of the section, the more the likelihood of its I, value
being significant.
The table will now be filled out for plates B and
C as well:
M 544
and n = - -- -
A - 80
= 6.8" ( up from bottom)
Plote
A recommended method of treating M2/A on the
slide rule, is to chi de M by A on the rule. Here we
have 544 divided by 80 which gives us 6.8. This
happens to be the distance of the neutral axis from
the base reference line. Then without resetting the
slide rule, multiply this by 544 again by just sliding
the indicator of the rule down to 544 and read the
answer as 3700. It is often necessary to know the
neutral axis, and it can be found without extra work.
@ / 10x4" 2- 1 40.0 80.0 160.0
-
@ i
8.' 1 16.0 128.0 1024.0 1 85.3
@ / 6"nW 14" -47-336.0 -- -
A = b ; d
in?
I Problem 4 1
Sire
To show a further advantage of this system, assume
that this resulting moment of inertia (2359 i a 4 ) is not
Dirtonce y
I - bdl
z -
12
in."
M = A . y
in.)
( = Ay' = My
i n?
large enough and the section must be made larger.
Increasing the platc size at the top from 6" X 4" to
8" x 4" is the same as adding a 2" X 4" area to the
already existing section. See Fignre 5. The previous
column totals are carried forward, and properties of
only the added area need to be entered. I, is then
solved, using the corrected totals.
FIGURE 5
New D b x ~ / 14" 1 8.0 / 112.0 1 1568.0 1 10.6
I I I I
= 7.45" (up from bottom)
Previous Section -- 80.0
-- .
Moment of lnerlio of
544.0
The fourih method is the use of steel tables found in
the A.I.S.C. handbook and other steel bandbooks. These
values are for any steel section which is rolled, and
should be used whenever standard steel sections are
used.
1 5888.0 I 170.6
Positioning the
The designer should give some thought to positioning
the reference axis (y-y) of a built-np section where
it will simplify his computations.
The closer thc reference axis (y-y) is to the final
neutral axis (N. A. ); the smallsr will be the values of
(I, and I,) and MYA. Hence, the more accnrate these
values will be if a slide rule is used.
If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned to lie
through the center of gravity (C.G.) of one of the
elements (t he web, fol- example), this eliminates any
snbsequent work on this particular clement since y -- 0
for this element.
If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned along the
base of the whole section, the distance of the neutral
axis ( n = M/A) from the refercnm axis (y-y) then
automatically becomes the distance ( cb) from the
neutral axis to the outer fiber at the bottom.
The following problem illustrates these points.
I Problem 5 1
FIGURE 6
It is very easy to incorporate a rollcd section into a
built-up member, for exampl ~ this proposed column to
resist wind moments. See Fignre 6. Find the moment
of inertia of the whole srction about its neutral axis
( I , ) and than find its section modulus ( S) .
Choosing reference axis (y-y) through the center
of gravity (C.C.) of thc web plate R makes y = 0,
and t11us eliminates somc work for 8 R .
Propcrtics of the standard 18" WF 96# section
;>re given by the steel handbook as -
A -- W.22 in.' I, - 206.8 in." t, = ,512''
The handbook value of I, = 206.8 in.' can he in-
serted dircctIy into the following table, for the I, of
this WF section C .
By adding areas aud their properties:
moment of inertia about neutral axis
-~ ~
A
B
A
distance of neutral aris from reference axis
-
- -.925" from axis y-y
Sire
16"xZ"
l " x 32"
18 WF 96#
.-
distance from N.A. to outer fiber
Q, = 18.00 - ,925
= 17.075"
Totcll
section modulus (see Topic 4 which follows)
Y
-17.0"
0
.
+16.25&
. --
= 1146 in."
92.22
4. SECTION MODULUS 6)
A
32.00
32.00
28.22
--
?he section modulus ( S) is found by dividing the
moment of inertia ( I ) by the distance ( c ) from the
neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the section:
- 85.26
Since this distance ( c ) can be measured in two
directions, there are actually two values for this prop-
erty, although only the rnalirr value is usually avail-
able in tables of rolled sections because it results in
the greater stress. If the section is symmetrical, these
two values are equal. Section modulus is a mcasure-
ment of the strength of the beam in bending. In
an unsymmetrical section, the outer face having the
greater value of ( c ) will have the lower value of
section modulus ( S) and of course the greater stress.
Since it has the greatcr stress, this is the value needed.
With some typical sections it is not necessary to
solve first for moment of inertia (I). The section
modulus can be computed directly from the simplified
formulas of Table 1.
In many cases, however, the moment of inertia
( I ) must he found before solving for section modulus
( S) . Any of the previously described methods may be
applicable for determining the moment of inertia.
f 19,652.8
M
-544.W
.
0
1-458.74
1 Problem 6 1
Using a welded "T" section as a problem in finding
the section modulus, its neutral axis is first located,
Figure 7.
Using the standard formula ( j r l ) for determining
the distance ( n ) of the neutral axis from any reference
axis, in this case the top horizontal face of the iiange:
b
+9248.0
0
+7456.62
FIGURE 7
IX
f 10.7
t 2730. 7
f206.8
M Sum of moments
n = - - - -
A - Total area of section
Next, the section's moment of inertia is deter-
mined, using the elements method (Figure 8) :
This value is slightly higher than the required
I = 700 in.' because depth of section was made
d = 15" instead of 14.9".
Finally, the section modulus ( S) is determined:
-. 75.8 in."
5. RADIUS OF GYRATION (r)
The radius of gyration ( r ) is the distance from the
neutral axis of a section to an imaginary point at
which the whole area of the section could he concen-
trated and still have the same moment of inertia. This
property is used primarily in solving column problems.
It is found by taking the square root of the moment
of inertia divided by the area of the section and is
expressed in inches.
The polar monrcnt of inertia ( J ) equals the sum of
any two moments of inertia about axes at right angles
to each other. The polar moment of inertia is taken
about an axis whiclr is perpendicular to the plane of
the other two axes.
Polar moment of i ne~t i a is used in determining
the polar section modulus (J/ c) which is a measure
j'h
FIGURE 8
of strength nnder torsional loading of round solid
bars and closed tubular shafts.
7. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE (R)
Torsiond resistance ( K ) has largely replaced the less
accurate polar moment of inertia in standard design
formula for angular twist of open sections. I t should
be employed where formulas have been developed for
the type of section. Thcsc are given in the later Section
2.10 on Torsion.
8. PROPERTIES OF THIN SECTIONS
Because of welding, increasingly greater use is being
found for structural shapes having thin cross-sections.
Thin sections may be custom roll-formed, rolled by
small specialty steel producers, brakc-formed, or fabri-
cated by welding. Propt:rties of these sections are
needed by the designer, but they are not ordinarily
listed among the standard rolled sections of a steel
handbook. FJropcrties of thin sections customarily are
found by the standard formulas for sections.
With a thin section, the inside dimension is almost
as large as the ontside dimension; and, in most c a m,
the property of the section varies as the cubes of these
two dimensions. This means dealing with the differ-
cnce between two very large numbers. In order to get
any accuracy, it would be necessary to calculate this
out by longhand or by using logarithms rather than use
the usual slide rulc.
To simplify the problem, the section may be
'.treated as a line", having no thickness. The prop-
erty of the "line", is t l ~en multiplitd by the thickness
of the section to giva the approximate value of the
section property within a very narrow tolerance. Table
2 gives simplified formnlas for nine properties of six
different cross-sections. In this table: d = mean depth,
b = mean widtli of the section, and t = thickness.
TABLE 2-Properties of Thi n Secthns
Where thickness (I) is small, 6 = mean width, and d = mean depth of section
bottom
e ( 4 b + d )
6
bottom '
left side * 1
R
rr
max.
or
min.
d'
-
2 ( b + d )
down from top
dZ
b + 2 d
down from top
= add t / 2 to c for S )
The error in calculating the moment of inertia by
An excellent example of the savings in design time
this Line Method varsus the conventional formula is
offcrcd by use of the Line Method exists as (column)
represented by the curve in Figure 9, using a square
Problem 4 in Section 3.1.
tu1,ular section as an example. As indicated, the error
Table 3 givrs the most important properties of
increases with the ratio of section thickness ( t ) to
additional thin sections of irregular but common con-
depth ( d) . figurations.
FIG. 9 Possible error in using
Line Method is minimal with low
ratio of section thickness to
depth.
Ratio: thickness j tj t o depth Id]
For additional formulas and reference tables, see
"Light Cage Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual" 1962,
American Iron & Stet4 Institute.
9. SHEAR AXlS AND SHEAR CENTER
Since the bending moment decreases as the distance
of the load from thc support increases, bending force
f, is slightly less than force f2, and this difference
(fy - f l ) is transferred inward toward the web by
the longitudinal shear force (f.). See Figure 10.
I
p a y 1
f, = f.' +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1,
(11)
This force also has an equal component i n the
transverse dircction. A transverse force applied to a
beam sets up transverse (and horizontd) shear forces
within the secticn. See Figure 11.
In the case of a symmetrical section, A, a force
( P) applied in line with the principal axis (y-y) does
not result in any twisting action on the mcmber. This
FIGURE 10
TABLE 3-Properties of Typical Irregular Thi n Sections
Where thickness f t ) is srnaN, b = mean width, and
d = mean depth of secfian
shear force flow
in the section
FIGURE 11
Properties of Sections / 2.2-1 1
FIGURE 12
is because the torsioud moment of the internal trans-
verse shear forces (4) is equal to zero.
On the othcr hand, in the case of a11 unsymmetri-
cal section, U, the internal tra~xverse shear forces
(4) form a twisting moment. Thercfore, the force
( P) must bo applicd eecccntrically at a proper dis-
tance ( e ) along the shcnr axis, so that it forms an
exteinal toi-sional monierit which is equal and opposite
to ti-.,' intrrtui torsional momimt of the transverse
shear forces. If this pr~rc;iution is not taken, tlrcre will
be a I ivisting action ;ippli:d to the member \vhich will
twist under load, in addition to bending. Sec Figure 12.
Any axis of symmetry will also be a shear axis.
'There will be two shear axes and thcir inter-
section forms the shear ccnter (Q).
A force, if applicd at the shear center, may be
at any angle in the plane of the cross-section and there
will be no twisting moment on the member, just
transverse shear and bending.
As stated pre\:iously, rniless forces which are ap-
plied transvetse to a int>rnbcr also pass through the
shear axis, the mcmher \?;ill be subjected to a twisting
moment as well as bending. .As a result, this beam
should be considered as follows:
FIGURE 13
1. The applicd force I' should be resolved into
a forcc P' of ttic same \ di re passing through the shear
ccntor ( Q) and parallel to the origin:~l applied force P.
P' is then resolved into the two components at light
angles to each other and p;rrallel to the principal axes
of thc section.
2. A twisting moinmt ( T) is produced by the
applied force ( P) about the shear center ( Q) .
The stress from tlw twisting moment ( T) is com-
puted separately and t hm silparimposed upon thc
stresses of the two rrct:ingular componrnts of force P'.
This means that the shear center must be located.
Any axis of symmetry will be onc of the shear axes.
For open sections lying on one common neutral
axis (y-y), the location of the other shear axis is -
Notice the similarity between this and the fol-
lowing:
Reference
oxi s y-y
Y
which is used to find the neutral axis of a built-up
section.
Just as the areas of individual parts are used to
find the neutral axis, now the moments of inertia of
individual areas are used to find the shear axis of a
composite section, Figure 13. The procedure is the
same; select a reference axis (y-y), determine I, for
each member section (about its own neutral axis x-x)
and the distance X this member section lies from
the rcfcrence axis (y-y). The resultant ( e) from the
formula will then bc the distance from the chosen
reference axis (y-y) to the parallel shear axis of the
built-up section.
Here:
Locating Other Shear Centers
4 +f + d 4
FIGURE 14
Normally Q might be assumed to be at the inter-
section of the centerlines of the web and the flange.
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FIGURE 15
Here, at point M:
or, since areas have a common (x-x) neutral axis:
Y
d e b -
FIGURE 16
Properties of Sections /
Figure I7 suggests an approach to locating shear
axes of some other typical sections.
Structural steel for Gateway
Towers, 26-story Pittsburgh
apartment building was erected
in tiers of three floors each by
two derricks. Shop and field
welding combined t o facilitate
erection; nearly 15 tons of elec-
trode were used.
FIGURE 17
2. 214 / Load and Stress Analysis
Eighty-foot hollow steel masts and suspension cables help support the
continuous roof framing system of the 404' x 1200' Tulsa Exposition
Center. Welds holding brockets (orrow) to which cables are anchored are
designed to withstand the high tensile forces involved in such a structure.
SECTION 2. 3
I . TENSILE STRESS
The simplest type of loadirrg on a member is tension.
A tensile load applied (axially) in line with the center
of gravity of the section will result in tensile stresses
distributed uniformly across the plane of the cross-
section lying at right angles to the line of loading. The
formula for the stress is -
where:
P = the tensile force applied to the member
A = area of cross-section at right angles to line
of force
crt = unit tensile stress
A tensile load that is not applied in line with the
center of gravity of the section, but with some eccen-
tricity, will introduce some bending stresses. These
must he combined with the original tensile stresses.
2. TENSlLE STRAIN
The nnit clongation or strain of the member under
tension is found by the following relationship:
where:
E = unit elongation (tensile strain)
cr, = unit tensile stress
E = modulus of elasticity (tension)
The total elongation or displacement is cqual to
this unit strain ( E ) multiplied by the length ( L) of
the member.
Elongation = t , L
FIGURE 1
A welded tensile coupon (test specimen) measures
Yz" x 1' P at the reduced section, and has two punch
marks 2" apart with which to later measure elongation.
Just after the test is started, a load of 10,000 lbs is
reached.
Find (1) the unit tensile stress on the reduced
section, and (2) the total elongation as measured
within the two marks.
= 13,333 psi
and elon. = E . I, = 0.000444 . 2"
= 0.00089'' in 2"
In any calcr~lation for strain or elongation it is
understood that the stresses are held below t he yield
point. Beyond the yield point, the relationship of stress
to strain is no longer proportional and the fomul a
does not apply.
ELDING OF BUILT-UP TENSION ME
FIGURE %- Wel di ng of
Built-up Tension Members
ENDING STRESS
Any force applied transversely to the structural axis of
a partially supported member sets up bending moments
( M) along the length of the member. These in turn
stress the cross-sections in bending.
As shown i n Figure 1, the bcnding stresses are zero
at the neutral axis, and are assumed to increase linearly
to a maximum at the outer fiber of the section. The
fibers stressed in tension elongate; the fibers stressed
in compression contract. This causes each soction so
stressed to rotate. The cumulative effcct of this move-
ment is an over-all deflection (or bending) of the
member.
FIGURE 1
The cantilever beam shown in Figure 1 is in
tension along the top and in compression along the
bottom. In contrast, the relationship of the applied
force and the points of support on the member shown
in Figure 2 is such that the curve of deflection is
inverted, and the member is in tension along the bottom
and in compression along the top.
FIGURE 2
Within the elastic range (i.e. below the propor-
tional elastic limit or the yield point), the bending
stress (u, ) at any point in the cross-section of a
beam is -
where:
A4 = bending nlornent at the section in question,
in.-lbs
I = moment of inertia of the section, in.*
c z: distarlce from neutral axis to the point at
which stress is drsiretl, in.
ub = bending stress, may he tension or compres-
sion, psi
TABLE 1-Beam Diagrams
Typed Beam
Maximum Maximum Mmxirnum
moment deflection shear
~A-.~ -..___. i
I
Fixedend 1 1
bath ends added end
Fixed end 1 Free end 1
center I center I
Fixed end 1 1
PL P L3
M= - - I '=-
3
Fined end 1 svided end
both endr I cenler I
2.4-2 / Loud & Stress Anulysis
The bending moment ( M) may be determined
from standard beam diagrams. Table 1 lists several
of these, along with the formulas for bending moment,
shear, and deflection. A more complete presentation is
included in the Hcfsrcnce Section on Beam Diagrams.
Normally there is no interest in knowing what the
bending stresses are somewhere inside a beam. Usually
the bending strrss at the outer fiber is needed because
it is of ~naximum value. In an unsymmetrical section,
the distance c must hr taken in the correct direction
across that portion of the section which is in tension
or that portion which is in compression, as desired.
Ordinarily only the maximum stress is needed and
this is the stress at the outer fiber under tension, which
rests at the greater distance c from the neutral axis.
A standard rolled '"I? section (ST-6" wide flange,
80.5 lbs) is used as a bcam, 100" long, supported on
each end and bearing a concentrated load of 10,000
Ibs at the middle. Find the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive bending stresses.
Figure 3 shows the cross-section of this beam,
together with its load diagram.
Referring to Tahlc I, the formula for the bending
moment of this type of bcam is found to be-
PL
M = -- and therefore
4
Since thc bottom portion of the beam is stressed
in tension, substituti~ig appropriate known values into
the formula:
=1 21,845 psi (tension)
-. -. -
n = 1.47"
1, = 62.6 in'
P = 10,000 lbs
FIGURE 3
5,000 ibs 5,000 lbs
The top portion of the benm being in compression,
= 5,870 psi (compression)
FIGURE 4
Find the maximum deflection of the previous beam
under the sainr loading. From the beam diagrams,
Table 1, the appropriate iormula is found to he -
L:' and therefore Amax =
48 E 1
( 10,000) (100)"
= f l r 6 - 2 q
=r. ,111''
-
. HORlZONTAL SHEAR STRESS
Moment
FIGURE 5
In addition to pure bending stresses, horizontal shear
stress is often present in beams, Figure 5. I t depends
Anolysis of Bending / 2.4-3
on vertical shear and only occurs if the bending
moment varies ;dong the beam. (Any beam, or portion
of the bcam's length, that has uniform bending moment
has no \wtical shear and thrtreforc no horizontal shcar).
Unlike: bending stress, thc horizontal shear stress
is zero at thc onter fibers of the beam and is maximum
at the neutral axis of the beam. It tends to cause one
part of the heam to slide past the olhex.
The horizontal shear stress at any point in the
cross-section of a beain, Figure 6, is -
where:
V == extem;il vrrtical shcar on bt:am, lhs
I = moinznt of incrtia of whole section, in.i
t = tbickncss of scctioil at plane wht m stress is
desi rd, in.
a - arca of section hi yxi d planc where stress is
desired, in."
y = distance of wntcr of gravity of area to neutral
axis of entire section, in.
I Problem 3 ]
FIGURE 7
Assume that the "T' beam in our previous example
(Problem 1) is fabricated by wclding. Under the same
load conditions,
( a ) Find thc horizontal shear stress in the plane
wherc the weh joins the flange.
( b ) Then find thc size of co~itinuo~is fillet welds
on both sides, joining the web to the flange.
From the beain diagrams, Table 1, the appropriate
formula for vrrtical shear ( V) is found to be-
r
V = - and thus
2
i
FIGURE 6
The following values also are known or deter-
mined to he -
( a ) Substituting the above values into the formula,
the horizontal shear strcss (7) is found:
V a y
,. =
I t
= 1196 psi
-
( b) Since the shear force is borne entirely by the
web of the " T, the horizontal shear force ( f ) depends
on the thickness of the web in the plane of interest:
f = T t 'and thus
= I196 X 0.905
= 1080 Ihs/in.
There are two Met welds, one on each side of
the "T" joining the flange to the web. Each will have
to support half oi the shear force or 540 ibs/in. and
its leg size would be:
This would be an extremely small continuous fillet
meld. Bascd upon the AWS, the minimum size fillet
weld for the thicker 1.47" plate would be 5/16".
If manual mtermittent fillet welds are to be used,
the percentage of the length of the joint to be welded
would he:
Amalysis of Bending / 2.4-5
fillct weld would satisfy this
requirement because it- resnlts in 25% of the length of
the joint being \vt4ded.
3. QUICK METHOD FOR FINDING REQUIRED
SECTION MODUL S (STRENGTH) OR
OMEN+ OF INERTIA (STIFFNESS)
To aid in designing members for lxnding loads, the
following two nomog;aphs have been consirncted. The
first nomograph drtermincs the reqnirtd strength of a
straight beam. Tlir st:cond nomograph deteimines the
required stiffness of thc beam.
In both nornographs sewral types of beams are
included for conccntratod loads as well as nniform
loack. The length of the hmm is sl~own both in inches
and in feat, tllc loi~d in pnnds . 111 the first no~nogaph
( i . 8) an allo\v:rl,li: I~ending streLss ( u ) is shown
rind the strmgth pi-operty of the hcem is read as see-
lion modulus ( S) . In the s wol ~d nomograph (Fig. 9)
an allowable imit deflection (A/I,) is shown. This is
the resulting dc4ecti11ii of the 11e:ini dividtd by the
lt~ngtli of the 11e;rm. The stiffness PI-operty of thc haam
is read as monicrit of irrri-tia ( I )
13y using thrse nomogr:~phs thc designer can
quiicidy find tliv required swtion moduhrs ( s t r c~~gt h)
or rno~nmt of irwrtia (stilhcssj of the be;rm. We can
thcrr refcr to a stecl handbook to choose a steel sectiori
that will meet these rcqrrirc~ments.
If he wisli<,s to fabricate the section from welded
steel, he may use any of the mcthods for building up
a steel section having tlrc rtquirrd vah~es of section
modulus or mointmt of incrtia discussed in Properties
of Sections.
More than a carlood of welding electrode was employed in the fabrication of this huge
bucket-wheel iron ore reclaiming machine at the Eagle Mountain Mine. Steel pipe was
used extensively in the 170' long all-welded truss, of triangular cross-section, that is the
main load-carrying member.
1. RIGIDITY DESIGN
Under a transvtrrse bcnding load, thc normally straight
neutral axis of a bearn becomes a curved line. The
deflection of interest is the linear displacement of
some point on the neutral axis along a path parallel
to the line of applied force. IJsually it is the maxi-
mum deflection that is of value on our com~mtations,
although occasionally the deflection at a specific point
is needed.
Rigidity design iormulas for use when bending
loads are cxpt,rienced, are bawd on the maximum
deflection being -
formulas arc, availahlc in the I'lcfercnce Section on
Hmm Diagrams incli~dcd at the e i ~d of this book.
Thrtre ;rrr s t w d m(&ods for finding the dcflec-
tion of a brain. Foin of these will be slrown:
1. Sncccssive intt.gration method
2. Virtnal n-ork method
3. Area momtint nrethod
4. Conjngatr beam method
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF BEAM DEFLECTION
A transvet-se load placed on a he:im causes bending
rnomcnts along the length of the beam. These bend-
ing moments set up bcnding stresses (o) across all
swtions of the beam. See Figwe l a, where at any
given section:
-~
Two of the cornponerlts in this formula have been
discussed pr~viously in dctail. The critical propcrty
of the material is its modulus of elasticity ( E) . In the
case of all strels, this has the vary high value of
30,000_000 psi. The related property of the section is
its mommt of inwtia ( I ) , which is &pendent on
dimensions of the beam cross-section.
If the values for E and I are held constant, and
the load ( P) is a specifird value, the length of the
beam span ( L) is one variable which will influence
the deflection. The constant ( k ) is a function of the
type of loading and also the miinner in which t h~: load
is supported, and thus is subject to the desibmer's will.
In practice "I" also is subject to the designer's will.
The several components of the basic forinnla arc
best handled by eonstructing a bending moment dia-
gram from the xt ual beam, and then applying the
appropriate sta~idard simplified bearn formula. These
It is usually asstimed that the 11rnding stress ( v)
is zero at the neutml :ixis and then increases lincarly
to R maxinmm at the ont('r fibers. ( h e snrface is nnder
compression, n-hilc the other sl~rfacc is under tension.
Within the elastic limit, assmning a stritight-line rela-
tionship bctwrcn strrss and strain: the distribution of
bending stress can be converted over into a distribution
of strain. Corrospontiingly, th'ere would be no strain ( E )
along the neutral axis and the strain would increase
linearly to a maximum at the outer fiber. See Figure l b
where at any gi\.en scction:
Considering a segment of the beam having only a
7
L
Neutroi 4
----- -
OXlS
Tension it o 4 Extension - y p
Bending Stress (b) Sirain ( c ) Elongation
FIGURE 1
very srnall increment in lengtk (Ax), Figure l c, the
clorigation a-itlrin this small incrernmt would be E (Ax).
Also, here it c m be seen that the small angular rota-
tion (AO) wo~rld be the clongi~tion at t he onter fiber
divided by the distance ( e ) to the outer fiber from
the nentral axis.
This can he cxpri~sstid as -
(AX) -- c ( AO)
E (Ax) M c (Ax)
, , A .= - - ~
c E I c
or:
x -
M, (4x1
( @A) ---- -~ -----
I? Ix
In other words, the infinitesimal angle cl~ange in
ally section of the bcarn is r qud to the area under
the moment diagram (M, Ax) divided by the ( E I,) of
the soction.
The angular rotation relative to stress and strain
is further illustrated by Figure 2,
Figure 2a represents a straight beam under zero
bending moment. Here any two given sections ( a and
b) \+-onid p:irallel each other and, in a stress-free
condition, ~vould then have a radius of curvature ( R, )
equal to infinity ( m) . These two sections ( a and b)
can be set clost. together to define the segrnent of very
small inwerncnt in length (Ax).
At Figr~rc 2h, the beam is subjected to a bending
rnonient and this small segrnent (AX) will compress
on one side and will elongate on the other side where
the onter fiber is in tension. This can bc related to
a small ai~gular movement within this increment. It
can be seen that sections a and b are no longer parallel
( a) Beam With No Lood
[no moment)
~ J I I ~ would converge at some point ( 0 ) in spa::ca. forni-
ing a radius of curvature ( H, )
In thc sketch to the right of Figure 2b, :lotted
lilies ( a and h ) rcpresent the initial incrniltmtnl seg-
ment (Ax) with zero mitment; while the solid lines
refiect the &ect of applied lnad: Ax (1 - e ) at the
surfncc under compressioir.
The total angular change ( t i ) between any two
poi~its ( a and h ) of thc hewn equals the sum of the
incremental changes, or:
It is also ohscrved from Figure 2b that -
and since -
VV ( Ax )
(AO) .
E I,
thc reciprocal of the radins of curvatnre ( I / R) at
imy ~ i w n point (s) of the heam is -
The noxt logical step would seem to be applica-
tion of the Snccessiw Integration Method to deter-
mine the heam d&ection.
(b) Beom Under Lood
(with moment)
FIGURE 2
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-3
kEJ
Sl i eoi ( V)
--
Moment (Mj
-
Slope (0)
Deflectmn , y
/'
3. SUCCESSIVE IPITEGRATlON METHOD
FIGURE 3
For any given hiram with any given load, if the load
(w, ) at any point ( x) can be expressed mathemat-
ically as a function of ( xj and if such load condition
is known for the entire beam, thcn:
load
and by successive intcpations -
shear
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 5 )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M, - ( v, ( dxj . ( 6)
Beom-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-31
FIGURE 59
are tr;ilisIiwrd into tlw colu~nn wel) within the con- Analysis of Required Web Thickness
nection rcgioo as shmr.
The unit shear force applied to thc web of the con-
It c:m be assurni,d that xilost of tbib vertical shear
nection is-
force ( V, \ of thr beain weh is tra~~sferred diucctlv into - ~
\ .,
the flange of the supportiilg cohim~i arid does not enter V F, - Vp Mi Vq
=. -=--- -
-
the web of tile corin(,ctioi~. d d c dud, d,
The Iiorizontal shear force (V, ) of the upper
columr~ will he translrrred through the web of the
The resulliilg unit shear stress in the web of the
connection illto tlie luw.er column if caused by wind;
comcction is-
or out across the beam to the adjacent column if ca~rsed
by gravity load. T = - - v 1 ME
wi - w ( d d.
FIGURE 60
Thcsr: rcsuiting vcrtical ;imI liorizontnl shear forces
cause a diagonal coin]?uessive force to act on the web
oi tlic co~inection; xnd, if the \vcb is too thin cornpared
to its width or depth, it may suEer some buckling
action. SFC Figlire 61.
Thc following a~lalysis, based on plastic design
concepts, rmay be used to chwk iliis condition.
Using plastic design concepts, the applied moment
(MI) will become tlic plastic moment. For this valuc,
thc allowable shear stress ( 7) will be based on the
yield streiigtli of the steel. The value for the shear
FIGURE 61
FIGURE 6
scgrnc~~t of a vol~irnc.
m -.= virtr~nl bt,nding nlfiment at my point cansed
Ijy thc 1-lb load
In thc tri;ixi;rl rapr~~srnt;rtion, Figure 6, diagr;rins
for Lot11 t h: rml moment ( h l ) divided hy El and
h'l real iiimtling mommt st thi, s;mrta point
the virtu:il moment j ~ n ) have ;I common hnse li~re (tire
I :: inii~ncmt oE im:rtia at this snmc point x axis j. T h M!EI curvt, for thc real hcndinr: moment
g<.omctric faccs.
The \-oIumi: of :my cl ~ment of t l ~i s solid equals the
area of tlw (.lrrncnt's h;wr% smftrce nrr~ltiplied by the
verticd distarrcc froin tiir center of gravity of the hasc
surface. to tile npprr flat surhcc. This vcrtical distance
is shown hy a dotted line.
Thus, in Figrirr 7, with the M/EI ;rnd in diagrams
lined up o w alxivc the other, it is necessary to litlow
FIGURE 7
ol l oad
moment jM) diaginm
, .
1 ,' . . I
Vi i i uol Iood
moment [mj di ogi oni
FIGURE 8
only tlrc height of the virtual nroinent diagram :tt the
sanre dist;orcc ( x ) ;is on tlrc r ed moment diagram.
The M;EI diagrerri is then dividcd into simple geo-
metric shapes (in this case, riglrt trinnglrs), and the
area of c:ich is found :md multiplied by the height of
the rn c1i;igram ; t k~ng a line throng11 the particular
Iv/EI arca's centcr of gravity.
t'ronr this the volume is obtained:
and sina::
Volume = I" . y
the deflection in inches is -
The n l u e of I can now be inserted iir this to give
the defl~ction ( y) in inches. Howcvcr, if the beam
Real b o d
moment (M) di ogi om
I + 30,000"$ t ,
FIGURE 9
has a v;iriable section, scveral values of I umr!d hiivt:
to i ~~ser t cd earlier in the cornputation-lor the src-
tion taken tltrough the center of gravity of each geo-
ini>tricnl arm of thc hIlI51 di:rgmm.
'To simplify this further, a mothod of cross-
multiplying has hcwr found to give the samc rc.sults.
Tho g v n t d nppro;rcI? is iilnstrated hy Figure 8, wl ~ere
somc scgmmt of the, rtxl irrornr~nt ( M) diagram be-
tween points s, and x, is at the top and a correspond-
irrg scgnlcnt of tlrr virtu:tl lnomerrt (rn) diagram is
below.
Tlro rcquirrd ~ol i i nrt ~ can be fonnd directly by
inriltiplying Mi by rn, and W:, i)y m:: and then by cross-
multiplying hl, by in, and Mr by mi using only ?-: of
the products of cross-muitiplicatioi~. This is more fully
related to the 1)asi~. iutegration eqoation hy the fol-
lowing:
whrre I, = the distance between points x, and xz.
Figure 9 s how :ipplic;itio~r nf this method to the
original Problcin 1.
Defiectron curve
,
.
From Figure 9:
5. AREA MOMENT METHOD
This a very nsefnl tool for engineers and is illustrated
in Fignrc 10 by a gmcral inoment diagram and the
L,~I-responding dcfl<,ctioli curvc. Il rrc points o and b
reprcwnt any two points defining a sinrple geometric
;ire.? of an actual inorncnt diagram.
Tlie two flinda~nontal rules for of this mcthod
are:
pi nt s ( a and 11) of n loaded beam equals the
;irtxa md r r the nionwnt curm?, divided by E I,
Ijetween these two points ( a and b ) .
tangent at point h oi the h~mm equals the moment
of the arca undcr the moment diagram taken
about point a, divided by E I.
FIGURE 13
Moment diogrom
Defiect!on curve s
@
FIGURE 11
@ Load
FIGURE 12
For symmetrically loaded_ simply si~pported beams
this is a conv~~tiirnt method with which to find the
maximum deflection of the beam, because in this case
the slope of t l h beam is zcro at the mid-span ( b) and
the distance from a to the tangent at b equals the
maximum deflection we are seeking. See Figure 11.
From Figure 11:
I-Io\\:c\;er. for an i~iisyrnnietrically loaded beam,
thr point of the he:un Iiaviiig zc?ro slope, or niasimum
ileBection, is rrnk~iown (Fig. 12). There are ways of
gctting :u-ound this.
The conditions of Problem 1 are here illustrated
hy- Figrtrf 1:3. Tlir mimimts oi the nrca tmder the
momcnt curve (from point zero to point 30) is takcn
;thout point zt-ro to givc thc \rcrtical distance betwerti
point zero 2nd the taligent to the cleflcetion clime at
point GO. This bt w~mes y,, This is not t he at:tual deflec-
tion, hecairse the slope of the clcB,ficction curve at point
30 is riot lcvtd This slope i . y t to he found.
First firid the vc,rtical distmcc bctweeii pdnt 90
and the tarigcnt to thc defliactioii cnrvc at point 30. To
find this distnriw [y,,,), take the momcnts. about point
90. of the area of the niomcnt cliagrarn from point 30
to point 90.
TABLE I-Ccmparative Conditions of Real and
Coniuaate Beams
2, Fixed ends / 2. Free ends because -
ai zero deflection o zero moment
Re d 8eqm
i Simple supported ends
0 ) zero deflection
b) r noxi m~m slopes
bl zero slope
I
h. zero shear hcnce no support
- .
3. Free ends 3. Fixed ends because -
u] o maximum drf1e.rtion 0 , 0 m3xirnum moment
b) a maximum rl noc b; a moximum shear hence o
Conlu90+e Beam
i Simply supported ends
b e i ~ u r e --
ai i e i o moment
bl maximum shear
continuous beom
/
bi graduol chongc i n shear
mum moment
, ..~ .. ~~~ ~
1
~ ~ ~~. -. ... ~ ~~ ~~ -
6 Either itu:icaliy dcfern?inate 6. Al woyi staticoily determinote
or stnticolly indeterminate
FIGURE 14
Tbc ; ~ngl <~ of this tangent line to the horizon (6',,)
is thcn formd hy dividing this vertical distancc (yao)
by the liorizontal distance between point 30 and
l ~oi nt 90.
Tliis angle (&,) is the same to the left of point 30,
Figure 14, and dofines the vcrtical deflection ((y,) at
point zero. This :inglc then, milltiplied by the hori-
zontal distancc from point zero to point 30, gives the
vertical displacement ( yi ).
Adding this to the initial displacement-
gives the total deflection
,it pomt /era of -
6. CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
I n using this method, the bcnding moment diagram of
tlic i-cal i ~cam is constnrctrd. A sntxtitutiond beam or
coiljugate heam is t hm srt up; the load on this is the
momrnt of the real heam divided by the E I of the
real heain; in other w)rils it is loadtd with the M/EI
of the rcal Iwam.
Five colditions milst be met:
1. The ltwgtli of the conjugate beam equals the
length of the rcal beam.
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-
TABLE 2-Typical Real Beams and Corresponding Conjug;ate Beams
Real Beom Conjugate Beam
FIGURE 15
Conjugate beom 30,000"+
t-
with i t s iood E i
2. Tlirrc arc two cqilntions of eqoilil,ri~~rn-
The snm of forces acting in any one direction
on tlic conjugate beam ~qnnI s zero.
?'he sum of momcmts ntmut an>- point of the
cmjngate hcam t:qoals zcro.
3. Tho load at any point of the conjugate bean1
equals the moment of the r ed bcam divided by the
Ii I of the rcal beam at the same point. The real bcam
could imve vwiahle I.
4. Thc vei-tied shmr at any point of thr conjugate
heam equals the slope of the r ed hrnm ;?t the same
point.
5. The bending moment at any point of the con-
jugate heam r:qn;rls the deflection of thc rcal beam at
the same point.
The conjugate beam n ~ ~ i s t be so sripportcd that
conditions .1 : ~nd 5 are sat i sfi d Thc abovr statements
of col~dition may bi r e \ wx d
By knowing some of the conditions of the real
beam, it will he possiblc to rwson the nature of the
support of the eonjugate beam. 'i'l~e cc~~np:wativc state-
ments of Table I will help in setting lip the conjugate
beam.
Some osamples of re:d h e a m and tbeir corre-
sponding cm~jr~gate beams are prcsentcd in Table 2.
\r<lticC! tliat lhc snpport of the conjngate beam can be
wry unlike the support of the real bcam.
The last I in 'I'alde 2 is similar to the
I'roblrm 1 brmn to n.liidl scvrml mrtliods of solving
dc,flcction ha1.e alrcncly h: w~ ;11:plied. Here the con-
jiigati tmun i s hingpd at the point of ssccond siipport
:IF r l ~c rwl brarn, and wilhout this 11ingc thc Conjugate
R(wn Metiiod would not hc workable.
, ,
Ihe same I'robltm 1 is illustrated in Figure 15,
\?:hc~r t hr rr.d hram momont is first di agrm~med. This
is then dividcd by E I of t l x real beam lor tile load
on the ~u~nj ugat c beam shown next.
To find the right 11in1d rcaction ( R ) take mo-
ments, about p i n t 30, on the conjngate beam between
~wints 30 ;ind 90. See Figuro 16.
This rrt.gaii\v sign mmns the re;iction is directed
~ p p ( l ~ i k to our original assnmption; hence it is directed
do\vn\vard.
Since the snrn of vertical forces equals zero, VaO
may be fonrrd:
This positive sign means original assumption was
correct and sl~oar is directed upward.
The left hand mon~tmt (Mo) of thc conjugate beam
may be fo11nr1 by taking moments of the isolated ele-
ment, betwcen points zcr-o and 30. See Figure 17.
FIGURE 17
The d(&ction of the real hmrn at point zero ( yo or
A,,,,) t:qnals the moment of thc conjngate beam at this
point ( M, ) ; lience:
This would be tlic solntion of this prn~hlt~m; how-
ever, to get the dcflcrtion at other points it wmdd be
necessary to continuc this work and find tlie monient
of the corbjugate bvam tlirouglwut its length.
Tire maximum d?flcdion of the real beam on the
right side occurs at the same point ;is zero sllear of
(he conjngatc beam. By ohsvrvation this \vonld occur
somewhcrr between points 60 and 90, and the distance
FIGURE 18
of this poiltt of iwasimoni deflection from point 90 is
set as x,. See Figure 18.
Since:
Z V = O
and:
Sl : = 24.5"
Thr monier~t of tlir conjugate beam at this point
15 -
and therefore the maxiinrrm deficction (y,,, or A,n,,) of
tlic roal beam, Figure 19 -
2,150,000 in.: -
ynmx =
~
E I
' Ibs inct~cs
7. DEFLECTION OF BEA
SECTION
The area moment method may be used vely nicdy to
fiid tire ddlcction of beams in wliicli no portion of the
beam has a constant moment of incrtia.
FIGURE 19
FI GURE 20
'The mgle between the tmgents at A and B =
0 == the area of the moment diagram between A and
A, dividcd by El .
Subdividing this beam into 10 or more segments
of equal length ( s ) :
FI GURE 21
Each segment of bending momcnt causes the
beam in this sr.gment to bend or rotate. The angle
of bend 0 = area of moment diagram of this segment
divided by El , o'r -
The resultant vertical monrement (h,) of the load,
at the left end of tlre beam, is -
i.:;1c11 segment of the beam bends under its indi-
vidoal bcnding momcnt and its angle change causes
the cnd of the hcam to drflect. S w l'igwe 72.
Tho total deflection at the end of the beam eqnals
the sum of the deliections at the end of the beam
caused hy the angle change of each segment of the
1,cam. Set, Figurta 23.
FI GURE 22
Re\tatn~g the preceding, the vert~cal deflection of
B IS -
or:
hf,, x,,
Note: - F - 1s found for eacb segment. These
1"
-
values are added togr:tl~cr, and this sum is miiltiplied
by s/E to give the total deflection.
(x)neosured f rom IeCt end
of beam:B) where lnad<P>
FI GURE 23
The following tapcved beam is 30' long. It has 1" X 10"
fiarrge plates and a 'h" thick \voh. It is 11" deep at the
ends and 33" deep at centerline. It supports two 58ki p
loads at the 'h points. Find the maximum deflection of
tlic Iicam. See l.'igiire 24.
Divide the length of thc btmn into 12 equal seg-
n~ents. ' 1%~ greater the nnmher of segments or divisions,
the more :iccrirnte will he the answer. Normally 10
divisions \vor~ld give a fairly acmratc result (Fig. 25)
eflecticn by Bending / 2.5-13
Moment diagram
FIGURE 25
Here 5 - 10'' 8. DESIGNING FOR MULTIPLE LOADS
h'ft> x,>
and A,,>+,, = Z
~
Normally, t hr calculation of the maximum deflection
E I"
of members suhjected to bending loads is very comples.
The moment of inertia of each scgment (I,) is
Tilt: poiirt of maximum deflection must first be found;
taken at tlle sectional centroid of the segment.
t hw, from this; the mnxi m~~m deflcctiorr is found.
~h~ formllla L.ompont~l,ts M,, x,, and 1,: are easier
I h I ~ ~ s s tlx,r.re arc no more than two loads of cqnal
to hwdl e in t&le form:
vahir. and rqnal distance from thc ends of the hczm
(Fig. 26), existing l ~eam tat~les in handbooks do not
cover this pn)hlem.
Total vertical d14iection -
FIGURE 26
For <~x,tniplc, most Ixarnc have mole than two loads
(Fig. 27) . 7'11~ maxi~nuni dcflcction risrrally docs not
nwnr at the rniddlr~ or ccntcrlinr of tlic bcarn (Fig. 28) .
T\\w things can 1w donc to siniplify this problcrn.
First, consider only thc deficction at the middle
or centerline of the mtmher, rather than the maximum
~lrfii:(~tio~i at sornc point which is dilficnlt to determine.
This is justified, sirlce the dcflcction at midpoint or
centerline is almost as great as tllc masimum deflection,
FIGURE 27
I I
Mc ; x i mm deflection Def l ect ~on o! middle
FIGURE 28
the grcatest dcviatiori coming within I. or 2% of this
value. For esnrnple, a simply supported h a m with a
single concentrated load at the one-quarter point has
a deflection at centerline r 98.5'1: of the maximum
deflection.
Secondly, a simple method of adding the rtxpirtd
moments of inertia required for each individual load
a n be used.
For a given size member, Figure 29, it is found
that each load, taken one at a time, will cause a certain
amount of deflection at the middle or centerline. The
total deflection at the cerrterlinc will equal the sum
of these individr~al deflwtioris anisod by each load.
This principle of adding dcflcctions may be used
in a reverse nralmcr to find the required section of
the meniher ((I, Fignre 30. For a given allowable
deflection ( A) at tht* centcrlinc, each individual load,
taken one at a time, will rcqnire the member to have
a certain section ( I I , I:, etc.).
The moment of inertia ( I ) of the beam section
required to support all of the vertical loads within this
allowable vertical ddlection ( A) will equal the sum
of the individual moments of inertia (I, , ) required for
the several loads.
4ny torqnc or cor~plc, appiicd horizontal t o the
beam will cause it to d&ct vcitically. This can be
lrandlcd in the same manner. The required moment
of inertia of the member (I,,) lor vnch torqric acting
sel xmt dy is found and ;tddcd into !hi! total ri.qr~ire-
ment for the pl-operty of the section ( I ) .
'The following two formulas may be wed to find
the individual properties of the section ( I , , ) :
for each force
The two formrilas have been simplified into the
fonnulas given below in which the expression K, now
produces n constant ( 4 or B) which is found in
Table 3.
FIGURE 29 FIGURE 30
FIGURE 31-Required Moment of Inertia to Resist Bending
TABLE 3-Values af Constants ( A and B) for Simplified Formulas (16 and 17)
for each force
for euch couple
The value of K,, is equal to the ratio a,/L, where
a,, is thc distance from the point at which the specific
force or couple is applied to the nearest point of sup-
port. I, is the span or length of beam between supports.
From the value of K for arry givcn load ( P) , the sub-
stitute constant A or B is obtained from Table 3.
\tihen a force is applied to the member, use the
constant A aud substitute into the first formula. When
a mi ~pl e is applied to the member, use the constant B
and substitute into the secoud formula.
A shorter method would be to make use of the
nomograph in Figure 31.
9. INFLUENCE LINE FOR REACTIONS
.\lax\veli's Theorem of Reciprocal Deflections may be
usrd to 6nd the reactious of a continuous beam or
frame, and is especially adaptable to model analysis.
Consider the continuous beam represented by the
diagram at Figure 32a. The problem here is to find
the reactions of the supports for various positions of
the load (P,).
According to hlaxwell's theorem, the ddect i an at
point 1 ( A?, ) due to the load ( Pb) at point x, Figure
32b. eqnids the dc4ection at point x ( A, ) due t o the
same amount of load ( PC) applied to point 1, Figure
32c. There is a similar relationship between an applied
load or moment and the resulting rotation of a real
beam.
Figures 32b and 32c constitute a simple reversal
FIGURE 32
eflection by Bending / 23-17
of points at which the pressure is applied. This concept
supplies a very useful tool for finding influence lines
lor reactions, deflections, moments, or shear. In this
case, the interest is in reactions.
To find the value of the reaction ( R, ) at the left-
hand support in Figure 32a, the support is rcnloved;
this causes the left end to deflect ( A b ) , as at Figure 32b.
111 order to restore the left end t o its initial position,
an upward reaction ( PC) must be applied, as in
Figme 32c.
In extending h4awwell's theorem of reciprocal de-
fiections to Figure 32b and Figure 32c, it is noticed:
if P, = P. then A,, = A,
However, in order to return the beam to the initial
condition of Fignre 32a, Ad must be reduced until it
i:quals A,. To do this t he upward reaction ( PC) must
be rednccd by the factor: Ah/ Ad And since A, = A,,
this reduction factor becomes Ae/ Ad.
A
.'. RI = Yb-2 or, usmg Fignre 32a -
Ad
This means that if the model bcam (as in Fig. 32c)
is displaced in the same direction and at the same point
as the reaction in question, the resulting ddledion
curve becomes the plot of the reaction as the load is
moved across the Icngtli of the beam.
This is called an "iniiuaice cnrve". Considering
the conditions of tlie rwl beam representlted by Figwe
32a, the reaction ( R, ) at point 1 due to a load (P,)
at point x will be proportional to the ratio of the two
ordinates at points x and 1 of the deflection ciirve.
In other words:
For continuous beams of constant cross-section,
a ~vi re model may be set up on a drawing board, with
the wire beam supported by thumb tacks spaced so
as to represent the supports on the real beam. See
Figure 33. A load diagram of the real beam is shown
at the bottom. Notice that the thumb racks used for
supports of the wire must be located vertically so as
to function in the opposite direction to reactions on
the real beam.
The point of the model beam at the reaction in
question ( R, ) is raised upwlu.d some convenient dis-
tanct,, for example 'h" or l", and the deflection curve
of the wire beam is traced in pencil. This is shown
immediately l ~ l o w the model.
The final value for tlie reaction ( RI ) is equal to
Thumb tacks
FIGURE 33
FIGURE 34
the sum of the actual applied forces mnltiplied by the
ratio of their ordinates of this curve to the original
displacement at RI.
The influence curve for the central reaction (Rn)
may also be fouud in the same manner. See Figure 34.
Deflection curve of the wire model is shown Erst and
then the load diagram of the real beam.
I Problem 3 1
A continuous beam has 5 concentrated loads and 4
supports. The problem is to find the reactions at the
supporzs.
The reactions are found by comparing the ordinates
of the deflection curve of a wire representing the beam.
See Fi yr e 35, where the critical dimensions appear on
the (upper) load diagram.
For the ends, reactions R, and R4, displace the
end of the wire a given amount as shown. The portion
of each applied load ( P) to be transferred to the
reaction RI is proportional to the ordinate of the
deflection curve under the load ( P) and the given dis-
placement at R,.
For the interior reactions Rz and R3, displace the
wire a given amount at Rn. From the ordinates of this
FIGURE 35
FIGURE 36
deflected wire, determine the ratios of each applied
load ( Y ) for the reaction at Rlr.
The cornputation of forces for the rcaetions R, and
R, is as follows:
R2 = + ,695 PI + 1.11 P, + 56 Pa - ,352 P4 -
,296 Po
=z .695(2000#) f 1.11(2000#) + .56(1000#)
- .352(15OO#) - .296(1500#)
= -C 3198 lbs
Rcactious R:, and R, can be found in like manner.
Application to Frames
This same method may be extended to the analysis
of frames. If the frmr has a ninstant r ~oment of
inertia, a stiff wire may lie bent into the shapc of the
frame. If the frame has a variable mornwt of inertia,
the model may be made of a sheet of plastic or card-
board proportioned to the actual moments of inertia.
FIGURE 37
Reactions, either horizontal (11) or vertical ( V)
at the supports, may he found by displacing the frame
at the support a given amount in the direction of the
desired reaction. Sce Figure 36. The outline of the
displaced model frame is traced in pencil, and this
becomes the curve showing the infinenee of any load
(at any point) upon this reartion.
The displacement of each point of the model frame
( A) u~herc a load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
sulting reaction may- be computed from the following:
horizontal reuction
vertical reaction
Moments at the ends of the frame (or at any point
in the frame) may he found by rotating the point in
question a given angle (+,) and again drawing the
resulting displaced model frame. See Figure 37.
The displacement of each point of the model f r anc
(A) where a load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
sulting moment may be comput ~d from the following:
moinent at left-hand support
l t is necessary to displace the model a considerable
distance in order that some accuracy may be obtained
in the readings. Therefore, some error may be intro-
duced because the final shape of the frame may alter
the real load conditions. This error can be reduced
greatly by me~suring the displacements between one
2.5-20 / Load & Stress Anal ysi s
(a) Measuring dirplacerrrrni of model
( b) Measuring displacement of model
frame from initial condition i o dis- frame from one displaced condition
ploced condition to an equal and opposite displaced
condition
FIGURE 38
condition and the opposite condition. See Fignre 38.
This method of equal to opposite displacement
may also be applied to monrents in which the frame
is rotated an equal ill both directions, and
To dettel-mine the ddlection of the overhung portion
mcasnrcments taken from one extrclne to the other.
of this trailer, Fignre 39, under the var i o~~s loads. As-
sume a cross-section moment of inertia ( I ) of 2 X
E FOR DEFLECTI ON
I u like manner, the use of a wire model based on
Maxwell's Theorem of Reciprocal Dcflec~ion is useful
in finding the dcflectitnis of a bean1 under various loads
or under a moving load.
If a 1-lb load is placed at a particular point on a
beam, the resrilting ddect i on curve becomes the plot
of the deflection ( A) at this point as the 1-lb load is
moved across ihc length of the beam. This is called
the influence line for deflection at this particular point.
TABLE 4-l ncremenral Defl ecti ons of R e d Beam
Paint Ordinate Deflecsion
At Free End ( I n. )
------ ~
Total 3300 lbr -2.360"
11.82 in.'
Using the standard beam formula for this type of
beam, the deflection of the free (right) end is detei-
mined for a 1-lb load placed at that point:
A wire model of this beam is held at the two sup-
ports (trailer hitch and the wheel assembly) with
tbnnrh tacks on a drawing board. The outer end is dis-
placed an amount equal to 3.25 on a snitable scale.
The dt4ection ct me is traced in pencil from this dis-
pl ac~d wire beam. The ordinates of this resulting de-
flection ciirvc become the actual deflections at the free
md as the I-lb load is moved across the length of the
beam.
Multiplying each of the loads on t!ie real beam by
the ordinate at that point gives the deflection at the
free end cansed by enc?~ load on the real beam. See
Table 4. Summing these incremental deflections gives
tluc total deflection:
A = 2.36" upward
DeSl ecti on by Bendi ng / 2.5-21
Drawing boord
+ 3.2:
FIGURE 39
Erection of the 32-story Commerce Towers
in Kansas City, Missouri war speeded with
the aid of modern semi-automatic orc weld-
ing. Field use of self-shielding cored elec-
trode quodrupled the rote of weld metal
deposition. The weldor shown here is mok-
ing o field splice of two sections of the
heovy building column.
2.5-22 / Load and Stress Anal ysi s
Complex antenna systems needed in age of space communications are sensitive
to bending deflections caused by high wind loads. Good engineering, including
the specification of high strength steels and rigid welded connections, is essential
to the satisfactory performance of such structures. In the parabolic antenna dish
shown, 6400 sq fi of expanded metal mesh are welded t o a space frame of
tubular welded trusses.
SECTI ON 2.6
1. NATURE OF SWEAR DEFLECTION
F ,
Shear stresses in :a buam section cause a displacement
or sliding action on a plane normal to the axis of the
beam, as shown in the right hand view of F i y e I.
This is unlike the dofledion resulting from bending in
a beam, which is shown in the left hand view of
Figure 1.
Normally deflection due to shear in the usual
.--.-.
-----.
- - - - -
- -
beam is ignored hecansc it r~presents a very small
percentage of the entire dt4ection. Figure 2 shows
L b J b--i+-i
that the deflection due to shear increases linearly as FIG. 1 Deflection in beam caused by bending moment,
the length of the beam increases, whereas the deflection left, and by shear, right.
Lengt h of cant i l ever beom (1)
FIG. 2 Deflection caused by shear increases linearly as length of beam, but that caused by bending increases as the third
power of beam length.
2. 61
2.6-2 / Load Stress Analysis
i
r, = 0.3 [Poisson's r at i o]
0 Y
I I I
0 0 10 0 20 0 30
Sheot stroin [i ,) in in
FIG. 3 Shear stress-stroin diagram.
due to bending irxreases vcry rapidly as a third power
of the length of the beam. For this reason the de8ec-
tion due to shear is not an import:int factor except
for extremely short spans where drAcctiorr due to
bending drops off to a vcry sm;iIl valnc.
The deflection due to shear is dependent entirely
on the shear distribution across the cross-section of
the member and also tihe value of the shear stress (7).
Figure 3 shows the shcar stress-strain diagram which
is similar to the usual stress-strain diagram, altE~ough
the shear yield strength is much lower than the tensile
yield strength of the same material. After the shear
+d strength is reached, the shear strain (t,) ir~creases
rapidly and the shear strength iricreases because of
strain hardening.
INl NG SHEAR DEFLECTION
The theory of deflection caused by shear stress is
rather simple. However, the actual determination of
th,e shear stresses and their distribution across the
heam section (which two factors cause the deflection)
i~ more difficrllt. In all cases, some kind of a form
factor (a) must be drtemlined, and this is simply a
matter of expr~,ssing the distribution of shear stress
throughout the web of the scction. Since there is
pmctically no shear stvcss in the flange area, this par-
ticular area has negligible effcct on the deflection due
to sheas ( A, ) .
The following formulas arc vdi d for several types
of hcams and loading:
Shear deflection of cantilever
beom wi th concentrated l oad
Sheor stres ( 7) o r aiea beyond neutral onti
y I: dirtorice between center of
c~rovi ty of this ai ea and neutral
o x i s of entrre croii~iection
A = total ore" of section
I =- moment of i nei ti o of secti on
t = tofol thickncis of web
FIG. 4 Form f a c t ~r for shear deflection in built-up beams.
Shear Def l ect i on i n Beams / 2.6.3
simply suppurled bcnn~; uni f orm load ( w)
simply nrpported bcmn, conr entrutecl load ( P)
FIG. 5 Beam sections for which Eq. 5 applies.
confilecw bcant; uniform loud (u:)
where:
P = total load. lbr
A = area. of entirc sectkn~
E, = modulus of elasticity in shear
(steel = 12, OW) OO psi)
w = distribntcd load, lbs/linc:ar in.
Welding was used extensively in the
fabrication and erection of this steel-
framed, 8-story, bolconized apartment
building which features cantilevered cross
beams in the upper stories. The building
wor designed basically as a rigid struc-
ture with moin beoms designed plastically
and light X-braces used to accommodate
wind moments. The welded steel design
cost 16@/sq ft less thon a reinforced
concrete building would hove.
The slope of the deflection curve ( 0) is equal at
each cross-seetioil to the shearing strain ( E , ) at the
centroid of this cross-section. cr is a factor with which
the avcrage shearing strcss ( ) must be multiplied
in order to obtain thc shearing stress ( T ) at the
centl.oic1 of the cross-sections.
On thi.s hasis, the form factor ( a) for an I heam
or hox beam would be:
where Figure 5 :ipplies. Don't compnto area ( A) in
this forruula br c a ~~s e it will canct.1 out when used
in the formul:is for shear ddlection.
2.6-4 / Load and Stress Analysis
Both shop and field welding were used
extensively in building the Anaheim Sta-
dium, home of the Lor Angeles Baseball
club-the Angels. The steelwork was de-
signed as an earthquake-resistant frame,
with high moment carrying capacity i n
both directions. Having very good tor-
sional resistance in addition to bending
strength in both directions, the tapered
box section frames can be located more
widely (45' centers along straight sides)
and eliminate the need for conventional
cross-bracing between bents.
OMENT METHOD FOR
CURVED CANTILEVER BEAM
In Sect. 2.5, Fignres 20 to 2.3, the arca moment method
was used to find the dtflrction of a straight cantilever
beam of variable section. This same mcthod may be
est cndt ~l to a cwvcd cnntilr,vi-r heam of variable
scdion.
As beforc, tho Bram is divided into 10 scgtnents
of oclual length ( s ) and the nmnent of inertia ( I , > )
is determined for mch sepinmt. See Fi:nre 1.
The moinent applied to :my segment of the hcam
is equal to the applied force ( P) mnltiplied by the
distance (X,) to the segment, inc;~surcd ~I - UI X and at
right angles to the line passing tlirongh and in the
same direction as the load ( 1' ) .
-merit causes This moincnt (M,,) appl i d to the sc,
it t o rotate ! O, , ) . and-
The resulting deflection (A, ) at the point of the
beam where the deflection is to be determined is
eqnd to the angle of mtation of this segment(@,,)
mnltiplicd by the distance (Y, ) to the segment,
measured from and at right angles to the line pass-
ing through and in the sane direction as the dt~sired
(leSlection(A)
F, I,, E I,.
The dist:n~crs X I Y ) and the moment of
inertia (1, ) arc dr.titrrnmin,rd for each of the 10 seg-
ments and placed in table form. In most cases, the
dt,flectior~ to hc dctmnined is in line with the applied
form so that thcsc. two di.stnnws :Ire equal and the
formula 11ew)mt:s-
The valucs of X,,"/l,, we ionnd and totaled. From
this the total defiection (A) is fuortd:
FIG. 1 To find deflection of
curved cantilever beam of
variable section, first divide
it into segments of equal
length.
........................
( 4)
A symmetrical beam forming a single continuous
arc, for example, is comparable to two equal canti-
lever beams connected end to end. Thus, the pre-
diction of dcflection in a curved beam can be ap-
proached in a manner similar to finding the deflection
in a straight cantilever beam.
The total vertical deflection ( A) is needed on a
curved beam that will carry a maximum load ( P)
of 100,000 lbs. See Figure 2. Given the segment length
( s ) = 10" and the various values of X, and I.,
complete the computation.
Segment
216 1.04
23 358 1.48
4 29 550 i 1.53
Deflection of Curved Beams
5
Solving for defleclion
PS x:
by using formula A =-E-C
7
fi rst colculote value of X;/I,,
1
32 800
by using sti ffness nomograph
grophicolly fi nd value of PX~/ EI ,
for use i n fzi mui o a = s z -
El
6 32 1 800 1.28
1.28
FIG. 2 For deflection of simple curved beam, use Eq. 4 or nomograph, Fig. 3.
7
8
9
1.53
1.48
1.04
29
23
15
21
550
358
216
10 i 5 119
FIGURE 3-Deflection of Curved Beam
(Stiffness Nomograph)
Total l oad (P) on
Curved Beam
I bs
Moment
1,000,000
arm (X,)
3- A
Feet Inches
Deflection of
curved beom
where
I
I
X,= 50 in. i
Moment of i nert i o
of section (I,)
i n.4
- I
Mul t ~pl y the sum of t hese
values by "st ' to get t ot al
defl ec!i nn of t he curved
' i .00000,
beam
By using the stiH~wss nomograph, Figure 3, the compu-
tation can he collsiderahly shortened with no significant
loss of accuracy The nomograph is based on the
modified formula:
P X,,'
1 E, , , 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 5 )
Ileadirig are obtained from the nomograph for
P X / I for each segment and cntered in the last
column of the tahle. These are then addcd and their
sum mdtiplied by s to give the total vertical deflection.
I Problem 2 I
Use the same heam examplc as in Problem 1,
the same valzrrs for l', s. X,, and I,,; and the s u m form
of table. Complrte the compiitation.
Engineers of the Whiskey Creek Bridge i n No. California specified that the 300' welded
steel girders across eoch span utilize three types of steel in order to meet stress require-
ments economically while maintaining uniform web depth and thickness and uniform flange
section. High strength quenched and tempered sieel was prescribed for points of high
bending moment, A-373 where moments were low, and A-242 elsewhere.
SECTI ON 2 . 8
1. NATURE OF IMPACT LOADING
Impact loading resnlts not only from :ictual impact
(or blow) of a moving body against the member, but
by any sudden application of the load (Fig. 1). It may
occur in any of the following methods:
1. A direct impact; risnally by another member or an
external body moving with considerable velocity,
for example:
( a ) A pile clrivcr hammer striking the top of a pile.
( b) The die striking the workpiecr in x drop forge
press or punch press.
( c ) A large rock dropped from a height onto a
tn1ck.
2. A d d e n npjilicution of force, witliont a blow being
involved.
( a ) The sudden crcation of a force on a inember
as during the explosive stroke in an engine,
the ignition or misfirr of a niissile motor \&en
moui~ted on a test stand.
( b ) The suddm~ moving of a force onto a member,
as wlicn a lit~uvy loadrd train or trilck moves
rapidly owr a bridge deck, or a heavy rock
rolls from the b11cl;et of a shovel onto a truck
without any appreciable drop in height.
3. The inertia of the mcml~cr rmisting high acceler-
ation or deceleration.
( a ) Rapidly ret:iprocating levers.
( b ) A machinr sohject to earthquake shocks or
explosives in wa1-fare.
( c ) The bniking of :I heavy trailer.
2. APPROACH TO DESIGN PROBLEM
In many cases it is ditficult to evaluate impact forces
'lwantitatively. The analysis is grnerally more quali-
tative and requires recognition of all of the factors
involved and tlwir inter-relationship.
The &.signer can follow one of two metilods:
I . IWimate the m~xi ~num force exerted on the re-
sisting mrmher hy ;ipplying an impact factor. Colisider
this fol.ce to bo a static loitd and use in standard design
formulas.
2. Estimate tlic cncrgy to hc : ~bs or h~d by the
resisting memhrr, and design it as an o~crgy-absorbing
member.
The propwtics of the nraterial and the dimer~sions
of the resisting memhcr that give it maximum resistance
to an energy load, we quite differcnt fi-om those that
give the member maximum resistance to a static load.
Heovy rock :oiled from shovel
onto frome without ony
initial drop in height:
h = O
F = 2 W
Fort moving, boded wogon
par i ng over supporting
beom:
F = between W and 2 W
Sudden ignition of missile;
or niisrile miifires and
then re-ignites
F = 2 T (thrust)
FIG. 1 Types of impact loading.
KiNETiC ENERGY (E,,) is the omount of work a body can do
by virtue of its motion.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (ED) is the omount of work o body can
do by virtue of its position.
if the supporti~ig member is flexible ond deflects, this addi-
'ional movement must be considered as port of the total
height the body con foil.
t is also the amount of work a body con do by virtue of its
;tote of strain or deflection.
F d
E = -
d - -
2
Spring
3. INERTIA FORCES
FIG. 2 Formulas for kinetic energy and potential energy.
Inertia is the propcrty of a member which causes it
to remain at rest or in in~iiorm motion miless acted
on by some external force. Inertia force is the resisting
force which inust be overcome in order to cause the
member to accrlcrste or decelerate, equal hut opposite
to--
where:
W, = weight ~f member. Ibs
a = acceleration or decelerntion of member,
in./sec2 or ft/scc2
g = ac~derat i on of gravity (386.4 in./sec2 or
32.2 ft/se6
4. IMPACT FORCES
A moving body st]-iking a member produces a force on
the member due to its deceleration to a lower velocity
or perhaps to zero velocity:
Wb = weight of body, lbs
a = dreelrrntion of body, i n . / s e ~ ~ or ft/sec2
g = acceleration of gravity (386.4 in./se+ or
32.2 ft/sec2)
I n tool rondtot1 At , ni i ont of irnpoct Maxi mum deflection
of member ond body
t
FIG. 3 Efiect of member's inertia.
esigning for impact Loads / 2.8-3
Fortunatrly the mernber will dtbflcct slightly and
allow a certain time for thc moving body (W,) to
come to rest, therehy reducing this impact force ( F) .
Since the time interval is usually ~nrknown, the
above formul;~ cannot hr wed directly to find the
force ( F) . I hvever , it is us~rally possible to solve
for this force by finding thc nlnount of kinetic energy
( EL) or potential encrgy (E,,) that must be absorbed
by th,e memlwr (Fig. 2) .
This applied cncrgy ( Ek ) or (E,,) rnay then be
set equal to tbc energy ( U) dxorhed by the member
within a given stress (a), see Table 2.
LE I-Basic Laws Used in Analvris of l nr ~act
Angular
d perpcndiculnr dis:onre
f r om cent er of rolotion
to line of force
5. POTENTIAL ENERGY OF
V ON MEMBE
i rodivi oi point for which
w in to be i ound
(See Figure 3)
Potential encrgy of falling bodv ( W, ) :
Potential energy received by deHt:cted member:
Then:
F
but K =r - being the spring constant of the beam
A
to a load and &s i p as tl~ongh it were a stcady load.
As the weiglrt of the snpporiing nriw&r ( V ) in-
creases, this inlp;~ct factor of ( 2 ) becomrs less.
In a similar nmuler, it is possible to exprrss the
resultant impact dcflsdion ill tc:rms of s k d y load
deflection.
or since V .-: \/ 2 g b
If the body ( W,,) is suddenly applied to the
member witliont any appreciable drop in height ( h =
0) , the lnaximi~m force dne to inqx~ct is twice that of
the applied load ( W, , ) :
6. EFFECT OF MEMBER'S INERTIA
If the weight ( ) of the stipporting mcmbcr is
relatively high, some of the applied encrgy will be
;~bsorlx.d became of the imrtin of the rnemher to
mov~m:snt. A good txa~nple is the cfkct of the mass of T ~ I I S , it is cominor~ practice to apply an impact factor
TABLE 2-Impact Formulos for Common Member-Load Conditions
Energy stored in member, may be set equol to kinetic energy
Bending
D
simp y suppor e
concentroted lood
uniform section
(Coefficient = ,1667)
concentroted lood
uniform section
concentroted load
uniform section (Coefficient = ,1667)
uniform section
(Coefficient = .500)
round shoft
E, = shear
modulus of elasticity
u =
simp y suppor e
uniform lood
uniform section
(Coefficient = ,26671
Bending
W
uniform lood
uniform section
uy1 I L
U = -
10 Ec2
10 E
uniform lood
uniform section (Coefficient = ,1000)
simply supported
concentrated load
variable section so o = constant volue
Torsion
I9 0,' R L
U = ------
2 E, t , , ,
where R = torsion01
resistance
open section
Designing for impact Loads / 2.
a concrete bridge deck in reducing the impact forces If the applied cnergy is expressed in terms of the
transferred into the member supporting it. height of fall of the body ( h) , the reduced velocity
If the applied energy is expressed in terms of the (V,,) may be expressed in terms of a reduced effective
velocity of the body ( V) , the reduced velocity (V,) height ( h , ) :
at instant of irnnact is-
where:
This represents the effective height the body would
have to fall in order to have the reduced velocity (V,)
at the instant of inpact with the member.
Wb -- weight of the body
7. ENERGY-ABSORBING CAPACITY
W, 2 equivalent weight of the member
OF MEMBER
If the member were compact and anc cent rated
at a point, the entire weight of the member would
be effective in rtducing the velocity of thc body. How-
ever: the supporting mernber is spread ont in the form
of a beam or frame and therefore only a portion of its
weight is effective in moving along with the body and
slowing it down. Tinmhenko shows the portion of the
weight of the member to be used is:
Simply supported beam with concentrated load at
midpoint
* Cantilever beam with ~mmzntrated load at end
W, .;- ,236 W,,,
The reduccd ki ~~et i c energy (E, ) applied to the
n~embm cansing stress and deflection wonld be
(WI, + W,) Ve2 - Wb V2
Ek = -- - -
2 g
Uni t
Stress
The allou~able energy load, or load that can be ab-
sorbed elastically (without plastic deformation) by the
mernber in bending, is basically-
where (k) is a constant for a specific type of beam
with a specific t y p of loading. Table 2 shows the
application of this formula to various member and
load conditions, with numerical values substituted for
the ( k ) factor.
Obse~vation shows that the critical property of
I
, , 2
the section is --,, while that of the material is -.~L
c- 2 I;'
8. lMPACT PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
The two most important properties of a material that
indicate its ability to absorb energy arc obtained from
the stress-strain diagram (Fig. 4).
0 5
..
D
Unit strai n [ r /
FIG. 4 Stress-strain diagram: basis far material's impact properties.
The modulus of resilience ( u ) of a material is its
capacity to absorb energy within its elastic range, i.e.
without permanent deformation. This is represented
on the tensile stress-strain diagram by the area under
the crIn7e defined hy the triangle 0 A B, having its
apex A at the elastic limit.
Since the absorption of energy is actually a volu-
metric property, the u in (in.-lhs/in.") = u in psi.
When impart loadmg exceeds the elastic limit (or
yel d stren@h) of the material, it calls for toughness
in the material rather than resilience.
The ultimate energy resistance ( nu) of a material
indicates its toughness or ability to resist fracture nnder
impact loading. This is a measure of how well the
material absorbs rnergy without fracture. A material's
ultimate energy resistance is represented on the stress-
strain diagram by the total area OACD under the curve.
Here point 4 is at the material's yield strength (cry)
and point C ;it its ultimate strength ( r , , ) . For ductile
steel, the uliimate energy resistance is approxiniately-
where:
6. =. dtiinate miit elongation, in. /in
Since the absorption of energy is actually a volu-
metric property, u,, in (i n. -l b~/ i n. ~) = u,, in psi.
Impact properties of common &sign materials are
charted in Tablc 3.
9. IMPACT PROPERTIES OF SECTION
The section property which is needed to withstand
impact loads or to absorb energy in bending is I/?.
This is very important because as moment of in-
ertia ( I ) increases with deeper sections, the distance
from the neutral axis to the outer fiber ( c) increases
~ L S its square. So, increasing only the depth of a section
will increase the section's moment of inertia but with
little or no increase in impact property.
For example, suppose there is a choice between
these two beams:
Section Properry
Steady load rti ength
I
533.4 2096.4
S : =. --
= 88. 2 in? ----- - - 175 i n?
1 1.96
I I
Impact load strength
I
533.4
--
2096.4
14.6 i n 2
111.96!' -
Beom A
12" WF 65# Beam
I
The new be:m ( B) with twice the depth, has
about 4 times the bending stiffness ( I ) , and 2 times
the steady load strength ( I / c) , but for all practical
puryoses there is no increase in the impact load
strength (I/ cY). In this example, there would be no
advantage in changing from ( A) to ( B) for impact.
Beam B
24" WF76# Beam
10. IMPROVING ENERGY ABSORPTION
CAPACITY
533.4 i n?
The basic rule in designing members for maximum
energy absorption is to have the maximum volume of
the member subjected to the maximum allowable stress.
If possible, this maximum stress should be uniform on
every cubic inch of the member.
I . For any given cross-section, have the maximum
amount of the area stressed to the maximum allow-
able. In the case of beams, place the greatest area of
the section in the higher stressed portion at the outer
fibers.
2. Choose sections so the member will be stressed
to the maximum allowable stress along the entire length
of the member.
For a member snbjected to iinpact in axial tension,
specifying a constant cross-section from end to end
will uniformly stress the entire cross-section to the
maximum value along the full length.
2096.4 in?
Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-7
TABLE L l mp a c t Properties of Common Design Materials
A beam can be designed fol- constant bending
stress along its entire longth; by making it of variable
depth. Although the cross-section at any point is not
uniformly stressed to the maximum value, the outer
fiber is stressed to the maximum value for the entire
length of the member.
Material
1-1 Steel
FIGURE 5
Alloy Steel
Gray Coif l i on
Malleable Cost l i on
In Table 3 the member in tension (No. 4 ) has
t h e e times the energy-absorption capacity of the
simple beam with a concentrated load (No. 1). This
is because the tensile member (No. 4 ) has its entire
cross-section nnifor~nly stressed to maximum for its
full length. In contrast, the maxi nn~~n bending stress
in beam No. 1 is at thc outer fibers only; and this
bending stress decreases away from the central portion
of the beam, being zero at the two ends.
Notice that decreasing the depth of the beam at
its supports, so the n~aximnrn bending stress is uniform
along the entire lcngth of the hram, doubles the energy
absorbing ciipacity of the beam. See (1) and (9).
For a steady load, doubling the length of a beam
will double the resnlting bending stress. However, for
an impact load, doitbling the length of the beam will
reduce the resulting impact stress to 70.7% of the
original.
Two identical rectangular beams can theoretically
absorb the same amonnt of energy and are just as
strong under impact loading. The section property
which detemiines this is I/?, and this is constant for
a given rectanqular area repaniless of its position.
* Bored on integmtor-rneoruicd area under rti err-rtroi n curve.
200,000
.
6.000
-
20.000
230,000 / 30x10' 0.12
0.05
0.10
.
20,000 15 X 10'
667.0
...
1.2
..
17.4
22,000
70
3,800 50,000 23 X 10'
2. / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 7
The two tensile bars shown in Figure 5 have equal
strength under steady loads; yet, the bar on the right,
having uniform cross-section, is able to absorb much
more energy and can withstand a greater impact Isad.
Summary
1. The property of the section which will reduce
the impact stress in tension is increased volume ( AL) .
2. The property of the section which will rcduce
the impact stress in a simple beam is:
3. In a simple beam, a decrease in length ( L)
will decrease the static stress, but will increase the
stress due to impact.
4. In a simple tensile bar of a given uniform
cross-section, increasing the length (1) will not alter
tho static stress yet it will decrease the stress due to
impact.
11. NOTCH EFFECT ON ENERGY ABSOR
CAPAC lTY
In Figure 8, diagrams e and f represent the energy
absorbed along the length of a member. The total
energy absorbed corresponds to the area under this
diagram.
Assume the notch produces a stress concentration
of twice the average stress ( d) . Then for the same
maximnm stress, the average stress will be reduced to
% and the energy absorbed ( f ) will be of the energy
absorbed if no notch were present ( e) . For a stress
concentration of three times the average stress, the
enorgy absorbed will be t k
Notched bar impact test results are of limited
value to the design engineer, and can be misleading:
( a ) The test is highly artificial in respect to severe
notch condition and manner of load condition.
( b) The results can be altered over a wide range
by changing size, shape of notch, striking velocity, and
temperature.
( c ) The test does not simulate a load condition
likely to be found in service.
( d ) The test docs not give quantitative values of
the resistance of the material to energy loads.
-I- 101 Tensi l e member. unifbrm section
Tensi l e member with notch k!
/Stress at notch
7 1 ,,Sfrerr in member
FIGURE 8
Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-9
12. GUIDES TO DESIGNING
FOR IMPACT LOADS
1. Design the mr.m5er as an energy-absorbing system,
that is have the maximum volume of material
stressed to the highest working stress; this increases
the energy absorbed.
2. For any given cross-section of the member, have the
maximum area subjected to the maximum allow-
able stress; also stress the entire length to this
value.
3. The property of thc section which will reduce the
impact stress in tcnsion is increased volume ( A L).
4. The property of the section which will reduce the
impact stress in bending is increased I/+.
5. Increasing the length ( L) of a beam will increase
the static stress, but will decrease stress due to
impact.
6. Increasing the length ( L) of a tensile member of
uniform cross-section will not change the static
stress, but will decrease stress due to impact.
7. Use t he basic formula, or those shown in Table
3, as a guide to select the required property of
section and property of material.
8. Select material that has a high modulus of resili-
us2
ence n - - . Materials having lower modulus
9. F
- -
of elasticity ( E) generally have lower values of
yield strength (us), and this latter value is more
important becanse it is squared. Therefore steels
with higher yield strengths have higher values of
modulus of resilience and are better for impact
loads.
9. The material should be ductile enough to plas-
tically relieve the stress in any area of high stress
corrccntration; and have good notch toughness.
10. Thc: material shonld have high fatigue strength
if the impact load is vepeatedly applied.
11. The material should have good notch toughness,
and for low temperatnre service, a low transition
temperatnre.
12. Reduce stress concentrations to a minimum and
avoid a bn~pt changes in section.
13. If possible, place material so that the direction of
hot rolling (of plate or bar in steel mill) is in
line with impart force.
14. For inertia forces, decrease the weight of the
member, while maintaining proper rigidity of the
member for its particular use. This means light-
weight, well-stiffened members having sufficient
moment of inertia ( I ) should be used.
15. One aid against possible inertia forces caused by
the rapid movcment of thc member due to ex-
plosive energy, earthquakes, etc., is the use of
FIGURE 9
flexible supports, to decrease the ac~eleration
and/or deceleration of the member.
Problem 1 Accelerating a load
I
k Beam
FIGURE 10
Find the load placed on the supporting beam for a
hoisting unit in the shaft of a mine if the 5000-lb load
( W2) is accelerated upward to a velocity ( V) of 1800
feet per minute in 5 seconds ( t ) . The dead weight of
the hoisting unit is 1000 lbs ( W, ) .
2.8-10 / Load & Stress An~l yri s
acceleration
a =
V2 - V1
on trailer have failed, and stops from a speed of 60
miles pcr hour within 15 seconds.
= 6 ft/sec' deceleration
force of accelcratio?~
= 931 lbs
force of deceleration
total load on beam
F = - a W
WI i- wa i- Fa = (1000) + ( 5000) i- (931)
g
= 6931 lbs
- (40'000) (5.86)
- (32.2)
r 7275 lbs
The king pin on the fifth wheel, connecthe the
trailer to the tractor must be designed to transfer this
Asmme the truck brak~s the trailer, because brakes force.
V = 60 MPH
6-------
W : 40.000 l bi
FIGURE 1 1
F = 7275 FIGURE 12
Designing for Fatigue Loads
1. ENDURANCE LI MI T
When the load on a member is constantly varying
in value, or is repeated at relatively high frequency,
or constitutes a complete reversal of stresses with each
operating cycle, the material's endurance limit must
be suhstitnted for the ultirnate strength where called
for by design formulas.
Under high load valnes, the variable or fatigue
mode of loading reduces the material's effective ulti-
mate strength as the nnmbcr of cycles increases. At
a given high stress value, the material has a definite
service or fatigue life, expressed as N cycles of op-
erations. Conversely, at a given nnmber of service
cycles the material has a definite allowable fatigue
strength.
The end:~raiicc limit is the maximum stress to
which the material can be subjected for a given ser-
vice life.
2. NATURE OF FATIGUE LOADING
Fatigue failure is a progressive failure over a period
of time which is started hy a plastic movement with-
in a localized region. Although the average unit stresses
across the entire cross-section may be below the yield
point, a non-uniform distribution of these stresses may
cause them to exceed the yield point within a small
area and catlse plastic movement. This eventually pro-
duces a minnte crack. The localized plastic movement
f ur t h~r aggravates tlie non-iuiiform stress ditribution,
and frrrther plastic movcment causes the crack to pro-
ge. s . The stress is important only in that it causes
the plastic nrov~ment.
Any fatigne test usnally shows considerable scatter
in the resnlts obtained. This resnlts from the wide
range of time required hcfore the initial crack develops
in the specimen. Once this has occurred, the subse-
quent time t o nltimate failnre is fairly well confined
and proceeds in a rather uniform manner.
The designrr when first encountering a fatigue
loading probleni will often use the material's endurance
limit or fatignc strength value given in his engineer-
ing handbook, ~vithnut f dl y considcring what this
value represents and how it was obtained. This pro-
cadure wnl d lead to scrioiis trouble.
There are many types of fatigue tests, types of
loading, and types of specimens. Theoretically the
fatigue value used by the designer should be deter-
mined in a test that exactly duplicates the actual ser-
vice conditions. The sample used should preferably
be identical to the member, the tcsting machine should
reproduce the actnal scrvice load, and tlie fatigue cy-
cle and frequency should be the same as wonld be
enconntcri~d in actlid scrvice. For example, if thc prob-
lem is a butt xvdd in tension, the allowable fatigue
strength used in thc design must come from data ob-
tained from loading a hntt weld in axial tension on
a pulsating type of fatigne testing machine, with the
same range of stress.
3. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD
Fignre 1 illustrates a typical fatigue load pattern, the
cnrve represeuting tlie applied stress at any given mo-
ment of time.
There are two ways to represent this fatigue load:
1. As a niwn or average stress (v,,,) with a super-
imposed variable stress (r,, ).
2. As a stress varying from maximum value (IT,,,,,)
to a minimum (IT,),,,,!. Here, the cycle can be repre-
sented by the ratio--
FIGURE 1
I
Time ----+
One approach to this problem is to let the variable
stress (u,.) be the ordinate and the steady or mean
stress (urn) be the abscissa. When the mean stress (urn)
is zero, see Figure 2, the varihle stress (u,) becomes
the value for a complete reversal of stress ( ur ) . This
value would have to be determined by ,experimental
testing, and becomes point b in the diagram. When
there is no variation in stress, i.e. a steady application
of stress, u, becomes zero, and the maximum resulting
mean stress (u,,) is equal to the ultimate stress for
a steady load (u, , ); this becomes point a.
FIGURE 2
where:
"2 = fatigue strength for a complete reversal of
stress
u v = variable stress which is superimposed upon
steady stress
USI = ultimate strength under stead load
(Some set u, equal to the yiel g strength, u7)
urn = mean stress (average stress)
A line connecting points b and a will indicate the
relationship between the variable stress ( u, ) and the
mean stress (u,,) for any type of fatigue cycle, for a
given f a t i ye life ( N) . This straight line d l yield
FIGURE 3
conservative values; almost all of the test data will lie
just outside of this line.
From similar triangles it is found that-
A Goodman diagram, Figure 3, is constructed from
Figure 2 by moving point a vertically to a height qua 1
to u,,; in other words, line a-c now lies at a 45" angle.
It can be shown by similar triangles that the same
relationship holds:
esigning for Fatigue Loads / 2.9-3
The Goodman diagram of Figure 3 may bc modi-
fied so that the ordinate becomes the maximum stress
(urn,,) and the abscissa becomcs the minimum stress
(urnin); see Figure 4. It can be proved that all three
diagrams yi'eld the same results. The American Weld-
ing Society (Bridge Specification) uses this last type
of diagram to illustrate their fatigue data test results.
If the maximum stress (urn,,) lies on line a-b, this
value is found to be-
ur ni n
where K = -
ur nax
The next diagram, Figure 5, is constructed with
the values for complete reversal ( a, ) and the ulti-
mate strength ( u, ) for butt welds in tension. The
fatigue data from test results are also plotted. Notice
the values lie on or slightly above these straight lines
for service life ( N ) of 100,000 cycles and that of 2
million cycles.
These "dependable values" have been reduced to
some extent below the minimum values obtained in the
test. A factor of safety is applied to obtain allowable
values; these are shown hy dotted lines. This is ex-
pressed as a formula along with a value which should
not be exceeded. In this case, the maximum allowable
is 18,000 psi. This formula represents thc slanting line,
but a maximum value must be indicated so that it
ir not carried too far.
Figure 6 illustrates several types of fatigue cycles,
with conesponding K values to be used in the fatigue
strength formulas.
ABLE MAXIMUM STRESS
Fatigue strength formulas, for determining the allow-
able maximum stress for a given service life of N
cycles, are presented in Table 1 for A7 mild steel, A373
and A36 steels, in Table 2 for A441 steel, and in Table
3 for T-1, quenched and teropered high yield strength
steel.
Reqnircd fatigue life or number of cycles will vary
but usually starts at several hundred thousand cycles.
It is assumed that by the time the value of several
million cycles is reached, the fatigue strength has
@ 100,000 cycler
2,000,000 cycles
Allowable values- - - - -
+ 1 0 + 2 0 + 3 0 + 4 0 + 5 0 + 6 0 +
Minimum stress, ksi
FIGURE 5
leveled off and further stress cycles wor~ld not produce
failure. For any particular specimen and stress cycle
there is a relationship between the fatigue strength
(o-) and fatigue life ( N) in number of cycles before
failure. The followmg empirical formula may be used
to convert fatigue ytrengths from one fatigue life to
another:
where:
= fatigue strength for fatigue life N.
ub --. fatigue strength for fatigue life Nb
N, = fatigue life for fatigue strength o-,
Nb = fatigue life for fatigue strength ub
Bane Metol
in Tension
Connected
By Fillet
Weldr
But not to exceed
Bare Metal
Compression
Connected
By Fillet
Wei di
Butt Weid
in Tension
But1 Weid
Comprersion
Butt Weid
in Shear
--
fillet
Weids
0, = Leg Sire
The constant ( k) will vary slightly with the speci-
men; however, 0.1:: has been widely used for butt
welds and 0.18 for plate in axial loading (tension
and/or compression ) .
The curve in Fignre 7 illustrates the general in-
crease in fatigue life when the applied fatigue stress
is reduced. As an cxarnple, in this case, reducing the
fatigue stress to 75% of its normal value will in general
increase the fatigue life about nine times.
Test data indicates a fatigue life of N, = 1,550,000
cycles when the member is stressed to oa = 30,000 psi.
What would be the fatigue strength at a life of 2,000,000
cycles?
LE 1-Allowable Fatigue Stress
For A7, A373 and A36 Steels and Their
2,000,000
cycler
--
@
9.000
r = ----
K psi
1 - -
2
0
10.500
c = ---------
psi
I - 213K
0
18,000
d- = --
psi
I - .8K
.
0
10.000
7 = --
K psi
i --
2
0
18.000
' T =
K psi
1 - -
2
But Not to
Exceed
2 P,
-
I( psi
Pt psi
---
PI psi
Adopted from AWS Bridge Specificotionr. K = minlrnox
P. = Allv.voble unit compressive stress far member.
Pt = Allowable unit tensile stress for member.
FIGURE 6
esigning for Fatigue Loads / 2.
I I /
"
mln = + max K = + 1
- Time ---+-
+
(steady)
-
I 1
"
min = + 1/2 m m K = f 1/2
Time -
-
+
-
min = 0 K = f l
Time -
-
+
-
4 :
" I
mln = - max K = - 1
[complete
-
I
reversal)
-
FIGURE 7
For butt welds, k = .I3
Increase in fatigue life
2.9-6 / Load 8, Stress Analysis
Base Metal
in Tension
Connected
By Fiilet
Weidr
Bore Metal
Compression
Connected
By Fillet
Weldr
Bun Weld
i n Tension
Butt Weld
In Shear
Fiilet Weidr
w = leg l i z
LE 2-Allowable Fatigue Stress
For A441 Steel md i t s Welds
2.W0.000
I
600,000
cycler cycler
100,WO
cycler
@
f = 8800 i bl i n.
i - f i R
But Not to
Exceed
.- 23 pRI psi
PC psi
PC
--
psi
1 - i/z R
Pt psi
*
= 10,400 w i bl i n.
Adapted from AWS Bridge Specificotionr.
* if SAW-I, use 8800
R = .in/mox load
p, = Allowable unit tenriie rtiesr for member
P, = Allowable unit cornpierrive rtierr for member
TABLE 3-Allowable Fatigue Stress
uenched ond Tempered Sfeels of High Yield Strength
. n - - lap.TT
Fiilet Weld
6 360 W
w = leg size
9,900 w
f = 2-- Ibrlin.
f = -------
14,500 W
Ibrlin. f = Ibrlin.
f = 26.1600 Ibrl i n.
i - .A0 K I - .75 K 1 - .6O K
I I I I
Above valves adopted from "The Fabrication and Design of Structurer
of 7-1 Steei" by Gilligon and Englond, United Stater Steel Cotporotion.
Designing for Fatigue Loads /
FIGURE 8
FATIGUE NOMOGRAPH
Since:
55 = ( ) (For butt welds, k = 0.13) or:
W b
Given: Test data indicates a butt-weld fatigue life
of N, = 1,550,000 cycles when the member i s stressed
to a, = 30,000 psi
Find: The weld's fatigue strength (ab] at 2,000,000 cycles (N,)
and since the butt weld's k factor is .13, the nomograph indicates
--
ah -- 96.8%
0-
or a, = 30,000 X 96.8% = 29,000 psi
ii
3 = (2-) and:
0,
Using logarithms* for the right hand side:
= 0.13(log 0.775) = 0.13(9.88930 - 10)
= 1.285fX9 - 1.3 (add 8.7 to left side and
+ 8.7 - 8.7 subtract 8.7 from right
side)
9.985609 -10.0
The anti-log of this is 0.96740; hence:
= 29,020 psi at Nb = 2,000,000 cycles)
-
The nomograph, Figure 8, further facilitates such
conversion and permits quickly finding the relative
allowable stress for any required fatigue life provided
the fatigue strength at some one fatigue life is h o wn
and that the constant k value has been established.
Conversely, the relative fatigue life can be readily
found for any given stress and any constant ( k) .
-
* A log-log slide rule could be used to find the value of 0.775
raised to the 0.13 power.
/ Load & Stress Analysis
5. RELATIVE SEVERI TY OF FATlG
In Figure 9, the allowable fatigue stress is the vertical
axis (ordinate) and the type of fatigue stress cycle
( K = min/max) is the horizontal axis (abscissa).
The extreme right-hand vertical line ( K = + 1)
represents a stcady stress. As we proceed to the left,
the severity of the fatigue cycle increases; finally at
the extreme left-hand axis ( K = - I ) there is a com-
plete reversal of stress. This is just one method of
illustrating fatigve stress conditions. The important
thing to be noticed here is that actual f at i ye strength
or allowable fatigue values are not reduced below the
steady stress condition until the type of cycle ( K =
min/max) has progressed well into the fatigue type
of loading.
In the case of 2 ndlion cycles, the minimum stress
must drop down to '/z of the maximum stress before
there is any reduction of allowable strength. In the
case of 100,000 cycles, the minimum stress can drop
to zero before any reduction of allowable strength takes
place. Even at these levels, the member and welds
would be designcd as though they were subjected to a
steady load. The stress cycle must extend into a wider
range of fluctuation before it becomes necessary to use
lower fatigue allowables.
In other words, a fatigue problem occurs only if-
1. Stress is very high,
2. Anticipatrd service extends for a great number
of cycles,
3. Stress fiuctnates over a wide range.
And it generally rcquires a11 three of these situa-
tions occurring simultaneously to produce a critical
fatigue condition worthy of consideration.
The allowable fatigue strength values obtained
from the formulas in Table 1 take all three of these
into consideration, and it is believed they will result
in a conservative design.
Several formulas are available for this consideration but
very little actual testing has been done on this. In many
cases there is not very good agreement between the
actual test and the formulas.
1. Principal-stress theory -
2. Maximum shear-stress theory-
--
we = $\r(w, - v,)~ +- 4 7.2
FIG. 9 Severity of fatigue depends on stress value and range of fluctuation, as well as service life.
esigning for Fatigue Loads /
TABLE &-Fatigue Strength o# Butt
Summary of Results, Using %-In. Carbon-Steel Plates
FATIGUE STRENGTH I N 1000's OF PSI
- - --
Ar Welded 1 22.3 1 14.4 1 33.1 I 22.5 1 53.3 / 36.9
Derctiptian
of
Specimen
Reiniorcement On 31.9
Sties, Relieved
Reinforcement Mochined Off / 28.9 1 / 48.8 1 28.4 / 1 43.7
Not Strera Relieved I I
Reinforcement Mochined Off 1 24.5 1 16.6 / 49.4 1 27.8 1 1 42.6
Stress Rel wed
TENSION TO AN
EQUAL COMPRESSION
Reinforcement Ground Off 26.8 1 1 44.5 1 26.3 1 1
Not Stress Relieved
--
N =
100,OW
Plain Piole
Mi l l Scoie On
TENSION TO
TENSION
if> AS GREAT
-- -
N = N=
100.000 2,000,000
N =
2,000,000
O
Ploin Plote
Mi l i Scole Machined Oi i
ond Surioce Poished
-
N =
100.000
Bun Weld. Reinforcement
and Mi i i Scoie Mochined Off
ond Suiioce Polished
-
N=
2,000,000
3. Shear-stress-invariant theory-
-
me = vux2 - UxU7 + fCTy2 + 3 rxy2
4. Combined bending and torsion. Findley cor-
rected shear-stress theory for anistropy-
where ub/?- is the ratio of fatigue strength in pure
bending to that in pure tension.
5. Combined tensile stresses. Gough suggests-
where:
uo, = fatigure strength in ( x) direction
a,, = fatigue strength in ( y) direction
a, and uy = applied stresses
7. INFLUENCE OF JOINT
Any abrupt change of section along the path of stress
Bow will reduce the fatigue strength. It is not welding
that effects a reducing of the fatigue strength but the
resultant shape or geometry of the section. It is for
this reason that fillet welds have lower fatigue strength.
simply because they are used in lap joints and all lap
joints including riveted joints have lower fatigue
strength.
TABLE 5-Effect of Transverse Attachments On Fatigue Strength
-
I I 1 7 6 U
100,000 cycler 25.800 psi 25,400 pri I 22,900 pd
2,000,000 cycler 1 22,800 psi I 18.9OOpri I 13,100 pi
Stress Analysis
By means of Table 4, we can see that removing
the reinforcement of a butt weld increases its fatigue
strength to that of unwdded plate, also that stress
relieving the weld has no appreciable effect on its
fatigue strength.
Table 5 illustrates the effect of transverse fillet
welds upon the fatigue strength of plate, this is %"
plate.
The attachment causes an abrupt change in sec-
tion, and this reduces the fatigue strength of the plate.
It is believed these results could be duplicated by
machining these joints out of solid plate, without any
welding.
ING FOR FATIGUE
LOADING
I. Usually a member is stressed to the full maxi-
mum value for only a portion of its fatigue life or cycles.
For most of its fatigue life, the member is stressed to
a much lower value, and not to its full rated capacity;
hence, most fatigue loading is not as severe as it may
first appear.
Consider actual stress rather than average stress.
Reduce if possible the range of stress without
increasing the maximum or average stress.
2. Fatigue loading requires careful fabrication,
smooth transition of sections.
Avoid attachments and openings at locations of
high stress.
Avoid sharp comers.
Use simple butt weld instead of lap or T fillet
weld.
Grinding the reinforcr:ment off of butt welds will
increase the fatigue strength. This weld will have about
the same fatigue strength as unweldt-d plate. Grinding,
however, should not be specified unless essential, sincc
it does add to the final unit cost.
Avoid excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
lack of penetration, roughness of weld.
Avoid placing weld in an area which flexes.
Stress relieving the weld has no appreciable &ect
upon fatigue strength.
DBiculties are sometimes caused by the welds
being too small, or the members too thin.
3. Under critical loading, place material so that
the direction of rolling (of plate in stml mill) is in
line with force, because the fatigue strength may be
higher in this direction than if placed at right angles
with the direction of rolling. See Figure 10.
4. Where possible, form member into shape that
it tends to assume under load, and hence prevent the
resulting Aexial movement.
5. Avoid operating in the critical or resonant fre-
quency of individual member or whole structure to
avoid excessive amplitude.
6. Perhaps consider prestressing a beam in axial
compression. This will reduce the tensile bending stress
and lessen chance for fatigue failure even though the
compressive bending stress is increased to some extent.
7. Avoid eccentric application of loads which may
cause additional flexing with each application of load.
8. Stiffeners decrease flexibility of panel and result
in better fatigue strength, unless they cause a more
abrupt change of section.
9. A rigid frame type of structwe or statically
indeterminate type of structure may be better than
a simple structure since the load is shared by other
members; hence, the structure is less likely to collapse
immediately if a fatigue failure starts in one member.
10. Avoid biawial and triaxial stresses, avoid
restrained internal sections.
~ e c o me ~ d e d method if fatique or impact ioodinq
Direit8on of hot rollinq
ofsheets insteel mills
eecowend of Least on boi tom h d f or thl rd, or
wh o i e t ank, s h e e t s be run lenqthwise with tonk
FIG. 10 Grain direction of sheet or plate should
be in line with force, for greater fatigue strength.
SECTI ON 2.1
Torsional loading is the application of a force that
tends to cause the member to twist about its simxtural
axis.
Torsion is usually referred to in terms of torsional
moment or torque ( T) , which is basically the product
of the externally applied force and the moment alm
or force arm. The moment arm is the distance of the
centerline of rotation from the line of force and per-
pendicular to it. This distancc often equals the distance
from the member's center of gravity to its outer fiber
(radius of a round shaft, for example), but not always.
The principal deflection caused by torsion is mea-
sured by the angle of twist, or by the vertical move-
ment of one comer of the frame.
Steel, in rolled structural shapes or built-up sec-
tions, is very efficient in resisting torsion. With steel,
torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the
use of stiffeners.
Here are the three basic rules for designing sbuc-
tural members to make the best use of steel where
torsional loads are a problem:
1. Use closed sections where possible.
2. Usc diagonal bracing.
3. Make rigid end connections.
When a round shaft is subjected to a twisting or tor-
sional moment (torque), the resulting shear stress in
the shaft is-
where:
T = shear stress, psi
c = distauce from centcr of section to outer fiber
T = torque, in.-lhs.
J = polar moment of inertia of sedion,
= IX + I7 = 21
The angular twist of a round shaft is-
where:
B = over-all angular twist of shaft, in radians
(1 radian = 57.3" approx.)
I, = length of shaft, in iuches
(steel E, = 12,000,000 psi)
In most cases, the desi per is interested in holding
the torsional moment within the material's elastic limit.
Where the torsional strength of a round shaft is re-
quired (i.e. the stress it can take without failure), the
polar section modulus is J/c, and the allowable torque
is thns-
J
T = T,, --
c
where, lacking test data, the ultimate shear strength
of steel ( 7 , ) is assumed to be in the order of 75% of
the material's ultimate tensile strength.
The above three formulas are true for sdi d round
or tubular round shafts. For non-circular sections the
shear stresses are not uniform, 'and therefore the stand-
ard torsional formulas no longer hold.
3. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
Valucs of torsional resistance (K)-stiffness factor-
have hem estahlish~d for various standard sections
and provide more reliable solutions to torsional rigidity
problems. Values of R are exprssed in inches to the
fourth power.
Table 1 shows the formulas for shear stress and
torsional resistance of various sections. The formulas
for solid rectaiigitlar sections caU for valurs, of a and ,8,
which are derived froin the ratio of section width ( h )
to depth ( d) , as shown in the table.
Actual tests show that the torsional resistance
( R) of an open section made up of rectangular areas,
nearly equals the sun1 of the torsional resistances of
all thc individual rectangular areas. For example, the
torsional resistance of an I benm is approximately
2.10-2 / Lood & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 1
equal to the sum of the torsional resistances of the
two flanges and weh (Fig. 1).
Figure 2 shows the results of twisting an I beam
made of three equal plates. Calculated values of twist
by using the conventional polar moment of inertia ( J )
and the torsional resistance ( R) are compared with
the actual results. This shows greater accuracy by using
torsional resistance ( R) .
This means that the torsional resistance of a flat
/ Angle of twist
Conventional
poior moment
Resistonce
FIGURE 2
TABLE I-Torsional Properties of Various Sections
.- - ..
(for steel)
Section / Shear stress R4orsionai Resistance
i
b
- = 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 6
for mlid d
rectangular- - - -
jsections a 208 1.31 ,239 .246 .258
Use t4.s
[&yo& Rz3.542
bracing l of
ning for Torsional Loading / 2*T&
! Angle of twist !
FI GURE 3
plate is approximately thc same whether it is used
as such or is formed into an angle, channel, open tube
section, ctc. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Samples
of different sections made of 16-gage steel are subjected
to torsion. The flat section twists 9". The same piece
of steel formed into a channel ( b) twists 9%". When
rolled into a tube with an open beam ( e) , it twists 11".
When the same section is made into a closed
section ( d ) by placing a single tack weld in thc middle
of t he open seam, the torsional resistance increases
several hundred times. When the tube becomes a
closed section, the torsional stresses are distributed
more evenly over the total area, thus permitting a
greater load.
Notice the emor in using polar moment of inertia
( J ) for the angle of twist of open sections, and the
good agreement by using torsional resistance (R).
The solid or tubular round closed scction is best
for torsional loading since the shear strmses are uniform
around the circumference of the member.
Next to a tubular section, the best section for re-
FI GURE 4
sisting torsion is ;i closed square or rectangular tubular
section.
Tablr 2 provides formulas for dstexmining the
torsional rt~sistarrce ( R) of various closcd tubular sec-
tions. It also provides tire basic fomiulas for detemin-
ing the shear stress ( T ) at any given point along the
sidewall of any closed section regardless of configura-
tion or variation of thiclaicss, and for determining the
section's torsional resistance ( R) .
Tl k poorest sertions for torsional loading are open
sections, flat plates, angle sections, channel sections,
Z-bar sectioris, T-har sections, I-beam sections, and
tubular sections which have a slot.
FIGURE 5
After the R values of all areas in a built-up section
have becn added together, their sum is inserted into
the following formula or n modification of it:
Torque ( T) in in.-lbs may be obtained from one of
the formulas in Table 3, such as-
63,000 X IIP
T =. --
RPM
where:
HP = horsepower
RPM = speed of revolution
P I- applied force, lbs
e = moment arm of force (t he perpendicular
distance from the center of rotation to the
line of force)
As an example, consider the torsional resistance of
a closed round tube and one that is slotted. The tube
has an O.D. of 4", and I.D. of 3", a length of 100f',
and is subjected to a torque of 1000 in.-lbs.
Case 1 CA
From Table 1, the torsional resistance of the closed
round tube is found to be-
R = 0.0982 (dyi - dl 4)
= 0.0982 (4' -31)
and the angular twist is-
= 0.000485 radians, or 0.0278"
--
FIGURE 6
Case 2
From Table 1, t he tors~ollal resistance of the slotted
round tube is found to bc-
LE 2-Torsional Resistance ( ) of Closed Tubular Sections
-= enclosed wi thi n mean dimensions.
== length of p~r t i cui ar segment oi section
= overage thickness of segment at point Is!
= sheoi rtresi at point (i!
== torsion01 resistance, in4
= modulus of el oi ti ci ty in rheor
(steel = i2.000.000i
0 = ongul oi twist l rodi onr)
L =; length of member (inches!
f = unit shear force
R - 1.0472 t:! d
-- 0.018 radians, or 1.04"
Thus, the tube witlmut the slot is many times more
rigid than the slotted tube.
1 Problem 2 1
Two 6" X 2" X 10%-lb chaniids are to be used in
making a 100"-long frame, which will be subjected to
a torque of 1000 in.-lbs. In what relationship to each
other will these channels offer the greatest resistaxe to
twist?
Case 1
These two channels when separated but fastened
together by end plates do not have much torsional
resistance.
FIGURE 7
From Tdhk 1 . the \.due of R for each of the
flanges is found to be -
Rl = 0.0306 in4
and that of each web is-
RP = 0.0586 in.'
and thus the total angular twist is-
= 0.0348 radians, or 2.0"
--
esigning for Torsional Loading /
LE 3-Formulas ~ O P Determining Safe
Torque Under Various
Case 2
When these two channels are securely fastened
back to back, there is suitable n:sistance to any slip
or movemcnt due to horizontal shear. Here the two
webs are considercd as one solid web, and the top and
bottom flanges are considered solid.
Based on tangential load:
Based on horsepower transmitted:
63,030 X NP
r =
RPM
--
Based on strength of shaft:
-
where S, = 25,000
2945 dz4 - dl4
T = --
dz
Based on safe twist of shaft (.08"/ft):
Based on fillet weld leg size around
ihaft or hub:
Based on butt weld size around hub:
T = 20,420 d2 t
FIGURE 8
From Table 1, thc value of R for each of the two
conlposite flanges is found to he-
R1 = 0.066
and that of the composite web is-
R? = 0.459 in4
md thus the total angular twist is-
= 0.0141 radians, or 0.81"
-
~ohich is much less than in Case 1
Case 3
If these two channels were welded toe to toe to
form a box section, the, torsional resistance would be
greatly increased.
From Table 2, the value of Fi for a box section is
found to be-
= 0.00027 radians, or 0.015"
-
which is far less than in Case 2, which in turn was
much better than Case 1.
Torsional Resistance Nomograph
A panel or other member may be sufficiently resistant
to deflection by bending, and yet have very low torsional
resistance.
The nomogl-aph, Figure 10, permits the designer
to quickly find the torsional resistance of a proposed
design. The total torsional resistance of a built-up
design equals the sum of the resistances offered separ-
ately by the memhers.
On this nomograph:
Line 1 = Type of section, or element of a built-up
scdion. Obscrve caution as to meaning of
letter symbols. For a solid rectangular
section use the ratio of wiclth ( a ) divided
by thickness ( b) ; for a hollow rectangular
section use width ( b ) divided by depth ( c) .
Line 2 = Dimmsion ( a) , in.
Line 3 = Pivot line
Line 4 = Dimension ( b ) , in.
Line 5 = Torsional resistance of the section ( R) , i n4
Thcse values for cacli crlement are added
together to give tho total torsional resistance
of the section, and the resistances of the
sections are added to give the total torsional
resistance of t he frame or base. This is used
in the design formula for angular twist, or
in the next nomograph, Figure 14.
In the ease of a member having a built-up cross-
section, such as a T or I beam, read the Figure 10
nomograph for the R value of each element or area
making up the section. Start at vertical Line 1 in
the nomograph, using the scale to the right of i t
that expresses the rectangular element's a/ b ratio. i n
the case of solid squares or rounds, and closed or open
round tubes, go dil-cetly to the point on the scale
indicated by the visnal represontation of the cross-
section.
Notice that the meaning of a and b varies. In the
case of a rectangnlar element, a is the longer dimen-
sidn; hut in the case of a hollow rectangle, (I is the
wall or plate thickness. The valuc of a or b on Lines 1,
2 and 4 must correspond, according to the type of
section or element for which torsional rcsistance ( R)
is sought.
For hollow rwtangnlar sections (of uniform wall
or plate thickotxs j , use the scale along the left of
vertical Line 1 that expresses the ratio b/c. Here b -
the section's width and c = its depth.
U M SHEAR STRESS IN BUILT-UP
SECTIONS
The maximum shear stress of a rectangnlar section in
torsion lies on thc surface at the center of the long side.
For the maximum shear stress on a narrow rec-
tangular section or section element-
eaigning for Torsional Loading /
FIGURE 11
where:
Q, = unit angular twist of whole section (each
element twists this amount), in radians/linear
inch of member
t = thickness of rectangular section
R = torsional resistance of entire member, not
necessarily just this one flat element
This formula can be used for a flat plate, or the
flat plate of a built-up section not forming a closed
section (i.e. channel, angle, T- or 1-beam section).
111 such a built-up open section, t he unit angular
twist (4) of the whole member is first found:
and then the maximum shear stress in the specific
rectangular element.
'1 FIGURE 12
7-
I Problem 3 I
A 6" X 2" X 10%-lb channel is subjected to a torque
of T = 1000 in.-lbs. Find the shear stress along the
web. See Figure 13.
Applying the fotmula for rectangular sections from
Table 1, find the torsional resistance of each of the
two identical 2" X %" flanges ( R, ) and of the gr X
5/16" web ( R2) :
Then:
= 2,580 psi
I Problem 4 1
Two 6" X 2" X 10%-lb cha~mels are welded toe to
toe, to form a short box section. This is subjected to a
torque of T = 100,000 in.-lbs. Find the horizontal
shear stress at the toes and the amount of groove
welding required to hold these channels together for
this torsional load. See Figure 14.
From Table 2, the shear stress at mid-length of
the short side is found to be-
T where:
Shear stresses tend to concentratc at re-entrant
b = 6 - % = 5.625"
corners. In this case, the maximum stress valne should d = 4 - XB = 3.6875"
be used and is-
[A] = bd
- - . .
100,000
2(5.625 X 3.6817%
where a = inside corner radius.
= 6420 psi
,
FIGURE 13
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.1
FIGURE 14
I
Two 6" x 2" x 10B# channels
The horizontal shear force is then-
f = 7 . t
1 6420 X ,375
= 2410 lbs/linear inch
Since weld metal is good for 13,000 psi in shear,
the throat or depth of the continuous hutt weld must
he-
The groove weld connecting the channels must
have a throat depth of at least 3/16". Of course, if the
-
torsional load is applied suddenly as an impact load, it
would be good practice to add a safety factor to the
computed load. This would then necessitate a deeper
throat for the hutt weld.
Check the following built-up spandrel beam supporting
a wall 12' high, made of 4" of limestone and 9" of
brick. The heam's span is 20', and the dead load of the
wall is applied 6" off the beam's centerline.
FIGURE 15
4" limestone -t 9" brick = 140 lhs/sq ft
Since the wall is 12' high, this is a load of 1680
lhs/lincar ft or 140 lbs/linear in. Or, use w = 1.56
Ihs/lin in. to include beam weight.
bending resistance (monwnt of inertia)
torsional resistance
= 442 in."
The eccentricity of the dead load applies torque
to the beam. From torsional member diagrams in Refer-
ence Section 8.2:
uniform torque
t = 150 lhs/in. X 6"
= 900 in.-lbs/in.
angular tzoist at center of beam
= ,00122 radians (or .07")
k b ' = 8.5" -"f
torque at end total shear stress
torsional shcar stress
= 1410 psi
T
T =
2 [A1 ts
unit shear force from torque
f t = . i t
= (1410) (' 12)
= 700 lbs/in.
where:
t, = thickness of single web
unit shear force along N.A. from bending
v = w L/ 2
= (150)(120)
= 18,000 Ibs
FIGURE 16
-. -
: 18,000) (10 x 4.5 + 1 x 2.0)
-.
(449.3) ( 2 webs)
total unit shear force on beam web (each)
f, = f t i- f t ,
= (700) $- (860)
= 1560 ibs/in.
= 4100 psi OK
-
Then to determine the required size of Ulet weld
between flange and web:
FIGURE 17
unit shear force at weld from bending
unit shear force at weld fvom torque
ft = 700 lbs/in.
total unit shear force at weld
f, = f t 4- f,,
= (700) + (900)
= 1600 ibs/in.
required k g size of fillet weld (E70)
actual force
w = -
allowable force
However, because of the 1" flange, AWS Bldg. 212,
AWS Bridge 217 and AISC 1.17.4 would require a
x,,, h .
for Porrioslcll Loa
Tht, r i n i l e s of torsicii~ wliicli dctermin:: iht: bcst
sectioi~s fur resisting twist apply to bui l t -II~ fx~~lir~es.
Just 1 1 t h torsio1t:il rcsist:rnw of the section i s i:qil:~l
to the total of tlii. r~~sisi:~rices of its itidi~i1111;il arms,
so is the torsional n'sist:u~ce of a fr:tme approxix~i:i!cIy
equ;tl to t hr t ot d I-r-ds!;rnce of it: jnrlivid~l:il pr i s .
Tlte tcasional rcsidance of the fvnmc nhos,: litrigi-
t u d i d rn~.nibers art: two chan11i:ls wo~ild be :ippn)si-
matply eq11,ll to twin, the torsi~ioal rvsistancc of wch
channel section, Figure 18. T ~ I , (lista~iw bet wwr thost.
mentbers fur purpose of this ~,x;~mplt: is considered to
have, no effect. Sincc t h ~ . cl os~d sectioir is best for rc-
sistirig twist, the torsional resistmce of this frame coulil
be greatly increased by making t ho channels into rec-
tangular box sections through the addition of plate.
A frame is made of two 6" standard pipes, spaced 24"
between centers, and having a length of 60". Tl ~i s frame
supports a 10-hp motor. running at 1800 lljm and driving
a pump. Find the approximate twist of the frame undcr
tho load.
FIGURE 19
The, 6" standard p i p h:is O.D. I fi.C;i?!ir' and I.D.
= ROHi ", In finding t i i t . lorsioi~al r!%st:~nce of each
tube:
The torque is easily found:
FIGURE 18
Then, adding together the X of each tube, the
angular twist is:
= 0.0000156 radians, or 0.00089"
Maxinmm deflection in the frame is the vertical
displacement ( A) , which is the product of ailgular twist
( 8 ) arid frame width ( W) between centers:
FIGURE 20
4 members t
The longitudinal members are now considered to TL TT
.'. PL = - and PT = --- -
make up a frame of their own. 'When the vertical force \V L
(PL) applied at the corncr rcaches the proper value,
the frame will deflect vertically the given distance ( A)
and substituting for PL and PT -
and each longitudinal member will twist (81,). The
same separate analysis is also made of the transverse
A E, n~ RL
A E, n.r Rr
PI, = --
W2 L
and PT =
members.
W I,"
By observation we find-
A = & W - - @ T L
Then:
A A
& = - a n d & = -
W L
Since the external force ( P) applied at the comer
is the sum of these two forces:
and s~~bst i t ut i ng for 0,. and BT -
where:
L = length of whole framc, in.
A TI. L A 'pr l\rW
- - . aItd ~... = W = width of \vhole frame, in.
W - E, IIL RI. I, C, rrr Rr
RI. = torsional resisttince of longitudinal member,
Then: in."
Using the common formula for angular twist-
TL 1. TT W
. - -
& = ----- ~- . and 81. =
A I<* IIL fir. A E IIT RT
RT = torsional resistance of transverse member,
T,, -- TT -5
W L W 1, in,4
. . . . . ( 4)
Since the applied torque is-
E, n~ RI. E, n~ KT
nr* = numbor of longitudinal mcmbers
n r = number of transverse mcmbcrs
TL = PL W and TT = PT L P = load applied at comer, 1bs
esigning Cor Torsional Loading / 2.1
FIGURE 21
(steel: 12 X lo6), psi
A = vertical deflection, in.
It can be seen that the torque on a given member
is actually produced by the transverse forces supplied
by the cross members attached to them. These Fame
forces subject the cross members to bending. In other
words, the torque applied to a member equals the end
moment of the crosq member attached to it. There is
some deflection due to bending of all the members, and
this would slightly i~lcrcase the over-all deflection of the
frame. For simplicity this has been neglected in this
analysis.
p z z q
To illustrate the use of the preceding deflection formula,
consider a small elcvator frame 15" wide and 30" long,
made of standard 3" channel, Figure 21. Find the
TABLE 4--Torsional Resistance of Frame and Various Sections
Deflection of Frame Under Torsional Lood Torsional Resistance of Common Sections
1
P L W 1
A = -
Ln: - + - nT: ]
R =
2 t t, ( b- t )2(d - t p
d
L
b t + d t,- t2 - t12
Wal l load
3%" X 13" box sectlo
8" X 8" box sectcon
FIGURE 22
vertical deflection of the unsupported comer when
centerlines of the longitudinal members is 34.75", and
under a load of 5 lbs.
the latter are 82" long. Determine:
Using the appropriate formula from Table 4,
a ) The approximate vertical deflection of the un-
torsional resistance of the U channel cross-section supported comer,
1s-
b) the shear stress in lougitudinal and transverse
members, and
2 ht," dtS3 - 2 htr3 + dtw3
R = -
c) the size of the connecting weld between the
3 3 longitudinal and transverse members.
-
--
2 (1.875) (.3125)3 + 3( 1875)3
3 3
torsional resistance of longitudinal membe~s
Substituting actual values into formula #4:
The actual deflection when tested was-
2 b2 d?
A = .030"
RL = --
b d
- + -
ti, td
~ ( 3 ) ~ (113/4)=
-
The struchlral frame of Figure 22, simply supported
- ( 3 ) + (11~47
at three comers, is designed to support a 17-kip load
( 1 (%)
at its unsupported comer. Here the width between
= 137.5 ia4
FIGURE 23
erigning for Torsional Loading / 2.1
tolswnal resistance of transoerse member
(only one in this example)
FIGURE 24
oertical deflection of frame
P W L
A = - - -. . - -
1
"s [+di + yT]
long side of its cross-section is -
= 3820 psi
shear stress in transverse member
In a similar manner it is found that the applied
torque on the transverse member is -
See formula development, p. 2.10-12
Since the cross-section of the transverse member
is a hollow rectangle of uniform thiclaess, the shear
stress at mid-length along either side of the section
1s -
-- (438,500)
( 17,000) ( 34%) (82)
- -- --
-
i
1
I
- Z(7.5 X 9. 5)(%)
(12 X 10") ( 2) (137.5) + 11) (298.3)
( 343h) (82)
= 6160 psi
= .35"
size of connecting fillet weld
shear stress in longitudinal member
The applied torque on only one longitudinal mem-
ber is -
TL = A Ea nL R1' See formula development, p.2.10-12
W L
-
(35) (12 X 10" (l )(l 37. 5)
- .. .- .
(31%) (82)
= 202,500 in.-lbs, each member
The shear stress at midpoint of the longitudinal
member, on the short side of its cross-section is -
= 2300 psi
and the shear stress at midpoint of the member, on the
Treating the weld as a line -
FIGURE 25
ming for Torsional Loading / -17
Resolving combined forces on weld at point of
greatest effect -
Transverse member
FIGURE 28
Since 11,200 lbs is the accepted allowable load per
linear inch of fillet weld having a 1" leg size, the
minimum leg size for this application is -
3560
0 = --
11,200 - (E70-weld allowable)
The two main stresses on a member under torsional
loading are ( 1) transverse shear stresses and ( 2)
longitudinal shear stresses.
These two stresses combine to produce diagonal
tensile arid compressive strcsses which are maximum
at 45" At 45', the transverse and longitudinal shear
stresses cancel each other. Therefore, there is no twist-
ing stress or action on a diagonal member placed at 45"
to the frame.
In a frame made up of flat members, the transverse
shear stresses cause the longitudinal members to twist.
The iongitudinal shear stresses cause the cross braces
and end members to twist.
On a diagonal mcmber at 45" to axis of twist, the
transverse and Iougitudinal shear stress components
are opposite in direction to each other and cancel out,
but in line with this member they combine to produce
diagonal tensile and compressive stresses wlueh tend
L~ngt hwi se memoers and
,
, cross members are subject
. , \, to twisting acti on of t he
\ shear hy stresses
/-\ diagonal
\ brace)
,
There i5 no twisting
action on 45' di agonal
member since shear
components cancel out
Only dm gonal t ensi bn
comprass/on ar e formed,
which place member in bending> I /
member is very r i gi d. V
FIGURE 29
to cause bending rather than twisting. See Figure 29.
Since these two shear stresses cancel out, there is
no tendency for a diagonal member placed in this
direction to twist.
The diagonal tcnsih: and compressive stresses try
to cause this diagonal member to bend; but being very
resistant to bending, the diagonal member greatly
stiffens the entire frame against twisting.
Stiffening the Braces
Previous experience in designing longitudirral side
mcinhcrs for bending is now used to design these
diagonal n~embers.
It is important that the diagonal members have a
high moment of inertia to provide suAicient stiffness
so there will bo no f:~ilurr from local buckling, under
srvcre torsional loads.
Since the diagonal brace is not subjected to any
twisting action, it is not necessary to use a closed box
section.
For short diagonal braces, use a simple flat bar.
The top and/or hottom panel of the frame will stiffen
this to some extcnt (Fig. 30). As the nilsupported
length of the diagoilal brace becomes longer, it may
becomc necessary to add a flange (Fig. 31). This is
/ Load & Stress Analysis
done by flanging one edge of the brace or using an
angle kar or T section. The flange of the brace may
also be stiffcncd to keep it from buckling.
For opcn frames with no Aat panel, it is better to
use a channel or I beam section having two flanges
(Fig. 32).
elative f ffectiveness of
Tests were made on scale models of typical machine
frames to illustrate increase in resistance to twist as a
result of the diagonal bracing.
FIGURE 31
FIGURE 32
FIGURE 33
esigning for Torisonal Lcadin
FIGURE 34
The top frame in Figure 33 has conventional cross
A = .
bracing at 90' to side members. It twisted 9".
(' F, Y3 (simply supported)
48 E I
The above frame is little better in resistance to
twist than a flat sheet of the same thiclmess, as shown
A - -- ' a - -
F Y3
%==-
in the middle. The plain sheet twisted 10".
L 12 E I L,
The bottom frame has diagonal braces at 45" with
side members. It twisted only 'A0. I t is 36 times as
T
Since T = F L, then F = -
resistant to twisting as the first frame, yet uses 6% less
L
bracing material.
T Y:j
. ' . B = - -
6 E I L 2
(See Figure 34)
i
Since Y = fl L
j
An approximate indication of the angular twist of a
1
frame using double diagonal bracing (in the form of
;m X) may be made by the following procedure. Here
B =
T(\/?;)' L' f i ~ ~
6 E I L 2 - 3 E I
each brace is treated as a beam.
T L ~ T L - T L
also 8. = -- Hence
\
\ Ea R 3 E I - E , R
3 E I
'and R r=
= 5.3 1
fi E8
For fixed ends, R = 21.2 I
For the usual frame, the following is suggested:
which appeared in Table 1.
Therefore: For a double diagonal brace use R =
-
10.6 1 and substitute this value into the standard
esigning for Torsional ~oadi ng /
FIGURE 38
Case 2 (Diagonal bracing)
NECTIONS OF TORSI
since this is "doublez3 bracing, the ~ ~ b l ~ 1 formula
When a member having an open section is twisted,
for this type of frame is used -
the cross-section warps (see b, in Fig. 37) if ends of
the mcmber are free. The flanges of these members
R = 10.6 I
not only twist, hut they also swing outward (see c),
allowing the member to twist more. If the ends of the
First find the moment of inertia for the cross-section
flanges can be locked in place in relation to each other,
of a brace, which is a simple rectangle, assuming the
this swinging will be prevented.
brace also is %" X 10":
b d3
I = - CONNECTIONS
12
where b = the section width (plate thickness), and
d = the section depth
then substituting into the formula for R-
The angular twist on the frame is then-
= .0000152 radians or .00087"
-
There are several methods of locking the flanges
together. The simplest is to weld the end of the member
to the supporting member as in ( d) . If the supporting
member is then neither thick enough nor rigid enough,
a thin, squiue plate may he welded to the two Banges
at the end of the member ( e) . Another method is to
use diagonal braces between the two flanges at the
two ends of thc member ( f ) .
Either of these methods reduces the angular twist
by about %.
Members having a box section, when butt welded
directly to n primary member, have the fully rigid
end connections required for high torsional resistance.
I Problem 10 /
A 12" WF 27-lb beam, 25' long, with a uniFormly dis-
tributed load of 8 kips, is supported at each end by a
box girder. See Figure 38. If the beam is continuously
welded to these girders, estimate a ) the resulting end
FIGURE 39
moments in the beam, b) the torsional stresses in the
girder, and c ) the weld size required to hold the box
girder together.
8. = 0
torsional resistance of box girder
2 b2 d2 W L,
R =
M - --
b d (See Figure 39)
e -
12
,+t,
- -
(8") (25' X 12")2
- 2(13.33)2(10%)2
12
- (13.33) (10%)
-. 200 in.-kips
(%)
-+pBq
= 910 in.4
torque on box girder
See Sect. 8.2 Torsional Member Formulas.
Torque in the central section of the box girder
support is equal to the end moment of the supporting
beam.
end moment of beam
See Sect. 8.1 Beam Formulas.
Determine what torque must be applied to the
central section of the supporting box girder to cause
it to rotate the same amount as the end rotation of the
supported beam, if simply supported (0, = ,0049
radians) :
If the beam is simply supported without any end
restraint, the end moment (Me) is zero, and the slope
T L,
8% = r~
of the beam at the end is -
= ,0049 radians
A moment-rotation chart shows the relationship;
Now, if the ends of the beam are so restrained that
see Figure 40. A straight line represents the end moment
it cannot rotate, the end moment becomes -
( Me ) and end rotation (8,) of the supported beam
esigning for Torsional Loading / 2.18-23
FIGURE 40
under all conditions of end restraint. A similar straight
line, but in the opposite direction, represents the
applied torque ( T) and angular rotation ( 8) at the
central section of the supporting box girder.
These two lines arc plotted, and where they inter-
sect is the resulting end moment ( Me) or torque ( T)
and the angular rotation ( 8) :
Me = T = 190 in,-kips
0, = ,0002 radians
torsional shear stresses in box girder
d = I 03/a"
FIGURE 41
1
= 1830 psi
torsional shear force on fillet weld
f i = rb tb
= (1830)(%)
= 690 lbs/lin in.
which must be transferred by the ellet weld joining the
top and bottom plates to the side channels, lo make
up the box girder.
l~orizontul shear force on fillet weld due to bending
-
FIGURE 42
Half of the $-kip load goes to each end of the
beam, or a Ckip load is applied to the central section
of each box girder. And V = 2 kips.
2.10-24 / Load & Sfress Analysis
- -
(F) (4.875) (594,)
(468) ( 2 welds)
= 54 ibs/lin in.
total shear force on weld
f = f, + f,
= (690) + (54)
= 744 lbs/lin in.
required leg size of fillet weld (E70 weldsj
actual force
0 = --
allowable force
= ,066" (continuous)
However, AWS and ASSC would require a min-
imum fillet weld leg size of 3/1," (See Section 7.4).
If intetmittent fillet welds are to be used, the length
and spacing of the welds would be-
% =
calculated leg size of continuous weld
actual leg size of intermittent weld used
= 35%
or use 3" - 8"
Alternate Design
As a matter of interest, consider the support to be
provided by a 10 WF 39-lb beam.
(See Figure 43)
FIGURE 43
torsional resistance of suppoiting beam
torque on suppoi-ting beam
Detelmine what torque must be applied to the
central section of this supporting beam for it to rotate
the same amount as the end rotation of the supported
beam, if simply supported (0, = ,0049 radians):
The moment-rotation diagram, Figure 44, shows
the resulting end moment on the supported beam to be
4.67 in.-kips. Thus, this beam could be connected as a
FIGURE 44
Rototion (81, radians
esigning for Torsional Loading / 2.10-25
simply snpported beam with just vertical welds on the 1. The volumes under tht: membranes will be pro-
web si~fficicnt to carry the 4-kip shcar reaction. Thc portional to the torsional resistances of the correspond-
end restraint is ahout 2.3%. ing srctions.
2. The slope of the membrane's surface at any
imint is propor-tional to the shear stress of the section
Mcmhrane analogy is a very :isefnl method to mder-
stand the behavior of open st,ctions mhrn subjected to
torsion. To make nsc of this method; holes are cut into
a thin plate making the outline of varions shaped sec-
tions. it membr ne material si ~ch as soap film is spread
owe tbc open surface and air prcssure is applied to
the film. The mathematical expressions for the slope
and volrnnc of this membranr or film cowring the open-
ings rt:presenting diffr:rimt cross-sections are tho samt:
as the expressions for the shcar stressas and torsional
resistance of the actual member being studied. Tt is
from this t p e of analysis that formulas for various
types of open sections subjected to torsion have been
developed and confirnred.
If several outlin<,s are cut into the thir plate and
the same pressure applied to each membrane, the fol-
lowing will be tnie:
- -
;it this point.
3. A narrow section (thin plate) has practically
the same torsional resistance rcgardltss of the shape
of tht: scction it is formed into. Notice a, h, and c in
Figure 45. For a given area of section, the volume un-
der the membrane rcmains the same regardless of the
sIi;ipr of the section.
It is possihlt? to dctcrminc the torsional resistance
oE these opcrr st:ctions by comparing them witli a stand-
ard circle on this same icst plate whose torsio~ial re-
sistance can readily he calculated.
fly comparing thc memhrarrc of the slottcd open
tube, ( c) in Figure 15, to that of the mt,mhrane of the
closed t~~brx ( c) , it is I-cadily seen why the closed tnhe
is several hundred times morr. resistant to tu-ist, when
it is renrembcred that the vol ~~me under the membrane
is proportional to the torsiol~al resistance.
FIGURE 45
2.10-26 / Load and Stress Analysis
Modern structural steel shops ore equipped
with highly efficient equipment for the weld-
ing of fabricated plate girders. Here an
automatic submerged-arc welder runs o
transverse splice in 7/8" web plote to full
width, with the oid of a small runout tab
previously tacked in place.
This automatic submerged-arc welder mounted on o track-mounted, gantry
type monipulotor runs o web-to-flange fillet weld the full 84' girder length.
Welding generators travel with the monipulotor.
Prirzipal stresses are normal strcsses (tensile or
compressive) acting on these principal planes. These
Structural members are often subject to combined
are the greatest and smallest of all the normal stresses
loading, such as axial tension and transverse bending.
in the clement.
These external forces induce internal stresses as forces
Normal stresses, either tensile or compressive, act
of resistance. Even without combined loading, there
normal or at right angles to their reference planes.
may be combined stress at points within the member.
Shear stresses act parallel to their reference planes.
The analysis of combined stresses is based on the
concept of a cubic unit taken at any point of intersection
of three planes perpendicular to each other. The total
forces in play against these planes result in propor-
tionate forces of the same nature acting against faces of
the cube, tending to hold it in equilibrium. Since any
member is made up of a multitude of such cubes, the
Normal stress Sheor stress
I
analysis of stresses at a critical point is the key to
analysis of the member's resistance to combined ex-
FIGURE 1
temal forces.
.6: ESS These stresses may be represented graphically on
Mohr's circle of stress. By locating the points (cr,, 7.1)
Biaxial and triaxial stresses are tensile and com- and (u,, 7.1) on a graph, Figure 2, and drawing a
pressive stresses combined together. circle through these two points, the other stresses at
Combined stresses are tensile and compressive various planes may be determined.
stresses combined together. By observation of Mohr's circle of stress, it is
Principal pZanes are planes of no shear stress. found that-
Stress in Member Mohr's Ci rcl e of Stress
FIGURE 2
. I 1 4 / Load Stress Analysis
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
In this case, US and an are principal stress% ad, and
u a , since they act on planes of zero shear stress.
For any angle of rotation on Mohr's circle of stress,
the corresponding planes on which these stresses a d in
the member rotate through just half this angle and in
the same direction.
Notice in Figure 3, U, lies at + 180" from us in
Mohr's circle of stress, and the plane ( b) on which
0-2 acts in the member lies at + 90" from the plane
( a) on which u, acts.
Notice in Figure 4, T,,, lies at + 90" from u, and
the plane ( b ) on which T,,,,, acts in the member lies
at + 45" from the plane ( a ) on which us acts. In this
case US and u3 are principal stresses because there is
no applied shear on these planes.
This is a simple method to graphically show how
stresses within a member combine; see Figure 5. On the
graph, right, locate the two stress points (+ US, + 7, )
and (+ rrz, - TI) and draw a circle through these
points. Now determine maximum normal and shear
stresses.
By observation of Mohr's circle of stress, it is found
that-
The above formula for the maximum shear stress
( T ~ ~ X ) is true for the flat plane considered; however,
there are really two other planes not yet considered and
their maximum shear stross could possibly be greater
than this value.
This is a very common mistake among engineers.
To be absolutely sure, when dealing with biaxial
Analysis of Combined Stresses /
FIGURE 6
stresses, always let the third normal stress he zero
instead of ignorulg it, and treat the problem as a
triaxial stress problem.
The example in Figurc 2 will now be reworked,
Figure 6, and the third normal stress ( u l ) will he set
equal to zero.
Here,
u3 = -k 12,000 psi T~ = 0
u2 = + 8,000 psi r2 - 0
On graph, right: Locate stress points (mi) ( ua) ,
( US) and draw three circles through these points, Now
determine the three maximum shear stresses.
There are three values for the maximum shear
stress, each equal to half of the difference betweell
two principal (normal) stresses. The plane of maximum
shear stress (shaded in the following sketches) is always
at 45' to the planes of principal stress.
Circle 3
t "
0-2 - ci
Tmax -= --
2
-
-
-
8,000-0
2
= 4,000 psi
It is seen that, in this example, the maximum
shear stress is 6,000 psi, and not the 2,000 psi vali~c
that would usually be found from the conventional
formulas for biaxial stress.
3. TRI AXI AL STRESS COM
STRESS (See Figure 7)
The three principal stresses (ex,,, u?,, r a p ) are given
by the t h e e roots (u,,) of this cubic equation:
Circle 1
u 3 - UZ
Tmax =
= 2,000 psi
Circle 2
= 6,000 psi
a = - ( u x + u 2 + ~ )
b = Flu* + c g r 3 + UlUj - 7? - 72 - 72
c = ulr,* f ~ 2 ~ 2 + u8r3* - uiu2u3 - 2 71727: ~
-
'Solution of Cubic Equation from "Practical Solution of Cubic
Equations': G. L. Sullivan, MACHINE DESIGN, Feb. 21, 1957.
Vy3 - (Vi $. VZ t G - S ) ~ :
+ ( u ~ V ~ + G-aVa -1- VlUi 4;' - TS' - ~3~
- (ulG-9? + 2 i,iii:i - m,.;," <r_r.' - ~ ~ 7 2 ) = 0
. ( 4 )
For maximum shear stress, we the two principal
stresses (cr,,) whose algebraic diffrrmce is the grcatest.
The maximum shear stress (r,,,,,) is equal to half of
this diflerence.
*Since a, b, and c are coefficients of this equation:
2.1 1-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
T + 0.2 3
The ambiguous sign is opposite to the sign of Q
(approximate, but very accurate).
For either Case 1 or Case 2
FIGURE 7
Then calculate-
N3
K = - as a test ratio.
Q"
Case 1
When ( 1 + K) is positive (one real root) or
when ( 1 f K) is zero (three real roots, two
of which are equal)
cal cul at b
and compute the root-
Case 2
The additional two roots (u2,, u3,,) of the general
cubic equation are calculated by solving for u, using
the exact quadratic:
C
0- 2- t ( a+ul , ) up- - = 0
TIP
Determine the maximum normal and shear stress
in this web section, Figure 8:
0 3
FIGURE 8
where:
0-1 = 0 TI = 11,000 psi
US = - 13,650 psi T~ = 0
u8 = - 14,500 psi TZ = 0
Substituting these values into the general cubic
equation:
uD3 - ( - 13,650 - 14,500)uD2 +
[( - 13,650) ( - 14,500) - (11,000)2] o;, = 0
When ( 1 + K) is negative (three real and un-
eaual roots)
u,," 28,150 a, f 76,925,000 = 0
A
calcnlate-
T = q = x
and compute the root-
the tbree principal normal stresses are-
Ul, = 0
uz, = - 25,075 psi u3, = - 3,075 psi
Analysis o# Combined Stresses /
0, = - 14,500 psi ond a, = - 13,650 psi and
ri = 11,000 psi
71 = 11,000 psi
FIGURE 9
b 4zp =- 25,075 psi (rnox) - 1
and taking one-half of the greatest difference of two
principal stresses:
25,075 - 0
rmax =
2
= 12,535 psi
These various values are shown diagramed on
Mohr's Circle of Stress, Figure 9.
Checking Effect of Applied Stresses
The Huber-Mises formula is convenient for checking
the effect of applied stresses on the yielding of the
plate. If a certain combination of normal stresses
( U X and u,) and shear stress (r, , ) results in a critical
stress (uc,) equal to the yield strength ( u ) of the
steel when tested in uniaxial tension, this combination
of stresses is assumed to just produce yielding in the
steel.
' 4 -
FIGURE 10
I Problem 2 1
For the beam-to-girder network represented by Figure
10, assume the combination of stresses represented by
Figure 11.
FIGURE 11
Here:
The apparent factor of yielding is
This seems reasonable and under these conditions,
the beam flange could be groove welded directly to
the edge of the girder flange without trying to isolate
the two intersecting flanges.
ENGTH UNDER CQM !NED LOADING
A very convenient method of treating combined load-
ings is the interaction method. Here each type of load
is expressed as a ratio of the actual load (P,M,T) to
the ultimate load (P,,M,,T,) which would cause failure
if acting alone.
axial load bending load torsional load
In the general example shown in Figure 12, the
effect of two types of loads (x) and ( y) upon each
other is illustrated.
interaction curve
R, = constant R, = variable
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
R.
FIGURE 12
The value of R, = 1 at the upper end of the
vertical axis is the ultimate value for this type of
load on the member. The value R, = 1 at thc extreme
right end of the horizontal axis is the ultimate value
for this type of load on the member. These values
are determined by experiment; or when this data is
not available, suitable calculations may be made to
estimate them.
The interaction curve is usually determined by
actual testing of members under various combined-
load conditions, and from this a simple formula is
derived to express this relationship.
If points a and b are the ratios produced by the
actual loads, point c represents the combination of
these conditions, and the margin of safety is indicated
by how close point c lies to the interaction curve. A
suitable factor of safety is then applied to these values.
Combined Bending ond Torsion
, Pure bending
Pure torsion
FIGURE 13
Combined Axial Looding and Torsion
FIGURE 14
Analysis of Combined Stresses /
Combined Axial Compression rrnd Bending
The bending moment applied to the member
(chosen at the cross-section where it is maximum) is
in this case, the axial compression will cause additional
then multiplied by this amplification factor (k), and
deflection, which in turn increases the moment of the
this value is then nsed as the applied moment ( M) in
bending load. This increase can easily be taken care
the ratio:
of by an amplification factor ( k) . See Figures 15 and
For sinusoidal initial bending moment curve
For constont bending moment
P P
Here:
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
FIGURE 17
bending
The chart in Figure 18 is used to determine the
amplification factor ( k) for the bending moment
FIG. 18 Amplification
factor (k) for bending
moment on beam also
subject to axial compres-
sion.
k
1 2 . 3 .4 5 7
?/PC,
Top - panel
width b = 56"
thickness t = $6"
Transverse load
w = 185 lbs/in
FIGURE 19
applied to a beam when it is also subject to axial
compression.
The resulting combined stress is found from the
following formula:
A loading platform is made of a %" top plate and
a 10-gage bottom shect. The whole structure is in the
form of a truss, Figure 19.
Determinotion ot comb
and bending) in top co
With L = 16%"
A = 21 in."
I = ,247 in.4
First the critical load-
= 272,000 lbs
Then the ratio-
The bending moment-
Obtaining the amplification factor ( k) for the
sinusoidal bending moment from the curve, Figure 18-
The actual applied moment due to extra deflection is
found to be--
The resulting combined stress formula being-
of which there are two components:
( a ) the compressive stress above the neutral axis of
the top panel being-
126,000 11,600( x6 )
Oc = -
21 + .247
=: 14,800 psi
( b) and the tensile stress below the neutral axis of
the top panel being-
= 2,800 psi
Determindion 08 Focfor of
The ultimate load values for this member in com-
pression alone and in bending alone are unknotm, so
the following are used.
For compression alone -
L
*Since - = 150 (where r = radius of gyration)
r
assume P, = PC, = 272,000 lbs
For bending alone--
The plastic or ultimate bending moment is--
Elastic Plastic
FIGURE 20
These ultimate values are represented on the fol-
lowing interaction curve, Figure 21. Plotting the pres-
ent load values at a against the curve, indicates there
is about a 2:1 factor of safety before the top com-
pression panel will buckle.
-
Thi s Ljr ratio of 150 is high enough so we can assume the
ultimate load carrying capacity of the column ( Pa) is about
equal to the critical value (P. . ). If this had been an extremely
short column ( wr y low Ljr ratio), the critical value ( Pa. )
could be quite a bit higher than the actual ultimate value ( Pa) .
Mu = 64,900 in-lbs
"M"-Applied bending moment, x 1000 in-lbs
FIG. 21 interaction Curve for Problem 3
.11-10 / Load & Stress Analysis
The Air Force Academy Din-
ing Hall (seating the entire
student body) at Colorado
Springs was bui l t on the
ground and jacked into posi-
tion atop columns. The com-
plexity of joints, the heavy
cantilevered construction and
large lateral forces offered
unique problems in combined
stresses. Wel di ng was the
only practical approach to
the complex connections re-
quired to join members of
this three-dimensional truss
sysiem.
1. CAUSES 01: BUCKLING
Buckling of flat plates may be experienced whon
the plate is excessively stressed in compression along
opposite edges, or in shear unifo~mly distributed
around all edges of the platc, or a combination of both.
This uecessitates cstablishirrent of values for tile critical
buckling stress in co~nprcssior~ (u,,) and in shear (r,,.).
The critical comprcssive stress of a plate when subject
to compression (re,) can be found from the following:
FIGURE 1
where:
E = modulus of elasticity in compression (Steel
= 30,000,000 psi)
t = thickuess of plate, inches
b = width of plntv, inches
a = length of platc, inches
v = Poisson's ratio (for steel, usually -- 0.3)
k = constant; depends upon plate shape b/a and
support of sides. See Tables 1 and 3.
If the resulting critical stress ( u ) from this
formula is below the proportional limit (u,,), buckling
is said to he clnstic and is confined to a portion of the
plate away from the supported side; this does not mean
complete collapse of the plate at this stress. This is
represented by the portion of the curve C to D in
Figure 2. If the rrsr~ltirig value ( u ) is above the
proportional limit (u,,). indicated by the portion of
the curve A to C:, hr~ckling is s:dd to he ine1;rstic. Here,
the tangent modulirs (I?,) n~us t be used in some form
to replacc Young's or secant modulus ( E) in the
fomxola for detcrminiug u,,,..
This problem can he simplified by limiting the
maximum value of the critical buckling stress ( ucr )
to the yield strength ( u? ) . However, t he value of the
critical bncklirrg stress (u,,) may 1)c calculated if re-
quired.
Above the proportional limit (o, ), the ratio E =
~ J E is no longer constaut, hut varies, depending upon
LE 1-Compression Load on Ware
Suppwi (long ploter)
/ due s for Plate Factor (k
to be Ured in Farmulo
Critical Strsrr on
Plate to cause
Bucklins (o',,)
r'm = $07
Bl ei ch, "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures," p. 330
the type of steel (represented by its stress-strain dia-
gram) and the actual stress under consideration (posi-
tion on the stress-strain diagram). See Figure 3.
Above the proportional limit (u,,), the modulus
of elasticity ( E) must he multiplied by a factor (A)
to give the tangent modulus (E, ). The tangent modulus
(Ei) is still the slope of the stress-strain diagram and
Et = U/ E, but it varies.
If it is assumed that the plate is "isotropic" (i.e.,
having the samc properties in both directions x and y) ,
the critical buckling lorrnula hecomes-
where:
I A=+
If it is assumed that the plate has "anisotropic"
behavior (i.e. not having the same properties in both
directions x and y), the tangent modulus ( Et ) would
he used for strases in the x direction when the critical
stress (u,,) is above the proportional limit ( un) . How-
ever, the modulus of elasticity ( E) would he used in
the y direction because any stress in this direction
would be bek~w the proportional limit (up). In this
case, the above formula #2 would he conservative and
the following would give better results:
For steel, this becomes-
If the critical buckling stress (u,,) is less than the
proportional limit (up) then A = Ei/E = 1 and
formola #4 could he used directly in solving for critical
stress (u~,).
However, if the critical huckling stress ( u ) is
greater than the proportional limit (u,), then A < 1
and formula $4 cannot be used directly. It would be
better to divide through by ?'x and express the
formula as-
From the value of re,/ \/T;;formula #6 will give
the value of re,. Obtain proper value for the plate
factor ( k) from Table 1 or 3.
Curve for A7 Steel
n, = 33,000 psi
oe = 25,000 psi
inelastic
= 2. 70 ( $ 1 FIG. 2 Buckling $tress curve for
plater in compression.
10 20 30 40 50 60
Buckling of Plates / 2.1
FIG. 3 Stress-strain di agram
showing where tangent modulus
need be applied to determine
critical stress.
Determining Tangent Modulus Factor fX)
Bleich in "Buckling Strength of Metal Structures",
p. 54, gives the following expression for this factor
( X = E,/E):
where:
rr, = yield point
u, =3 propostional limit
u,, = critical buckling stress
If we use a ratio of-
the expression hecornes-
Then, multiply through by
TABLE 2-Shear Load on Plate
I--- " -4
I I
-Sleich, ',Buckling Strength of Metal Stiucturer." p. 395
See Figure 2 for curves representing these formulas
applied to the critical buckling compressive stress of
plates of A7 steel (u, = 33,000 psi).
UCKLlNG OF PLATES UNDER SWEAR
The critical buckling shearing stress (T,,) of a plate
when subject to shear forces ( T t ) may be expressed
by the formula in Figure 4 (similar to that used for
the critical buckling stress for plates in edge com-
pression).
where:
E = modulus of elasticity in compression (Steel
= 30,000,000 psi)
t = thickness of plate, inches
b = width of plate, inches
a = length of plate, inches (a is always the larger
of the plate's dimensions)
v = Poisson's ratio (for steel, usually = 0.3)
k = mnst,int, depends upon plate shape b/a an?
edge restraint, and also accounts for the
moduluz. of elasticity in shear (E.). See
Tables 2 and 3.
It is usual practice to assume the edges simply
supported.
Shear yield strength of steel ( T ) is usually consid-
1
ered as - of the tensile yield strength (o,), or .58 uy
"
Since
ular Plates Supported On 4 Sides
Between Stiffeners mnd
e Knee Between Stiffeners)
Load
CImnrrrslan
1 nir
Volver for Plate Factor (k)
to be Used in Formulw
3, 4, 5, ond 6
when
a, 1 k = 4
--
when
a ;z 1 k = 7.7
when
. 2 i
k = 7.7 + 33 (1 - 0i9
Crilicol Stress
7'(. and S',,
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-5
Since the plate constant ( k) can be adjusted to siort, in the irrelastic rangc the critical stress ( u, , )
contain the 1'3 factor, this becomes-
exceeds the proportional limit (u,,), and the tangent
modulus (E, ) is introduced by the factor ( h = Et/E).
2
Therefore, folmulas #5 and #6 would be used also
k + E
ccr = 12(L - v2)(i)
in the buckling of plates by shear.
Proper values for the plate factor ( k ) are obtained
from Table 2, for purc shear load, and Table 3, for
As before in the buckling of plates by compres- shear load comhined with compression.
TABLE 3-Critical Stress #or Rectangular lpltes Supported On
- Continued -
Vol usr for Plate Factor (k)
to be Used in Formulas
3, 4, 5, and 6
when
$21
4 l
where il = - + -
3 a '
when
% - 5.5 l
'I3 i
k = ( a + ) - I + q7]
[
4 a' + 5.34
where n = -
!az + 1)'
when
5.34 + 41a'
where 'i =
77
when
% s = s l
k = 3.85 n 2 ~ f l + 3
2 I
where q = - +' - - -
9 6 a '
when
f i Ca ( 1
J
I
k = 2 4 n m
1 2
where n = - + -~r
6 9 a '
4. SUMMARY FOR DETERMINING CRITICAL TABLE &-Buckling Stress Formulas
BUCKLING STRESS OF PLATE 1Compressionl
1. The value of the plate factor ( k) to be used in
formula #5 comes from Tables 1 , 2 or 3, adapted from
"Buckling Strength of Metal Strl~ctures", Bleich, pp
330, 395, 410.
2. Solve for u,,/ L I T from formula #5.
,
Portion Crilicol Buckling Compressive
Foclar --- 01 / ''I /
\&
Stress (nF,) Determined by
Curve
I-'
a. If u,,/\ h = uD, this is the value of ucx, SO
go to step 4.
b. If u, , . / \ T > u,,, go to step 3.
3. Insert this value (u,,/ \ / x) into formula #6,
and solve for the critical buckling stress (uc,).
4. After the critical stress ( ) has been deter-
mined, the critical buckling stress of the given plate
(u',, or r',,) is determined from the relationship shown
in the right-hand column of Tables 1, 2, or 3.
5. BUCKLING STRESS CURVES (Compression)
- - -
c to .I - 0". ."..I 6. =
\/G
B t o C
The horizontal line ( A to B) is the limit of the
yield strength ( u, ) . Here uc, is assumed equal to u,.
The curve from B to C is expressed by-
In regard to plates subjected only to compression or
only to shear, H. M. Priest and J. Gilligan in their
(b/ t ) where:
ucr = 1.8 uy - n
"Design A4anual for High Strength Steels" show the
n = -.
cwrve patterns, Figure 5 (compression) and Figure 10
(shear). They have divided the buckling curve into
'I 1 4770
three distinct portions (A-B, B-C, and C-D), and have The curve from C to D is 75% of the critical bock-
lowered the criticd stress values in the elastic buckling ling stress formula, Figure I, or:
region by 25% to more nearly conform to actual test
3820 5720
-
\,% to -x
r&ults. k r 2 E
Values indicated on this typical curve are for
U", = .75 12 ( 1 -.2,(t)'
ASTM A-7 (mild) steel, having a yield strength of
33,000 psi. -
4434
- -
The buckling curve (dashed line) of Figure 2
has been superimposed on the Priest-Cilligan curve for
[%I
comparison.
All of this is expressed in terms of the factor
b i t
o,, = 1.8 0, - n --
v'k
where: \/-."
" = -7-
4770
FIG. 5 Buckling stress curves
for plates in edge compression.
b/ t
Ratio -
s r
Cr i t i col buckl i ng compressive stress [n,,) for A- 7 steel having 0, = 33,000 psi
.I24 / Lood & Stress Analysis
TABLE 5-Factors for Eucklina Formulas
-
of Steel
4770
-.
3820
-
5720
-
\6 --- \/<
--Limiiins Values of
Yield
Side Strength
Conditions
AiSC-American institute of Steel Construction
AASHO-American Ariociotion of State Highway Ofiicials
AREA-Amercon Railway Engineers Arrociotion
12
Both simply
Factors needed for the formulas of curves in Figure
5, for steels of vario~is yield strengths, are given in
Table 5.
Figu-c 6 is just an enlargement of Figure 5, with
additional steels having yield strengths from 33,000 psi
to 100,000 psi.
For any given ratio of plate width to thickness
( b/ t ) , the critical buckling stress ( u ) can be read
directly from the curves of this figure.
12 One simply 33,000
33,000 44
A suitable lactor of safety must be used with these
values of b/t since they reprcscnt ultimate stress valnes
for buckling.
Some structural specifications limit the ratio bi t
to a maximum value (point B) at which the critical
buclding stress ( u ) is equal to the yield strength
(u, ). By so doing, it is not necessary to calculate the
buckling stress. These limiting values of bi t , as speci-
fied by several codes, are given in Table 6.
In general practice, somewhat more liberal values
13 & 16
supported; the .-
of bi t are recognized, Tablc 7, extended to higher yield
strengths, lists these limiting values of b/t.
7. EFFECTIVE lDTH OF PLATES I
COMPRESSION
The 20" X %" plate shown in Figure 7, simply sup-
ported along both side<, is ~ubjectcd to a compressive
40
load
-
other free 50,000
40
-. --
supported
50,000 36
Simply supported sides
/
-- --
1 1 & 13
.-.
.-
-
FIGURE 7
34
A-7 steel
o, = 33,000 psi
b = 20"
t = %"
k = 4.0
32
Under these conditions, the critical buckling com-
pressive stress (u,,) as found from the curve ( a, =
33.000 psi) in Figure 6 is-
u,, = 12,280 psi
LE 7-Usual Limiting Valuer of b/t
Yield
I
One Edge Simply
I
Both Edger
Strength Supported; the Simply
or psi Other Edae Free Supported
This value may also he found fro~n the fonnulas
in Tahle 4.
Since the ratio is 40.0 and thus exceeds
the value of 31.5 for point C, the ioilnwing formnla
must be used-
= 12,280 psi
At this stress, the middle portion of the plate would
be expected to buckle, Figure 8. The compressive load
at this stage of loading would be-
FIGURE 8
The ovcr-all plate shonld not ~vllapse since the
portion of the plate along tbe supported sides could
still be loaded np to the yield point (cr,) before ulti-
mate collapse.
This portion of the plate, called the "effectivti
width" can be dete~mined by finding the ratio h/t when
(u,,) is set equal to yield strength (u,) or point B.
From Figure 6 we find-
Since k = 4.0 (both sides simply supported), the
ratio-
Since the plate thickness t = %" width, b = 42.0 t
or h = 10.5".
This is the rffcctivc width of the plate which may
be stressed to the yield point (o;) before ultimate col-
lapse of the tmtirc plate.
The total comprcssive load at this state of loading
would be as shown in Figure 9.
The total comprcssive load here would be-
Another method makes no aIlowai~ce for the cen-
tral buckled portion as a load carrying member, it
being assumed that the load is carried only by the
supported portion of the plate. Hence the total com-
pressive load would be-
or from Table 4 we find- FIGURE 9
"
Critical buckling rheor stress for A.7 i t eel hovng a, = 33,000 psi
FIG. 10 Buckling stress curves for flate plates in shear.
. BUCKLING STRESS CURVES (Shear) uckline Stress Formulas (Shear)
The Priest & Gilligan curve, corresponding to Figure 5,
when applied to the buckling of plates in shear is shown
in Figure 10.
-
% , w e is expressed in t e r n (3). %e
Table 8. Comparison of Figure 10 and Table 8 with
Figure 5 and Table 4 reveals the parallelism of critical
buckling stress for compression u ) and for shear
( ~ c z ) .
Figure 11 is just an enlargement of Figure 10, with
additional steels having yield strengths from 33,000 psi
to 100,000 psi. Factors needed for the fmmulas of
curves in Figure 11 are given in Table 9.
For any value of ( yi ) - the critical buckling shear
. ~,
stress ( r er ) can be read directly from the curves of
this figure.
A suitable factor of safety must be used with these
values since they represent ultimate stress values for
buckling.
By holding the ratio of (3) to the value at
. ~~,
point B, .r,, = T? and it will not be necessary to com-
pute the critical shear stress (r,,). Assuming the edges
are simply supported, the value of k = 5.34 + 4(b/a)"
Then using just the three values of b/a as 1 ( a square
panel), "I (the length twice the w-idth of panel) and
zero (or infinite length), the required b/t value is
obtained from Table 10 for steels of various yield
strengths. The plate thickness is then adjusted as nec-
essary to meet the requirement.
Notice in Figure 10 and Table &that the critical
buckling stress in shear is given directly as (T,,). In
Tabl a 2 and 3 it is given &st as ( u ) and then
changed to (T,,).
Portion Critical Bvckling Sheor Strerg
Fccaor --
Of I Vi
(T,,) Determined by
Curve
TABLE 9-Factors for Buckling Formulas (Shear)
Yiald
Strength
of Steel
ar7 pri
Corresponding
Shearing Yield
Strength
r, = 3 8 o, psi
% g, ,,,,in+ 6
Vk
3820
--
- --
V 77
b l t
- far point c
\i k
- 5720
- - -
V ~7
= % ' 3
4770
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-11
TABLE 10-Maximum Values 06 b/t
To Avoid Formulas
Tensile b/o = 1
Yield Strength ($quore panel
PI psi
Maximum Value3 of b/ t to Hold r,, to 7,
(Panels with limply rvpported edges)
Foul edges - rimply supported
k = 5 34 + 4[b/oj2
Four edges - fixed
k = 8 98 + 5.60(b/oj2
10 20 30 40 50 60 10
Rotto &i
FIG. 11 Buckling stress curves (plates in shear) for various steels.
.12-12 / Load and Stress Anolysis
United Airlines hangar at San Fran-
cisco features double-cantilevered
roof over areas into which large jet
aircraft are wheeled, nosing up to
the 3-story inner "core" for servic-
ing. Center girder section half (at
left) i s completely shop welded.
Large plate girders like this one are
stiffened to prevent web buckling
due to edge compression. Contilev-
ered welded plate girders weigh
125 tons.
1. COMPRESSIVE STRESS
Comprcssivo loarli~lg of a mcrnb(ar when appl i ed
(axially) touctintric with thc ccnter of gravity of the
member's cross-s(,ction, results in compressive stresses
distribi~ttd uniformly across tlir srctior~. This comprt+
sive unit stress is -
A short column (slendc,rnisss ratio L/r g u a l to
aborit unity or less) tlmt is over1o;idrd in comprt.ssion
may fail hy crusliir~g. From a desigri standpoint; short
omp press ion nirrnhcrs pxsont little problt:rn. It is im-
portant to hold tlw compressive unit strcss within the
material's colnpressirc strength.
For stccl, the \-ield and nltimate strengths are con-
sidered to bc tlrc same in compression as in tension.
Any liolcs or opcni~igs in the section in the path
of force tmnsl;ition will u.cakm t l ~c rnemlxr, rriiless
sucli openings arc cuinp1atci)- filled iiy wiothcr member
that \vilI wrry its sllarc- of the load.
Excessive comprc.ssirm of long columns may cause
failure by buckling. As cornpressiw lo:iding of a long
colmnn is increased, it r i w~t udl y cal ms some ecc1.n-
tricity. This in turn sets np ;I bending monwnt, causing
the column to deficct or bucklc sliglltiy. Tliis deflection
incre;isrs thc ecc~mtricity and t hi s thc h i d i n g moment.
Tliis may pnigrcss to whwe t11c bending moment is
incre:ising at a rate greatel- than the ina-case in load,
and ilie ct~luiirn soou fails by buckling.
2. SLENDERNESS RATIO
As t l ~c me~nber becomcs longer or nmre slender, there
is rnorc of a trndenty for dtirnntc failure to be caused
by brickling. The most nintmon usay to indicate this
t t dency is the slenden~ess ratio which is equal to-
1,
-
r
where L = i ~nsu~por t ed length of mcniher
r = tile least radius of gyration of the section
I f tlw rrrmnbcr is made longcr, wing the same
cross-s<.ctirin ;iud tlw sanrc conrprtxive I d , the re-
s ul t i ~~g cori~pn:ssivr strr.ss u'iil rt?maili the same, d-
tho~igli tlic tmdrmcy for buckling will increase. The
ilcwd~~nwss ratio im.re;lsc\s as the radius of hyration
US thi. section is nduci d or :is the length of the mem-
hcr is incrrwwd. 'nie allowable compressive load which
may h~ applied to tbr member deue:~ses as the
slendimiess ratio inweasi:~.
The various columr~ formulas (Tablcs 3 and 4 )
givr tlic allowable :werage cornprmsive stress (5) for
the culomn. Tlwy do not give the actual unit%ess
devr~l opd in t l v column 11y tlir luad. Tlie unit stress
resulting trorn tltiw forniu1;is may he multiplied by
the cross-sectioniil arc:\ of tlir column to give the
alliiwddr load \ ~ l ~ i c l ~ ma); be supported.
3. RADIUS OF GYRATION
Tlie riidius ol gyration ( r ) is thr' distance from the
rreutral axis of a section to an imaginaiy point at which
the wl d c awn of the section wrild be concentrated
arrd still llavi, the same amonnt of inertia. I t is found
hp the erpressimi: r = f l l / ~:
i n t l i ? dosigir of ulrsy~n~nctrical sections to be used
as mlumns, tht. le:rst r;tdius of gyration (r,,%,,) of the
section must h t kriowrr in ordcr to make nse of the
siendt~rnrss ratio (l . / r) in tlrc coliimn fo~mulas.
If the sc.cti~ir~ in question is not a standard rolled
srr.tion tlrr priipc~ties of which are listed in steel hand-
kioks, it will hi: uectwtry to mnput e this least radius
of gyration. Sincr the bast radius of gyration is -
the minimrim li~orneiit of inertia of the section must
fir dvtermilned.
Mi ni mum Moment of Inertia
Th( ~ m;isiinllin moment of iiicrtin (I,,;;,,) ;ind t l ~e mini-
nxim monierit of inertia (I,,,,) of a cross-scction are and-
3.1-2 / Column-Reloted Design
V
FIGURE 1
Y
found on principal axes, 90" to each other.
Knowing I,, I,, and I,, it will he possible to find I,;,.
I Problem I I
Locate the (neutral) x-x and y-y axes of the offset T
section shown in Figure 2:
FIGURE 2
to locate neutral axis x-x:
where d = distance from center of gravity of element
area to parallel axis (here: XI-XI)
and, applying fnrinula #I from Section 2.3, the distance
nf neutral axis x-x from its parallel axis XI-XI is -
XM - 21.0
NA,., = - Z A = 12.0 = - 1.75"
to locate neutral axis y-y:
A -. -
..
W x I " 6.0 0
..r
Total M ; 12.0
1 s ~ ~ - .
+ 9.0
,- -
XM - + 9.0 - + 75"
NA,., = -7- -
,A 12.0
product of inertin
It will he nwessary to find the product of inertia
( I ) of the scction. This is the area ( A) times the
product of distances d, and d, as shown in Figure 3.
(Set: Figure 3 on facing page).
In finding the moment of inertia of an area about
a given axis (I, or I,), it is not necessary to consider
the signs of d, or d,. However, in finding the product
of inertia, it is necessary to know the signs of d, and d,
hecnnse [lie product of these two could be either posi-
tive or negative and this will determine the sign of
the resiilting product of inertia. The total product of
inertia of the di ol e scction, which is the sum of the
values of the individual areas, will depend upon these
signs. Areas in diagonally opposite quadrants will have
prodncts of ineltia having the same sign.
The product of inertia of an individual rectangular
area, the sides of which are parallel to the x-x and
y-y axes of the entirc larger section is -
FIGURE 4
where:
a and b = dimensions of rectangle ( = A)
d and c = distance of area's center of gravity to
the x-x and y-y axes (= d, and d,)
The product of ir~crtia of a T or angle section is -
(See Figure 5) .
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-3 I
l x = A d: I - A d :
i Xy : A dx dy
Moment of inertlo Moment of inertia Product of i ne~t i u
obout x- x axis about y y 0x1s about x-x and y ~ y u x c i
l i t Quadrant 2nd Quodront
l xy = + A dx dy i = -A dx dy
" Y
3rd Quadrant dih Quadrant
1 XY = i A d x d y i X" = -A dx d
FIGURE 3
Y
Xow use formula given previously for product of
inertia of such 21 section:
x
a d t ( d - & ) ( a + t )
Ixy =
- -
4 ( a + d )
-- ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( %) ( 5 - .- ~~ - 2. 5)(4 ..~ + %) -~
4 ( 4 + 5 )
r + 3.125 in.'
- - . .
Y
FIGURE 5
Here, determine sign by mspection.
1
I 25"
Determine the product of inertia of this offset 'r section
about the x-x and y-y axes:
I,, = ZA ( &) ( dl )
= 2.5 ( - + 1) ( - 1 - ,555) + 2 ( - 1.25) (-- ,695)
= t 1.388 + 1.737
= + 3.125 in."
Y
FIGURE 6
3.1-4 / Column-Related Design
L)ett.rn~iiie the minimnm radius of gyration of the
offset T s ect i o~~ shown previously (Fig. 2) and re-
peated licrc:
FIGURE 7
moment of inertia about axis x-x
,, - '--.:-~--+ -
;') x 6 ' ' ! 6 - 3 . 5 - I . I + 73.5t18.00
Total - pzlimp I= I , $ ~ 2 . 0 0 ~
ZM - -- 21.0
NA,., = -
. -.
-
A - 12.0
- - 1.75'' and
..
minimum moment of inertio
minimum radius of gyration
As a matter of interest, this r,,,!,, is about axis x'-x',
the angle ( 0) of which is-
2 I,,
t an20 = -. -- (See sketch below).
sx - Iy
20 = -- 46.4" or + 133.6"
and 0 = -+- 66.8"
Any ultimate buckling could be expected to occur
ahout this axis (x' -x' ).
1 Problem 4 1
Thc clian~icl section, Figtire 8, is to be used as a
collinrn. Determine its radins of gyration about its
X-x axx.
['sing the conventional formulas for the properties
of the section -
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-5
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
area of the section
Mean dimensions b and d are used, Figure 9.
A = bd - bldl = ( 6) ( 4) - (5.5)(3.75)
- 2 -
= 3.375 i n2 rx = b + 2d
distance of neutral axis
radius of gyration
If a slide rule had been used, assuming a possible
error of - one part in 1(K)O for every operation, this
ms\var co111d be as high as 1.336" and as low as 1.197".
This represents an error of t 4.3% and - 6.6%. For
this reason it is necessary, when using these conven-
tional formulas, to make use of logarithms or else
do the n:ork longhand. To do this rcquires about 30
min~ites.
The radios of gyration \ d l now he found directly,
using thc properties of thin sections, treating them
as a line. Sce Table 2. Section 2.2.
The exact value obtained from this formula for
r is 1.279". The value obtained by using the conven-
tional formula is 1.281".
Assuming a possible error of 1: one part in 1000
for every operation of the slide rule, it would be
possible to get an answer as high as 1.283" and as
low as 1.275". This represents an error of about Y4 of
the error using the conventior~al fonnulas with slide
rule. The time for this last calculation was 2 minutes.
oment of Inertia About Any Axis
Y
FIGURE 10
X
Sometimes (as in Problcm 3) the moment of inertia
of a sedion is nedehl about an axis lying at an angle
( 0 ) with the cor~ventional x-x axis. This may be found
by using the prodt~et of inertia ( 1 of the section
about the conventional axes (x-x and p-y) \?,ith the
moments of i~wrtizi ( I , ) and ( I , ) about these same
axes in the following formnla:
/ pinned
FIGURE 11
4. CRITICAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS
The critical load on a column as given by the Euler-
formula is -
where L, = eiivctive length of column.
This can be changed into terms of average critical
s,roin , r I. :n,lnxid3
FIGURE 12
stress by dividing by the cross-sectional area of the
column. Since A = I/r2, this hecomes -
Bccause this formula gives excessively high values
for short columns, Engesscr modified it by substituting
the tangent modulus (13,) in place of the usual Young's
modulus of elasticity ( E) .
The modified formula then becomes -
where:
Et - tangent modulus of elasticity, corresponding
to the modulus of elasticity when stressed to
ffw
r =: least radius of gyration of the cross-section
L, == effective length of the column, cwrresponding
to the length of a pinned column that would
have the same critical load. See Figure 11.
The Ihgesser fonnula is also called the Tangent
hlodnlus formula and chccks well with expcrimeutal
values.
5. TANGENT MODULUS
Use of the Tangent Modulns formula necessitates a
stress-strain curve (preferably in compression) of the
materid. See Figure 12, stress-strain cnrve for a
quenched and tcmpered steel in compression. IVhereas
the usual Young's modulus of elasticity represents a
fixed value for stccl (30 X 10') according to the ratio
Analysis o(. Compression / 3.1-7
Slenderness Ratios: Quenched & Tempered Steel
TABLE 2 TABLE 1
i ngcsr er of curve
l i oel ori i r bending:
of stress lo t r ai n lwlow the propoi-tiol~al limit, the
tangent moditlus of t ~ l x t i d y tiikrs into corisidrrntion
the cliirnciirrq eifwt of p1;tstic strain h~yond this point
correspo~~tlinq to the actual s t r ~ ~ s ilrr.ol\-cd.
Notice; in Figure 1% tlw hrokrw lirws rt:pres~:nting
the slopc For various v a l i r ~ ~ of tangmi modulus of
elasticity ( &) , iu this case from 1 X 10" psi up to
30 X 10". Tiit: c:omp~-iwiv~: strrss le\wl ( rr, . ) at which
a given E, mluc applies is di:tcrrnine<l hy moving out
par:iUcl from tlmt 1-eferencc inotluliis line ((lotted), by
means of pardlcl rule or otller si~itable dcvice, until
the strcss-strain cuwe is ii~tersrctcd at one point only.
The line i s tar~grnt at this point.
The compressive stress-strain curve for any ma-
terial KIII be superimposed on this graph and the
values of E+. at a given stress level ( r e) read by the
same tecl~nique.
i t "<$ ( 0 , *
FIGURE 13
iCOOW."<. . " ' O I . , ; ,
FIGURE 14
and the critical slerrdcrncss ratio (I.,,/r) is determined
for ~wi mt s ~d t r c s of strcss ( cr , ) , restilting in Tables I
and 2 for qucnchcd and teinpered steel only.
Table 1 givcs rorrwporlding \;altles of slendemcss
ratio (I&) for given v;ilucs of strcss (u,,) above the
proportio~i:il limit of ;I quimched and tempcred steel.
firlow tlrc m;itrrinl's propor-tiod limit, the use of
Yot~ug's modt~lris (I.:) or tangrnt modiilos ( E, ) pro-
vide the sanrr vdite. Tablc 2 for qtienclied and temp-
cred stecl givcs ihc slerr~lernt*ss ratio (L,/r) for stress
levtals (cr,) \viihin the prip~-tied portion of the
stress-strain cur\,tr. Si~icc the o t i i i Eitler fornrula
for cr,, iipplics here, this portioir of the crirvc is often
called tho Eolcr curve
6. PLOTTING ALLBWA LE STRESS CURVE
These val~tes from Tabltx I and 2 arc now plotted to
i'orm the cilrvc in Figurr 11. The Eulcr portion of the
curve is cxtmded upward hy a hrokcn line to indicate
the variance that would 11c obt xi nd by continuing to
use t he Euler formula beyond tlie proportional limit.
This must be kept in mirid in designing compn%ion
members having a low slenderness ratio (L/ r).
A few test results are also sliown to indicate the
close relationship hetwem thr Modulus for-
mula and actual valiies.
Note that a correporiding wrvf has been plotted
below the main citrve, r r pxwi ~t i i ~g the allowable
where:
TABLE 3-Allowable Compressive Stress (AISC)
For very rtiort :aluinns. t h foctor of iilfe?y !F.S., i s
to that of
mmbcr s n ieniion ( i s . =. 1.67). For ior8gei ~ o l u mn r , the iofrty of
foctoi ormenier gi adunl l y to o mo x mu v of F.S. = 1.92.
K -- effective length factor
Ronga of
LI
-Values
stress (cr) d t 1 ~ ;ipplyiug a factor of safety of 1.8.
~ .~
Average Allowable
compra*,ive
uni t st,e,s (C)
-
7. BASIC FORMULAS FOR COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
In "lirirklirrg Strmgtli oi h?ctal Stnicttlrcs," page 53,
131r~icIr intnxliir~s a pit-:rbolic formtila to csprcss this
tangent rnodiiltrs i:i~rvt. for comprcssiorr, i3y applying
a factor of s;tfrty (F. S. ). this Iitwmcs thc allowable
cot ~i pri ~ssi v~~ strws, l ' l r t ~ hasir paralwlk: formula thus
rnuilificd is -
o-, z proportiond limit
u -::: yirld point
F.S. : factor of s;~f(t!-
Any rcsidiml coniprcssive strcss (ir,, ) in the mem-
ber tends to lo\ver tlie 171-oportional limit ( c r ) os
straight-liw prirtio~~ of thc stri,ss-stmirr ciirvc, in rom-
puessioir: \vitlioirt 2iff1,rting tl~t. yicld p i n t For the
purposr of tlic ;thov<- fonnula, it is assumed that
Also assriming this value of residual co~npressive
strcss is ahorit half of the yield point, or cr,, = '12 cr,,
Formula 1113 becomes:
, . . . , .
- F.S. 4 .ii" F.S.
This fonniil;~ Im)viilcs a paralxrlic curve, starting
at a slrndrr~iess r;rtio of' ( r = = 0) with VR~I I CS at
yield stress (rr, ), ;urd mtc~iicling down to one-half of
this strrss wli<~i-i. it hwonics taiig(wt \villi the I1uler
curw ;it the i q>l j ( ~ litnit of (~lastic 11n1diny.
The slcrtdtwlcss ratic ; i t tllis point is:
l1)ovc~ tliis slc~tdcrrlt~s ratio, the 1:ulcr fonnula
is I I ~ :
I-,. -. 2:3.925
. . for stecl
r \,'cry
. . . ( 15)
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-
FIGURE 15
MAXIMUM WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS
For Elements of Members Under Axsol Compi eri i cn or Comprei i i or Due to Bendzng
Adopted from 1961 AISC, Sec 19. 1 or d I 9.2
with ~epo~ot or
The above rot i oi of b' t may be exceeded i f , by u i n g n the col i ui ati onr a wdt h equol to the
maxmum of these limits, the cornpierrive itreis value obtamcd ti wtthln the ol i owobe st i es
8. AlSC FORMULAS FOR COMPRESSION
EMBERS
The AISC I r a i~rcorpoi-ati~d (1'363) tliesc h s i c column
for~nitlas rlrdorsd hy the C:olumn R~w: i rcl ~ Corincil
Report in its spc.eifientimis for structrrr-al buildings.
The slcnderrlcss ratio w111:r~ the liulcr and para-
bolic portions of the citrvc intrl-scct, Formula 15, lias
been dcsigiiated in tlre AISC Specification as (Cc).
This is also i~iwrl>oriitrd into Forrn~~l a 13.
AISC itses n \ d ~ i c of ti =: 298,0O0,000 psi (instcad
of the r~sual 30,000,000 psi) for tlre itrodrilus of elas-
ticity of t ecl . For the I r t i of the curve,
Fornn~la 16, AISC uses a factor of safety of 1.92.
Tlre rcs~iltitig ncw 41S(: wlitnin forrr~ulas arc
sho\v~r in Tol~lc. 3.
l';il~lcs 6 tlrro~~gli L1 give the AISC comprcwion
ailo~vables for several strengths of structural stccl.
For v;ir-iow conditioils of colri~nn cross-section,
Figure 15: there is a limiting ratio of element width
to thickricxs ( b/ t ) . This ratio is rqressed as being
C Y ~ I I ~ I to or 11,s~ than ( - ) a rwt ~i i n w l r l i . divicl~d by
t1r.e sqlt:ir<, root of the, ii?;itcrinl's yicld st rmgt l ~. The
r r l at d 'l'ablc 4 pcrlirifs (lirrbct reading of ;I cornprcssion
~~l mnmt ' s b/t ratio for v:iriorrs yield strcngtl~s oi strel.
At times it may he desiral,lo to exceed the limiting
11-t I-atio of ;in clrwirwt. 'This air1 11e done if, in the
calc~ll;rtiotis, substitriting t l ~e sirort:,r ~nasimurn width
allowed (by t l r Fig. 15 limits) wo~ild give n coi~iprcs-
sivc ~mi t strtw valiic within the ;illo\r.iblr stress.
To 111'111 i n visii:ilizilrg rt,l:rtivc s:rvings in iirctal
liy the ttsv of lrighrr-strrngtli steels, I'igui-c 16 indicates
tlrc :illowable comprcssivc st rc~i gt l ~ ( I T) o1)tained from
ttic Tahlc 3 formttl:rs for 8 difFertm< yield strengths.
Notirc tlmt tlw adv:rrrtagc of the higlrer strengths drops
oil 3s the coltmn becomes marc slender.
I
TABLE 4-Limiting b/ t Ratios of Section Elements Under Compression
Limits of Ratio of Width to Thickness of Compression Elements for
Different Yield Strenrrths of Steel
Allowable Compressive Stress ( g)
based on I963 AISC Sec 1.5.1 3
whfch i s for steel of 36,000 pis
20 40 60 80 100 120 160 180 200
8,000
va,
10,000
--
b'a,
Slenderness i oti o [ Ll r ]
FIGURE 16
44.0 4 2 . 39.0 I 37.3 I )I 34.1 1 32.6 1 31.4 ~I 26.6 1 25.9 25.3
- - . ~.~ ~ .~ ~ ~ p~
i
55.0 1 52.6 48.7 47.1 46.6 44.7 42.6 40.8 39.2 33.4 / 32.4 / 31.6
Round off to the neoreit whale nurnbcr.
* Quenched and tempered iteelr: yield strength at 0.2% aifret.
Anal ysi s o f Compressi on / 3.1-1 1
If the allowable stress curve of quenched and
tcrnpwed steel (Fig. 14) werc now sr~pe~imposed on
this graph, thc ewn greater, strength advantnge of
quenched and tenrpcred stcel at lower slcndcrness
ratios would be rradily apparent.
The allowable compressive unit stress ( u) for a
given sicndcrncss ratio (KL/ r), from unityihrough
200; is qni ~kl y read from Tahlcs 6 thnjngli 11 for stwls
of various yield strengths.
.%hove KL/r of 130, the higlier-strength stcels offer
no advantage as to allowable con~prcssive stress (u). -
Above this point, nse Table 7 for the. rnorc economical
steel of 36,000 psi yield strength.
9. OTHER FORMULAS FOR COMPRESSl ON
MEMBERS
'Tal)l(. 5 givt,s t h AASt f O fonnoias, which are appli-
c:iblc to bridge design.
As a matter of gcnrr;~l interest, the colnmn formula
r:sta'tjlishrd for use of qur:rrchrd and temperod steel on
the Carqninez Strait Sridge (California) is -
TABLE 5-AASHO Al f owabl e Stress (.or Compressi on
Hav i ng Rigid Ends ond Concent r i c h o d s
A-7 and A373
j/4" m d under over 1%" to 4"
I i i , = 50,000 psi 0, = 46,000 mi I a, = 42,000 ori
Steel skeleton for 10-story Buffalo, New
York apartment building features unique
shop-welded construction. Principal erection
element is a "bent" consisting of a 50' floor
girder or "needle beam" threaded through
the web of column section near each end
and welded. Girder is supported mainly by
on angle bracket or "saddle" previously
welded to the column web. Girders canti-
lever out as much as 13' from column.
TABLE 8--82,000 psi yi el d steel LE 9-45,800 psi yield steel
TABLE 10-46,000 psi yield steel
1. INTRODUCTION
The preceding Section 3.1 covers the general Analysis of
Compression, along with an evaluation of the methods
for determining stress aliowables.
This present section deals more specifically with
the aciual design of colmnns and other omp press ion
members. For purposes of illustration, t he term
"column" is uscd quite liberally. This is due partly to
much of the material having been originally developed
expressly for columns. However, the information is
generally applicable to all compression members.
2. RESTRAINT AN
MEMBER
Section 3.1 explained how a compression member's
slendei~icss ratio (L/ r) relates to its buckling strength.
The degree of end restraint on a member results in its
having an effective length wvl~ich may vary considerably
from its actual unbraced longth. This ratio ( K) of
effective length to actual unbraced length is wed as a
multiplier in determining the dfedive length (L,) of
a compression member.
where:
L = actual length of the column
L, = effective length of the column to be used in
column formulas
K = effective length factor
Table 1 lists theoretical values of K and the Column
Research Council's corresporrding recommended values
of K for the effective length (L,) of columns under
ideal conditions.
Where End Conditions Can't Be Classified
In actual practice it will be more difficult to classify
the end conditions. If classification is doubtful, the
Column Research Council recommends the following
method based on the relative stiffness of connecting
beams and columns.
The stiffness factor of any member is given as I/L,
its moment of inertia divided by its length.
These values are determined for the column or
coli~mns in qr~cstion (IJL,.), as well as for any beam
or other restraining member lying in the piane in which
buckling of the column is being considered (IJL,).
The moments of inertia (I, and I,) are taken
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of buckling
being considered.
The values of G for each end ( A and B) of the
column are determined:
TABLE 'f-Effective Length (L. of
Compression Members
Buckled shape of member i
shown by doshed line
Theoreticol K value
--
Recommended design volue
when ideal cond:tionr
o m ooaroximoird
End condition
,totion fixed translation fixed
,ration free translotian fixed
,tation fixed translotion free
3totion free tronrlation free
' K moy be greater than 2.0
**Top end ossvmed truly rotation iree
From "Guide to Design Cri tei i o for Metol
Cornpierrion Members" 1960, p. 28,
Column Rereorch Council
094 0
boo d
999999 9 9 9
0GXOICW 0 d- M N
9
-
$Q'D" cu -
0
m
(3 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 I l l I I I i I I I I I
I I l l 1 1 1
o q o q q 0mcof:wIq d- i ? N -
do& n cu
8 a-
-00000 0 0 d 0 0
m '&, l l l t l l , 1
(3
I I l l I I I l l I I I I I I I
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-3
where: sidesway prevented
I,
- = the total for the columns meeting at
L" the joint considered.
Ig - the total for the beams or restrain-
'' - ing members meeting at the joint
considered.
For a column end that is supported, but not fixed,
the moment of inertia of the support is zero, and the
resulting value of G for this end of the column would
be z. However in practice, unless thc footing were
designed as a frictionless pin, this value of G would
be taken as 10.
If the column end is fixed, the moment of inertia
of the support is cc, and the resulting value of G
for this end of the column would be zero. However in
practice, there is some movement and G may he taken
as 1.0.
If the beam or restraining member is either pinned
( G = o: ) or fixed against rotation ( G = 0) at its
far end, further refinements may be made by multiply-
ing the stiIfness ( I / L) of the beam by the following
factors:
far end of beam pinned = 1.5
far end of beam fixed = 2.0
sidesway permitted
far end of beam pinned = 0.5
For any given column, knowing the values (GA
and G,) for each end, the nomograph, Figure 1, may
be used to determine the value of K so that the effec-
tive length ( L, ) of the column may be found:
L , = K L
This nomograph is taken from the Column Re-
search Council's "Guide to Design Criteria for Metal
Compression Members", 1960, p. 31. The nomograph
was developed by Jackson & Moreland Division of
United Engineers and Constructors, Inc.
3. STRENGTH OF
A very convenient method of treating combined load-
ings is the interaction method. (Also see Sect. 2.11,
Analysis of Combined Stresses.) Here each type of
I Problem I I
Find the effective ltmgth factor ( K) for column
A-B under the following conditions:
Sldesway
prevented
FIGURE 2
Here:
= ,260
GB = o ~ ; use 10
From the nomograph read K = .76
Sidesway
FIGURE 3
Here:
= ,620
Gg = zero; use 1.0
From the nomograph, read K = 1.26
1 .o
Margin of hafety
R, = constant
R, = vanoble
0 .2 .4 6 8 1 .O
R,
FIGURE 4
load is expressed as a ratio of the actual load to the
ultimatc load which would cause failurt. if acting alone.
axial load
P
R. = --
Pa,
bending load
M
Rb = -
Mu
torsionul load
T
Rt = -
T"
In the general example shown in Figure 4, the
effect of two types of loads ( X and Y) upon each other
is illustrated.
The value of R, = 1 at the upper end of the
Applied
moment
- -
Induced
secondary
moment
M "?ox
Resultant
moximum
moment
FIGURE 5
vertical axis is the ultimate value for this type of load
on the meniber when acting alone. The value of R, = 1
at the extnxme right end of the horizontal axis is the
ultimate value for this type of load on the member
when acting alone. These ultimate values are deter-
mined by experiment; or whm this data is not available,
suitable calculations may be made to estimate these
values.
The interaction curve is usually determined by
actual testing of members undcr various combined-
load conditions. From this, a simple formula is derived
to fit the cnrve and express this rclationship.
If points a and b are tlrc ratios produccd by the
actual loads, point c represents the combination of
these conditions. Thc margin of safety is indicated by
how close point c lies to the irrteraction curve. A suit-
able factor of safety is then applicd to these values.
Figure 5 illustrates this for axial compression and
bending.
IIowever, the applied bending moment ( MI )
c a w s the column to bend, and the resulting displace-
ment or eccentricity induces a secondary moment from
the applied axial force. See Figure 6.
Assume that the moment ( Mi ) applied to the
column is s i ~~aoi dnl in nati~re; Figure 7.
A siniisoidal moment applied to a pinned end
member rcsults in a sinllsnidal deflection curve, whose
maximum deflection is equal to -
Since the critical Euler load is -
FIGURE 6
this becomes
When the axial load ( P) is also applied to this
deflected column, a secondary moment is induced and
this is also sinusoidal in nature, its maximum value
being -
FIGURE 8
This slightly higher moment (M2 + MI) will in
the same manner produce a slightly greater deflection
(A2 + Al ) , etc. Each successive increment in deflection
becomes smaller and smaller.
The final values would be -
since
M,., = MI + P Ail,,, then
Accommodating Increased Moment
Due to Deflection
This increase in the moment of the bending load caused
by deflection is easily taken care of in the basic inter-
action formula by an amplification factor ( k) :
esign of Compression Members / 3.2-5
Applied
sinvsoidol
moment
FIGURE 7
Resulting
deflection
Curve
The interaction Formula #4 then becomes -
(ultimate load condition)
Each ultimate load condition factor in the above
formula is equal to the corresponding factor for working
conditions multiplied by the factor of safety ( n) ; or
<
= 1 and
where: subscript, is for working loads
subscript A is for allowable loads
Notice:
?r2 E
so: ue = -
/&\"
Or, on a stress basis -
where:
o; = computed axial stress
ub = computed compressive bending stress at point
considered
a. =: allowable axial stress permitted if there is no
-
bending moment; use largest (L/r) ratio,
regardless of plane of bending
u, = allowable compressive bending stress per-
-
mitted if there is no axial force. (AISC Sec.
1.5.1.4)
The AISC Specification Sec. 1.6.1 uses the same
amplification factor. They use the term (F',) which is
the Euler stress (u,) divided by the factor of safety
( n) . The term (v',) is used here in place of AISC's
( Ff e) .
AISC uses E = 29,000,000 psi and n = 1.92 in the
above.
Here:
r, = radius of gyration about an axis normal to the
plane of bending
L, = actual unbraced length of column in the
plane of bending
TABLE 2-Euler Stress Divided By Factor of Safely
140
i 50
i 60
170
180
190
200
is = octuol unbioced length of column in the plane of bending
iB = radius of gyration about the oxir of bending
-
7,620
6,640
5,830
5,170
4,610
4,140
3,730
7,510
6.550
5,760
5.110
4,560
.-
4,090
7,410
....
6,460
5.690
5,050
4.510
.......
4,050
1
---
7,300
6,380
5.620
-.
4,990
4,460
7,200
6,300
5,550
4.930
4,410
7.100
6.220
5,490
... - .
4,880
4,360
4,010 3.930 3,970
7,010
6,140
5.420
4,820
4,320
3,890
. . . . .
6.910
6,060
5,360
4,770
4,270
3,850
6,820 6,730
5,980
......
5,290
4,710
-
4,230
3.810
5.910
5,230
4,660
.-
4.180
-
3,770
Design of Compression Members /
According to AISC Sec. 1.5.6, this value (o' ,) may
be increased 'h for wind loads.
Table 2 lists the values of 5', (Eulcr stress divided
TABLE 3-Value of $ for Several
Load Conditions
Core
KLb
by factor of safety) for y- ratios from 20 to 200.
' b
These values apply for all grades of steel, hut are based
on the conservative factor of safety = 1.92.
The derivation of the amplification factor has been
based on a member with pinned ends and a sinusoidal
moment applied to it. In actual practice these con-
ditions will vary; however this factor will be reasonably
good for most conditions. AISC Sec. 1.6.1 applies a
second factor ( C, ) to adjust for more favorable con-
ditions of applied end moments or transverse loads.
applied end momeflts
applied tranmerse load7
where:
MI and M2 are end moments applied to the column.
MI 5 M2, and the ratio (MI/M2) is positive when
the column is bent in a single curve and negative when
bent in reverse curve.
AISC 1963 Cornmentori
.. -
(see Table 3 for values J, and C,, for several
load conditions)
(AISC Formula 6)
Here:
A = maximum ddection due to transverse load
L = actual length of member also used in deflec-
tion ( A ) calculation
M = maximum moment between supports due to
transverse load
AlSC Formulas For Checking
When
When
the amplification factor must he used
Formula #8 now becomes-
(AISC Formula 7a)
the influence of the amplification factor is generally
small and may be neglected. Hence the following
formula will control:
This formula provides a check for column stability.
3.2-8 / Columm-Related Design
AISC formula 7b
-
In this exompie:
A36 steel
L i r = 80
-
-7
3 = 15,360 1
0, = 22,000
0: = 23,300
0, = 36,000
FIGURE 9
,
old AISC formulo
Bending compressive stress (ab)
I t is an attempt to estimate thc total bending stress
in the central portion of the column and to hold the
axial compressiw stress down to a safe level.
As L/r increases, this formnla will reduce the axial
load carrying capacity of the column. This is because
the Euler stress (o;,) decreases as L/r increases.
As C , increases, caused by a less favorable con-
dition of applird and moments or transverse forces,
Formnlx #I1 will reduce the axial load carrying capac-
ity of the column.
The end of the member also must satisfy tho
straight-line interaction formula:
1 ( AISC Formula 7h) I
In this formula, the allowable for compression
(u,) is for a column having a slendemcss ratio of L/r
-
= 0, hence r, = .60 IT,.
--
This formula provides a check for the limiting
stress at the ends of the column, and as such applies
only at braced points. k
Figure 9 is an example of the relationship of AISC
Formulas 7a and 7h in the design of a specific mem-
ber, nnder varions loading conditions.
For bending moments applied about both axes
of the column, these formulas become:
(AISC Formula 6)
I
(AISC Formula 7a)
I (AISC Formula 7b)
esign of Compression Members / 3.2-9
4. DESIGN OUTLINES n~cinbers nnder coinpression in bending. Table 6 ap-
plies to hox members tinder compression in bending.
The design procedure is simplified by iollowing the Earh of these tl~ldrs categorize the mt:mber-load
appropriate outline in Tables 4, 5, or 6. Table 4 applies conditions \\.hi& innst be satisfied, ; u ~ d then presents
to compression mcinbers under combined loading (in- the nqoi rcd for~nulas with which to determine the
teraction problems). Table 5 applies to open-sectioned ailowablc cornpressive stress.
LE 4---Design Outline for Compression Members Under Combined Loading
flnteroction Problems)
category@
Coiumni i n framer wi th
computed momcnli moximum ot
the ends wi t h no transverse
loading, and d e r wo y is
permitted. Were the l atcrol
stability 01 the i i nme
depends upan the bendi ng
r t i f f nei i of its members.
v
Siderwov permitted
Check #il and #12
Ma
using o, = -
S
:ategory@
ol umnr with computed mu:iioals
ianimum at the ends with no
.onweire loading, and
iderway i s pievented
Si deway orevented
Check #I i #12
M?
using a, , --
s
I
(AISC Forrnulo 7oi
(AISC Forrnulo 7b)
.tegopy@
ornprersian members wi th
i di t i onol tronrveire lood;;
example a compi ~i si ve
i ord of o truss with
onsverse loading between
i ppoi t f (panel pointr!.
Tionrvene l oodi
No ti onri oti on of iointr
). = max deflection due t o
t i ani vei i e l oodi ng
= mox aoment between ruppori r
due t o trans. loading
ie KL i n computing or
-
ie Li, i n computing moments (M)
Check #I i
M,
" r i n g a, =
S
Check #i 2
M
ou - 2
S
a,. oh ond .60 or moy be
--
increoied $6 i or wi nd (AISC
Sei iSd!
TABLE 5-Design Outline for Compression Members Under Compression In Bending
Members Which Are Symmetrical About An Axis i n Plane of Bending
And Having Some Lateral Support of Compression Flange
Comprer%ion element8 which are not "campoct" but meet
the lollowing AISC Sec 1.9 ieqvirementi
Having on axis of symmetry in
the plane of its web:
AISC 1.5.1.4.5
L
when T 5 40 don't need AiSC Foirnuio 4
l i i n addition. lateral sirppait of i amprerri ui flange
does not exceed:
A7. A373. A36 steels
13 bc
Other stronger steels
--
and compression elements meet the following
AISC Sec i 5. 14. 1 "rampoct section" requirementi:
* This.mtio may be exceeded if the Lending stress, using a
u d t h not cxcecding this limit, is within the allowable stress.
t For "oompact" columns (AISC Scc. 1.5.1.4.1) which are s y n -
rnetrical about an axis in the plane of bending, with the above
lateral support of its con~piession Range and 0. = .15 a, use
90% of the moments applied to the ends of the column if caused
by the gravity loads of the connecting beams.
f For rolled sections, an upward variation of 3% may be toler-
ated.
In Tables 5 and 6: ment at the ends of the nilbraced length, taken abont
L = unbraced length of the compression flange
br = width of ~vmpression flange
d = depth of member treated as a beam
r = radius of gyration of a Tee section comprising
the compression flange plus % of the web
area; about an axis in the plane of t he web.
For shapes symmetrical about their x axis of
bending, substitution of r, of the entire sec-
tion is conservative
At = area of the compressiort flange
MI is the smaller and Mp the larger bending mo-
-
the strnng axis of the member, and where MI / & is the
ratio of end moments. This ratio is positive when Mi
and M2 have the same sign, and negative when they
have different signs. When the bending moment within
an unbraced length is larger than that at both ends of
this length, the ratio shall be taken as unity.
(but not more than 2.3 can
conswvatively be taken as 1 .O)
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-1 1
TABLE 6-Design Outline for Box Members Under Compression I n Bending
embers Which Are Symmetrical About An Axis I n Plcrne ol Bendinq
No AlSC limit on laterol rupport
of compresdon flange beiowe box
section is torsionally ri gi d
Compiession elements which ore not "campad" but meet
the following AlSC Sec 1.9 requirements (1.5.1.4.31
3000 *
b/t =
%
8000 *
B/t = -
%
Note: Al l notes from Table 5
apply equolly to this
Toble 6.
gs = .60 a,
And if lotero! support doer not exceed:
A7, A373. A36 steels
13 bz
Other rtronger steels
2400 hi 20,000,000 A,
"' d <,
And compoiiion eiernrntr meet the following
AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 "compoct section" iequliernentr;
I 600 t
b/ t 5 ----
G
6000
B/1 5 .-
V T
5
d" 5 *( 1 - 1.43 -2)
t~ - fl
8000
but need not be lerr than -
. -
V T
--
a, = .66 a, t
-
TABLE 6A
1600 1
fl
.-
Width-to-
3000 - 9.5
thickncrr
roti o not 6000
-
t o exceed:
~
13,300
\K
yield strength of steel * * *
Lotero! support 2400
of compression 6
flonge of "compact" -
sectionr not 20,000,000 Ar
t o exceed:
- --- -.
a~ 4
C. =
1.18.2.3: mox. longitudino! rpocing
between intermittent fi l l et welds
ottoching compression flonge
t o girderr
4Wo
S ~ - t ~ 1 2
E
*Quenched & Tempered Steels: yield strength at 0.2% offset
Round off to nearest whole number
Allowable n = ,605,
bending
t t r es e = .66 s,
33.000
20.000
100.000
60,000
46,000
27,500
22,000
36,000
22,000
65,000
39,000
42,000
25,000
90,000
54,000
60,000
36,000
50,000
30,000
66,000
24,000
45.000
27,000
95,000
57,000
~-
55.000
33,000
28,000
62,700
29,5001 30,500 39.500 1 43,O0Oi 59,400 33,000 36,500
5. BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The basic requirements of welds on built-up compres-
sion members, as specified by AISC, are summarizkd
by Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13.
Wel di ng a t t he ends of
bui l t -up compression mem-
bers bearing on base plates
or milled surfaces ( AI SC
1.18.2.2) :
Weld odequote to transfer
any calculated force
Continuous fillet weld
at end of all elements
in contact with each
other (AISC 1.18.2.2)
Bearing or base plate
or milled surfaces
FIGURE 10
Plate in contact with a shape (AISC 1.18.2.3):
Two rolled
1.18.2.3) :
shapes in contact with each other (AISC
n of Compression
lates and Lacing
,,.'8.2.5) 0"d (1
182.61
Main comprrsion member built-up from plates or
shapes and czrrying a calculated force:
P
FIGURE 14
The spacing of lacing must be such (AISC 1.18.2.6)
that -
S - of elemc-nt = (if whoL member
rl
Single Double
B!oiiriy C1:ocin~ FIGURE 16
For sil~glo bracing: For doubk bracing:
Wlwn the, su:i~~irrz bctuwri intcrn~i.ttr:nt melds
Design laciug bar for axial compressive force ( F) :
(AISC 1.18.2.6)
\vhere:
n = number of bars carrying shear ( V)
Determine nllowablr compressive stress (ua) from
-
one of the following two formulas:
( AI SC Formula 1 ) I
(Use Tables 6 through 14, Section 3.1)
ua from Form. #15
u. =
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(17)
On continuous cover plates with access holes
( AI SC 1.18.2.7):
Typical Built-Up Compression Members
Figure 18 slrows a number of examples of com-
pression members built up from common shapes by
means of welded construction. As indicated in lower
views, perforated plates are often substituted for lacing
bars for aesthetic effect.
I Problem 2 /
To cheek the design of the following built-up section
for the hoist of a boom. The 15' column is fabricated
from A36 steel by welding four 4" x 3%" x 'h" angles
together with lacing bars.
-
"For double brace, use .70 L,
Use net section
for cornpierrion
I
FIGURE 18-Typical Built-up Compression Members
properties of each
A = 3.5 in."
r, = .72"
I, = 5.3 in.*
I, = 3.8 in.*
x = 1.0"
y = 1.25"
corner angle
moment of inertia of
built-up section about axis 1-1
1, = 4(3. 5)(5. 75j2 + 4(5.3)
= 484
moment of inertia of
built-up sodion about axis 2-2
least radius of gymtion
slendcrncss ratio
Then from Tahle 7 in Sect. 3.1, the allowable com-
prmsive stress is uc Z= 19,900 psi and the allowable
compressive load is--
P = u , A
-
= (19,900) (14)
= 278.6 kips
Check slenderness ratio of single 4" x 3%" x %"
angle between bracing:
= 22.4 < 30.6 OK
-
(AISC Sec. 1.18.2.6)
FIGURE 20
Design of Lacing
AISC specifies that lacing bars be proportioned to resist
a shearing forw normal to the axis of the member and
equal to 2% of the total compressive force on the mem-
ber (Sec. 1.18.2.6):
v = 2% P
= (.02) (278.Ck)
= 5.57"2 bars)
The axial force on each bar is-
The unsupported length of the lacing bar between
connecting welds is -
The least radius of gyration of the %" x l/z" bar is
obtained tliusly -
A = 'I* in."
And the slenderness ratio of the lacing bars is -
= 56.3 < 140 OK single lacing
-
(AISC Sec. 1.18.2.6)
From Tahle 7 in Sect. 3.1, the allowable compres-
sive stress on thc bas is -
uc = 17,780 psi
-
The allowable compressive force on the bar is -
F - U < A
= (17,780) (.25)
= 4. 49 > 3.22" OK
If each end of each bar is connected to thc angles
by two 1%'' long %<:/,,j" (ETO) Met welds, this will pro-
vide an allowable forco of -
F = 2 X I.% X 2100 lhs/in = 6.3k > 4.4Sk OK
---.
Design o$ Compression Members / 3.
I Problem 3 1
A multi-story building, having no interior columns, has
a typical welded built-up cdumn with the section
shown in Figure 21.
A36 steel and E70 welds arc employed.
The following three load conditions are recognized:
Care A
dead and iive loodr
no wind
P = 2500 k i p
Mr = 250 ft-kips
M, = 0
Case C
deod ood iive loodr
with wind in v-v with wind i n x-x
~. . . . . ~~
direction direction
P = 2700 kips P = 2800 kips
M, = 2200 ft-kips Mr = 250 ft-kips
M, = 0 M, = i 200 ft-kips
properties of the 14" WF 426# section
A = 125.25 in.'
moment of inertia about x-x
Let reference axis be a-a here
L
Outride face of column
=: 74,507 in.'
L I I ---A
= + 2.84" (from a-a)
moment of inertia about y-y
+ 76.570
FIGURE 21
Allowcrble Stresses
The various axial compressive stresses 'and bending
stresses on the built-up cohlmn are checked according
to Formulas #I1 and 12 (AISC Sec. 1.6.1, Formulas
6, 7a, and 7b).
When wind loads arc included, the basic allow-
able stresses are increased by %. provided the resulting
section is not less than that required for dead load, live
loads, and any impact (AISC Sec. 1.5.6).
Compression members are considered "compact"
when syn~metrical about an axis in the plane of bend-
ing, with lateral support of the column's compression
flange not exceeding a distancc equal to 13 times its
width (A36 steel) (AISC Sec. 1.5.1.4.1). For "compact"
columns, the engineer can use just 90% of moments
applied to ends of the column if caused by gravity loads
on connecting beams (no wind loads) and ua 5 .15 u,, -
(AISC See 1.5.1.4.1).
If the section is not "compact", AISC Formulas 4
and 5 must be used to determine the allowable com-
pressive bending stress (ubr and -. ub,).
check for lateral support
LC = maximum unbraced length of compression
flange for "compact" section
+ 727
Total 25625
About strong
axis [x-x)
1
check for "compact" section
Bange half, width to thickness
I = B m 11" = 5720
L 13'
13'
( a) outer flange plate
36" W 3004
( b) inner WF section
@ 4;
check web depth to web tlzicknes
dm - 34"
Actual - - - = 22.6
t , 1%
I - U 9 O . d = 405 8
- -
/'
L 50'
1 - 74,507 1n4 = 5720L-
-
-
L - 13'
8000
but need not be less than -
V T
4
FIGURE 22 (a)
@
but need not be less than 42.1
42.1 > 22.6 OK
End V~e w of Bldg
'Not fixed
Therefore it is a "compact" section and following
can be used:
rbr = uby = .66 uy or 24,000 psi
- --
Euler stress (I+',,) and (u',,)
About strong axis (x-x):
From Table 2, read u',, = 133,750 psi.
About weak axis (y-y) :
From Table 2, read d,, = 50,400 psi.
ullowahle axial compressive stress
Sidesway being permitted, from the nomograph (Fig. I):
I< = 3.65 and
L , = K L
= (3.65)(13' x 12")
= 569"
Design ot Compression Members / 3.2-19
FIGURE 22 (b)
Sidesway being permitted, from the nomograph (Fig. 1):
K = 2.1 and
L . = K L
= 2.1 (13' x 12")
= 328"
This value of r, = 54.4 governs, and from Table 7 in
Sect. 3.1 (A36 steel)
cr* = 17,970 psi
Column Analysis
The following three analyses of the column (Cases A,
B, and C) are for columns with computed moments
maximum at the ends with no transverse loading and
with sideswny being permitted.
This would be catezory A on Table 4. In this case
(6, = .85) for both axes (x-x) and (y-y).
CASE A
Dead and Live Loads; KO Wind
moment at
support
FIGURE 23
applicd loark
P -- 2500 kips
M, = 250 ft-kips
M, = 0
applied stresses
= 9760 psi
3.2-20 / Coiumn-Related Design
- -
(250 x 1000 X 12)(23.50)
( 74,507 )
= 947 psi (max at 4" x 20" flange fk )
= .15, .9M, can
b e x e d (Sec 1.5.1.4.1): but
allowable stresses
US = 17,970 psi
-
Since it is a "compact" section laterally supported
witlun 13 times its compression flange width (Sec
1.5.1.4.1) :
u,, = 0
oi. = uby = .66 us = 24,000 psi
u',, = 133,750 psi
0.60 u, = 22,000 psi
u sib0
in this case, - = ---- -
u* 17,970 - '54
= 54 > .15To full value of
h4, must be used.
checking against Fornzula #I 4 (AISC 7a)
Here C, = .85 be-
cause sidesway is
permitted
checking against Formula #15 (AISC 7b)
CASE B Dead and Live Loads; Wind in Y Direction
applied loads
p = 2700 kips
M, = 2200 ft-kips My = 0
applied stresses
P
= K
- .-
- 2700 lo0O = 10,520 psi
256.25
= 8330 psi (max at 4" X 20'' flange ifi )
We cannot use .9 M,, because wind loading is
involved; hence full value of M, must be used.
allowable stresses
ua = 17,970 X 1.33 M7ind in addition
.-
(Set 1.5.6)
ubx = 24,000 X 1.33 Wind in this direction
--
(Set 1.5.6)
vex = 133,750 X 1.33 Wind in this direction
(Scc 1.6.1 and 1.5.6)
checking against Formula #14 (AISC 7a)
FIGURE 24
checking against Fornizrlti $15 (;1lSC 7b) . i\4g ~ o
Obi li
m,,
-. h --. I . I .()
0.6 w, + F,, I V,,? . .
(10,520)
-- -- . --
(8330)
14.500 1'" ; m i x ; i t fi;nigc of WF section)
(22,000 x 1.33) ~2-t.(nx) x~ ~i . 33)
,621 < 1.0 OK
-
or
CASE C
Dead and I i vc I,o;ds; Wind in S Direction
1.5.',00 pi (irr;ix :it outrr c r f ~ c . of 4" X 2wR)
We cailrlot I I W .Y hl, bec:iuw: wind loading is
/ Y
involved; hm<v f~ill \ ; h e of (M,) ;md (M,) must be
used.
allowable st r t wr s
o;, = 17,070 ;,< 1.33 Wind in addition
(SK 15.6)
cr,, = 24,000
No wi l d in this direction
uby = 24,000 >: 1.33
Wind in this direction
(Sec 1.5.6)
utCx z z 13X750
No wind in this direction
5 = 50,400 >< 1 3 Wind in this direction
checkins apiirlst I'oi.rnr11a #11 JAISC 7nj
FIGURE 25
applied loads
P 2Y00 kips
M, 2,70 ft-kips
M, 1200 ft-kips
: 10,920 psi
olumn-Related Design
Torsion on Built-Up Column
One item left to investigate in the built-np column is
the twisting action applied to it. In Case C, the wind
in the x-x direction causes a moment of M, = 1200
ft-kips because of the restraint of the spandrel beams.
( 1) One way to analyze this problem is to assume
that this moment (M,) is resisted by the elements (t he
14" WF section and the 4" X 20'' flange plate) of the
built-up column in proportion to their moments of
inertia about axis y-y. See Figure 26.
Since:
The moment resisted by the 4" X 2 0 flange plate
is-
= 346 ft-kips = 4,153,000 in.-lbs
This moment is to be transferred as torque from
the 13" WF section to the 4" X 20" plate through a
4" X 20" R
J
Torque box
-V
FIGURE 26
torque box, made by adding %"-thick plates to the
built-up column in line with t he beam connections.
This torque box is checked for shear stress; Fig-
ure 27.
= 6600 psi OK
-
( 2) Another method of checking this twisting
action is to consider the moment (M,) as applying
torque to the built-up column. See Figure 28.
This applied moment may be considered as two
flange forces: in this case, 411 kips iu the upper and
the lower flanges of the spandrel beam, but in opposite
directions. Since these forces are not applied at the
"shear center" of the column, a twisting action will be
applied to the column abont its longitudinal axis within
the region of the beam connection where these forces
are applied; there is no twisting action along the length
of the column in between these regions.
Since an "open" section such as this built-up
FIGURE 27
FIGURE 28
No
twisting
action
Twisting
oction o
section
Shear oxis
I
I
Torsue box
3.2-24 / Column-Related
P = 1000 lbs
A
column offers very little torsional resistance, two plates
will be added within this region to form a closed
section about the shear axis to transfer this torque. See
Figure 29.
If this torque had to be transferred from one floor
to the next, these plates would havc to be added the
full length of the column. How-ever, this torque is only
within the region of the connecting beams which apply
these forces, hence plates are only added within this
short distance.
In our analysis of the column under Case C load-
ing conditions, a transverse force of 1 kip was assumed
to be applied in line with the web of the WF section
of the built-up columu (this is the position of the span-
drel beams). This cross-section is in the plane of the
top flange of the spandrel beam. Just below this, in
the plane of the lower flange of the spandrel beam,
this 1-kip force will be applied in the opposite direction.
Treating this short section of the built-up column
as a bcam, the shear forces due t o this I-kip force will
he analyzed on the basis of shear flow. In an open
section it is not difficult to do this because there is
always one or more starting points, the unit shear force
at the outer edges alwtys being zero. But in a closed
section such as this, it is necessary to assume a certain
value (usually zero) at some convenient point, in this
case at the midpoint of the web of the WF section. The
unit shear forces are then found, starting from this point
and working all the way around the section using the
general formula-
V a y
q2 = q, +
I
where:
V = transverse force applied to srction (Ibs)
I = moment of inertia of built-up section about
the axis normal to the applied force (h4)
a = area of portion of sectiou considered ( i n2)
y = distance between center of gravity of this
erign 06 Compression Members / 3.2-25
area and the neutral axis of the boilt-up
section (in.)
% = unit shcar force at the start of this area
(lbs/in. )
q a = unit shear force at the end of this area
(Ibs/m. )
This work is shown as Computation A. Relow, in
Figure 30: the total shear force ( Q) in the various
areas of this section are found; thcse are indicated by
arrows. This work is shown as Computation R. By
Computation C, thesr shear forces are seen to producc
an unbalanced moment oi 70.519 in-lhs, which if nn-
resisted will cause this section of the colurnn to twist.
In order to couiiterbalancc thiq moment, a negative
moment of the same value is set up by a constant shear
force flow of-
q = -51.1 1bs per linear inch
When this is sr~perimposed upon the original shear
flow, Figure 30, we obtain the final %ow shown in
Figure 31. The resulting shear stress ( r ) is obtained
by dividing the unit shear force ( q) by the thickness
of the section. Also the valucs must bc increased be-
cause the actoal forcc is 111 kips instcad of 1 kip, the
work and resulting shcar stresses are shown as Compu-
tation D. Sce Figuw 37 also. These shear stresses seem
reasonable.
FIGURE 30
FIGURE 31
olumn-Related Design
Computation A
1.q. = 0 0
v L 1 ~ - o +
(1000)(7.83 X 1.8751(3.921 =
+ 5,01 = 2 . q . = 0 + I -
11,491.
5.01
3. qa = 0 0
v 0 Y
4. qe' = qs + - = 0 +
IlOOO)i8.35 X 3.03%!7.83) =
+ 17,24 =
I 11,491.
17.24
5. q." = qr + q,' = 5.01 + 17.24 = 22.25
" a = 22.25 +
110003(8.35 X 3.03W.83) = 22,25 + 17,24 =
39,49 6. qa = q,"
+ T 11.491.
" - 39.49 +
i10001l28.64 X '/2)!9.095) = 39,49 +
=
7. qir = qa + I -
11,491.
8. qp = 0 0
V o Y l1000)1.905 X 4)(9.548) = + 2.99 =
9. qc' = q. + 7 = 0 +
2.99
11,491.
10. qr" = qt' + qt = 2.99 + 50.82 = 53.81
I I. q. = q . " + = 53.81 +
11000)(9.095 X 4114.5481= 53,81 + 14,40 =
68,2,
11,491.
Computation B
12. Om. = (3 X 0 + ]/5 X 5.01) 15.66 = 26.1 #
13. Qsa = (% X 17.24 X 8.35) +
22.25 + 39.49
2
X 8.351 = 329.7 #
14. Qas' = 39.49 X 1.265 = 50.0 #
15. Qa t = 39'49 + 50'82 X 28.64 = 1293.2 #
2
16. Qu = (36 X 68.21 + % X 53.81) 18.19 = 1153.4 #
Check I: V == 0
Computation C
Now, take moments about @
The unboionred moment ir 70,519 in-ibs
Make 2 M, = 0 o constant shear force flaw, which must be added to i arm o negative
moment of - 70,519.
The resulting aheor force is -
Where [A] = aieo enclored by renterline of web, flonges, and
[A] = (15.66)(8.35) + (18.19)(28.64) = 651.7 in'
This giver the true rhea? flow (Fig. 31).
FIGURE 32
FIGURE 33
(@ 1450 psi
FIGURE 34
Reentrant Corners (Figures 33 and 34)
The only other concern on this built-up construction
is the sharp reentrant corner at points ( d) and (f).
Timoshenko in "Theory of Elasticity", p. 259, in-
dicates thc following shear stress increase for a re-
entrant comer:
Sharp reentrant corner
FIGURE 35
In structural steel. any stress concentration in this
area probably would be relieved through plastic flow
and could he ncglectcd nnlcss fatigne loading were a
factor or there were sonic amount of triaxial stress
along with impact loading.
Of course if a fillet weld could be made on this
inside corner, it would eliminate this problem. See
Fignre 35. This is possible in this case, because these
plates for the torque box ;ire not vcry long and the
welding operator could reach in from each end to make
this weld.
ELDS FOR FABRICATED COLUMN
The melds that join the web of a built-up column to
its inside WF seetion and its ontside flange plate, me
subject to longitudinal shear forces resulting from the
changing moment along the length of the column.
As an example, continue with the conditions stated
for the preceding Problem 3.
The bending force in the flanges of the girder
applied to the colunm is found by dividing this moment
(M,) by the depth of the girder:
-
-
2200 ft-kip X 12"
.
35"
= 754 kips
Thc point of contraflexure, or zero moment, is
assumed at about midheight of the column. The hori-
zontal force at this point, or bansverse shear in the
column, may be found by dividing half of the moment
applied to the column at the connection by about one-
half of the column height. This assumes half of applied
Wind
i
T
-* J
Midheight
h
moment cnters upper colt~mn and half enters 1owcr
column.
M
F,, = --
'6 h
- 1100 ft-kip
6.5'
= 170 kips
The moment and shear diagrams for the column
when loaded with dead and live loads and wind in
the y-y direction (Case H ) are given in Figure 38.
This shear diagram indicates the transverse shear
within the region of the beam connection is Vz I= 584
kips, and that in the remaining length of the column
is V, = 170 kips.
The size of the connecting weld shall be deter-
mined for the larger shear within the region of the
beam connection, and for the lower shear value for
the remaining length of the column. The minimum
fillet weld size is aiso dependent on the maxi~num
thickness of plate joined (AWS Building Article 212
a 1, and AISC Sec. 1.17.4).
Moment di agram
FIGURE 36
Shear di agram
This i s also o picture of the amount
and location of the connecting welds
to hold column together
Design of Compression embers / 3.2-29
where:
A = 256.25 in.'
I, = 74,507 in.*
The following allowable shear force for the fillet
weld will be used:
f = 11,200w (A36 steel and E70 weld metal)
We will not reduce the shear carrying capacity
of the 61let weld due to the axial compressive sbess
on it.
weld @ in the way of the beum connection
-
(584k) (125.25) (1515)
-
( 74,507) ( 2 welds)
7450
leg size w = ------
11,200
= .665" or use W
weld @ for the remaining length of the column
Vs = 170" or 29% of V2
hence use 29% of the leg size or ,192". However, the
maximum thiclmess of plate here is 17/e", and the
minimum size of fillet weld for this thickness is W'
(AWS Bldg Art 212 and AISC: Sec. 1.17.4). IIcncc use
- 33"
Weld @ in line with the beom connection
- -- ( , 5s l k) (SO) - (21.84)
(74,507) ( 2 wc4ds)
- 6860 lbs/in.
6860
leg size w = ------
11.200
weld @ for the remaining length of the column
V1 = 170L or 29% of Vz
hence use 29% of thc above leg size, or leg s i ~ e w =
,178" or 3/16"; however, the maximum thickness of
plate here is 4" and the minimum size of fillet weld for
this thickness is 'h" (.4WS Bldg Art 212 and AISC Sec.
1.17.4). Hence use M".
When the column is subjected to the dcad and
live loads and wind in the x-x direction, bending is
about the y-y axis. Here the inside and outside portions
of the colurrni arc continuous throughout the cross-
section of the colimm, and the connecting welds do
not transfer,any force; hence, the weld size as dcter-
mined above for Case R would control.
Perhaps w'ld
9
should be further increased
within the region of t e beam connection, to transfer
the horizontal forces of the hcam end moment back
into the column web. The horixontal stiffeners in the
colurnn at this point, however, would undoubtedly take
care of this.
7. SQUARE AND RECTANGULA
SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS
Square and rectangnlar tubnlar shapes are now being
hot rolled from A7 (33,000 psi yield) and A36 (36,000
psi yield) steel at about the same price as other hot-
rolled sections.
These sections have exceptionally good compres-
sive and torsional resistance. See Tables 7 and 8 for
dimensions and properties of stock sizes.
Many cngineers feel that the round tnhular section
is the best for a column since it has a rather high radius
of gyration in all directions. This is much better than
the standard WF or I sections, which have a much
lower radius of gyration about the weaker y-y axis.
Unfortunately the usually higher cost of round tubular
sections prohibits their universal use for columns.
However, a sqnare tube is slightly better than the
round section; for the same outside dimensions and
cross-sectional area the square tube has a larger radius
of gyration. This of course would allow higher corn.
pressive strcsses. Consider thc following two sections,
12' long, made of A36 steel:
FIGURE 38 FIGURE 39
3%" extra-heazjy pipe 4" x 4" square tubing
A = 3.678 in.' A = 3.535 in.'
Wi = 12.51 lbs/ft W, = 12.02 lbs/ft
r,,, = 1.31" r,,bi,, = 1,503"
ue = 11,670 psi
-
u, = 13,500 psi
-
In this example, the square ttlbe has 3.9% less
wcifiht and yet has an allou&le load 11% greater. Its
radius of gyration is 14.7% greater.
For another rxamplc, consider the following A36
Techon:
FIGURE 40 FIGURE 41
uc = 15,990 psi
-
uc - 19,460 psi
-
P = (15,990) (9.71) P : :(19,169) (9.18)
= 155,0k = 184.3"
The 32-lb/ft 10" square tubular section has a radius
of gyration which is more than twice that about the
weak y-y axis of the 33-lb/ft 1 0 WF section. This
results in an allowahlr compri:ssive load 19% grcater.
The second advantage to the square and rcctangu-
Iar sections is thc flat surface they offer for connections.
This results in the simplest and most direct type of joint
with minimum preparation and wclding. Also by closing
the ends, there would be no maintenance problem. It
is common practice in many tubular structures not to
paint the inside.
Four all-welded multilayer Vierendeel trusser make up the exposed
frame of the beautiful Rare Book Library of Yale University. Weld-
fabricated tapered box sections are used in the trusses. Good plan-
ning held field welding to o minimum, the trusses being shop built in
sections. Here, a cruciform vertical member of the grilled truss is
field spliced.
SECT I ON 3. 3
1. BASIC REQUIREMENTS
Rase plates are reqnirtd on the ends of columns to
distribute the concentrated compressive load ( P) of
the column over a much larger area of the material
which supports the column.
The base plate is dimensioned on the assumption
that the overhanging portion of the base plate acts as
a cantilever beam with its iixed end just inside of the
column edges. The upwnrd bending load on this canti-
lever beam is considered to be uniform and cqual to
the bearing pressure of the supporting material.
c r i t i c $ Sect i on
in Bending
FIGURE 1
AISC suggests the following method to determine
tho reqnired thiclmess of bearing plate, using a maxi-
mum bending stress of .75 cry psi (AISC Scc 1.51.4.8):
1. Determine the required minimum base plate
area, A = P/p. The column load ( P) is applied uni-
formly to the base plate within a rectangular area
(shaded). The dimensions of this area relative to the
column section's dimensions are .95 d and .SO h.
The masonry foundation is assumed to have a uni-
fonn bearing pressure ( p ) against the full area ( A =
B x D) of tho base plate. See Table 1 for allowable
vah~es of p.
2. Detmmine plate dimensions f3 and D so that
dimensions m and n are approximately equal. As a
guide, start with the square root of required plate
area (A). Tablc 2 lists standard sizes of rolled plate
used for bearing plates.
3. Determine overhanging dimensions m and n,
the projection of the plate beyond the assumed
(shaded) rectangle against which the load ( P) is
applied.
4. Use the larger value of m or n to solve for
required plate thickness ( t ) by one of the following
formulas:
Derivafion of Formula # I
The primary fnnction of the plate thickness is to pro-
vide sufficient resistance to the bending moment ( M)
on the overhang of the plat(, just beyond the rectangu-
lar area contacted by the column. Treating this over-
LE 1-Masonry Bearing Allowabler
(AlSC Sec 1.5.5)
On sandstone and limestone p = 400 psi
On brick i n cement mor t oi p = 250 pi 1
On ful l oiea of concrete support p = 0.25 f'.
On ?$ orec of concrete support p = 0.375 f',
where f', ir the specified i arnpi ci ri on st rengt h of the concrete at 2 8 doys
!In this text, a', ir used as equi val ent t o AISC' i Pi.)
LE 2-Standard Sizes of Rolled Plate
For Bearing Plates
I / 2 8 x 3 4 4 x 6 6 0 x 7 7 2 X 9!j
1 4 X I l l 2 2 8 X 3% 48 X 5% 60 X 7 % 7 2 X 10
1 6 X 1'12 3 2 X 3 ' / 2 4 8 x 6 6 0 x 8 7 8 X 9
16 % 2 32 Xi4 48 X 6Il2 66 X 7% 78 X I 0
20 i 2 36 X 4 52 X 6 66 X 8 84 X 9l/2
20 X 2112 36 X 4% 52 X 6% 66 X 8% 84 X 10
20 X 3 40 X 4112 52 X 7 66 X 9
24 X 2 40 X 5 56 X 61/2 72 X 8
24 X 21/2 44 X 5 56 X 7 72 X S1/2
24 X 3 44 X 51/2 56 X 8 72 X 9
3.3-1
hang (m or n ) as a cantilever beam with M being
maximum at the fixed or column end:
bending moment
p m'
M = ---- parallel to thc column's x-x axis and
2
M = - parallel to the column's y-y axis
2
bending stress in plate
where, assuming a 1" strip:
I
(I") t'
S = --
6
and by substitution:
-
6 p m V p m m '
-
- and
2 u u
t = m )r Formnla #1
(similarly for dirncnsion n )
Finishing of Bearing Surlaces
AISC Sce 1.21.3 prescribes that colunin base plates he
finished as follows:
"1, liolled steel bearing plates, 2" or less in thick-
ness, map be used withont planing, provided a satis-
factory contact bearing is obtained; rolled steel bearing
FIGURE 2
plates over 2" hut not over 4" in thickness may be
straightened by pressing; or, if presses are not available,
by planing for all bearing surfaces (except as noted
under requirement 3 ) to obtain a satisfactory contact
bearing; rolled steel bearing plates over 4" in thickness
shall be planed for all hearing surfaces (except as
noted under requirement 3) .
"2. Column bases other than rolled steel bearing
plates shall he planed for all bearing surfaces (except
as noted undcr reqnirement 3) .
"3. The bottom snrfaces of bearing plates and
column hnses which are grouted to insure full bearing
contact on fonndations need not be planed."
The above reqnirements assume that the thinner
base plates are sufficiently smooth and flat as rolled,
to provide full contact with milled or planed ends of
column bases. Thicker plates (exceeding 2") are likely
to be slightly bowed or cambered and thus need to be
straightened and/or made smooth md flat.
2. STANDARD DETAILING PRACTICE
Fignre 2 shows typical column bases. Note the sim-
plicity of these designs for arc-welded fabrication.
Designs a and h are intendcd for where column
and base plate are erected separately. The angles are
shop welded to the column, and the column field
welded to the base plate aftcr erection. Design c is a
standard of fabrication for light colnmns. Hwe the
base plate is first punched for anchor bolts, then shop
welded to the colnmn.
If the end of the colnmn is milled, there must be
just sufficient welding to thr. base plate to hold all parts
Column Bases / 3.3-3
securely in place (ATSC Sec 1:15.8). If the end of the
colu~nn is not milled, the connecting weld must be
large enough to carry the co~npressive load.
Welding Practices
In most cases, during fabrication, the columns are
placed horizontally on a rack or table with their ends
overhanging. The base plate is tack welded in place
(Fig. 3) , using a square to insure proper alignment,
a d is then finish welded.
As much as possible of the welding is done in the
downhand position because of the increased welding
speed through higher welding currents and larger
electrodes. After completing the downhand welding,
along the outside of the top flange, the column is rolled
over and the downhand welding is applied to the other
flange.
FIGURE 4
It is possible to weld thc base plate to the column
without turning. Sce Figure 4. With the web in the
vertical position and the flangm in the horizontal posi-
tion, the top flange is weldcd on the outside and the
lower flange is welded 011 the inside. This will provide
sufficient welding at the flanges without further posi-
tioning of the column.
FIGURE 3
3. ANCHOR ATTACHMENTS TO COLUMN BASES
Anchor bolt details can be separated into two general
classes.
First, those in which the attachnrents serve only
for erection purposes and carry no important stresses
in the finished structure. These include all columns
that have no uplift. The design of these columns is
governed by direct grnvity loads and slenderness ratios
set up by specifications for a givcn column formula.
IIere the columns can be shop welded ctirectly to
the base plate, unless the detail is too cumbersome for
shipment. The anchor bolts preset in the masonry are
made to engage the base plate only. See Figure 5a.
I.arge base plates are usually set and levelled separ-
atcly bclore hcginning column erection. In this case
di p angles may hz shop welded to the column web or
Nanges, and in field creetion the anchor bolts engage
both base plate and clip angle. See Figure 5b.
Secondly, those in which the attachments are
designed to resist a direct tcnsion or bending moment,
or some combination in which the stability of the
(a) Base plate shop welded to (b) Bose plate shipped separate-attaching
column.
angles shop welded to column.
finished structure is dependent on the anchor attach-
ments. These include all columns having direct loads
combined with bending stresses, caused by the eccen-
tric applications of gravity loads or horizontal forces;
for example, wind, cable reactions, sway or temper-
ature, etc. These are found in everyday practice in
such structures as mill buildings, hangers, rigid frames,
portals and towers, crane columns, etc.
In large structures that extend several hundred
feet between expansion joints in each direction, the
columns at ends and corners of thc structure may be
plumb only at uormal temperature. As temperatures
rise and fall, milled-end bearing conditions at edges
or corners of the column base may prove very unsatis-
factory, even though shop work were pcrfect. Such
columns should have anchor bolt details designed to
hold the column firmly fixcd, in square contact with
the base plate.
The combined efiects of the direct load and over-
turning moments (due to wind, cranc runway, etc.)
can always be considered by properly applying the
direct load at a givcn cc~ent r i ~i t y, even though the
bending stresses sometimes occur in two directions
simultaneously. Design of the anchor bolts resolves
itself into a problem of bending and direct stress.
If there is any appreciable uplift on the column, angles
may be welded to the base of the column and anchored
by means of hold-down bolts. Under load., the angle
is subject to a bending action, and its thickness may be
determined from this bending moment.
Trcating the cross-section of the angle as a frame,
the problem is to know the end conditions.
Some engineers treat the horizontal leg as a canti-
lever beam, fixed at one end by the clamping action
of the hold-down bolts. See Figure 6. This is not quite
a true picture because there is some restraint offered by
the other leg of the angle.
FIGURE 6
Otlrer engineers have assumed the horizontal leg
of the angle acts as a beam with both ends fixed. In
this case the resnlting moment at either end of the
portion being considered, the heel of the angle or the
cnd at the bolt, is only half that indicated by the
previous approach. St:e Figure 7.
However, i t might be argued that the vertical leg
is not completely fixed and that this will increase the
moment in thc horizontal leg near the bolt. The fo1low~-
ing analysis, made on this basis, is probably more
nearly correct. See Figure 8.
FIGURE 8
1. Considering first just one angle and temporarily
ignoring the eRect of the other, the upper end of the
vertical leg if not restrained would tend to move in
horizontally (A, , ) when an uplift force (P,) is applied
to the column.
The resulting moment is
M = P, b and
area of moment diagram
AhY = -
E I
X moment arm
2. Since the opposite angle does provide restraint,
a horizontal force (PI,) is applied to pull the vertical
leg back to its support position. The resulting moment
is
M = P,, d and
area 1 X moment arm I
A, , =
E I
drea 2 X moment arm 2
t -
E I
Since the horizontal movement is the same in each
direction:
3. Combining the initial moment resulting from
the uplift force (1) and the secondary moment result-
ing from the restraint offered by the opposite angle
( 2 ) :
Substituting into the previous equations:
at the heel of the angle, and
which is the critical moment and is located at the hold-
down bolts.
Required Thickness of Angle
The leg of the angle has a section modulus of-
or required thickness of
where:
M
S =-
u
or, see Figure 9, where the vertical leg of the angle is
welded its full lcllgth to the column ~roviding a fixed-
end condition (Case A) ; here formula #3 applies-
or where, the vertical leg of the angle is welded only
FIGURE 9
at its toe to the column (Case B); here formula #5 construction. Aim included are dimensions of st andad
applies- bols. (Tablc 3.4).
5. BASE PLATE F R COLUMN LOADE
1, 13b + d ) u
MOMENT
Allowable Stresses
Table 3 presents the allowable stresses for holddown
bolts used in building (AISC) and in bridge (AASHO)
TABLE 3-Allowable Stresses for Hold-Down Bolts
Aliowoble unit tension and $heor itrerier on baltr and threaded ports
(psi of unthieoded body oieo):
Tension Sheor
AlSC 1.5.2.1 (Building) psi psi
A307 boltr ond threaded parts of
A7 ond A373 rteei 14,000 10.000
A325 boltr when threading ir
excluded from shear planer 40,000 15.000
A325 bolts when threading
excluded fiom rheor ~l aner 40,000 22,000
A354, Grode BC, boltr when
thieoding ir not excludcd from rhear ploner 50.000 20,000
A354. Grode K, Yh e n threading
excluded from rheor planer 50,000 24,000
- - .
AASHO 1.4.2 (Bridge) psi
tension - boitr ot root of threod 13,500
shear - turned bolts 1 1.000
beoring - turned bolts 20,000
tffei ti ve beorjog o m o of o pin or bolt i hol l be its diometer multipiicd
by the thickness of the metal on which i t beoir.
When a moment ( k t ) is applied to a column already
srihjectcd to an axial compressiveforcc (P,), it is more
couwbnicnt to exprcss this combined load as the same
axial forcc ( PC) applicd at some eccentricity ( e) from
the neutral axis of the column.
t-e+
,
(4 lbl
FIGURE 10
In either representation, there is a combination of
axial compressive strcss arid bending stress acting on
a cross-section of the column See Figure 11.
Multiplying this stress by the width of the Range
(or the thickness of thc web) over which the stresses
are applied, gives the following force distribution
Column Bases /
TABLE 3A--Standard Bolt Dimenrionr
Compressive stress
= $
Bending stress
P, e
" = -
S
Total stress
P PC e
a = ' + -
A S
FIGURE 11
across the depth of the column. This force is trans-
ferred to the base plate. See Figure 12. This assumes
that the column flanges are welded directly to the base
plate.
FIGURE 12 FIGURE 13
If anchor hold-down bolts transfer the tensile
forces, then-
The column is usually set with the eccentricity
( c ) lying within the plane of the column web ( ads
y-y), as in Figure 11. Thus the column Aangcs will
carry most of the resulting forces because of their
having relatively greater cross-sectional arca, and being
located in areas of higher stress. See Figure 14.
FIGURE 14
If the eccentricity ( e ) is less than % D, there is
no uplift of the base plate at the surFace of the
masonry support (Figure 15):
section modulus of base plate
stress in base plate
UT = TI compression t T? bending
When the eccentricity ( e ) exceeds % D, there is
uplift on the base plate which is resisted by the anchor
hold-down bolts. The beariug stress on the masonry
support is maximum at thc extrcme edge of the bearing
plate. It is assumed this stress decreases linearly back
along the plate for a distance (Y); however, there is
some qucstion as to how far this extends. One problem
analysis approach treats this section as a reinforced
concrete beam.
FIGURE 15
There are three equations, and three unknowns ( Pt ) ,
(V, and (5, ):
l . ; r ; V = O
MY u , B - P t - P , = O
and
where: cr, = pressure supplied by masonry supporting
material
2. 2 M = 0 (About N.A. of column)
aud
.........
(Qb)
FIGURE 16
3. Representing the elastic behavior of the concrete
support and the steel hold-down bolt (see Figure 17) :
Also where:
A, = total area of steel
hold-down bolts
under tension
us = stress in steel
bolt
Es = ah in s t d
bolt
E. = modulus of elas-
ticity of steel bolt
then and:
7, o: = stress in concrete
r t - support
a A, - Pt
6 = - Twc- n
eC = strain in concrete
support
E, = modulus of elas-
and from similar triangles ticity of concrete
D
SUPP0l.t
- -
Y + f
n = modular ratio of
; =
2 elasticity, steel to
Y concrete
* * *
Substituting formula #10 into formula #8a:
Substituting formula #9a into formula #11:
Column Bases /
FIGURE 17
Solve for Y:
This reduces t ( t -
or to express it in a manner to facilitate repetitive use,
let-
then-
There are several ways to solve this cubic equation.
Perhaps the easiest is to plot a few points, letting Y =
simple whole numbers, for example, 9, 10, etc., and
reading the value of Y on the graph where the curve
crosses zero.
Having found the effective hearing length (Y) in
this manner, formula #9b can be used to solve for the
tensile force (P,) in the hold-down bolts. Formula
#10 then gives the amount of bearing stress in the
masonry support.
FI GURE 18
Another approach to determining the effective bearing
length, involving less work, assumes the same triangular
distribution of bearing forces from the supporting
masonry against the bearing plate. However, the center
of gravity of the triangle, or the concentrated force
representing this triangle, is assumed to be fixed at a
point coinciding with the concentrated compressive
force of the wlnnln flange. See Figure 18.
From this assumption, the overhang of the hearing
plate, i.e. the distance from the column flange to the
plate's outer edge, is seen to equal the effective
bearing length.
FI GURE 19
Figure 19 shows a column base detail. The columns
have a maximum load of 186 kips, and receive no uplift
under normal wind. See Figure 19. Under heavier wind
load and in combination with temperature, they may
receive up to 20 kips dircct uplift. See Fibwe 20. Four
bolts are provided, attached by means of 6" X 6" X
%" clip sngles, 11" long on a 4" gauge.
To be effective, the angles must carry this load on
the anchor bolts into the column web. This causes
a bending moment on the outstanding legs of the
angles. Analysis follows that for formula if3. The bolt
tension fixes the toe of the angle against the base plate
and causes LUI inflection point between the bolts and
the vertical leg of the angle, so that the bolt load is
cantilevered only about halfway.
To compute the bending stress in the angles:
diagram
FI GURE 20
where:
ub = st r es in outer fibers
M = hcnding moment
c -- distance to neutral axis
I = moment of inertia
Since:
= 19,400 psi
Hence, thc. dfstail with %" angles is OK for this
load.
Check Welds to Column Web
The angles are welded to the column web with
'h" fillet wclds; this will now be checked.
The heel of the angle is in coinpression against
the wt:b of the column and is equivalent to an addi-
tional weld across the bottom for rcsisturg moment.
On this basis, the section rnodulus of the weld is
calculated. For simplicity, the weld is treated as a line
without any cross-sectional area. From Table 5 ; Sect.
7.4, the section modulus of a rectanzular connection is:
and liere:
Normally, section modulus is expressed as inches
to the third power; however, here where the weld has
no area, thc rcsultirrg swtion modulus is expressed as
iiiches squared.
When a stmdard bending formula is used, the
answer ( ) is strcss in lhsjin.\ however, when this
new section modulns is used in the bcnding formula,
the answer ( f ) is forcc on the weld in lbs/linear in.
bending
M
fl, = -
S,
- -
(l0.000* x 4")
--
(78 in.')
shear
P
f"
leg size of (170) fillet weld
actual force
= . - - - - -
allowable force
= .06"
but 3k"thick angle requires a minimum of Ydl
(Table 3, Section 7 3 ) .
If it is dcsircd to incrrasc the anchor bolt capacity
of the di p angle &tail, tllicker arrgles should be used
with large plate w~ishcrs on top of the angle. The
;ittaclrmc~lts s ho~~l d be maclc to the column flanges,
sincc the welds arc more accessible there and the
bolts Iiave better leverage.
To ilhistrnte how the colnmn Aange can lx: checked
to clctcmiine whcther or not it is too tliin, considcr a
clip angle mchored with two 1%" bolts centered 2?W
out l'rorn the face of the cohimii flange; see Figure 21.
The angle is att;iclied to the column flange by fillet
~velcls across the top a i d down each side.
The capacity of thc two lx~lts at 14,000 psi allow-
able stress on nntlircaded area (AISC Sec 1.5.2) is-
2 (1.2") (14,otl()) =: 31,400 lbs > 28,500 lbs OK
--
Tlie hending nioment on tire ~ c l d is-
(28,500 lbs) ( ~ ~ h ) , ) = 71,250 in.-lbs
n- Rel at ed Desi gn
FIGURE 21
As in the previous example, the heel of the angle
is in compression against the web of the column and
is replaced with an equivalent weld. The welds are
treated as a line; and the section modulus of ihe welded
connection is found to be--
= 78 in.= (See Problem 1)
The bending force is-
-
51,250 in.-lbs
-
58 in."
all along the top edge of the angle, pulling outward
on the column flange. This is the force on the hori-
zootal tor, weld. At the ends of the angle, the force
- -
(915)(3) -
couple is - --- -- - 1370 lbs centered 1" below the
2
top toe of the angle. See Figure 22.
This is the force on each of the vertical welds at
ends of the angle. Since these forces are not resisted
by anything but the flange, they have to be carried
transversely by bending stresses in the flange until
they reach the resistauce in the column web.
The bending moment in the column flange is com-
putod as follows:
Force along top of angle = 915 X 5.5 = 5040 lbs
M, = 5040 X 2.75 = 13,860 in.-lbs
M, = 1370 X 5.5 = 7,535 - i d b s
Total M = 21,395 i d b s
If we assume a 6" wide strip of the column flange
to resist this load, this moment will cause a bending
stress of 45.300 psi in the 14" WF 87-lb column with a
flange 1% ," thick.
This is calculated as follows:
= 45,300 psi
Obviously, since this stress distribution along the
welds is capable of bending the column Aange heyond
the yield point, the cvlnmn Aange will deflect outward
sufficiently to relieve these stresses and cause a redis-
tribution. Thr resultant stresses in the weld metal on
the toe of the clip angle will be concentrated opposite
the column web.
FIGURE 22
Column Bares /
Thus, the capacity of this anchor bolt detail is
e =
( 175,000) (12)
-
limited by thc bending strength of the column flange ( 130,000)
even alter the clip angle has bccn satisfactorily stiffened.
= 16.15"
The force back through the column web is:
The load on the bolts is-
F = (915 lbs/in.) (11") + 2 (1370 lbs)
(130,000) (9.49)
F = .-
= 12,800 lbs (15.66)
= 78,800 lbs
A 'h" fiUet weld 3 inches long on the top of the
angle opposite the column web will satisfactorily resist
The area of the thrce lWrdia. bolts in the un-
the force couple:
threaded body area is-
F = (3") (5600 lbs/in.) E70 welds
A = (3)(2.074)
= 16,800 ibs. OK
= 6.22 in.2
--
The tensile stress in the bolts is:
For greater anchor bolt capacities than shown in
Figure 22, either horizontal stiffeners or diaphragms u = - -(78;800)
shonld be provided to prevent bending of the column
(6.22)
flanges. = 12,700 psi < 14,000 psi OK
-
A rather simple detail, whereby a wide-flanged channel
scrves as a stiEener, is shown in Figure 23.
This detail was used with three lSk"dia anchor
bolts on a 14" X 87-lb mill building column designed
to resist a wind bending moment of 175,000 ft-lbs
combined with a direct load downward of 130,000 lbs.
The tension on the bolts is determined by taking
moments about the right-hand wmpression flange of
the colrrvnn after first determining the eczatricity at
which the direct lond will cause a moment of 175,000
ft-lbs about the centerline of the column. The eccen-
tricity is-
(AISC Sec 1.5.2)
The compression Aange reaction ( R) is the sum
01 the 130,000-lb c:Arrmn load plus the 78,800-lb pull
of the anchor bolts, or 208,800 lbs. The 13" ship
channels are st:t up just clear of the bearing on the
base plnte so that the end of the column will take the
compressive load of 208,800 lbs without overloading
channels.
Bearing stress on masonry
The hearing stress on the masonzy support is maximum
at the extreme edge of the bearing plate, and is
assumed to decrease linearly back along the plate.
This bearing stress would resemble a triangle in which
FIGURE 23
@
8 = 24"
@
Anchor
@
hold-down bolts
ore inactive on
compression side
78.Ek
FIGURE 24
the altitude is the maximum hearing stress at the edge
of the plate, and the base of the triangle is the effective
bearing length ( Y) against the plate. (See short
method described on page 10.) Since the area of this
triangle has a center of gravity % Y h e k from the
altitude, the bearing pressnre may be resolved into a
concentrated force at this point. This point will be
assumcd to lie wh'ere the column flange's concentrated
compressive load of 208,800 1hs is applied.
FIGURE 25
Hence, the distance from the compressive force
of the Range out to the edge of the bearing plate (in
oth,er words, the overhang of the bearing plate) equals
'h the effective distance of the bearing support. See
Figure 24.
arm of triangle
A = % u , Y
= PC + Pt
effectice beuring length of base plate (from formula #8)
= 23.2" 1 = .25 (3000 psi)
Y I = 750 psi
and - - 7.73" overhang
3 -
.'. D = 7.73" + 13.31" f 7.73"
= 28.77" or use 28%''
Bolt load
The load on the bolts is supported by the top flange of
the 13" channel, reinforced by four 3%" X 'ii' s t B-
cner plates welded between the channel flanges. See
Figurc 23.
The two interior plates each support a full bolt
load of '/, (78,800 Ibs) or 26,300 lbs. Thesc stiffeners
are attached to the channel web with four I" X
intermittent fillet welds on each side of the plate, and
to both flanges by continl~ous 3$,j" fillet welds on each
side of the plate. See Figmo 25. The welds at the
chnnncl flanges transmit the moment to the channel
flangcs, and the welds at the channel web support most
nf the shearing load.
Thc 2" eccentricity of the bolt load to column
Range is trar~sposed to a force couple acting on the
channel flanges. This couple is obtained by dividing
the momeut by the depth of the stiffeners:
This is a hori ~ont al load acting at right angles to
the column flange. I t is delivered as four concentrated
loads at the tops of stiffeners and then carried hori-
zontally by the channel flange to a point opposite the
column web where it is attached to the column with a
2%'' x M" fillet weld.
2%" X 5600 lhs/in. = 14,000 lbs.
The concentrated load valucs are 2015 lbs at each
end stiffener for one-half a bolt load, and 4030 lbs at
each interior stiffener.
The total moment on the flanges is:
(2,015) (7.5) = 15,200 in.-lbs
(4,030) (2.5) = 10,100 in.-lbs
-
M = 25,300 in.-lbs
I t causes a bending stress in the channels 4" X %"
top flange section of approximately-
= 15,800 psi
To keep the channel section from sliding parallel
to the column flange, the direct vertical pull of the
bolts is supported by two 13" X continuous fillet
welds between the edge of the cnlumn flanges and the
web of the 13" channel section. The shear on these
welds is-
The problem in Figure 23 has been analyzed on
the basis of simple levers with the compression load
concentrated on the colnmn flange. It ignores the com-
pression are:> under the web of the column and illus-
trates the prohlcrn where the channel flange of the
anchor bolt attachment does not bear against the base
plate.
For simplicity, this analysis has assumed that the
effective bearing length (1' ) was such that the center
of gravity of the triangular bearing stress distribution,
C.G. at % Y, lies along the centerline of the column
Bange where the comprcssive force of the colunm is
applied.
\With the same column base detail as in Problem 3,
we will now me the original derivation for this effective
bearing length ( Y ), treating the analysis as a reinforced
concrete beam and solving the resulting cubic equation.
The work may takc longrr, hut rcsults are more ac-
curate. See Figun: 26, temporarily ignoring the anehor-
bolt channel attachments.
FIGURE 26
Here:
e = 16.15"
f = 9"
D =z 283/4"
B = W
four %" X 3%" R ' s
Tensile stress
in bolts
FIGURE 27
Compression stress at outer
1 edge of channel st~ffcners
E
n = = 10 (E, = 3000 psi)
Ec
15h" bolts
A. = 3 (2.074)
= 6.22 in.' (bolts under tension)
Q, = 130 kips
from formula #13 (cubic ~quat i onj
Y 3 + K 1 Y Z + K 2 Y + K 3 = 0
where:
. 1 = 3 ( ~ - $ )
(
28%
= 3 16.15 - -
2
= 5.33
6 n A,
K' = --
B ( f + e )
- -
6 (lOj(6.22)
24
( 9 + 16.15)
= 392
Plotting these three points, the curve is observed
to pass through zero at-
Y = 13.9"
-
which is the effective bearing length.
from fornula #9b
which is the tensile load on the hold-down bolts.
from formula #8b
= lOiiO psi
Therefore. substitutinr into formula &13:
~ "
which is the bearing pressore of the masonry support
E3 + 5.33 Y2 + 392 Y - 9160 = 0
against the bearing plate.
Letting Y = +lo, --1-12, and +15 provides the follow- If the anchor hold-down bolt detail is milled with
ing solutions to the cubic equation as the function of the column base so that it ht:ars against the base &ite,
-
Y:
it must be made strong enough to support the portion
Col umn Bases / 3.3-17
of the reaction load (PC + P,) which tends to bear
upward against the portions of the bolt detail outside
the colu~nn flange. This upward reaction on the com-
pre.ssion side (PC + P,) is much larger than the down-
ward load of the bolts on the tension side (P,).
The area of section effective in resisting this
reaction includes all the area of the compression ma-
terial-column Bange, portion of column web, the
channel web, and stiffeners-plus the area of the
anchor bolts on the tension side. See shaded area in
Figure 27.
The anchor bolts on the compression side do not
act because they have no way of transmitting a com-
pressive load to the rest of the cohunn. In like manner,
the column flange and web on the tension side do not
act because they have no way of transmitting a tensile
stress across the milled joint to the base plate. The
tension flange simply tends to lift off the base plate
and no stress is transmitted in the tensile area except
bv the hold-down bolts attached to tllc column.
Determining moment of inertia
To determine the moment of inertia of this effective
area of section, the area's neutral axis must he located.
Properties of the elements making up this effective area
are entered in the table shown here. Moiamts are taken
about a reference axis (y-y) at the outermost edge of
the channel stiffeners on the compression side (Fig.
27). See Section 2.2 for method.
Having obtained the 1st totals of area ( A) and
moment ( M) , solve for the location ( n ) of the neutral
axis relative to the reference axis:
-
-
(199.98 + 2 1 n")
(27.36 + .42 n)
= 6.93" distance of K.A. to rcf. axis y-y
.'. c = 6.93" distance of N.A. to outer fiber
Now, having the value of n, properties of the
effectivr portion of the column woh can he fixed and
the table completed. With the 2nd totals of area ( A) ,
momcot ( R) , and also ~noinents of inertia. (I, + I,),
solve for the moment of inertia about the neutral axis
( I n ) :
Smce the concentrated compressive load (P,) is
applied at an wxent~icity ( e ) of 16.15" to provide for
the wind moment of 175,000 kips, the moment arm of
the 130-kip load is-
9.15" from face of column gauge
5.15" from outer edge of channel stiffeners
12.08" from neutral axis of effective area
compressioc stvess at outer edge of channel stiffeners
= 8220 + 4300 = 12,150 psi
I
Dirtonce: C.G. to
ref. mi. y y
I
Moment
4.688 + n
2 Poition
= .21n2 -- 4.615
of web
- -
. --
Column flonge 4.344 42.83 1 86.05
~- -
Channel web 3.812 6.00 22.87 87.19
- --
. .. . .-
Chonnel stiffenen 2.00 7.25 14.50 29.00 7.92
Fict Totol -t
By substituting value of
n = 6.93":
Second Totol +
27.36 + .42 n
30.27
199.98 + .21 n '
-
210.07 2789.93
tensile stress in hold-down bolts
M c PC
-
where c is distance of
ut = -
I A N.A. from extreme fiber
of tensile area
= 15,500 psi - 4,300 = 11,200 pd
total force in hold-down bolts
P* = A, 0-t
= (6.22) (1 1,200)
= 69.6 kips
e!ds Attachi ng Stitfeners t o Channel
Compressive force is carried by each of the four
channel stiffeners. The average compressive stress on
these stiffeners is-
5.15''
a
(8220 psi) + 4300 psi
" - 6. W
= 6110 psi + 4300psi = 10,410psi
This co~npressive force on cach channel stiffener
is transferred to the c11aiinr:l wcb by two vertical fillet
welds, each 11" long. The force on (:a& weld is tllus-
r 856 lbs/linear inch
and the rtqnired Gl1t.t wcld Icg size is-
856
OJ 7-
11,200 - for E7O welds ('firhlr 5, Sect. 7.4)
= ,076" or use $iG"h (Table 2, Sect. 7.4)
With this 1r:g size, intermittent welds can be used
instead of contiriuous wdding-
elding Channel Assembly to Column Ftonge
Sa =
d212b + d l
3 i b + dl
-
-
1131212 X 14.5 f 13)
3114.5 + 13)
-
- 86.1 in.
2
M
i a = -
S,
-
l 174.2001
- -
186.11
-
- 2020 lbslin.
v
i. = -
L
(1 23.4001
-
-
2(i 3) + 04.5i
-
- 3050 i bdi n.
i. = v' ib2 + i sn
7
= f(2020,Zf;3050)
-
- 3670 i bdi n.
actvol farce
0 =
cliawabie force
(36701
= -
111.200) t E70%
= ,328'' or 5/16" A
d2
S, = bd + -
3
-
(13)'
- ll4.5)(13) + -
3
-
.- 242.2 in.'
M
f --
Sx,
I 1 74,2001
- -
-
(242.2)
-
- 720 I bdi n.
v
f. = -
L
f123.4001
-
..
2(13 1- 14.5)
-
- 2240 i bdi n.
f. = d ( 8 " f ez
== fx-. +(211;;;;2
-
- 2350 Ibsiin.
uctual force
" = .
ollawoble force
.-
(23501
- -
i11.2001
-
- ,210.' or *,, A
d2
s - -.
," -
3
-
(131"
- -
3
-
- 56.3 in."
M
i" = --
Sr
-
( 1 74.2001
- -
156.31
-
- 3100 l bdi n.
v
f -
-
L
-
I 1 23.4001
- -
2 (13)
- - 4750 ibslin.
i? = V' f,,2 .+ i*z
= ' "i 3100l i + i475012
-
.- 5680 Ibrl i n.
aituol force
" =
aliowabie farce
-
156801
- -
111.2001
-
- .506" or X" A
- - 114.51li3)
-
-- 185.9 in."
M
i s = -
S,
- -
-.
I 1 74,2001
(185.91
-
- 935 ibslin.
v
f e = -
L
1123,400)
- -
-
2 114.5)
-
- 4260 I bdi n.
f , = V fb2 + /.?
- \/1937t;4260iz
-. - 4360 ibnlin.
octucl force
(11 =
oilowobie force
5. USE OF WtNG PLATES
or a total length of 4%" of 3/16" fillet welds on each side
of each stiffener.
Id Connecting Channel Assembly t o
Col umn Flange
The average compressive stress on the channel web is-
= 3700 + 4300 = 8000 psi
total compressive force on channel assembly
F = 48,000 + 4(18,850)
=r 123,400 Ibs
The fillet welds connecting the assembly to the
column flange must transfer this total compressive force
into the column flange. There are four ways to weld
this, as shown in Table 4. Assume the welds cany all
of tlie compressive force, and ignore any bearing of the
channel against the column Aange.
FIGURE 28
First find the moment applied to the weld, Figure
28, which applies in each case of Table 4:
M = 4(18,850 lbs) (2.187") + (48,000 1bs) (3116")
= 174,200 1%-lbs
Then, making each weld pattern in turn, treat the
weld as a line to find its section modulus (S,), the
maximl~m bending force on the weld (f,), the vertical
shear on the wcld (f,), thc resultant force on tlie weld
(f, ), and the required weld leg size (o).
Perhaps the most efficient way to weld this is
method ( d ) in which two transverse 'h" fillet welds are
placed across the column Aange and channel flange,
with no longitudinal welding along the channel web.
When large wing plates are uwd to increase the lever-
age of an anchor bolt, the detail sho~rld always be
checked for weakness in bearing against the side of
the column flange.
I F 1
FIGURE 29
Figure 29 illustrates a wing-plate type of column base
dotail that is not limited with respect to size of bolts
or strength of colnmn flange. A similar detail, with
bolts as large as 4%'' diameter, has been used on a
large terminal project.
The detail shown is good for four 2Yd'-dia. anchor
bolts. Two of these bolts have a gross area of 6.046
in.' and are good for 84,600 lbs tension at a stress of
14,000 psi.
In this detail, the bolt load is first carried laterally
to a point opposite the column web by the horizontal
bar which is 5%'' wide by 3" thick.
section modulus of section a-a
- - 8.25 in."
bending moment on bat-
rcsulting bending stress
= 18,000 psi
At the center of the 3" bar, the bolt loads are
snpported by tension and compression forces in the
1" thick web platcs above and below the bar. The
web plates are attached to the column flange, opposite
the column web, by welds that carry this moment and
shear into the column.
The shear pnd moment caused by the anchor bolt
forces, which are not in the plane of the weld, deter-
mine the size of the vertical welds. The welds extend
15" above and 3" below the 3" transverse bar.
The properties and stresses on the vertical welds
are figured on the basis of treating the welds as a line,
having no width. See Figure 30.
FIGURE 30
Take area moments about the base line ( y-y) :
moment of inertia about N.A
M"
I, = I, + I, - --
A
2 w e l d r X 1 5 "
Total
= 11.5" (up from base line y-y)
distance of N.A. from outer fiber
cbotbm = 11.5"
-
30
36
section moddus of weld
= 112 in.'
( 1288)
S,, = --
(9.5)
15.3
= 135.5 in."
--
405.0
414.0
-. I
maximum bending force on ueld
5467.5
shear force on weld
562.5
resultant force on weld
6048
required flkt weld size
3000
a =-
113J0 WI E70 allowable
This requircs continuous fillet welds on both
sides for the full length of the 1" vertical web plate.
If greater weld strength had been required, the 1" web
platc could be made thicker or taller.
For bolts of ordinary size, the upper portion of
the plates for this detail can be cut in one piece from
colnmn sections of 14" flanges. This insures fnll con-
tinuity of the web-to-flange in tension for carrying the
bolt loads. By welding across the top and bottom edges
of the liorizontal plate to the column flange, the re-
quired thickness of flange plate in bending is reduced
by having support in two dircctions.
6. TYPICAL COLUMN BASES
In ( a ) of Figure 31, small brackets are .groove butt
olumn Bares /
FIGURE 31
y stiffeners moy be
\voided to the oirtcr edges of thc colnmr Annges to
develop greatcr moment resistance for the attachment
to the bas? plate. This will help for moments about
either the x-x or the y-y :tsis. A single bovel or single V
joint is preparcd by beveling just the edge of the
brackets; no hcveling is done on the column flanges.
For colnnrn flanges of nominal thickness, it might
he easier to simply add two brackets, fillet welded to
the base of the column; see ( h) and ( c) . No beveling
is required, and handling and assembling time is re-
duced hecat~se only two additional pieces are requirod.
In ( b ) thc bracket plates are attached to the face
of the coluin~r flange; in ( c ) the p1atr.s are> attached to
the outer edge of the column Nange. In any rolled
section used as a column, greater berrtling strength
and stiifiress is obtained about the x-x nxis. If the
moment is ahont the x-x axis, it would be better to
attach the additional plates to the face of the column
as in ( b) . This will provide a good transverse fillet
across the n)lumn flange and two longitudinal fillet
welds along the outer edge of the column flange with
good acct%ssihility for melding. Thc attaching plates
and the welds connecting thein to the base plate are
in tho most effcct~vc position and location to transfer
this moment. The only slight drawback is that the
attaclring plntcs will not stiffen the overhung portion
of the base plate for the hending due to tension in the
hold-down bolts, or due to the upward hearing pressure
of the masonry support. Mowevrr if this is a problem,
smxll hrackrxts shown in dottrd lines may be easily
added.
The plates can he fillet wrlded to the outer edges
nf thc column flange as in ( c) , although there is not
good accessibility for the welds on the inside. Some of
these inside fillet welds can be made before the unit
is assembled to the base plate.
For thick Ranges, clctail ( a ) might represent the
lrast amount of \velding and additioml plate material.
Short lengths of pipe have been welded to the
outer edge of the cohnnn flange to develop the neces-
sary moment for the hold-down bolts; see ( d) . The
length and leg size of the attaching fillet welds are
sufficicnt for thc moment.
In ( e ) two channels with additional stiffeners are
wcl dd to the cohnnrr flanges for the required moment
from the hold-down bolts. By setting this channel
assenibly back slightly from the milled end of the
column, it does not have to be designed for any bear-
ing, but just the tension from the hold-down bolts. If
this assembly is set flush with the end of the column
and milled to bear, then this additional bearing load
must be considered in its design. Any vertical tensile
load on the assembly from the holddown bolts, or
vertical bearing load from the base plate (if iu con-
tact), will produce a horizontal force at the top which
will be applied transverse to thc column flange. If the
column flange is too thin, then horizontal plate stiffeners
must be added between the column flanges to eflec-
tively transfer this force. These stiffeners are shown in
( e ) by dotted lines.
In ( f ) built-up, hold-down bolt supports are
welded to the column flanges. These may be designed
to any size for any value of moment.
In (g), the attaching plates have been extended
out farther for very high moments. This particular
detail uses a pair of channels with a top plate for the
hold-down bolts to transfer this tensile force back to
the main attaching plates, and in turn back to the
column.
One of the many possible details for the base of
a built-up crane runway girder column in a steel mill
is shown in Figure 32. Two large attaching plates are
fillet welded to the flanges of the rolled sections of the
column. This is welded to a thick basc plate. Two long
narrow plates are next welded into the assembly, with
spacers or small diaphragms separating them from the
base plate. This provides additional strength and stiff-
ness of the base plate through beam action for the
forces from the hold-down bolts. Short sections of I
beam can also be welded across the ends between the
attaching plates.
7. HIGH-RISE REQUIREMENTS
A 14" WF 426# column of A36 steel is to carry a com-
pressive load of 2,000 kips. Using a bearing load of
730 psi, this would require a 30" X 60" base plate.
Use E70 welds.
For simplicity, each set of lxackets together with
a portion of the base plate formed by a diagonal line
from the outer comer of tlir plate hack to the coh~snn
flange, will be assrsmcd to resist the bearing pressure
of tho masonry snpport; see Figure 34. This is a con-
servative analysis because the base plate is not cut
along these lines and thcse portions do not act inde-
pendently of each other.
Columns for high-rise buildings may use brackets on
their base plates to help distribute the column load
out over the larger area of the base plate to the
masonry wpport.
This portion of the assembly occupies a trapezoidal
area; Figure 35.
/ +hi = 167"
t
Li - b, = 50' - 4
FIGURE 35
P = A w
= (690 in." (750 psi)
= 516 kips
Determining thickness of base plate
To get an idea of the thickness of the base plate ( t ) ,
consider a 1" wide strip as a uniformly loaded, con-
tinuous beam supported at two points (the brackets)
and overhanging at each end. See Fignre 36.
From beam formula #6Bh in Section 8.1:
-w a2
M,,, (at support) =
2
Since:
M = a S
or:
where:
t =
I a = 7 5 a, (ALSC L.J.1.4.8)
= 5.51" or use 6"-thick plate
Check bending stresses & shear stresses in
base plate bracket section
Start with lYzf'-thick brackets ( 2 x 1M" = 3" flange
thickness) at right angles to face of column flange. Find
moment of inertia of the vertical section through
brackets and base plate, Figure 37, using the method
of adding areas:
moment of inertia about N.A.
FIGURE 36
distance of N.A. to outer fiber
cb = 9.27"
bending stresses
M Cb
Vb =
I
= 4370 psi
= 9770 psi OK
-
n~aximum shear forcc at neutral axis
Bendtng stress [a)
Shear force (f)
PI (4
FIGURE 37
corresponding shear stress iu brackets
= 8400 psi OK -
shear force at face of 6" base plate
(to be transferred through fillet welds)
= 24,630 llx/in. ( t o be carried by four fillet
welds at 1%" thick brackets)
leg size of mch fillet wdd joining base plate to brackets
l/g (24,630)
W =----
(11,200) - E70 allowable
= ,545" or use %/,Br'[l
---
(The minimum fillet wcld leg size for 6" plate
is WB .)
Determining vertical weld requirements
In determining fitlet weld sizes on the usual beam seat
bracket, it is often assumed that the shear reaction is
uniformly distributed along the vertical length of tho
bracket. The hvo unit forces resulting from shear and
bending are then resolved together (vectorially added),
and the resultant force is then divided by the allow-
able force for the fillet weld to give the weld size. This
is of course conservative, because the maximum unit
bending force does not occur on the fillet weld at the
same region as does the maximum unit shear force.
However the analysis docs not take long:
bending force on weld
f, = u t
= (9770 psi) (1%")
= 14,660 lbs/in. (one bracket and two fillet
welds )
or
= 7330 lbs/in. (one fillet weld)
vertical shear force on weld
(assuming unifolm distribution)
resultant force on weld
required leg size of certical fillet weld
actual force
0 =
allowable force
FIGURE 38
Alternate method. In cases where the forces are
high, and the requirement for welding is greater, it
would be wcll to look further into the analysis in order
to reduce the amount of welding.
In Figure 37, it is seen that the maximum unit
force on the vertical wt:ld due to bending moment
occurs at the top of the bracket mnnection ( b ) in a
rcgion of very low shear t ~msfcr. Likewise the maxi-
mum unit shear force occurs in a region of low bending
moment ( c) . In the following analysis, the weld size
is determined both for bending and for shear, and the
larger of these two values are used:
ccrtical shear requirement
(maximum condition at N.A.)
fl = 25,200 lbs/in.
to be carried by four fillet welds
actual force
0 =
allowable force
= ,562" or %,/,,"
bending requirement
(maximum condition at top of bracket)
actual force
= -.
allowable force
Hence use the larger of the two, or 3/4" fillet welds.
.4lthough this altrrmate method required a slightly
smaller fillet weld (.654") as against (.758"), they
both endod up at %' ' wheu they were rounded off. So,
in this particular example, there was no saving in
rising this method.
Column stiffeners
A rather high eompr~~ssive force in the top portion of
these brackets is applied horizontally to the column
Range. It would hs wcll to add stiifenors behveen the
column flanges to transfer this force from one bracket
through the column to thc opposite column flange;
Figure 38.
It might he argncd that, if the brackets are milled
to brar against the column flanges, the bearing area
may then be considered to carry the compressive hori-
zontal force bctwecn the bracket and the column flange.
Also, the connecting welds may then be considered to
/ Column-Related
FIGURE 39
Slight tensile prestress
Unit sheor ' between bracket in weld before load i s
force on weld ond column flange applied
carry only the vertical shear forces. See Figure 39, left.
If the designer questions whether the weld would
load up in compression along with the bearing area
of the bracket, it should be remembered that weld
shrinkage will slightly prcstrrss the weld in tension and,
the end of the bracket within the weld region in com-
pression. See Figure 39, right. As the horizontal com-
pression is applied, the weld must first unload in
tension before it would be loaded in compression. In
the meantime, the bracket bearing area continues to
load up in compression.
This is very similar to standard practice in welded
plate girder design. Even though the web is not milled
along its edge, it is fittpd tight to the flange and simple
fillet welds join the hvo. In almost all cases, these welds
are designed just for the shear transfer (parallel to the
weld) between the web and the flange; any distributed
floor load is assnmed to transfer down through the
flange (transvrrse to the weld) into the cdge of the
web which is in contact with the flange. Designers
believe that even if this transverse force is transferred
through the weld, it does not lower the capacity of
the fillet weld to transfer the shear forces.
Refer to Figure 37(b) and notice that the bending
action provides a horizontal compressive force on the
vertical connedng wclds along almost their entire
length. Only a vcry small lcngth of the welds near
the base plate is subjected to horizontal tension, and
these forces are very small. The maximum tensile
forces occur within the base plate, which has no con-
necting welds.
shear force on certical weld
(assuming uniform distribution)
516.5k
f - .-------
s -
4 x 30"
= 4310 lbs/in. (one weld)
t;crtical weld size
(assuming it to transfer shear force only)
bnt 3" thick column flange would require a minimum
lhr' h (Table 2, Sect. 7.4).
If partial-penetration groove welds are used (as-
suming a tight fit) the following applies:
allowables (E70 welds)
compression: same as plate
shear: 7 = 15,800 psi
shear jorce on one weld
f. = 4310 lbs/in.
required effective throat
i j using bevel ioint
Y6 ,ik
t = t, + '/a''
= ,273'' 4- W"
= ,398"
raot face (land) = ll/z" - 2(.39Wr)
= ,704'' or use - -- W'
if using 1 joint
k- %"4
1 %"
t = t,
"
= ,273"
root face (land) = 1Yz" - 2(.273")
= ,954" or use '/8"
A portion of the shear transfer represented by the
shear force di~tribution in Figure 37 ( c) lies below a
line through the top surface of the base plate. It might
be reasoned that this portion u a ~ l d be carried by the
base plate and not the vertical connecting welds be-
tween tire bracket and the colnmn flange. If so, this
triangular arcs would approximately represent a shear
force of
?5. (24,63O#/in.) 6" = 73.9"
to be deducted:
516.5& - 73.9' = 4426&
However, in this example, the column flange thickness
of 3" would require a %" fillet weld to be used.
Brackets t o column flange edges
The base section consisting of the brackets attached
to the edge of the column flanges, Fignre 40, is now
considered in a similar manner. From Illis similar
analysis, thc brackets will be made of 1W-thick plate.
Figure 41 shows the resulting column base detail.
FIGURE 40 FIGURE 41
COLUMN BASE PLATE DIMENSIONS (AISC, 1963)
- COLUMN BASE PLATES / For
c Dimensions for maximum
II column loads
L--?Q
Base nlaien, ASTM 1116. h - 27 i ri
Cuaci l i c, , ' < - 30UO or,
'Or / COLUMN BASE PLATES
Dimensions for maximum
column loads mT. 1.-
Bare OaiPs, hSTM A16. F,, = 27 kr,
coacrsts. l, - 3OM nri
1 . J
.- -
Wt.
P"
Fi.
-
i b.
1w
161
133
120
106
99
92
85
79
72
65
58
53
50
45
40
I12
100
89
77
72
66
60
54
49
45
39
33
67
58
48
40
35
31
28
24
20
17
~-
tn.
61: 16
W
4 X 14%
W
1 X 12
W
1 X 10
W:
1 x 8
W
~.
Note' i
SIlO
Wht
-
-This and following toblei prenenisd here by cauttery of American Institute of
Steel Conltruction.
E
5! I S r , s 8
. 2 a a a F Y . L D F F F
xk X; x xr xs xz
x m x XS x x X- X- X- X-
- - - a " a L D - - - a m F " ?
"
ases / 3.3-31
Column base plates for the 32-story Commerce Towers, Kansas City,
Mo., were shop-fabricated and shipped separately. At the site they
were positioned and bolted to the concrete. The heovy columns were
then erected ond field welded to base plates. This was facilitated by
use of semi-automatic arc welding with self-shielding cored electrode
wire. Process quadrupled the speed of manual welding and produced
sounder welds.
Ten-ton weldments were required for tower bases on lift bridges along
the St. Lawrence Seaway. Edges of attaching members were double-
beveled to permit fuil penetration. Iron powder electrodes were speci-
fied for higher welding speeds and lower costs. Because of high
restraint, LH-70 (low hydrogen) E7018 electrodes were used on root
posses to avoid cracking, while E6027 was used on subsequent passes
to fi l l the ioint.
3.3-32 / Col umn- Rel at ed Design
In designing a scenic highway bridge with 700' arch
span, near Santa Barbora, Col., engineers called for
tower columns to be anchored t o the concrete skew-
backs by means of 1%" prestressing rods. The bot-
tom of the column is slotted to accommodate the
base, an "eggbox" grill made up of vertical plates
welded together and to the box column. The towers
suppoFt heavy vertical girder loads but also safely
transmit horizontal wind and seismic loads from the
deck system to the foundation.
1. INTRODUCTION
.41SC specifies that, where full-milled tier-huitding
coliirnns are spliced, there shall be suflkicnt welding
to hold them securdy in place. These connections shall
be proportioned to rcsist any horizontal shear forces,
and any tension that would be developed by specified
wind forces acting in conjnnction with 75% of the
ea1c:ulated dead load strws and no live load, if this
condition will prodrice more tension than full dead load
and live load applied. (AISC: Sec 1.15.8).
Figures 1 and 2 show various designs of column
splices mhicli diminate punching of the columns. Note
that these details require only llandling and punching
of small pieces of angles or plates v&ch are easily
carried to, and welded to, the columns in the shop.
The details provide for temporary bolted connections
in the field prior to making the permanent welded
connections.
Sometimes the column connections are placed
about mi d\ ~ay in height, in order to get the connection
away from the regiorr of heavy bending moment caused
by windloads, etc. The resnlt is a. ~wnncction sufficient
to hold tlre columns in place and designed for hori-
zontal shear md axial compresion only
2. TYPES OF SPLICES
In Fignre I ( a j , a plate md two :mgles are punched
or, if nccessary, drilled. The plate is shop welded to
the top of the lower colrrmn. The two angles are shop
welded to the web at the lower end of the npper
rolnmn. The r r p p ~ ~ column is erected on top of the
l ouw column and eroction bolts are inserted. The
tipp'r c~l nrnn is then &.Id \velded to the mnnecting
plat?. Where additional clc.ar;mce is needed for erec-
tion of beams framing into the web oi the lower
c,olumn, it might be nccessary to shop weld the plate
to the upper col~m~rr and tlicn field weld in the over-
licnd position to the lo\vcx colun~n.
If tlre nppm and lowcr colnrnns differ in size, the
conn<z~.ting phti. is dcsi ~ned as a member in bending
due to misalignm~~nt of the fiangcs, and its thickness
is dctcrrnincd from this; Figure l ( b ) . If the lower
coltnnn's section is mrirh dceper than the upper column,
stiffeutm c:m he wcldcd directly helow the flanges of
the rlppor coli~mn. Tllese stiffeners will reduce the
required thickness of thr i.onnccting plate*; Figure l ( c j .
A splice for heavy coliimns is shown in Figure
I ( d ) . Turo small platcs arc prmcl~ed with holes aligned
as indicated. They are then carried to the column sec-
FIG. 1-Typical Column Splices
.Q-2 / Column-
Cc)
FIG. 2 - Typical Column Splices
tions and welded thereto. In the field the colun~n
sections arc bolted temporarily prior to welding, as
indicated at ( d) .
In Figure 2( a) the ends of both column sections
are first milled for a square bearing surface. Then
the two lower ewction splice angles are shop welded
on opposite sides of the web of the heavier wl um~i
section, so as to project past the end of the column.
The outstanding legs of these angles are provided with
holes for erection bolts to engage the outstanding legs
of the other two angles that are shop welded to tlie
11pper column section. In this type of detail where
lighter con~iecting material projects from heavy main
sections, care should he taken in handling to prevent
damage to the lighter material.
The flangcs on the lower end of tlie upper column
section are partially beveled or "J" grooved, and this
partial pelletration groove joint is then welded in thc
field.
The ~ur pos e of the angles is to splice and hold the
two adjacmt columns together kemporarily while they
are being fir:ld welded.
These erecting angles may be placed horizontally
LE 1-Allowables for Wel d Met al in
Partiol-Penetration Groove Welds
For Field Splices of Columns
E60 Welds E70 Welds
SAW-I SAW-2
campreision some or piate some os pl ate
..... . ~ ~ .-
l endon ironsverse to cross-
section oi t hroat oi ea 15.800 psi
-- .~~
1: 2: 1 1 5 , 8 0 0 p
AWS Building Por 20510: a nd AiSC Scc 1.5.3
on ttw ~r vh of thc colririms. Fi gwr ' (b). Trie advantage
of this position is that tlwy do not i ~t i : nd hcyond the
eiids of the coliimri for possihlc drm~iige dr~ring transit
or ertrtion.
Fmr plntcs xi-e piiiichctl, timi shop welded he-
t\veen the A:inges of tlrc two colurrin sections as sliown
i r ~ Figure 2( c) , lraving enorlgh space hetween the
back of the, platc.s and tlic colt~mn web to insert a
\vrtmcl~. Two splicc plates art: also punchcd and shop
wrldcd to the l ou- <~ coli~mn sc~ctiori hcfore siripping
to the crcction sit<,. .After bolting in the field as indi-
cated, the permanent coii~iwtitm is in:& by welding.
Tlic splico in Figr~rc 2(1l ) is similar to that at ( a )
but is lor coiinccting two coliimiis of differrnt sizes.
The flanges 01' tht. r~ppcr columlr lic inside of thc flanges
of the 1ov;ol- colririm Rcfort, shop \vtIding tile erecting
arlglcs, spiicc phi es art, first shop fillet welded to the
ir1sid.r. face of ihc ilarigc 01' the lowcr colrunn. Tliey
are milled with tlw lowcr col~imn section. As an
altrrnate to this, spliw plates with their lower edges
prepared for wcldiiig are slrop fillet wi-oided to the
outside face of tlrt. fiarigcs on the uppcr column.
In case only m ~ c side of the i dumn is acccssil)le,
far example wlim new stecl is crccted adjacent to an
old stmcture, a cornhination of this procedure may
bc usrd. Placc the lowcr splice plates on the inside
face of the lo\vcr coliinln a i d the ~ ~ p p e r splice plate
oii tlw oi~tside face of thc r~ppcr colr~mn; See Figure
2( d) . In this ma~i ~i er all fiold w\.olds on both a)!umn
flmgcs can he maclt from the one side.
\t'Iisrc splice platc,s arc used and filler plates are
needed l~ecanse of the diflerencc in sizes of the upper
and lower columns, these plates are welded to the
iippcr coliiinii. Sre Figiirt, 2(t S). This allows the greater
amount of \velding to ljc doi ~c in the shop where
larger electrodes arrd higher \velding currents used in
Column Splicer /
FIG. 3-Pariiul-Penelrotion Welds
the fiat position result in higher welding speeds and
lower cost. After erection the splice plate is Iicld welded
to the lower column.
Two attaching plates are shop welded to the upper
end of the lower column. The column may be hoisted
by attachiug the cable to the erection holes of these
plates. After erecting the upper columns, these plates
are field welded to the upper column.
3. WELD ALLOWABLES
Both the AWS Building Code and the AISC Specifi-
cations allow partial-penebation groove welds, either
a bevel or a J preparation, to be used on column field
splices.
For a J joint, the effective throat (t,) is equal
to the actual throat (t ).
For a beveled joint, the eflective throat (t,.) equals
the actual throat ( t ) less '/a". This reduction in throat
is made because the weld may not extend all the way
down into the very root of the joint. The Ye" reduction
is very conservative. No reduction is made in the
throat of the J preparation because there is no problem
in reaching the root of the joint.
.4 beveled joint is usually flame cut along the end
of the column flange. A J groove must be machined or
else gouged out by tbc air carbon-arc procvss. Although
it may seem that the beveled groove might require
more weld metal because it must be Ya" deeper than
required, the J groove on the other hand must start
with a %" radius and an included angle of 45". There
may be no reduction in the amount of weld metal by
using the J groove; see Figure 3. A decision on joint
design should be made only after all factors are
carefully evaluated.
Since it is impossible to properly read radiographs
of this partial penetration groove joint, because of the
unwe!ded portion, these field splices should never be
subject to radiographic inspection.
. EXAMPLES
Figure 4 illusbates a typical field splice used on
columns of the Detroit Bank & Trust Buiiding in
Detroit, htichigan. These fabricated columns were
spliced by partial-penetration bevel joints in the column
BUILT-UP
COLUMN
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD SPLICE
FIG. 4-Typical column splice on Detroit Bank
& Trust Building.
3. / Coiumn-Related
flanges. These A36 steel columns were welded with
E70 low-hydrogen electrodes. Notice the schedule of
u-eld sizes. The angl e were sliop welded to column
ends and field bolted during erection, using high-tensile
bolts. These bolts were left in place and carried any
horizontal shear in the direction of the column web,
hence no field u&ling was required on the web of
the columns.
Figure 5 illustrates the field splice of columns in
the Michigan Consolidated Gas Co. Building i n Detroit,
Michigan. These fabricated A36 steel box-shaped col-
umns were field welded with E70 low-hydrogen elec-
trodes. Partial-penetration J-groove welds were used
on all four flanges around the periphery of the column.
Notice the schedule of weld sizes.
FIG. &-Typical column splice in sections of
some depth. Plate on the web i s for bolting to
facilitate erection.
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD SPLICE
FIG. 5-Typic01 column splice on Michigan Con.
solidoted Gos Co. Building.
FIG. 7-Field splicing of column flanges, using
vapor-shielded arc welding process.
Figure 1 illustrates a suggested detail for a pin con-
nection at the cnd of a built-up compression member
of an arch bridge, subject to a reaction of 90 kips.
FIGURE 1
There are many approaches to this type of problcm
and, of courso, many solutions. This is simply one
analysis and one solution. One of the design require-
ments in this i~artierllar example is to have a smooth-
appearing surface on the outside or faeia side of the
arch compression member,
Notice in tlie sketch of thc cross-section of the
built-up compression member, Figure 1, that the center
of gravity is ,935'' in from the outer face.
By selecting an attaching plate of sufficient tliick-
uess for its ccnter of gravity to line up with the com-
pressi o~~ ~nernber's center of gravity, the compression
load will be transferred in a direct line without any
eccentricity.
Thc bearing pin is subjected to a double-shear
load: 90,OOO lhs on two areas, or 45,000 lbs cach. See
Figure 2. .4c(:ording to AASI-IO (Scc 3.4.2), the allow-
able stress on this pin is 13,500 psi.
= 3.33 in.+equired pin area
or use a 2%"-&a pin having A = 3.98 ia2
-- --
The next step is to compute the thickness of the
connecting plate. This is based oil the minimum re-
quired bearing area of the plate because of t he pin
reaction against the plate, Figurc 3. The 90,000-lb load
is divided by the allowable bearing pressure, which
in this case is 24;000 psi assuming no rotation, (AASHO
3.4.2) and the minimum bearing area comes out to be
Smce thc pm's diameter has been computed to
be 2%", the rcquired plate thickness to make up tbis
bearing area would bt-
= 1.67"
hut nse 2"-thick plate
.~ ~~ -~ ..~.. -
since this will also line up with the center of gravity
of the compression member (CG = ,933').
The next step is a simple determination of the
required depth ( d) of this courrecting plate. See Figure
4. In this analysis, some structural designers consider
this connecting plate as a beam supported at the
center, or pin. and withstanding the tvmpression loads
transmitted from the compression tncmber.
In most cases, the compression load (here 90 kips)
is assumed to bc ~qual l y distributed tllroughout the
3.5-2 / Column-
various parts of the compression memher by the ratio
of the individual areas to the total area. Accordingly,
the compression load carried by each angle wodd he -
= 16.9 kips "
and the compression load carried by the 5h" X 20"
web plate would be-
= 56 kips
throughout its entire width. Dividing this load by 2G"
results in a uniform load of-
= 2.8 kips/linear in.
Treat this connecting plate as a cantilever beam
from the centcrline with these two loads:
( 1) the concentrated load of 16.9 lups at 8.75"
from center, and
( 2) the unifonn load of 2.8 kips/in. for a distance
of lo".
The resulting bending moment i.; then computed:
= 288 in.-kips
FIGURE 4
Since the required section modulus is in tenns
of ( d) :
M: =, , S
.-
(288,000 in.-lhs)
- ..
(20,000 psi)
Since
and the minimum depth of upper plate is found to be -
d = 6.58"
or 7" deep beyond the pinhole would he sufficient.
. FI NALI ZI NG +
The final detail has k e n sketched in Figure 5. The
outer leg of each angle might be triinmed back slightly
so as to fit to the 2" connecting plate. Whether this
is cut back or not, there will be a loss of 25h1t of the
angle leg. This area ( A = 2 X 'h" X 2.625" = 2.625
is made up by additional attaching stiEening
plates. These have been chosen to be two %" X 3"
plates ( A = 4.5 in.2) and two 'h" X 13h" bars ( A =
1.375 i n2) . The total added area is thus 5.875 square
inches. The entire built-up compression member has
an area of 20 square inches. These additional attaching
plates simply mean that the cross-sectional area in
contact with the 2" cunnecting plate is in excess of the
required 20 square inches.
After the compression member has been welded,
its end might he nulled to provide a Bat, smooth surface
for bearing against the 2" plate. If this is done, the
entire section would not have to be welded 100% all
the way through. Under these conditions, it is suggested
that a bevel he made part way through these plates
of the compression member and that a groove weld
be made on the outside. Reinforcing Ellet welds should
then be made on the inner side of this compression
member where it co~mects with the 2" plate.
lost at connection;
replaced by adding
FIGURE 5
/ Column-Relate
Bearing-pin connections like those shown on this bridge over Michigan's
John C. Lodge Expressway must be designed to transfer the compres-
sion load without eccentricity. Note simplicity and beauty of the welded
rigid frame employed i n this bridge design.
1.
In the past, when engineers required steel columns of
heavier section than those commercially available, they
designed the columns to be made by riveting eover
plates to the flanges of 14" WF rolled sections. See
Figure l ( a ) . The cover plates we e si7ed to produce
the required additional section area.
In recent years, fabricating shops have simply sub-
stituted fillet welds for rivets and produced the same
FIGURE 2
column section; Figure l ( b) . This practice has pre-
sented a design problem in getting an efficient transfer
of forces on the beam-to-column weld.
of tensile force from the beam flange through the cover
The best design is a completely welded built-up
plate into the column without pulling the cover plate
column, Figure l ( c ) . This gives the exact section
away from the column flange. The cover plate, being
required without any increase in welding, and there
attached only along its two outer edges, tends to bow
is no problem in transferring tensile forces from the
outward; Figure 2. This results in uneven distribution
beam flange through the column.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
For very large column sections, 4 plates can be
welded together to form a box section; Figure 3( a) .
Sometimes a web plate is added to this box for addi-
tional area in the lower part of a building; Figure 3(b).
Moving up the bnilding, the point is reached where
this web plate can be omitted without changing the
outer section dimeiisions.
There are two general requirements for the welds
holding the plates of the columns together; Figure 4.
a. The cntire length of the column must have
sufficient welds to witlistand any longitudinal shear
resulting from moments applied to the column from
wind or beam loads; Figure 4( a) . Notice at the left
the rathcr h ~ w change in moment along most of the
colu~nn length.
b. Within the region where the beams connect to
th,e col~imn, this longitudinal shear is much higher
because of the abrupt cl~ange in moment within this
region; Figme 4( b) . .41so the tensile force from the
beam flange will be t r ansf c~~ed through a portion of
this weld. Thcse two conditions require heavier welds
in the connection region.
Varioris t n x s of welds are employed in fabricating:
a. Fillet u;el& (Fig. 5) require no plate prepara-
tion. They can be madc to any size simply by making
more passes. However, since the amount of weld metal
varies as the square of the leg size, these welds can
require a large amount of weld metal for the larger
sizes. For nominal size welds (approx. 'h" to %"),
fillet welds are usually used. When their size becomes
too large, they are replaced with some type of groove
weld because iess weld metal is required.
FIGURE 5
b. Bevel and Vcc groove welds (Fig. 6 ) require
joint edges of the plate to be beveled, usually by the
oxygen cutting process. On larger size welds, this
additional preparation cost is offset by the reduction
in weld metal required. AWS and AISC deduct the
first %" of weld to compensate for any slight lack of
penetration into the very bottom of the bevel joint, if
welded manually.
FIGURE 6
c. J und l T groove udds ((Fig. 7 ) require the plates
to be googed or machined. Machining is seldom used
in thc structural field, although air carbon-arc gouging
is becoming more popular. The J and U welds may
not require as much weld metal as the bevel or Vee
weld. AWS and MSG allow the full throat or depth of
groove to be used.
FIGURE 7
a
FIGURE 8
P~uiial-penetration groove welds are :illowed in the
Building field. They have many applications; for cxam-
ple, field splices of coliiinns, built up columns, built-up
box sections for truss chords, etc.
If a vee J or U groove is used, i t is assumed the
welder can easily reach the bottom of the joint. Thus,
the effective tliroat of the weld (t,?) is equal to the
actual throat of the prepared groove ( t ) , see Fig. 8( b)
If a bevel groove is used, it is assumed that the
weldor may not quite reach the bottom of the groove,
therefore AWS and AISC drdu'ct %" from the prepared
FILLET WELDS
tor any direction of force' 7 = 13,600 psi 7 = 15,800 psi
I i = 9 6 0 0 ~ .- ~ 1 ! =11, 300"
PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
sheor 1 r , 13,600 pi i = 15,800 psi
##tension transverse t o
axis o i wcl d
!
o = 13,600 I o 1= 15.800 psi
tension poi al l el to
axis of wel d 1 some or pi ot e 1 scme or p o r e
COMPLETE PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
t el l i on
compression
bending I some o i pi ate 1 same oi pi ote
' l ow hydrogen E60 8 SAW1 rruy be ,,red for fi l l et weldr & pai t i ol
penctrofion groove wel dr on A242 or A441 steel. (at the lower
ol l owobfe r = 13,600 psii
$ dy for i pl i er or connections ai or other members subject
pr i l l ar i l y 10 axi al camprrs5ion stress
groove. Here the cfiective throat ( t , ) will equal the
throat of the groove ( t ) minus 'In", see Fig. 8 ( a ) .
hE 2-Partial-Penetration Groove
I // ~ " ' j b....a.~.>J
depth of
l eg sire of
f i l l et wel d
force - f bi per l i ni nr rmch - upper volue A?, A373 ifre! & 60 welds
l o w: d u e H36. A441 steel & E70 wel dr
wei ght of wel d mef a - Ibs per foot.
Tcnsion applied parnllel to the weld's axis, or com-
pression in any direction, has the same allowable stress
as the plate.
Tension appliccl transverse to the weld's axis, or
shear in any dinxtion. has reduced allowable stress,
equal to that for tlir throat of a correspanding fillet
wcld.
Jnst as fillet wclds have a minimum size for thick -
platcs becaiise of fast cooliiig and greater restraint, so
partial-perietmtion .:move welds have a minimum effec-
tive throat ( t , ) of-
TABLE 3-Portiol-Perpetration Groove
Reinforced by o
of f i l l et weld leg size
1st val ue force ibs per l i neor Inch A7, A373 si t el & E6O welds
2nd value loice i br per l i neor inch A36, A441 steel & E70 weids
3rd valve weight of weld metol lbr per foot
where:
t, - thicknc~s of t hi ~~ner plate
LD METAL
REQUIREMENTS
Table 1 lists the AWS and AISC allowable stresses in
welds iiscd on Buildings. Vaiucs for both partial-
pcnetratio~i and full-pciletration groove welds and for
fillet welds are included.
Table 2 tr:inslates the Table 1 values into allowable
forces (Ibs/linear in.) and required weld metal (Ibs/ft)
h r fillet wclds and scveral types of partial-penetration
groove welds. These values cover weld sizes from
M" to 3".
Table 3 provides allowable forces for partial-pene-
tration groove welds reinforced by a fillet weld.
Table 4 directly compares a number of joints to
carry a giveil force, illustrating their relative require-
ments in weight of weld metal.
LE 4-Joints to Carry Force o# 2
IlillMG WELD TYPES
There arc! several w:rys in which different types of
welds can be combined in economically fabricating
built-up colunins to meet the two basic rtqiiirements:
a ) welds from end-to-end of column to withstand
longitudinal shear resulting from (wind and beam
load) applied momonts, and 11) hcavier wclds in
connection rcgions to withstand higher longihdinal
shear due to abrupt change in moment, and to carry
tensile force from the beam flange. The following cases
illustrate combinations that permit optimum use of
automatic welding:
Region of beam to
column connection
FIGURE 9
If the weld sizes are not too large, the column may be
first fillet welded with -hw!ld ( a ) along its entire length.
Second, additional passes are made in the mnnection
region to bring the fillet weld a p to the proper size for
weld ( b) .
n o Region of beom to
Weld o
,,, column connection
Double beveled
entire length
The wcb plate is t xvdcd to the proper drpth on all 4
edges dong tllc ci~tirc length. Croovr weld ( a ) is
iirst made :iIoiig the rntire Icngill. Second, fillet weld
( b ) is made over tilo groove \veld within the connection
region t o hi i l g it rip to the propvr size.
Region of beam to
( coiurnn carinecfion
Beveled only within
coni?ection region
FIGURE 11
The web plate is beveled to tbc proper depth dong
short lcngths within tho connection region. First, groove
weld ( h ) is made flrish with ihe surface within the
connwtior~ region. Second, fillot weld ( a ) is made
along thc entire lmgih of the column.
Additlono! beveling in
region of beom to
(column COnneCTiOn
FIGURE 12
Thc web plate is beveled to tbc, jxopcr depth on all 4
edges along the entire lcygth. \Vithin the co~snection
I-egioii, the \vcb is furti~cr l w~i , l i ~I t o a dcepcr depth.
First, groove weld ( b) is I I I X~ C within the connection
region until the plate edge is built rip to the heigllt
of the first bevel. Second, groove weld ( a ) is made
FIGURE 10
;iIong the entire Icrigtli.
FIGURE 13
In colunin bos sections, J and U gl-oovo welds may be
substituted fol- bevel and Vee grnovix welds if the fabri-
cator is eqnipped to gouge anti profrrs to do so rather
than bevel. Since bevelirrg is a cutting method, the
plates must bc beveled before :rsscmbling them to-
gether. Gouging, Irowevcr, may be done either before
or after assembling. Further, heavy J or U groove
welds normally nq~i i n: less wcld mctai than the bevel
or V1.1: groove wvlds.
Some fabricators, in making hrilt-isl> box sections;
have ass(~mb1ed ;illd liglitly t:r& weldrd the plates
together witliont ;iny prqxration; Figurc 13( a) . The
joints are next air carbon-arc g o n g ~ l to the desired
depth for very slsort distalices and fr~rther tack welded;
Figure 13( b) . Next, the longer distances in between.
tack welds are air carbon-arc gonged. Whcn this is
completed, the entire length is ;~utomatically sub-
merged-arc welded togeth'er; Figure 13(c).
At first glance it might he thought that the rcquire-
mciits for a bc;trn Range welded to the flange of a
1111iit-up box colmsin, Figure 14(;r), would be similar
to the beam h i g c nelded to the flange oi an I shaped
colnrnn, Figun: 14(b). This is because the box colnmn
flangc is treated as ;I beam simply supported at its two
miter edges, Figmr 14(c); it has the same maximum
bending nroment as the WF columz flange treated
as a beam supported at its center, Figure 14( d) .
The follo\virig analysis of a beam flauge welded to
FIGURE 14
a box column, Figure 15( a) , is based upon a simila
analysis of a line forcc applied to a cover-plated WF
column, i'igure 15(1)). The latter analysis was made
by Dr. T. R. Higgins, llirrctor of J",ngint:ering and
Research of the AISC.
The following assrlmptions are made:
1. The length of the box column Aange resisting
this line forcc is limittd to a distance equal to 6 times
its thickness abovc arid below the application of the
line force. See Figure 16.
2. Tl ~ e edge welds oirer no restraining action to
this Clmge plate. 1.11 oilier words, these two edges are
just supported. The nppcr and lower bo~uidary of this
portion of the column flange are fixed.
3. The tensile line force applied to this Aange
area is urriiormly distributed.
At ultimate load (P,l), it is assunied that this
roctirngdar plate has failed as a mechanism with plastic
binges Forming along thc dotted lines.
The internal work done by the resisting plate
eq11aIs the summation of the plastic moments (M, )
FIGURE 15
ini~ltiplied hy tlie angle change (6) along these edges.
'I'he exten~al work done equals the ultimate load
(P, , ) rnrrltiplied by the virtual displacement ( A) .
By setting those two exprrssions equal to each
othcr; it is possible to solve for the ultimate load (P,,)
which may be applied to this portion of the flange
plate.
FIGURE 16
At ultimate loading (P,), plastic moments (M,)
will build up along the dashed lines (Fig. 16) to form
plastic hinges. The iutemal work done, when this
plate is pulled out, will be the plastic moment (M,)
multiplied by the corresponding angle changes (+)
along these lengths:
an& +I along @-@ & @-@
angle +, along @-@
angIe 4, along 0-0, 0-@, @-a &
GI-@
With reference to Figure 17:
Distance @-@ = J aZ + 36 tz
@-m -e
az + 36 t2 a
6 t
or distance = - \/ a' 4- 36 t2
a
Now find the angle changes (+) along the hinges
at ultimate load:
A
+I= 5-t
A
+ 2 = 2 + 1 = -
3 t
and sirice
Sectiori x-x
a
or distance @--a -. - \/ a2 + 36 t2
6 t
FIGURE 17
p Columns I'
A
; , ,$, = +3 + +,, = - &Ctt3;-;;~-
allowable force
6 at
ext end work = internal work
internal ~ o r k
. .-
= M. [ m, 2 ( 2 a + b ) + ~ b + m, * d a ~ + 3 8 t ' ]
A
Applying a load factor of 2, and using the yield
strength (u,), the allowable force ( P) which may be
applied to the plate would be-
where the plastic moment (M, ), in in.-lbs/liuear inch
is-
T
t
FIGURE 18
external work
= P" A
FIGURE 19
Example
Here:
t = 31/2''
a = 5 "
b = 14"
u = 22,000 psi
calculated tensile force on beam flange = 386 kips
The allowable force:
(3%) (38 kips/sq in.)
- -
12
= 1178 kips > 386 kips OK
-
Equitable Life Asmrcmce Building
Colurnns for tlm Equitab1.e Life Assmxnce build-
ing in Sun Francisco, an earthquake area, were built
and erected in 3-story lcngtl~s. The columns were
uniformly tapered :$$, in./ft from the base to the 14th
story.
Exterior columns started with a 42" web at the
bottom, tapering to a 1.2" web at the 14th story level;
Figure 20. Flanges were 18" X 3" at the h e . The
tapered columt~s were fabricated by welding two flange
plates and a web together. L-shaped columns were
used at the corners of the building.
C.IL. House
The 32-story C.I.L. House in Montreal, Caiiada
has the heaviest TI" section columns ever constructed.
The fabricated columns weigh as much as 2,000 lbs/ft.
A t y p i ~ d column, Figure 21, consists of two 7%" X 28"
fiange plates welded to a 5" X 16%" web plate.
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 21
FIGURE 22
Automatic submerged-arc welding was used in
fabricating these columns; Figure 22. Simple continuous
fillet welds of about 3/4" leg size join the column flanges
to the web. Because of the greater forces $thin the
beam-to-column connection region, these welds were
increased in size by beveling the web.
The depth of the bevel for this double beveled
T-joint varied with the forces to be transferred, hut
ranged from a minimum of Yz" on each side of the
web up to 100%. Less than 10% of these groove welds
required 100% beveling. The grooved joints extended
in length slightly above and below the depth of the
connecZing beam and ranged in length from 2' to 5'.
Joint preparation involved beveling with oxygen
cutting equipment at a 22" to 30" angle to the correct
depth. After tacking the Range to the web, the weldor
lightly air carbon-arc gouged the bottom of the joint
prior to welding to open it up for the root pass; the
result was a modified J-groove.
The columns, 2 stories high, range from 22' to 34'
in length. Flange and web plates were clamped in
heavy fixtures to maintain proper alignment during
welding; Figure 22. After tack welding, trunnions were
Designing Built-Up Columns / 3 . 6 1 1
FIGURE 23
attached to the column ends so that all welds could
be deposited in the Bat position. The columns with
trunnions attached were then transferred to the auto-
matic welding unit. After preheating to the correct
temperature, using natural gas torches, the shorter-
length groove welds were made first. The remaining
length of unwclded ailurnn was then fillet welded.
After welding, trumions were removed and the
column ends machine facod to proper length. Con-
nection plates were attached after machining, with most
weids positioned downhand to achieve maximum wcld-
ing spced. Preheating preceded the manual welding of
these plates in position, using low-hydrogen electrodes;
Fi@re 23.
Inland Steel Building
& No~t l r Carolina h7alional Bunk Building
Elimination of interior colnmns in a building de-
signed for wclded coiistruction is not unique, but
nsually reqnires the design and fabri~lltion of special
colnrn~~s; Figure 24.
The ~ol umn design on the right was used in the
Inland Stet:] Bidding in Chicago. The inner portion
of the built-up colt~rnn is a standard WF section; the
outer portion is a flat plate from 1" to 3" thick. A web
plate, From %" to 1'W thick, joins thcse tw-o segments.
Notice that a section of the main girder was shop
welded to the fabricated column. Dotted lines show
the spandrel bean~s and remainder of t he girder that
were fidd welded to prorluce a rigid vonnection. The
main ginlrrs span 60'.
On t t ~ left is n typic;il column from the North
Carolina National Rank B~~i l di ng in Ch;dotte. A spc-
cially rolled V\'F sertion is tlic innin s q p e n t of this
column. Wing plates have bix+*rri addrd to one flange
and a mvcr plate to the othel- to dwdop the necdvd
~.olrimn proportics. The m;iin girrl<~-s and spandrels
(dotted sections) were later att:~ched by field welding.
FIGURE 24
3. 612 / Column-Related Design
Fabrication of special colnmn seetiom demand
low cost, high production assembly and welding tech-
niques. Submerged-arc automatic welding is uscd ex-
tensivcly in fabricating these columns. The welding
head, Figure 25, is mounted on a universal, track
traveling type welding ma~ripuletor. The manipulator,
FIGURE 26
ifux recovery nnit, and welding generators are mounted
on a self-propelled carriage having a G5 ft track travel
distance. Two identical welding fixtures are positioned
parallel to and on either side of the carriage track.
This has rcduced handling time for setup and re-
positioning of the columns.
During fabrication of columns for the North Caro-
lina National Rank Rnilding, they were placed in a
specially designed trunnion fixture; Figure 26. This
stood the columl~s on end. Shop welding of connection
dotails could then be performed in the fiat and hori-
zontal position. This, facilitated use of semi-automatic,
submerged-arc welding and minimized weld costs.
Commerce Towers Building
Columns of similnr section configuration were used
in the 32-floor Commerce Towers Building in Kansas
City. Here, heavy floor loading due to t he modern
electronic business machines to be installed necessitated
very heavy sections.
Column sections were built up by first welding
plates into an I section and a T section, and then
joining th'e end of the T section web to the middle of
the I section web. The typical column length is 34'
and the lower columns use 5" Aange plates and 5" web
plates.
Tanden-arc automatic sobmerged-are welding was
used in joining the Aange plates to web; Figure 27.
The basic weld was a Yz" fillet deposited at 32-36 ipm.
Preheat torches ran ahead of t he arc.
In joining together the I and T sections, they are
assembled in an air-clamping fixtnre and tack welded;
Figure 28. Automatic submerged-arc welding is then
used, with the fixtwe on a rail-mounted carriage.
esigning Built-up Columns / 3.6-13
FIGURE 27
FIGURE 28
41/811 4 4 4 % L
First Federal Savings b Loan Co. Building
On this project in Detroit, Michigan, the engineer
originally detailed the fabricated columns to the 17th
Soor as built-up box sedions, flush around the out-
side periphcry. U-groove welds were to be used; Figure
29(a). This would have meant grooving the platcs for
the entire length of the column.
Tile falxicator, chose to set one set of plates slightly
in or out; Figurc 29( h) . This w-odd allow use of con-
tinuous fillet welds for the basic welding. The fabricator
obtained pcrmission to exceed the original outside col-
umn dimension in one direction by '1'4''. Any further
adjustment was prccluded because of the already de-
iailed curtain walls, etc.
The original outside dirncnsions of the columns
were 18" X 22" to the 5th floor, 18" X 20" to the
11th floor, 18" X 19'' to the 13th floor, and 18" X 18"
to the 17th floor. Above the 17th floor, WF sections
were used. The modified box section on the lower floors
were then built up from two 18%" X 4S/s'' flange plates,
with two 12%'' X 4%" web plates recessed slightly to
permit tlie fillet welding. Above the 5th floor, the
smaller plates were set out slightly.
In general, these full-length welds were 'h" fillets;
with %'' fillets for plates 2%" or less in thickness. This
eliminated plate preparation except for short distances
in the region of the beam-to-column connections. Here
the plates were previously beveled, to the required
depth, varying from 3/8" to 5/1,j'' depending upon load
requirements. The typical joint consisting of the beveled
groove weld topped by the continuous fillet weld ex-
tended 9" above and below the beam-to-column con-
nection.
. FIELD SPLICES
Partial-penetration groove welds; either single bevel or
single J, may he used for the field splicing of columns.
The information presented previously under ''Partial-
Penetration Groove Welds" will apply here.
Attaching angles shop-welded to the coh~mns
serve to temporarily hold the column sections in align-
ment. For the II colum~i in Figure 30, using high
tensile bolts, this connection was considered sufficient
to transfer any horizontal shear force across the
3.6-14 / Column-Reloted
BUILT-UP
COLUMN
I I I I
2. & under
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD SPLICE
LA
FIGURE 30
web in this dir<,ction. Tlx. colnmn field splice, con-
sisting of two sirrglr bevel. partial-penetration groove
welds, wonld transfer any horizontd shear i n the other
direction.
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD 5PLICE
FIGURE 31
For the box colnmn in Figure 31, the column
ficld splice consisted of a partial-penetration J groove
weld on all four sides of the column. These four welds
would transfer any horizontal shear in the column
splice. The attaching angles here were used simply to
facilitate erection.
Partial-penetration welds on colornn splices pemut
fast semi-automatic welding techniques to be used in
the field. In the Commerce Towers project, semi-
automatic arc welding with self-shielding, cored elec-
trode permitted dqxxition of 100 lbs/mam/8-hour day;
Figure 3%.
. COPICLUSION
The full econoinic impact of welded steel built-up
columns in constn~ction of t dl multi-story btiildings,
can be realized by carefully considering the major
cost factors. These are colnmn design, placement of
welds, joint design, weld size, and procedure. The
dominating objective is the fullest use of automatic
arc welding lncthods in the shop, with an extension of
these henefits into the field l ~ y usc of semi-automatic
arc welding for beam-to-column connections and for
field splices.
FIGURE 32
Desi gni ng Bui l t - Up C a l u m~ s / -1 5
Built-up columns are a key design feature of the 28-story Michigan
Consolidated Gas Co. Building in Detroit. Welding was considered to
be the only procticol method for fabricating these columns which
carry a maximum load of approximately 6800 kips. Photo shows a
field splice of the column, revealing the shop beveling that facilitated
welding. Clip angler shown are for temporary use during erection.
Typical splice Alternate splice Typicof splice
for builbup column for built-up ralumn for WF colvmn
Splice details from the Michigan Consolidated project show
how maximum use was made of material at minimum weight.
/ Column-Refated Design
Automatic submerged-arc welding was
used extensively i n shop fabricating the
unique and complex built-up columns for
the 500' space tower which overlooked
the Seattle World's Fair. Approximately
50% of ol l shop welding was with the
submerged-arc process: 25% with self-
shielding cored wire, semi-automatically;
and the remainder manual stick elec-
trode. At the top of the tower is a five-
story observatory and restaurant, The
structure required 3400 tons of structural
steel.
Plate girders arc fabricated for requirements which
exceed those of a rolled beam, or a rolled beam with
added cover plate. The usual welded plate girder is
made of two flange plates fillet welded to a single web
plate. Where needed, web stiffeners are attached to
one or both sides of the web. Box girders are made of
two Range plates fillet welded to two web plates.
Internal stiffening of these is accomplished with dia-
phragm plates.
The flange-area method is used to get an approxi-
mate dimension of the girder. This assumes that the
flanges will carry all the bending moment and the web
will carry all the shear forces.
The required web area is-
where:
V -- vertical shear applied to cross-section to be
considered
T = allowable shear stress on web section
The formula for required flange area is derived
froin properties of the girder:
For simplicity, this assumes web depth is equal to
( d) , the distance between the centers of gravity of the
two flange plates.
Also,
Therefore, the required flange area is-
where.
M = bending moment applied to section
u = allowable bending stress
d = distance between centers of gravity of flange
\ plates
This method will require some approximate knowl-
edge of what the girder depth should be an+ some
adjustment of the resulting figures before the design
is finalized.
The previous AISC specification held the depth of
girders to a minimum value of 1/24 of the span. The
Commcutary on the new AISC specifications suggests,
as a guide, that the girder depth should not exceed
the following:
Floors: u, / 800,000 times the span
Roof purlins:
IT, / 1,000,000 times the span
This translates into the Table 1 limiting values
of depth-to-length lor girders used in floors. These
values are for general guidance only.
*Quenched & iempcred steels: Yield strength ot 0.2% ofiret.
Camprerrion elements which ore not " i on~pact ' but meet the i oi l owi ng AlSC Sec 1.9 requirements-
box gi rder
tension (1.5.1.4.31
a = .60 o,
~~~ . - .
compression (1.5.1.4.3)
. ..
(AiSC Formuio 4) (AiSC Formula 5)
Use the l arger of @ or @ but not t o exceed .60 a,
L
i f - < 40, don? need to w e @
reduction i n ol owabl e compressive bending stress due to possible ioteroi
displacement of web. (1.10.6)
d 24,000
when 2~ < -- s,, = oliowoble cornprerston
tw cry stress from obave
(AiSC Farmulo l li
*?hi s rati o may be cxweded i f the camproiaive bending stress, using a wi dth not
this limit, is
within the oi!owable stress, i ne above toble does not include tho higher bending rtrei r to = .66 <,I for
":ompart" sections because most fabricated piate and box girders wi l l exceed the widtli-thickness ratio of
' ' c o ~ OC~ C~ ' ' 5ections.
ending Stresses
Table 2 suinm;irizes tho AISC allowable bending
stresses for plate and box girders.
I
In Table 2:
L = s p a n or iinlxaccd length of compression
flange
r = radius of gyriitiml of ;I Tw section compris-
o-, = aiiowable compressive bending stress from
in7 tlic cornprcssioir flarigc plus 1/6 of the
nhn.,a
---""
~ ~ 1 3 ;rrea, about the y-y axis (i n the plane
of thc we11). For girders symmetrical about
MI is the smaller, und Mz is the larger bending
tlieir I-x ;%\is of hending, substitution of r,
moment at tl,e ends of the onbraced length (L), taken
of ilrc: enlirc section is conse~at i ve
about the strong axis of the member. M1/M2 is the
At = area of the compression flange ratio of these end moments. When MI and Mz have
Bme Girders for
the same signs, this ratio is positive; when they have
different signs, it is negative. When the bending
moment within an irnhraced Imgth is larger than that
at both nids of this Icngth, the ratio is taken as imity.
Figrire 1 is a graph showing t11c valrie of C,, for
any given ratio of MI/M2.
When the bending moment within an rillbraced
length is larger than that at both ends of this length,
the ratio shall be takcn as unity, and C,, becomes 1.0.
Loads applied to beams and girders cause bending
moments dong the Icngth of the member. When these
moments are non-uniform along the length of the mem-
ber, both horizontal and vertical sliear stresses are set
up because shear is equal to the rate of change of
moment.
The horizontal shear forces worild cause the f l a n~e
of a platc girder to slide past the web if it were not
for t h e fillet welds joining them.
Thrse liorixontal and vc:rtical sllear st~rsses com-
bine and prodwc both dingo~ral tcnsiori and com-
pression, c;wh at 45" to the shmr strcsscs. i n steel
structr~res, trmsion is not thc problrrri; howev-er, the
diagonal eomprcssion could be high enough to cause
the wtkb to bwk1,c. StiRmrrs arc used to prevent the
web from buckling in ribgions oi high shear s t r ~ s .
The ratio of wch thickness to clear depth of web
in the oldrr spccificatioiis \rxs bascd on predications
of file plat^, buckling tlrcory: tire wch being subjected
to shear throughoi~t its dapt l ~, and to rompressi\,e berid-
i i ~g ,iiesscs owr a portion of its depth, See Figure 2.
The plate buckling tlrcory assumes the portion of
the web 11etwt~~ii stiil' c~l~rs to be an isolated plate;
l~owovcr, in thr plate girdcr, the web is part of a
built-rip n~emher. When tllc critical buckling strcss in
the wcb is rcacbcd, the gilder does not collapse. This
is because the flangcs carry all of the bendirrg moment,
1 , C .
,. . .
,---
,. . -
,.- - -
-----w-
,...-.
Diogonol compresson Compresswe
f i om sheor forces bending sireis
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
Transverse stiffeners act or compression struts
the buckled web then serves as a tension diagonal, and
the transverse stiffeners hecome the vertical compres-
sion struts. This in e%ect makes the plate girder act as
a truss. See Figure 3.
The carrying capacity of the plate girdcr is greater
under this analysis, being cqual to that supported by
the beam action shear (Fig. 2) and that supported by
the diagonal tension field in the web (Fig. 3) . AISC
Formulas 8 and 9 will meet this requirement. These
formulas appear further along on this page.
ABSC Specifications
Intermediate stiffeners are not required when the ratio
(d,/t.) is less than 260 and the maximum web shear
stress is less than that pcimitted by AISC Formula 9
(AISC 1.10.5.3).
Figure 4 partially s~.immarizes the AISC specifica-
tions for intermdiate stiffeners.
These requirements apply:
1. If single st fi l l ers are used, they must be
welded to cumprcssion flange (AISC 1.10.5.4).
2. Intermediate stiffeners may be cut short of
tension flange for a distance less than 4 t, when not
needed for bearing (AISC 1.10.5.4).
3. For intcmmittent falet welds, clear spacing ( s )
between lengths of weld must L 16 t , and L 10''
(AISC 1.10.54).
4. Welds joining stiffeners to web must be SUE-
ci.ent to transfer a total unit shear force of-
f, = d, (AISC 1.10.5.4)
This shear force to be transferred may be reduced
in same proportion that the largest computed shear
stress (T) in the adjacent panel is less than that allowed
by AISC Formula S (AISC 1.10.5.4).
5. If lateral bracing is attached to stiffener, u d d s
connecting stiflrner to colnpression flange must be SUE-
cirnt to transfer a horizontal force ( F) = 1% of flange
force (AISC 1.10.5.4).
Wlreri intermediate stiffeners are required, their
maximunr spacing ( a ) depends on three items: a/&,
d,/t,., md shear stress ( 7) .
The largest average web shear stress (T,, = V/A,)
in any panel between transverse intcrmdiate s t i f her s
shall not exceed the following (AISC 1.10.5.2):
Cut short of tension
flange < 4 t,
f, = d,
FIGURE 4
late Girders for
when C, < 1.0
. . (3a)
This provides an allowable shear stress ( T) up
to about .35 u, and takes advantage of tension field
action.
when 6, > 1.0 or when no stifenem are used
This provides an allowable shear stress (7) within
the range of ,347 o; to .40 o; and does not take advan-
tage of tension field action.
where:
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners,
in.
d, = clear distance between flanges, in.
t, = thickness of web, in.
a, = yield strength of girder steel, psi
when C, < .8
when C, > .8
when a/d, < 1.0
when a/d, > 1.0
Above, the one C, formula picks up exactly where
the other leaves off. The value of C, may be read
directly from the nomograph, Figure 5, without sepa-
rately c~mputing the value of k.
Both ASIC Formulas 8 and 9 contain a basic factor
5 0 a, C,
which you will notice is the same as
r
or (.347 a? C,). The expression (.60 u,) is recognized
as the basic allowable tensile stress and
as ( 7 ~ ) .
, " -,
For greater depth to thickness of web (d,/kV) and
greater stiffener spacing (a/d,), the values of (C,)
will become lower. Thir will result in lower values for
the allowable shear stress in the web. For these condi-
tions, AISC Formnla 8 has an additional factor which
takes advantage of the increased carrying capacity
provided by the diagonal tension field and results in a
higher shear allowable. When C, = 1, this factor be-
comes zero and AISC Formula 8 becomes Formula 9.
The ratio a/d, shall not exceed (AISC 1.10.5.3):
nor
These arbitrary values provide a girder which
will facilitate handling during fabrication and erection.
When a/d, exceeds 3.0, its value is taken as
infinity. Then AISC Formula 8 reduces to AXSC For-
mula 9 and k = 5.34 (AISC 1.10.5.2).
This work can be greatly simplified by using the
appropriate AISC Table 3 for the speci6c yield point
of steel. See AISC's "Specification for the Design, Fabri-
cation and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings"
and Bethlehem Steel Corp's Steel Design File on "V
Steels-Recommended Allowable Stresses for Building
Design."
In end panels and panels containing large holes,
the smaller dimension ( a or d,) shall not exceed (AISC
1.1053)-
where T is the computed average shear stress in the
web:
i t is necessary that the stiffeners have sufficient
cross-sectional area for them to act as compressive
struts to resist the vertical component of the tension
field in the web.
This cross-sectional area, in square inches, of inter-
mediate stifFeners when spaced in accordance with
0 - ----------
one w, arge o e
FIGURE 6
AISC Formula 8 (total area when in pairs) must not
T .. = allowable web shear stress from AISC
be less than (AISC 1.10.5.4)-
Fonnnlas 8 or 9
u,, == allowahle bending tensile stress
-
( 7)
It can he shown that this formula will result in-
a ) full bending tensile stress allowable, if the con-
current shear stress is not (Treater than 60% of
(See the appropriate AISC Table 3)
where:
yield point of web steel
y = _--..-- - - --
y~eld point of stiffener steel
D = 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners
1.8 for a single angle stiRen'er
2.4 for a single plate stiffener
When the greatest shear stress ( T) in a panel is
less than that permitted by AISC Formula 8, this area
(A,) requirement may be reduced in like proportion
(AISC 1.10.5.4).
The moment of inertia of a pair of stiffeners or a
single stiffener, with reh:rence to an axis in the plane
of the web, shall not he less than (AISC 1.10.5.4)-
See Tabies 3, 1, and 5.
Plate girder webs, subjected to a combination of
hending tensile stress and shear stress shall be checked
according to the following interaction formula:
where:
v
T = computed average wcb shear stress = --
A,
-
the full allowahle value, or
b ) full shear stress allowable, if the concnrrent
bending tensile stress is not greater than 75%
of the full allowable value.
See Tahle 6B or abbreviated Fonnula 12 l o we
for a specific yield strength of steel.
Concentrated loads cause high compressive stress at
the web toe of the fillet along a distance of N + K for
end reactions, and N + 2K for interior loads.
If there ar ea0 boaring stiffeners, this compressive
stress shall not exceed (AISC 1.10.10.1)-
for cnd reactions
- t,(N + K ) = ' . . . . . . . . . . . (10a)
(AISC Formula 14)
for interior loads
n < 75u,
t,JN + 2K) = ' . . . . . . . . . . .
( l ob)
( AlSC Formula 13)
Also, the sum of the compressive stresses from
concentratsd and distributed loads on the compression
edge of the web plate not supported directly by bear-
ing stSeners shall not exceed (AISC 1.10.10.2)-
f
ABLE 3-Minimum Moment 04 Inertia
of intermediate Stiffener
i ,. = > p14
50
d, I. d, I. d, I. d, I. d, 1,
Wi dt h
of bor
(d)
-11t-
oment of inertia of
n-i-
ese Volues tor St
Sides 04 Girder
t B( Inertia of Sing
se Vatu'ues tor St
Sides BP Girder
Thickness of ongle rtiffener0)
1 ,,, 1 1/*11 1 j 1 1 y 2 1 x 1 3 j ~ - ( XP 1 1/4"
Angle
size
FIGURE 7
if flange restrained against rotation
if JEange not restrained against rotation
Concentrated loads and loads distributed over a
partial length of panel shall be divided by either the
product of the web thickness and the girder depth or
the length of panel in which the load is placed, whieh-
ever is the smaller panel dimension. Any other dis-
tributed loading, in lbs/iinear in. of length, shall be
divided by the web thickness.
If the above stress limits are exceeded, bearing
stiffeners shall be placed in pairs at unframed ends
and at points of concenixated loads, Figure 8.
12 t*
[or less]
4 25 tw
[or less)
[a) Single pair of [b] Single pair of
st~ffeners at end stiffeners - interioi
Bearing stiffeners with the above sections of web
are designed as columns (AISC 1.10.5.1).
These requirements apply:
1. Bearing stiffeners shall extend almost to edge
of flange (AISC 1.10.5.1).
2. Bearing stiiFcners shall have close bearing
against flange or flanges to which load is applied
(AISC 1.10.5.1).
3. Clear spacing of internittent fillet w e < 16
t, < 10'' (AISC 1.10.5.4.).
4. Deduct leg of fillet weld or corner snipe for
width of stilfenev (b,) effective in bearing at 90% o;
(AISC 1.5.1.5.1). If parts have different yield strengths,
use the lower value.
5. The limiting ratio of stiffener width to thick-
ness shall be-
- -- -
b" 3300 (AISC 1.9.1)
ts - s
6. Use I,, 2 3/4 dw for slenderness ratio (L,/r) of
coltrmn section to determine allowable compressive
stress (AISC 1.10.5.1); r is figured about an axis in
the plane of the web.
[or less) (or less)
(c) Double pair of (d) Double pair of
stiffeners - interior stiffeners at end
FIGURE 8
If intermittent fillet welds are used in plate or box
girders, their longitudinal clear spacing shall not ex-
ceed-
tension flange (AISC 1.18.3.1)
(12)
compression flung8 (AISC 1.18.2.3)
FIGURE 9
The longitudinal shear force on fillet weld he-
tween flange and web is-
V a y
f = Ibs/linear in.
I n
where:
V = external shear on section
a = area of flange held by welds
y = distance between center of g
area held by welds, and neutr
section
ravity of fiange
a1 axis of entire
1 = moment of inertia of entire section
n = number of fillet welds holding flange area,
usually 2 welds
Table 6 summarizes the principal AISC specifications
in (,asy to use form, permitting direct readout of the
limiting value for the specific yield strength steel being
used.
Design a welded plate girder to support a 120-kip
uniformly distribnted load, and a 125-kip concentrated
load at midspan; Figure 11. Girder is to be simply
supporkl, have a span of 50', and have sufficic.nt lateral
support for its compressive flange. Usc A36 steel and
E70 or SA-2 weld metal.
Plate Girders Cor
125 ki r
s uni f or ml y distributed
FIGURE 11
L = 50' = 600"
bending moment
for the unifoim load,
for the concentrated load,
Total M = 97,750 in.-kips
shear
V = 122.5 kips
Design Procedure
1. Design the girder web for the shear require-
ments, assuming it held to a depth of 66".
c / ACSC Formula 4 (1.5.1.4.5) 1 A15C Formula 12 (1.10.7)
* Quenched & tempered ileels;
i
v
yield brength ot 0.2% offset.
r = averoge shear sti es in web =-
A,
/
irder-Rekted Design
Consider the following average shear stress ( T ~ , )
and maximum panel length ( a ) for various web thick-
nesses (t,):
Although the Y4" thick web would result in a
reasonable shear stress of 7430 psi, the greatest stiff-
ener spacing ( a ) allowed would be 97% of the web
depth (d,); this would require more intermediate stiff-
eners. It would be more practical, in this example, to
increase the web thickness to x6", thus allowing a
greater distance between stiffeners.
2. Design the flange to make up the remainder of
the moment requirements. Assume a bending stress of
about cr = 21,000 psi.
section modulus required of girder
- -
(27,750 in.-kips)
(21,000 psi)
= 13W in.3
distance from neutral axis of girder to outer fiber
assuming a flange thickness of about 1"
6 = 'h d, + ti
= (33") + (1")
= 34"
total moment of inertia required of girder
I t = S c
= (1320)(34)
= 44,380 in.4
remaining moment of inertia required of flanges
If = I, - I=
= (44,880) - (7487)
= 37,393 in.4
and since
If = 2 Af cr2 c, = 33'' + W'
area of flange required
= 16.67 in.2
or use two 17" X I" flange plates.
final properties of girder
I = 2 (17 in.=) (33.5")2 +
(%6")(66")3
12
= 46,766 in.' > 44,880 i n 4 OK
-
= 1375 in. " 1320 im3 OK
-
actual bending stress in girder
= 20,200 psi
reduced allotuahle compressiue bcnding stress in jiange
due to possible lateral displacement of the web in the
compression region (AISC 1.10.6)
UL, 5
- -
- -
where:
u,, =
-
-
-
-
21,347 psi > 20,200 psi actual OK
-
allowable bending stress
.60 o;
22,000 psi
, V = 122.5 kips
FIGURE 12
k d
3. Design the Wansverse intermediate stiffeners.
Figure 12 is a shear diagram of the girder.
end panel distance between intermediate stiffeners
(AISC 1.10.5.3)
45.6" or use 45"
nzazimum shear just inside of this stiffener
V = (12.2.5 kips - 62.5 kips) ) + 62.5 kips
= 155.6 kips
maximunl spacing between remaining intermediate
stiffeners (AISC 1.10.5.3)
required number of panels
WO" - 2(45") = 510"
so use 6 panels of a = 85" each.
check the allowable shear stress in the web and deter-
mine required area of stiffener
Shear diagram
Since the girder web's ratio is-
d,/t, = 211
and the ratio of panel width to web thickness is-
the maximum allowable shear stress ( T) to be carried
by the girder, web and the total area of stiffener (A.)
to resist this shear are found from Table 3-38 in the
following manner:
Within the above limited area of the 1;uger AISC
table, the values in the four corner cells are read
directly from the AlSC tal~lc. Then the rerpirt,d values
obtained by interpolation ax: filled into (he center cell.
Within each cell, the upper value is the allowable
shear stress ( 7 ) and the lower value is the required
area of stiffener (A, ).
Thus, for our problem:
T = 8.0 kips or SON psi > 5950 psi OK
width of stificner ( i f using t, = 3h")
(2.16)
I
Since:
- - -. --
2(?18)
A, - 2bS t,
. .
= 2.88" or use 3?i"
4.1-16 / Girder-Related
also check AISC Sec 1.9.1:
b. 3%
- --
-
t, %
required moment of inertia
actual moment of inertia
I, =
( 2 x 31%'' + %,")"" -
12
4. Determine the size of fillet weld joining inter-
mediate stigeners t o t hr girder web.
unit shear force per h e a r inch of stiffener
or f, = 1140 ibs/in. for a single fillet weld (one on each
side).
leg size of fillet weld
,r
= ,102" or use "./I6 cont~nuous fillet
or, for a "/10" intermittent fillet weld
.102"
% = -
9{#''
[\
= 58.8% or use
v 3 . 5 or --TJ&-
or, for a 3'4'' intermittent fillet weld
5. Check the combined bending tensile stress and
shear stress in the girder web according to
wherever the ealciilated shear stress exceeds 60% of
that allowed according to AISC Formulas 8 and 9.
The allou-able shcar stress was found to be
T = 8000 psi and 60% of this would be 4800 psi.
~-
This would correspond to a shear form of
V = 7 A ,
-
= (4800 psi) (%, X 66)
= 99.0 kips
and would occur at x = 125".
The bending moment at this point is-
and the bending stress is-
-
13,750 in.-kips
-- --
1375 in."
= 10,000 psi
I t is only when the shear stress exceeds 60% of
the allowablc that the allowable bending stress must be
reduced according to AISC Formula 12.
Since the calculated bending stress at this point
(x = 125") is only 10,000 psi or 45% of the allowable,
and it rapidly decreases as we approach the ends,
there will be no problem of the combined bending
tensile stress and shear stress exceeding the allowable
values of AISC Formula 12.
6. Determine the size of fillet weld joining flanges
to the girder web, Figure 13.
FIGURE 13
(AISC Fonnula 12)
FIGURE 14
force on add
portion of i ~ e b acting with stiffeners to form column
, .
- -
( 122.5 kips ) (17 i n2) (33.5")
(46,776 h4) ( 2 welds)
I-
= 746 lbs/in. 17"
FIGURE 15
746
W =
11,200
-
= ,066"
- 12 t,
but because of 1" thick flange plates, use Xo"
- 12 (%,")
= 3%''
Bearing Stiffeners
6. Check to see if bearing stifleners are needed at
awn of this web portion
the girder ends (AISC 1.10.10.1); Figure 14.
:= (3%") (
= 1.17 in.'
compressitje stress at web toe of girder fillet
R
required ar m of bearing stiffeners
= -
t d y -t K) 6.10 - 1.17 = 4.93 in."
-
-
(122.5 kips)
~ -- -~
~: h6(l o" +
If stiffeners extend almost the full w-idth of the
flange, a wkltli of 7" will be needed on each side.
= 34,700 psi > 27,000 psi, or .75 uy
This stress is too high; bearing stiffeners are
needed. Try a singlc pair and treat the stiffeners along
with a portion of the web ns a (.ohinn. Assume an
acccptable cotnpressive stress of about 20,000 psi.
7. Determine size of bearing stiffeners.
sectional ureu required to cawy this stress
- (122.*kips)
-
(20,000 psi)
A, = 2 (7") t,
= 4.93 in."
= ,352 or use %" thiclrness
8. Check stiffener proiile for resistance to com-
pression (AISC 1.9.1).
?'Iris ratio is too hizh, so m e 11 pair of 7" x 7/10"
hearing stiffeners.
9. Check this bearing s t i f her area as a coliimn;
Figure 16.
FIGURE 16
= 106.8 in.'
A = (7$6)(14%0) -I- ( 3 7 4 6 ) ( %e )
= 7.3 in."
slorderncss ratio
& __ 3h(66")
-
r ' (4.6")
= 10.6
allowable comprcssivc stress
u =: 21,100 psi, from Table 6 in Section 3.1
and
R = u A
= (21,100) (7.3)
= 154.0 kips > 122.5 kips actual OK
-
1.0. Determine tlie size of fillet weld joining bear-
ing stiflencvs to tl-ic girder web.
length of weld
L := 4 d,
= 4 ( 66" )
= 264"
force on tceld (treufilzc weld us a linej
R
f = --
L
( 122.5 kips )
- ... . - --
...
(264")
11. Check bearing stress in these stiffeners.
beoring area of stiffenel. (less comer snipes)
(7" -- 1") 7/;8" = 2.62 h2 each
bearing stlass in stiffener
.- ..-
(122.5 kips) -.
2("62)
= 23,400 psi < 27,000 psi or .75 u?
OI(
12. In a similar manner, cheek the bcaring stifE-
encr at cciiterliire for resistance to 125-kip load. I f
irsing the same s t i f her size as at ends, Figure 17:
FIGURE 17
= 106.8 in.'
A = (7/,,")(14%0") + (7.8" - 7/16")(%0")
= 8.56 in.'
elded Plate Girders (or Buildings / 4.1-1
Uniformly distilbutrd loud of 120 kius
FIGURE 18
nllotcablr compressitje stress
v = 21,000 psi, from Table 6 in Section 3.1
and
F = u A
= (21,000) (8.56)
= 179.5 kips > 125.0 kips actual OK
-
so use the same ainouiit of fillet welding as before.
heriring stress i n center stiffener
F
u = -
4
- .-
(125 kips)
2(7" - 1") (5,")
= 23,800 psi < 27,000 psi or .75 u, OK
-
13. C11ei:k the compressive stresses from the uni-
foririly di s~ri hi ~t i d 1o;id of 120 kips on thc comprwsion
edgr of tlw a.eb pi nt ? (Al SC 1.10.10.2). See Figure 18.
Bearng sttffeners lntermediote stiffener
rillolonblc r:o?npressice stress ugninst web edge
assiiming flange is not restrained :ig:rinst rotation
-C .- 990 psi
rictual presszrrc of uniform loiid against web edge
(120 kips)
= . .
(600") ( 24,")
= : 640 psi < 990 psi allowable OK
-
14. Consolidate these findings into the final girder
design, Figure 19.
As a matter of interest, rcducing the web thickness
to Yn" would have saved about 143 lbs in stml. I-Iow-
wer, this would have required 13 pairs of stiifeiiers
instead of 9 pairs, Figure 20. The additional cost in
fitting and welding the extra 4 pairs of stiffeners prob-
ably would exceed any savings in steel.
Increasing tbc web thiclmcss to %" would only
rednce tlre iiuinber of stilfeners by 2 pair, Figure 21.
However, this would iiicre:ise the weight by 287 lbs.
Bearing stiffeners Bearing stiffeners
2 - R 7 : ' ~ V, &, '
2 - R 7" x Vt;/ia"
125 kips / intermediate stiBenei 1
FIGURE 19
66" X 36'' web
16" X I " flange
FIGURE 20
-.
66" X %" web
~ n n i ~ u I i I
FIGURE 21
Many tinrt.s access Irolcs must be cut into the wrbs of
beams a d girders for dnct u.ork, etc. If snirrciently
large, they must be reinforced in some manncr.
Sinrr: the flanges carry most of tlrr bending forces,
the loss of web arca docs not p w n t much of a prob-
lem. Howrver, sincc thc shear ( V) is carried for the
most part by the web, any reduction of web area must
Be checked. See Fignre 22.
If the hole is located at mi ds po ( b ) , the shear
is minimum and may have little cffcct on the strcngth
of the girder. If the liolc is located near the support
in a region of liigh shear, tfic additional bending
stresses produced hy this s11c;tr milst bc added to the
conventional bending stresses froin tile applied beam
load. See Figure 23.
An irrsidt: Iiorizontal f l aug~ may be added to the
Tee scction in (11-dm to give it sufficient bending
btrength, or sufficient comprc~ssive buckling strciigtli.
Applied load
FIGURE 22
When this is done, it must he rernem1)cred that this
Range bemmes a part of the Tee arm 311~1 is subjrctrd
to tlie same axial tension ( F, , ) and con,prt:ssio~ (F,)
force causcd hy tho bending mon-rvnt ( M, ) from the
external loiiding. Tlievefore, tliis flange must extend
iar monglr beyond tire web opcwing to effectively
transfer this portion of tlic axial force hack into the
main web of the girder; see Figure 24. Of course in
the region of low inomflit ( \ 4x ) , this iixial f o r c ~ may
he low a~r d not req~iire tliis extra length of Range.
FIGURE 23
If t11cw ;ii.wss Iiolcs in tlic \rcb are close cnoi~gh
togctlicr. the portion of the wrh between the holes
beha\-cs i i r tlw s;rii-re rriatiner as tlrc vcrtical mcmbrrs
of a Vi c~r r ndd truss. Scr Figure 25.
I'nlcss the bmding stress at the corner of the
accrss hole is r;ltl~cr low, rt:inforcernctit of this corner
sho111d b(. consic!r:cd:
1. liccalisc 01' t l r ? ahn~pt change in section, there
is a stress co~iceritriiti~~~r scwral times the average stress
valrie. Sec Figlire 76.
2. Tlw Tce scrtion at this inside corner behaves
similar to a ciirved lxwm i n t1i;rt thc neiitrxl axis shifts
in ton-srrd this i n r greatly increasing the
bendiiig stressrs on this i~iward face. This increase
is gre:itcr with a smnllcr r;?diiis of corner.
111 tlie us~ial aiialysis of a Vicre~rdeel truss, the
horizontal slicar ( ) along the neutral axis of the
6.1-24 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
STEP 7: Determine Properties of tlrf Elastic .4rea
area of elastic urea
b
A, _
~~~~ ~ log, -~ 11.
( L - 11%) 11,
L i - 1 = 200" - 4
Topered beam
Moment of inertia
1
1
1 c, = 134.30" -
Elastic orea
0
FIGURE 30
cornpl-ession must be checked against biickling accord-
ing to AlSC l . <J. l :
FIGURE 29
If tlitx resnlting bcriding st]-ess in the stem is
excessive, it must he rcinfort:ed by an insi(1e flangr
or stiffener.
Cornim of the liolr slio~ild always llc round md
snrootli. A ~~i i ni ni r~i n cornel- r;idii~s of Y is recom-
meridrd \rIwn i l ~e hole is not stifl' iwd
lisirally it is assu~ncd Lhi: point of conti-:18cxnre
of t l ~a rnmncnt i n thr top and l~ottenn povtioirs prodiiced
by tlir shear ( I ' , ) and ( I ?, , ) is allout ~ni t l st ~t i on of the
Irole ( g ) . It is also assnmed t l ~c total vcrtical shcar
is 11ividt:d b c t w ~ ~ n these two sections in proportion to
tlioir depths. For Tccs of equal deptli, Vt = V ,, - - " . 2 VI.
The top ~ n d bottom Tee sections must be capable
of withstanding this conihiiiecl bending stress, and the
vcrtical slirar.
A flange may be added arornld the edge of the
web openi~rg to gi\.c LIie Tee section snfficient strength
for the bending inomcxt. An aciditioiial plate may bo
addcd to the \vch of the Tee to give it sufficient
strengtli for the wrtical shear ( V) .
7. COVER PLATES
It mi) bc ;idv;rntageous in some cases to use
parti;il-lengtli cover plates in the beari~ig regions of
a beam or girder, to reduce tlie required thickness of
the iiaiige plate extending from end-to-end of the
mrcnher.
Related disciissioli will hc ioiind forther along in
this t mt iinder Section 4.3 on 1Vi:ided Plate Girders
for 131-idges (sac Topic 12) ;ind iinder St.ction 6.1 on
Design of Rigid Franics (see Topic 3 ) .
'The te,niiination of partial-lcngth cover platcs for
Ix~ildings is govcme:d by I S ( : SIC 1.10.4. The fol-
l owi ~~g l~u,-agr;il~lis sunnn: ~ri n~ t l mc reqniremeiits.
Pit1-tii~l-1~11gtli COVIY pli~tcs sliiill crtcnd beyond the
tlicorctic:11 nit-oil' point for ;i distmci~ a ) , di4inetl
Iwlo~r. Tliis e~st r~~i t l (d pnrtinii ( a ' ) s11;iil he attaclicd
to tlie h<.;ini or girtlev \vitlr siiffii.iw~t fillet wcids to
d e i h p the uwri- pIati.'s pc~rtioii oS tho bending force
FIGURE 30
tote Girders for Buil
in the heam or girdel. at ihe theoretical cut-off point
dr i ch is equal to-
Q = statical moment of cover plate area ahout
neutral axis oi covrl--plated beam section
I = nromel~t of inertia of cover-plated beam
section
The moment, coinputed by equating gis to the
L
c:ipaeity of the connecting fillet welds in this distance
( a' ) fxom the actoal c.nd of the cover plate, must equal
or exceed the moment at the theoretical cut-off point.
Otbel-wise, the size of the fillet welds in this teiminal
s t r t i o ~~ ( a' ) milst ),<' i~icnxsed, or the aciual end of
t l ~c cavcr plat<, rnlist ht, ~ ~ s t c ~ ~ ~ d r d to a point of lower
momclit.
The lcwgtl~ ( r r ' ) l l l ~ : l ~ r l ~ < Y l from the actual end
of t l i ~ cowr platc shall l1c:
1. A distnnco eipinl to the* width of the cover
plntc when t l i t ~ t ~ is a colrtiiir~orls fillri weld i:qual to
or larger tlmr 34 oi' tlw pl;itc, tliickitcss across the end
I thr plate :ind (xmtin~tr,cl \\.<,Ids along hoth edges
(11 the cover plate iu tlw Itygth ( i t ' ) ,
2. A distancr r qud to 1 % timrs the width of the
w v c ~ plate h i tiicw is ;I coiiiinnoi~s fillet weld
smaller tlian 3h of tlw plirtr. thickness across the end of
the plate and cont i nnd \v<,lds along hoth edges of the
(,over plate ill the lmgth ( a' ) .
3. A disimce eyud to 2 tiines the width of the
cover platc wl ~en there is no weld across the end of
the plate but continuous wclds along both edges of the
cover plate in the lengtll (a' j .
I + " . ? I Top secton
Be n d ~ r , ~ stress from Resuking bending stress
oppiied beam load
FIGURE 31
4.1-24 / Girder-Related Design
M, = moment ot n n r i end of
I teiminol develooment
/ M, = moment at theoretical
:f beyond theoietz
I Moment dtagram
development
cut-off point
6 Theorelicol cut ~of f point
t I
J
I
I
I
I
I I
8 I
If inner end of teiminal development lies
beyond theoreticol cut-off point
M , ~ Y
End weld -+ F = - ----
f = x;i-,
\ I
J
f
I
If terminal development starts at
theoretical cut-08 point
,
I
. .
I
Inner end of
%Theoretical cut-off point
terminal development
M,a y
- +: , A
1 f = vw.
End weld - r F =
Mi 0 y
7 ~ E n d we l d + F = 7-
Inner end of Theoreticnl cut-off p o t i i t d - 1 ! h ~ 4
terminal development
Inne
terminal developmen
FIGURE 32
el ded Blare Girder for Buildings / 4.1-
elded Plate Girders $or rrildimgs / 4.1-27
/ Girder-Related Design
elded Plate Girders for Buiidings / 4.8-2
Access holes cut in girder web must be reinforced. In regions of high bending moment,
flonges must extend far enough beyond web openi ~g to effectively transfer forces into
moin web of girder. Semi-automatic welding, with self-shielding cored electrode wire,
i s used here in ottaching reinforcements at double the speed of manual welding.
Every plate girder must havc several properties:
1. Sufficient strength, as measured by its section
moduins ( S) .
2. Sufficient stiffness, as measurcd by its moment
of incrtia ( I ) .
3. Ability to carry the shcar forces applied to it,
as measured by its web area (.4,).
4. Ability to withstand web buckling, as indicated
by the empirical relationship of the web depth to web
thickness-
- ,
In some cases, the depth ( d) must be held within
a certain maximum value.
Also, the choice of Aange and web plates should
not result in any n11usua1 fabricating diEcuIties.
An "efficimt" girder will satisfv all of these re-
with any advantages of tlrc altered design, such as
increased head room, less fill at bridge approaches, ete.
In order to simplify the derivation of the efiicient
girder, it u-ill he necessa~y to assume the depth of the
web plate (d,) is also the distance between the centers
of gravity of the two Range plates as well as the overall
depth of thc girdcr. Sec Fignre I.
In the case of welded plate girders where the
thiclmcss of flange plates is vory small compared to the
girder's depth, this assumption doesn't introduce very
much of an error while greatly simplifying the pro-
cedure and resulting fom~ulas.
The moment of inertia of the girder section is-
I dw3
S = -- - A, d + 01
d/2 - 6 K
-
quircments with the minimum weight.
An "econon~ical" girder will satisfy these same
S dW2
Af = - - also
requirements and in addition will be fabricated for
d , 6 K
the least cost for the whole structure. This may not
dW2
necessarily be the iowest weight design. A, = t, d, =
Most structural texts sr~ggest a method of girder
K
design in which some assumption is made as to the
depth, usually from %, to I/,, of the girder length ( a
rninimum of ?h5) . Knowing the web depth, the wcb
thickness is the11 found. This is kept above the value
A.
' t
required for web area (A,-) to satisfy the shear forces
and also to insure that the ratio K = d,/t, will be
below the proper value.
Table 1 lists the AASHO (Bridge) limiting values
of K == d,/t, for common materials, with or without
transverse stiffeners. I
2. DESIGN APPROACH
It might he well to investigate thc efficient girder design
on the basis of minimum weight. If done simply, it
would offer a good guide or starting point in any design
of a girder. An estimate of weight that is obtained
I
quickly would allow the designer to deviate from the
efficient depth to a more shallow girder when neces-
s ay. He would then balance off the additional weight
Assume: dw = d, = db
FIG. 1 Girder description
TABLE 1-Limiting Ratios cf Web Depth to Thickness
d, - web depth
. -
= - web thickne3r AASHO (Bridgar)
I
I I
Low Ailoy Steel
I
I Mild Steci
A441 or Weldable A242
I A373, A36 46 000 pri 50,000 psi
i 1 1 h e l d / yield
No tronrverre
stiffenerr
K C 6 0 1 K - 5 2 K 5 53
(1.6.80) / i
Longitudinal
stiffener with
ironweire rfiffeneri
Therefore, the total girder area is- Also, the total area of the girder is-
2 S d,' d,"
A t = 2 A , + A , " = - - - m + X
d,"
Now differentiate with respect to the depth (d,)
K
and set equal to zero: ... I A , ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
also
This indicates that the efficient girder has half its
weight in the w& and half in the flanges. Based on
steel weighing 3.4 lhs/linear ft/sq in. of section area,
the efficient girder's weight is-
Figure 2 contains two curves showing the weights
. ( 2)
and depths of girders for a given set of requirements;
in this case a section modulr~s of S = 5,000 in."
Curve '4 gives the weight (Wc, ibs/lin ft) and
depth ( &, inches) of the girder for any given value
of K.
These two values come from Formulas 2 and 5:
Since 6.8 dWY
and W, = ...
S d " TY K
Af =---
d," G K
These combi~le to form-
2 d," d '
-
*-
3 K d , G K
- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 3)
which is the weight of girder not including weight of
FIG. 2 Relationship of effi-
cient girder weight and
depth for given require-
ments (here, 5=5,000 in.").
Weight of ef i ci ent
girder for
d
different values of K = Z
tW
mi n weght for mcl xmurn
value of I<:
W, = 9.80
70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Deplh of web ( d Wj i n.
stiffeners.
It is seen that larger values of K result in lower
weight (Wt ) and increased depth (d,?) of girder. Con-
versely, lower val~ies of K will produce heavier and
more sl-tallow girders. This represents the lowest weight
design for any given value of K.
Assuming the weight of stiffeners will be 20% of
the web waight, and since in the efficient girder, the
web represents half of the girder weight, the stiffeners
would increase the girder weight by lo%, or-
- \ , . * . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , , , ( 7 )
which is the weight of girder including weight of s t 8-
eners.
Effect of Changing Dinlensions
In an efficient girder the depth of which is deter-
mined by Formula 2-
the weight decreases as the ratio (I<) increases; hence
use as large a K ratio as is possibic (see Table 1 ). Once
the flange area ( Af ) is determined, the actual profile
of the flangc (thicknms to width) has almost no .effect
on the resulting girder weight (Wt).
Occnsionaily the girder depth may be restricted
because of head room or some othcr reason. The shal-
low-depth wcb thrii innst he thickcr in order to make
UP the wch area required for the shear forces; in this
case, it may he possible to further increase the web
thicl;~less, \,cry slightly, to arrive at 1/60 of its clear
depth and thus eliminate thc transverse stiffeners. If
this is thc case, the decision not to use stitfeners should
be made at the start of the design rather than later.
For example, See Figure 3.
Hcre on the left side, the efficient girder using
stiffeners ( K = 170) \veighs 188 ibs/linear ft. Taking
this same dcsign and incrrasing the web thickness to
1/60 of its dcpth to cliininate the stiffeners, would
increase its weight to 328 Iibs/lincnr ft, or 1.74 times.
On the other hand if the emcient depth is first deter-
mined using no stifimrrs ( K = HI), the weight is
increased to only 243 ibs/linenr ft, or 1.29 times. In
this particular case, the design which eliminated the
stiffeners at the start (right-hand girder) weighs only
74% as much as the dcsign which eliminated the stiff-
eners after the dcpth was determined (center girder).
The graph in Figure 4 show-s the direct effcct of
changing web depth. Changing the combination of
flange diniensions, but using same depth of web (d,)
Percent of ef i ci ent depth used (doid,)
FIG. 4 Effect of changing web depth on girder weight.
must he used. d,,
c 1- + tf
2. For web thickncss, use
2
3. Check the resulting values for
T . I? . . to use valrws of t, and d , that will provide
the highcsf allowable valrre of I<. If resulting A , erjnals
or excccds the given r qui r cd value, procecd to Stcp
4 of Method A; if not; jump to Step 3A of Method H.
4. Kow compute the web's moment 01 inertia:
5. Select a flango tliicklress and wmpirte the dis-
tance from the cntire section's neutral axis to the outor
fiber ( c ) , and tlrcn coinputc c,:
FIG. 5. Girder description.
3 = a ,
SUE
Efficient PBaiie Girders / 4.
6. With this, compute the section's total reqnired
moment of inrrtia:
7. Now select a flange width from the following:
J Since:
and use the next larger corrvenicnt plate width for
flange width ( br ) .
8. Then c h e ~k
i p -- 2 11~ tt cr2 and
I, = I, + 1, and
Tliis final value of section modulus ( S) must equal
or exceed the value initially stated as a requiroment
to resist the bending moment.
overpls Design 08 Girder
If the xveb ar m (A,) cornpt ed hack in Stop 3
does not equal or exceed the givcn required arno~urt;
take these addition;rl steps before proceeding with Step
4 of Mrthod A.
3A. Calculate the web thickness (t,) and web
depth (d,>,) from the required web area (A,T) and
rrrpired depth-to-tliickness ratio ( K) , wing the iol-
lowing formulas:
and
3R. Usi~ig this its a glide, adjnst the thickness
( L) and drpth (d,, i of thr web plate to satisfy the
ahove coiiditio~~s a r ~d also the following:
>
t, d, = A,"
which must equal or exceed the rcqnirrd value of A,v
( = V/ r); and
a.hich rnttst q n a l or bc l c ~s than tlic maximum allow-
able \ dr w of K.
Ha\irrg s<,lccttd d, i t i d t,v, n,tum to Step 4 of
Metlrod 4 and follow t hr o~~gh to completion (Step 8 ) .
Short-Cut iVomographs
The first nomograph, Figurt: 6, will quickly give
tlir girdcr's cflicimt u r b dept l ~ its wrll as its estimated
wriglrt (lhs/lin f t )
On this r~ornograph:
Line 1 =. r q u i r d section n~odrilus ( S)
I.,inr 2 - reqnired ratio of web (ltytln to web thick-
nrss ( K)
Linc 3 = (read: ) rlficient web depth (d,)
I h e 4 = required vatio of web &yt h to web thick-
rrrss ( K)
Line 5 = (read: ) estimated weight of girder (W,)
Line 6 = (rrad: ) d1~1wable shear carried by web ( V)
on the, basis of r = 11,000 psi (bridges)
l f the right-hmd line G shonld indicate an allow-
able shear value ( V) for the efficient web which is
lcss than the a(,tuaS value, thc girder design must he
hascd on the shcar-carrying capacity of the web. This
is done by going to the second nomograph, Figurt* 7:
Here:
Line 1 = actrial shear value which ~nirst be carried
hy the usel.) ( V)
Line 2 = requii-cd vatio of web depth to web thick-
ness ( K )
Line 3 = (red) we17 thickness to be used (t,,.)
Line 4 = reqnirtd ratio of wab depth to web thick-
ness (K)
Lint: 5 = ( mt d: ) wvb daptlr to 11c used (d,)
The weight of this slicar design may he estimated
by the third noniograplr, Figure 8. Two valnes of weight
are obtained; tlrc:c rnrlst be added together.
Ilrre, for first weight:
Lint l a = rrqnircd section rnodr~lus ( S )
Lint %I web drptlr ( d )
Line 3 == (,-cad:) cstir~iated weight (W, )
For t l ~c st ~mnd \wight:
1,inc. l b := shrnr to be c;~rriwl by w-el> (V)
Line 2)) =: allo\vd~le shwr stress ( T )
1,irrc 3 := (rcad: ) esti11n;rtcd weight (W, )
The slim of thcsc two weights still does not inclnde
the weights of stifi'mers if required.
Problem 1
Design a hridge girder for the follo\ving loads:
Ivl 7~500 ft-kips
V -- 600 kips
For A36 steel, AASIlO Sec 1.6.75 (see Table 1)
requires the K ratio of web depth to thickness (d,/t,)
to be not more than K = 170 using transverse stiff-
eners.
Then:
-
(7500) (12)
--
(18 ksi)
-
- (600)
(11 ksi)
= 54.5 in.2
Following the suggested outline for designing an
efficient girder:
or use an 1 l / l a u thick web, 11V deep
3. Check these proposcd dimensions:
= 160 < 170 O.K.
A, = t, d,
= (11/16) (110)
= 75.6 in.2 > 54.5 in.' O.K.
= 76,255 in.4
5. Let flange thickness be t, = 2":
= 16.65"
or use 17.0'' wide x 2" thick Range plates
8. Then, to find properties of the actual proposed
section:
Then, to find the weight of this designed girder:
2 A, = 2(2")(17") = 68.0
A, = (11,/16")(110") = 75.6
-
143.6 in.'
.'. Wt = 488 Zbsllin f t of girder, on the basis of steel's
weighing 3.4 lbs/lin ft/inl.' of cross section,
To show that this does result in the n~inimunl
girder weight, nine other combinations have been
figured, from a web depth of 70" up to 120", as shown
by Cwe B in Figure 2. In the example just worked,
the various dimensions were rounded off to the next
FIG. 8 Weight of Plate Girder When Design Is Governed by Sheor
size fraction based on available plate. The actual plate is increased to V = 1000 kips. This will illustrate the
girder t:xample using a web depth of 110" weighed work to he done where shear ( V) would govern the
488 lhs/ft, yet the efki ent girder for this same depth design.
should weigh 473 lbs/ft.
Four other combinations of flange Jimensions were
Here:
figured, using the same web depth (d, = 108.45"),
V
but there was little difference in girder weight. The
A" = -i
thinner and wider flanges result in a very slight re-
dnction in weight. -
( 1000)
- (11 ksi)
= 90.9 in.'
Consider the same girder in which the shear load
Following the suggested outline:
Efficient Plate Girders /
In the previous problem, this led to a web 11/16"
X 110"; however-
In this case the '%6" X 110" web plate has in-
sufficient area to carry the shear load. So, switching to
Method B:
or use a W- t hi ck web plate.
or use a 124" deep web plde
3B. Check:
A, = t , d,
= (3/q)(1%)
= 93.0 in.' > 90.9 i a2 OK
Now returning to the basic Method A outline:
5. Let flange thiekness be tt = 2":
= 12.65"
or use 13" wide x Y thick flange plates
8. Then, to find propertics of the actual proposed
section:
Then, to find the weight of this designed plate
girder:
4.2- 12 / Girder-Related
142.0 in."
WL = 462.8 lbs/lin f t of girder
Find the approximate web dimensions and weight
for the same girder, using the nomographs, Figures 6,
7 and 8.
Given:
S = 5000 in."
d,
K =- = 170
t w
read:
d = 108"
Given:
read:
Wt = 470 lbs/ft
and:
V = 750 kips allowable
Using an actual depth of 110" as in Figure 1 would
increase this estimated weight to 483 lhs/ft as read on
the nomograph. In Problem 1, the weight was com-
puted to be 488 lbs/ft; this slight increase is due to
the increase in web thickness from the required ,638"
to the llext fraction, 11/16".
2nd Nomograph
If the shear value is increased to V = 1000 kips
as in Problem 2, this exceeds the allowable value of
750 kips mad from the &st nomograph. Therefore,
shear governs the design and the second nomograph
must be used.
Given:
V = 1000 kips
read:
t , = ,725" or use Vi"
Given:
read:
d, = 126" or use 124"
Given:
S = 5000 in.Y
d = 124"
read:
Wt = P 275 lhs/ft
Given:
V = 1000 kips
T = 11,000 psi
read:
Wt = + 210 lbs/Ft
Total = 485 lbs/ft
In Problem 2, the weight was computed to be
482.8 lbs/ft.
If the valuc of u,, resulting from the above formula
is eqnal to the yield point of the steel in nni-axial
tension (what is commonly called the yield strength,
ur ) , it is assumed this conhination of stresses will just
produce yielding in the miiterial. Hence, the nse of
this formula will give some indication of the factor of
safety against yielding.
(a) Cross-sections of test specimens
(b) Comporison: ultimote ond critical loads of
bending rests
FIG. 1 Eiiect of web thickness on ultimate carry-
ing copocity of the girder.
Transverse intermediate stiffcners shall preferably be
in pairs. They may be either single or double, and be
plates or invertrd tees. When stiffcners are used on
only one side of the web, they shall be welded to the
compression fiange to give it proper support.
The nioment of inertia of the transverse stiffener
shall not be less than-
I -= minimum required moment of inertia of stilf-
cner, in."
where:
a, = required clear distance befween hansversc
stiffeners, in.
d '
J = 2 j - . ~ - 2 0 = 5
a.
a, = ach~al dear distance between transverse stiff-
eners, in.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3)
d, = uninpporied d q t h of web plate between
flanges, ID.
t, = web thickness, in.
When transverse stiffeners are in pairs, the moment
of inertia shall he taken about the centerline of the
weh plate. When single stiffeners are nsed, the moment
of inertia shall be taken about the face in contact with
the wcb plate.
The width of n plate stiffener shall not he less
than 16 times its thickness, and not less than 2" plus
1/30 of the girder depth.
The distanct~ bctwcen transverse stiffeners shall
not exceed-
1. 12 feet
2 the clear nnsupportcd depth of the web (d,)
where:
T = average unit shear stress in the web's cross-
section at the point considered, psi
4. LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS MASH
1.6.81 )
The longitudinal stiffener shall lie along a line 1/5 d,
l at e Gi rders tor
(a) Longitudinol stiffeners on inside of girder
FIG. 2 Placing longitudinal stiffeners
on outride of girder and transverse
stiffeners inside saves fobricafing time.
/
Longitudinal stiffener
Longitudinal and
tionsverse stiffeners
do not inteisec,
from thc compression flange. Its moment of inelZia
shall not be less than-
These stiffeners do not nwessarily have to bc con-
tinuous, but may be cut where they intersect transversc
intermediate stiffeners if they lie on the same sidc of
the web.
5. BEARING STIFFENERS
Transverse stiffeners shall I>F wed over the end bcarings
or along the Icngth of tire girder wherc concentrated
loads must he carried, and shall hc designed to transmit
thc n:actions io the web. They shall extend as nearly
as ixaeticahlc to i hr oi~ter edge of the flange, hut not
to excwd 12tiilncs their thiclcness. (AASIIO 1.6.17)
Some ixidges have longitudinal stiffeners on the
inside of the girders, otircrs orl the outside. If the longi-
tuclinal stiiIrr~ers arc on the inside, along with the
transverse stiffeners, it loaves the ontside of the girder
smooth; Figure 2( a) . This, of course, means the iongi-
(b) Longitudinal stiffeners on outside of girder
tudinal stiffener mnst he cut into short lengths and
then inserted betwccsr the transverse stiffeners. This
results in inrreascd welding tirnc and production costs.
Some states havc used longitudi~riil stiffenci-s on
the outside and transvrrsib on the insidc; Figure 2(b).
Tf~is method saves on fabricating time and aL~o allows
the use of automatic welding trchniques to join the
Iongihldinal stiffeners to thc girder web, thereby sub-
stantially incrrasing welding speed.
C OF STIFFENERS
AASIIO (2.10.32) will allow the welding of stiffeners
or attachments transversc to a tension flange if the
bending stress is 75% or less than the al1owal)le.
.4WS Bridge (225 c j will allow the welding of
stiffeners or attachments transverse to a telrsion flanga
if thc bending strrLss in the f h g e is held to within those
of the fatigot. formulas ( I j, ( R ) , or ( 5) for the welding
of atiachnrents hy fillet vmlds; s w Section 2.9, Fable 1.
Figure 3 illustrates the eflcct of transverse attach-
ments wclded to a plate when tested from tcnsion to
an cqual compression (I< = -I ) . *
.~ -
"Fatigue 'Tests of Weliid Joints in Structural Steel Plates",
Bull. 327, University of Illinois, 1941.
FIG. 3 Effect of transverse attachments on fatigue strength of member
Some engineers have felt this reduction in fatigue
strength is due to the transverse fillet welds; however,
it is caused by the abrupt change in section due to the
attachment. It is believed these plates would have
failed at about the same value and location if they had
machined out of solid plate without any welding.
This same problem cxists in the machining of stepped
shafts used in large high-speed t ur l kes and similar
equipment.
Figure 4 illustrates the effcct of welding transverse
stiffeners to tension flanges.* Tests, again at the Uni-
versity of Illinois, were made from tension to zero
tension in bending ( K = 0) and at 2 million cycles.
Eliminating the weld between the stiffener and
the tension flange incrsased the fatigue strength of the
beam. In addition, leaving the weld off the lower
quarter portion of the web in the tension region gave a
further increase in fatigue strength.
Later tests at the University of Illinois** took into
consideration not only the bending stress in the flange,
but also the resulting principal tensile stress in the
wcb at critical locations, such as the termination of the
connecting fillet weld of the stiffener. See Figure 5.
It was discovered that the fatigue failure in the
stiffener area did not necessarily occur at the point
ol maximum bending stress of the beans. Failure
stailed at the lower termination of the fillet weld con-
rlecting ths stiffener to the web. When the bottom of
thr stiflerrer was also welded to the tension flange,
failure started at the toe of the fillet weld connecting
the stiffesner to the beam flange. After the flange had
failad, the crack wonld progrrss upward into the web.
Ilerz, the failures usnally occurred in the maximum
moment section of thq heilm.
This test indicated fairly good correlation when
the results were considerod in terms of the principal
tensile strcssis (including the effect of shear) rather
than simply the bending stress. The 'angle of the fatigue
failme in the web generally was found to be about
" "Flexural Strength of Steel Uenms", Bull. 377, University of
Illinois, 1948.
** "Fatigue in Weldcd Beams and Girders" W. H. Munse &
J. E. St aheyer , Highway Research Board, Bull. 315, 1982, p 45.
min. _
K-*.- 0
2000,000 CYCLE5
INTERMEDIATE
I& 400 psi 26,600 psi.
WELDED m
COMPREJSIOU RANEE
AND TO UPPER
JZ.700 psi.
FIG. 4 Effect of welded in-
termediate stiffener on ten-
sion flange.
safe Girders for
WE 'A" TYPE '8' TYDE P. TYPE I T T/Pt 'E' TYPE ' F.
(a) Details of various stiffener types
FIG. 5 Effect of stifiener type
on fatigue strength of member.
(b) Sigma-n diagram for maximum principol tensile stress at failure section.
20% less than the computed angle of the principal strcss.
AASHO Specifications (2.10.32) state that trans-
verse intermediate stiffeners shall fit sufficiently tight to
exclude water after painting.
Some insprctors interpret a tight fit to he onc in
which the s t i f hcr s must be forced into position. Many
fabricators frel this is an unnecessary dcterrent since
it takes extre time to force the edges of tlie flanges apart
to allow the stiffeners to be inserted.
There err two gencra! methods of fitting these
stiffeners to the plate girder (Fig. 6) :
1. Use a stiRener that does not fit too tight. Push
it tightly against thc tension flange. \Vt,ld it to the
girder web and to the compression flange.
With this method, tlie fitting of the stiffener will
comply with the above AASHO spec.;; yet it is not
welded to the tension flange, nor is it a problem to
insert. An alternate mcthod is to-
2. Use a stiffener which is cut short about 1". Fit
it against the compression flange and weld it to the
web. If it is a single st i f her , also weld it to the cam-
pression flange:. It is not vdded to the tcnsinn flange.
Experience indicates thc 1" gap at the lower tcnsion FIG. 6 Fit of stiffeners to girder.
flange will present no maintenance problem. Although
this does not cornply with the above AASHO require-
ment, many girders for higl~way bridges are fitted with
stiffeners in this manner.
Plate girder research at Lchigh University* has
indicated the stiffener does not have t o contact the
tension flange to develop the ultimate capacity of the
girder. They recommended the stiffeners be cut short
a, described in t he alternate method above (2). The
distance between the lower and tension flange and the
stiffener is set at 4 times the wcb thickness; see their
recommcndations in Figure 7.
There is no clear-cut answer as to whether con-
tinuous or intermittent fillet welds should be used to
attach the stilfencr to the web. The latest research at
Illinois on stifIeners indicated that fatigue failurcs
occurred at the terminations of fillet welds, regardless
of whethrr they were continuous or intermittent. Natur-
ally, a continuous weld \ d l have fewer tcnninations,
hence fewer aaras for potential fatigue cracks.
Where lwge, intormittent fillet welds are specified,
%" for example, roplacement with %" continuous fillet
welds made by automatic welding equipnrent achieves
a considerable saving in cost. Where small intermittent
*"Strength of Plntc Cirdcrs", Hrmio Thurlimm, AISC Proceed-
ings 1958; "Plate Giriicr Rcsr:rrch", Konrad Resler & Bruno
Thurlirnan, AISC Proceedings,, 1059.
fillet welds are specified, 'h" possibly, savings from the
introduction of continuous welds and automatic equip-
ment become qumtionable.
With thin, deep web plates, a smaller size weld
may tcnd to reduce distortion. In this case, automatic
welding would be of benefit, provided this substitution
of continuous welds for intermittent welds does not
increase weld length to any major extent.
7. FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS
These welds hold the flanges to the web of the plate
girder. They are located in areas of bending stresses
and must transfer longitudinal shear forces between
Ranges and web. Some restraining action may develop
with thick flange plates, but any resulting transverse
residual stress should not reduce the weld's load-caw-
ing capacity. This bcing parallel loading, the actual
contour or shapf: of the fillet weld is not as critical
as long as the minimum throat dimension is main-
tained.
Shop practice today usually calls for submerrged-
arc automatic welding equipment to make these welds.
For the usual thickness of web plate, the two fillet
welds per~etrate deeply within the web and intersect
as in Figure 8(1>), giving complete fusion even though
simple fillet \welds are called for, as in ( a ) . A few
one a two sided
FIG. 7 Summary of design recommendations relative to girder stiffeners
el ded Hare Gi rders @or
FIG. 8 Flange-to-web welds.
states recognize this perlctration and are now detailing
this weld with cornplctr fusion. 'Tlris proves no problem
on the rrormal web thicknas. In thc futurr, however,
if the same detail is showrr on much thickcr web plates,
the fabricator will have to use a double-bevel edge
preparation to obtai~r the intersretion ( c ) , wen thongh
detail ( d) is sufkient.
It sho~dd not he necessary to detail groove welds
for this ioiot from a dcsign standpoint. Selection of a
groove T-joint design should be Ilased on a cost com-
parison with filkt wrlds. The groovid l'-joilit requires
abont ?b the arnonn? of weld metal compared with
fillet welds (assuming full-strength welds). However,
the grooved joint has the extra cost of PI-eparing thi.
double hevcl.
In respect to the physical perfonnaiice of cither
tiit> fillet or the groovd T-joint design, tests liave been
made, hy .4. Ncum:mrr, of these \velds nnder fatigue
hending from 0 to tcnsion, K - 0, at 2 111illion cycles.*
FIG. 9 Both weld types showed same fatigue
strength.
No ciifkrenec was iirdicat~cd for thr: fatigue strength of
the beam using cither joint dcsign, with both types
dernopstrntiilg a f:ttiguc strcugth iri t he beam of 22,000
to 24,000 psi (hvirding strcss); Figure 9.
From a dcsign sta~xlpoin?, t hm: welds may be
quite small. Their achrd size is usually established by
the minimum allowable leg size for the thickness of
For Vorious Plate Thicknesses (AWS)
THICKNESS OF THICKER MI NI MUM LEG SIZE
PLATE TO BE JOI NED / OF FILLET WELD*
THKU % inch
over in. *IW" $5 in,
over y4 i n *hi " 1% in.
Ovoi 1% in. thru 21,: i n.
Over 21/4 in. t h r u 6 i n. I
Over 6 in. 1
3/ 16 in.
lh in.
5/16 in.
),'a in.
'/> in.
% i n.
Need not the t hi r kncsi of the i hi nnei plotb
-
the fiangc plat(%. T;rblc 7 lists tile minimum size of
fillets for various platc tliickuwses as established by
rlM' S Sprdficntions. 1,cg sizc ilicri'ases to take care of
thc fastt,r cooling rate and grisatc.r rcstrairlt that exists
in thicker platcs.
On tliickcr plates. with rrniltiple pass wclcls, it is
desirable to gel as nindr hwt input into the first pass
as possible. This means 1iight:r ucldiiig currents and
siower urlding spwds. L.ou--11ydrogcn olt:ctrodes are
bettor'for manual wcldirrg in this work. 'The lmv-hydro-
gm characteristics of a submerged-arc wclding deposit
gives this welding mrthod ;I si~nilar advaiitagt:.
~~ -
"Discussion at the Syinposium on Fatigue of Wuided Struc-
tiircs" The British WtMing Joonial, August, 1900.
/ Girder-Related
TABLE 3-Allowable Shear Forces On
Fi l l et Welds For Various Fatigue Loodings
100,000 600,000 1 2,000,000
CYCLES 1 CYCLES I CYCLES
8800 o
f = -- lb/in.
K K
i - -
2 2
but rhoil not exceed f = 8.800 o (60 or SAW i welds)
f = 10.400 o (E70 or SAW 2 welds1
-- --
Where.
MiNlMUM
K = (sheor (V) opplied to girder1
MAXIMUM
w = leg size of fiile,
Determination of Combined Stress
mbined stresses in a fillet weld between the
and flanges is seldom considered for the
following reasons:
1. The maximum bending strcss for a simply sup-
ported girder docs not occur at the same region as
the maximum shear force. For a continuous girder,
however, the ncgative moment and shear force are
high in the same region near the support, and perhaps
the combined forces in this fillet weld should be
checked.
2. The maximum bending stress in the outer sur-
face of flange is always designed for something less
than the allowable (Bridge code = 18,000 psi). The
weld lies inside of the flange and is stressed at a lower
value. Ex: If the weld is in an area of 15,000 psi
bending stress, this additional normal stress would re-
duce, theoretically, the allowable shear force for the
weld from f = 8800 w to f = 7070 w, or about 80%
of what it would be if just horizontal shear were con-
sidered (E60 or SAW-1 welds).
3. Usually these welds must be larger than design
requirements because of the minimum weld size specifi-
cations listed above.
Nevertheless, if desirable to determine the com-
binell stresses, it can be theoretically shown that the
axial normal stress from the bending, applied to the
fillet weld, would increase the maxin~um shear stress
applied to the tlrroat. For a given applied normal stress
(u), the resulting ~naximwn valuc for the allowable
force ( f ) which may be applied to the fillet weld of a
given leg size (a) under parallel loading is expressed
by the formula:-
( E N or S.4W-1 welds)
(I370 or SAW2 welds)
This formul at i o~~ still pennits the maximum shear
stress ren~lting from the combined shear stresses to
be held within thc allo\vable of T = 12,400 psi ( I 3 0
or SAW-1 welds) or 14,700 psi (E70 or SAW-2 welds).
Allowable Fatigue Strength
Table 3 contains tho formulas for establishing the
albwahle shear foucc that may hc applied to fillet welds
under various conditions of fatiguc loading.
8. FLANGE BUTT JOI NTS
In nearly all welded plate girdms, the flange is a single
plate. These plates are stcpped down as less area is
required. A smooth transition is made between the two,
by reducing either the thickness or width of the larger
flange to comqxmd to that of the smaller.
When this tra~xition is rnade in thickness, the end
of the larger flange is hevelcd by a flame-cutting torch.
There is a practical limit to the angle of bevel, but this
slope, according to AWS Bridge Specifications, should
not be greater than 1" in 2l%" (an angle of 23"). On
the Calcasieu River bridge, this slope was decreased to
about 1" in 6" (an angle of about 9%"). Transitions
also e m be made by varying the surface contour of
FIG. 10 Plate bevels made by
flame cutting.
(a) Beveling end of flange (b) Beveling end of flange
plate for groove butt plate for tronsition in
held thickness.
Fatigue Strengths
in Suit l oi nf s
1 100,000 1 600,000 2,000,WO
CYCLES CYCLES I CYCLES
BUTT WELD
I N TENSION 1 -- - .7 K i - 8 K
(not to exceed 18.000 psi1
BUTT WELD
IN COMPRESSION
inor to exceed p1
(a) Straight-line transition in width Where:
(p) is t he allawobie ian;piciiivi itrerr far t he
member involved.
BUTT
MINIMUM
K = - (bending stress or bending moment1
(WELD
MAXIMUM
(b) Curved transition in width
rather than in thickrsess. This advantage undoubtedly
would bt: greater if the transition in width wert: made
more gradual; however, both methods are sound and
acceptzible. Fatigut, values for these transitions are
found in Figure 12.
Al l awabi e Fat i gue Strengths
FIG. 11 Method of transition in width affects
weld's allowable fatigue values.
Croove wt~lds in hntt joints of equal platc thiek-
ness. if the rcinforcmnent is finished smooth with the
the groove welds.
The usrial method of flame rutting a bevel in the
preparation of a wcldcd joint is to cnt down through
the surfaw of the plate at the proper angle. lkcause
of the wide angle needed for this transition in thick-
ness, it is often better to flame-cut back from the edge
of the plate after the flange platc has been cut to
length. Scc Figure 10.
When the transition is made in width, the end of
the wider flange is cnt back at an angle, again with
the flame-cutting torch. There is no prohlcm in cntting
in this matn~er, and any slope rnay be used; many tinrcs
1 in 12, hot usually a maxiinom slope of 1 in 4. Often
this tapar m;ry extend back for several feet.
Gent~ally, it is fctt that the straight-line transition
in width is sufieient, ;md in the case crf fatigue loading
the allowable fatigue va1ut.s for butt groove welds in
tension or compressior~ are used. See Figure 11. If a
curve tangent to thc edgr of the rtarrow flange at the
point of twinination is used, it may be assumed the
flanges haw eqnal widths. Thus, for equal plate thick-
nesses and with the \veld reinforeern::nt removed, the
butt groove meld may he assigned the same allo\vable
strcss as the tiangc plat<?, nntler :my condition of fatigue
loading.
Studirs at the Utiivcrsity of Illinois have intlicatcd
a slight advantage in rnaking a transition in width
surface, rnay hc ;rllowcd the same fatigue strength
under any type of fatigne loading as the base metal.
For plates of nnrrpal thickness where the transition
slope is not grcat a than 1 in W 2 , the formulas found in
Table 4 may bc used.
transition in thickness
I I
FIG. 12 Making a transition i n flange width
rother than thickness has a slight advantage
in fatigue strength.
4.3-10 / Girder-Reloted Design
FIG. 13-Summary of Bridge Plate-Girder Specifications AWS & AASHO
Neutroi axis of girder
ARV OF BRIDGE SPECIFlCATlO
In order to aid thc bridge rrrgineer in designing a
welded plate girder, the pertinent .4WS and AASHO
Specifications liavt; been brought together into a single
drawing, Figiire 13, and related text, below. The cor-
responding numbers are inclrided so the engineer may
refer back to the original speciiicntions.
This summary can also serve as a checkoff list,
so that nothing will he inadvertently omitted.
The following requirements apply:
1. Extend bearing stinener as near as practical to
outer edge of flange. Proportion for hearing. Welds
to web must transmit end reaction. (1.6.79)
2. Width of bearing stiffener mi st not exceed 12
times stiffener thicliness ( 1.6.17).
3. Space (horizontal) longit~idinal stiffener Si, ~ 1 , ~
from compression Range (1.6.81).
4. Dimension longitudinal stiiicncr for required
moment of inertia, using-
about edge of stiffencr (1.6.81).
5 Mill or grind bcnring stiffener ends For even
bearing to iiange. StifFcner may be welded without
rnilling to comprrssion flange, or to tcnsion flange if
less than 75% terrsile strength (2.10.32).
6. Do not wcld transverse intermediate stiffener to
tension flange if stressed over 75% (2.10.32) or unless
stress is within that of fatiguc formulas 1, 3 or 5 of Art.
228 ( 2 2 5 ~ ) .
7. Fit intermediate stitYcner tight to flnnges to
excludc water aftm painting (2.10.32).
8. Consider placing intermtdiatt: stiffeners at
points of conccntrated load to transmit reactions to
the web (1.6.80).
9. Use transverse intermediate s t i f her preferably
in pairs on opposite sides of web. If only one side of
web, wcld ends to compression flange and intermittent
weld to weh (1.6.80, 22%).
10. The minimum moment of inertia of transverse
intermediate stinener shall be (1.6.80)-
where:
d - .- actual , distance between stiffeners, in.
d, = required distance bctween stiifeners, in
d , = w-eb depth, in.
t, = web thickness, in.
T = average shear stress in web
11. Girder ffange shall not extend beyond 12 times
its thickness (1.6.17).
12. Ilistance betwem stiffeners must not exceed
12', d,, or l ~ o o O (1.6.80)
\F
T '
13. All shop groove butt welds in flange and web
plates shall be made before final litting and welding
into girder (404f).
V a y
14. Web-to-flange lillet weld leg size =
17,600 1
15. Width of tr'msverse intermediate stiffeners
must not exceed 16 times stiffmcr thickness, or 2" plus
K O of girder depth.
Also, deflection due to live load plus impact shall
not exceed 1/800 of the span; for cantilever arms, 1/300
of the span (1.6.10).
lute Girders for - 8 8
MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (twl
i I
i f long. ond tiani. stiffeners / t , ~ = - - dil / tr = dSv I tr = -- dx
340 290 1 280
Also. ratio oi depth to length of span shall prefcr-
in the above t a l h for the more coiilrnolr steels.
ably not be less than :;is; for lowor depth the saction
shall be incrcxrscd so that the maximum dt:flection will
ENSlONAh TOh
not 1)e grcatcr than if this ratio llad not bwn cxceeded Tho dimensional tolcrmces ill Figurc 14 have been set
( 1.6.11).
lip for welded plate girdcrs by the AWS Bridge Speci-
Also, wrh thiekr~css shall meet requirements given fications.
FIG. 14-Maximum Dimensional Tolerances AWS 407
dapthr up to %'inel.
= i
"
Oerio,ion Fr m Flotncrr of Gird" Web in a b q i h
depths wrr 3be+O 72" iml.
'
Between Stiffeners a a h g t h Eouol to
dmths over 72" + C- &* Depth oC Girder
Fignre 15 illustratt:~ several types of diaphragms used,
and rcliresent the extremes in designs and fabrication.
Diaphragm ( a) , although so simple in design that no
shop welding is rqni red, must be fitted and welded in
the field. Diaphragm ( h) , although mnch more com-
plicated, may he mass-produced in the shop: The anglcs
are shcared to length; and the plates are shcared and
pnnched. Thcse are placed into a simple fixture and
welded together at low cost. Thc field crection is
simpler, since the ciiaplu~~gms are put into position,
held by an ervction bolt, and then weldcd into place.
. COVER PLATES
Using A-441 st ed (previonsly A- a ? ) , it may he ad-
Yantngeous in some cascs to use two plates, a flange
plate and a covcr plate, to make np the flange. This
will pcrmit use of thinner plates and take advantage
of the higher allo\n~~ble stresses. This st cd has the
following allowable tension in mcmbers subject to
bending:
Many methods have bcrn suggested for twinination
of cover plates. Thc existence of at lcast four conditions
which affect this makes it irnpossiblc to recommend
one specific covrr plate md which will hcst meet all
conditions.
First, the tensile forces, assnmed to be uniformly
distributed across the width of the cover plate, sllould
be transferred simply and directly into the correspond-
ing flange of the rolled beam withoi~t cansiug any stress
concentmiion in the beam flange. In general, a large
tmnsversc fillet wrltl across the end of the cover plate
dors this in tlv, simplest manner.
Second, there must bc a very gradual change in
the beam sertion at the mid of t he cover plate, in
order to develop a similar gradual change in bending
stress of the beam. Any abrupt change in beam section
THICKNESS
FIG. 15 Diaphragms used in modern bridges: (a) angles cut to length and dropped into
place; (b) Shop welded diaphragm, field welded to girder stiffener; (c) angler ottoched
to siiffeners; and (d) channel welded to web ond stiffeners.
ALLOWABLE
%" and under
i
27.000 psi
over ?/," to Ilh" 24.000 psi
j
over 1%" to 4" 22.000 psi
elded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4.3-1
FIG. 16 Cover plates extending
beyond width of beam flange.
will rcducr the bcam's fatigue strength. This would
tend to favor a gradual tapered w-idth ithat the end of the
cover plate.
Third, some caution slhould he txerciscd relative
to terminating the cowr plate in the narrow zone of
the flange that is in direct line of the beam web. This
is a rigid portion with little chance for localizrd yielding
to pnwmt the build-up of possible high stress con-
centration.
[:ntrrilz, the selectt.d joint should be rconomically
practical to make and answer functional rtrquircments.
For cxample:
1. Continuons welds may be needed to provide
a positivc seal and prevent moisturc from entering
underneath the plate and causing connection deterior-
ation.
2. Ilinimum appcai-ai-icc stanrlnrds may eliminate
solno joint designs.
Early fatigur tosting at the University of Illinois*
on rolled lwams \\-it11 covrr platcs indicatcd that:
- 8ul i eti n No. 377
1 . In geiwral, continnous fillet welds were better
than intermittent fillet welds for joining cover plates to
the beam Aange.
2. On covar plates extending beyond the width
of the heam flangr and conncctcd with longitudinal
,xij" continuous fillet welds, adding a "/,, fillet weld
across the end of the cover plate produced a slight
increase in fatigue strength (from 8900 psi to 9300 psi
at 2 million cycles). Omitting thc welds for a distance
at each corwr of the cover plate increased this valnc
up to 11,000 psi; see Figure 16
Thc intersection of the longiturlil~al and transverse
fillet welds conld present a point of wrakness if not
properly made. This "cross-over" usually results in a
very shallow concave weld. By eliminating this weld
for 1" back from cach comer, the fatigue strength is
incrcased. This does not apply if the cover plate lies
within the brain flange, since the weld does not have
to " C~ ~ I S S OV~ . "
.
* Bi d1 No. 377, J a n 1'348.
FIG. 17 Cover plates lying
within width of beam flange.
I / , l oo
no t e h made wi t h t he : r ansver ~e fillet wt l d l ef t off
Uni v~r si t y of nl i noi s - Bul l et i n No. 377
FIG. 18 Effect of cover plate terrnin-
aiion on fatigue strength. Calculations
based on 4" x %" cover plate and 1/4"
filiei weld.
3. For cover plates lying witl-rin tho width of thc
bmm flangv, incrraseil fillet i \ d d sizt across tiic end of
the covrr p l n i ~ pr(x111cd o gradual increase in fatigut.
strength. h ";,;" fillc~t weld iiad n strength of "3100 psi
at 2 millioii cycles. a :ib" fillet weld 11,000 psi, and a
3/h" X 1'' fillet weld tip to 12.600 psi. This piilrticular
size of (wvcr plate \ms not testid with the transverse
fillet \I-ild omittrd; scc Figriri. 17.
Tiir latmt work reportcd at thc University of
Floi-ids on stcady 10:rding of 18'' WF XI# 1)eoms with
5" "s" covcr p1:ites showcd that th(, beam flange
within the. wvrr-plated I-egion was stressed Iouw when
a ad' fillet weld W;IS pIiiv(id acwss the end of the covcr
plat? as coinp;u-cd to that wit11 no tmnsvarse \veld. 'i'hc
trarrsvorsc wt~ld nlso prod~rccd a more uniform distri-
bution of s t r ~s s acrnss tllc covcr pliitc as \ v~l l as the
],cam Aairgc, and dlowed tlic platc to pick up its share
of tlic, 11mm lorcv in a shorter distance However, all
of these factors occlir within the cover-plated ragion of
grcatrr stvtion modulus and lower hcnding stress, so
this is not vcry scrions.
What is inore important is thc effect the trans-
verse weld and shape of tlrc cover plate's end has on
thr s t x s i i l ~ J I C I I C ~ I I ~ flange adjacent to where the
covczr plate is nttaehed. This is the region of lower
section modol~is and higher bending strcss and is much
more critic;rl than any regirnl within the cover plate.
The drawing, Figure, 18, illristratcs variations of
cover plate tcrnrin:~tiorts.* 7' 11~ data stiinlnarizes recent
tests on t h fatigiic strciigth of l ~rai ns with partial cover
plates. mndi ~ct i d nt tlrr i!nivcmity of illiirois. Although
llle comnioll inr~tllod of tcrrniliatirig the cover plate
dircctly across thr Hmgc wit11 a transverse fillet weld
is satisfiicton, and ;rcceptable hy the AWS Bridge
Specifications, this data worild sccm to indicate that
tapering thc end of tire cover platc and eliminating
transverse welds across the end slightly increases the
fatigue strength.
~
" "Fatigue in Welded Beams and Girtleis", W. Ii. Mume and
1. C. St al heyer , lfighway Rescarch Board, Bull. 315, 1962, p. 45.
lare Girders for ridges / 43-15
FIG. 19 Effect of transverse fillet
weld size on fatigue strength.
higher st r ess conccn~rat i on
,n beam fl ange wi t h
smal l er transverse
f i l l e t wel d
It should be noted that a small 'A'' fillet weld was
used across the end of the 'h" thick cover plate. The
results might have been different if a larger transverse
weld had heen used. Most states require continuous
welds on cover plates and across their ends, thereby
limiting the selection to termination types u or b. Since
the data indicates that tapering has little effect, final
selection between o or b would have to he made on
the basis of some other factor such as appearance, or
lower dead weight.
In summary, it would appear that the short section
of the transverse weld across the end of the cover plate
directly over tha web of the beam ( I ) is restrained and
( 2) wlien tested under severe fatigue loading may
reduce the fatigue strength of the connection unless
it is made large. A large transverse fillet weld, especially
in this central section, would more uniformly transfer
this force through the surface of the beam Aange into
the end of the cover plate. See Figure 19.
Summary 06 Cover Plate Speciticationr
(AWS Art. 225)
I l i e 4WS Bridge Specifications limit the thickness of
cover plates to I'h times the thickness of the Aange to
which it is attached (225 e 1).
For partial-length cover plates, their end shall
extend beyond the "theoretical e n d (theoretical cut-
off point) which is determined by the allowable stresses
from fatigue formulas ( I ) , ( 3) , or ( 5 ) of Section 2.9,
Table 1.
The ends of thc cover plate shall extend beyond
this "theoretical end" a sufficient distance to allow
"terminal development" (ti-ansfer of cover plate bend-
ing force into the beam aange) by either of the fol-
lowing two methods:
A. With square ends and a continuous transverse
cflangc. of beam
fillet weld across the and and along both edges of the
cover plate, the minimum tenninal devrlopment length
measnred from the actual end of the cover plate to
the tlicoretical md or cut-off point shall be 1% times the
width of the cover plate.
B. With f apwcd cuds having no transverse wcld
across the end but welds along both tapered edges,
tapered heyorid the terminal rnd to a width not greater
than ?6 the width, but not ICSS than 3", the tennilla1
development length sllall be 2 times the width of the
cover platit.
Nonnally the inner end of the tcrminal develop-
ment lerigth will lir :it the theori:ticrtl cut-off point; see
Figun: 9.0, ( A) and ( R) . However, the cover plate
may be extended farther so that tlie distance between
the actual knd the theon:tical cut-off point exceeds
the requircd t t ~mi nal developrrlent length. In tlus case
only the r~rjnired tci-minnl development length shown
in ( A) and ( 8 ) shall be used for the length of con-
necting weld when determining weld size, rather than
the actual length hctween the actual and theoretical
cut-off point; see (A' ) and ( R' ) .
Fillet welds bctween terminal de\&p~nents along
the cover plated length, shdl be continuous and be
designed to transfer the horizontal shear forces:
-
(for mch weld, there are 2 welds along the edge of
the cover plate)
Fillet welds within the terminal development zone
(between the inner crid of the terminal development
and the actual end of tbe covcr plate) shall be con-
tinnous and be dcsigncd to trnnsfer the cover plzte
portion of the bending force in the beam at the inner
-16 / Girder-Related Deri
teirn,nol development i f
beyond cut-off point
Momenf d i o g ~ m
I
I
Theoreticol cut-off point
%
I , I
Cover plated beam 1 f = k Y
2 1
M, Y
I End weld: F
= -
1 I
I
3
FIG. 20 Relationship of terminal develop- & c,,,~ p ! I I I IAi
poinis.
rv,, a y
,- End weld: F = --7----
C "
-- - -
. j J
ment to weld size. Required terminal
I
end of the terminal development length (usually the
(0)
theoretical cut-off point):
- 1 , . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 8)
Cut-0ff "=ner end of terminal development
- - M Z ~ Y
M y
- I
u = ---
I
(A')
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 0 )
Inner end of termtnol develo~ment
, ,
where:
V = vertical shear at section of beam under con-
sideration
a -- area of cover plate connected by the 2 fillet
welds
y = distance between C. 6. of cover plate and
the N.A. of the total section
I = moment of incrtia of the total section
MI = moment applied to beam at the section of
the theoretical cut-off point
Ma = moment applied to bean at the section of the
inner end of the tem~inal development
The allowable to be used for these fillet welds
would come from formulas ( l o) , (14), or (18) of
Table 1, Section 2.9, and shall conform to the minimum
development length (A and 0) is used
rather thon actual length (A' and B')
Clih W-4
Cut-off end of term~nol development
beiween actual and theoretical cut-off . ,, %,
A ,
W Cover R i I (0'1
Cut-off point
Inner end of terminol development
fillet weld size of Table 2.
AASHO (1.6.74) specifies that the length of any
cover plate added to a rolled beam shall not be less
than-
(2d + 3) feet
whrre
d = depth of beam (feet )
It has been pointed out* that the sloping bottom flange
of the parabolic haunch has a vertical componcnt of its
compressive force and this will reduce the shear stress
(r',.) in the girder web in this region. In addiiion, the
concave compression flange produces a radial com-
pressive stress ( u?) in the web depending on the radius
of curvature of the flange.
In contrast, the fish belly haunch provides no
appreciable reduction in shear in the critical portion
of the wcb near the support. This is because the slope
of the bottom fiange is small in that area. Also, the
convex compressive flange produces a radial tensile
stress (u,) in the web, w-hich is greater than the radial
compressive stress in the parabolic haunch. This is
because of the sharper curvature of the fish belly
haunch.
I? is seen by observation of the Huber-Mises form-
ula that both of these factors will result in the yield
criterion (we,) having a lower value in the ease of the
parabolic haunch. This result con~pared with the yield
strength of the steel (in uniaxial tension) would indi-
cate a higher factor safety.
(Huber-Mises Formula)
uer = d ur2 - u, u). + u? + 37,y2
Haunched girders do not present much increase in
cost for welded construction for longer spans. The web
plates are normally trimmed by Aame cutting, so that a
gradual curve would add little to the cost. In most
cases the curved flange plates can be added without
prior forming; the flat Aange plates are simply pulled
into place against the curved web. Although the bans-
verse stiffeners u~ould vary in length, this should be
no problem. The flange can still be automatically fillet
welded to the web by placing the web in the horizontal
position. The portable automatic welder would then
ride against the curved flange.
* "Design of the Bridge Over the Quinnipiac River" by Roman
Wolchuk.
FORCE VALUE
The horizontal force (F,,) in the sloping flange is equal
to the bending moment at that section divided by the
vertical distance between the two flanges:
Or, this force may be found by multiplying the
flange area by the bending stress in the flange using
the stictiol~ modulus of the girder. This method will
produce a more accurate value.
From this value, the actual force in the Aange (F,)
may be found, as well as the vertical componcnt (F,)
of this force:
2 -
Fh
F ---- - and
cos B d cos B
M
F, = Fh tan 6 = - d tan 0
This vertical componcnt (F,) acting along with
the shear force in the web resists the external shear ( V)
at this section.
Modified shear is the resulting shear force in the
web after the vertical component of thc flange force
(F,) is substracted or added, depending upon whether
it acts in the same direction or opposite direction as
the shear in the web.
Fish belly Haunch Parabolic Haunch
FIGURE 1
Resistance of web
FIGURE 2
eslstance of bottom
Fv = Fh tan B flange due to i t s
vertical component
of tensile force
Simply Supported Girder
Staoighf os Curred
See Figure 2.
Here the external shear is-
ontinuous Parabolic Hounched Girder
Sce Figure 3.
Here the external shear is-
M
M
V = A, rv + - tan 0
V = A. rw + - tan B
d
d
and the niodified shear is-
and the modified shear is-
M
= V - - t a n 0
M
d
= V - - tan 0
d
In this case the vertical component is subtracted
In this case the vertical component is subtracted
from the web shear.
from the web shear.
Resistance of bottom
f cornprerrive force
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 4
I
------+
4 Resistonce of web
due to its shear
Fish Belly liaunch Parabolic Haunch
See Figure 4.
Here the ext end shear is-
M
V = Aw T~ - - tan B
d
and the modiIied shear is-
In this case the vertical component is add& to the
web shear.
osatinuous Fish
See Figure 5.
Mere the cxternal shear is-
In this case the flange force has no vertical com-
ponent; hence, there is no reduction of shear in the
web.
Check the haunched girder section ( at poini of sup-
port) shown in Figure 7, to detennine the difference
between the fish belly haunch and the parabolic haunch
in the area of the compression 5ange near the support.
See Figure 6.
Conditions include the following:
Use of A431 steel
M = 55,000 ft-kips
V = 1200 kips
I, = 3,979,000 in.'
FIGURE 7
Analysis of Porobolic Haunch
aocrage bending stress i n l ouer flange
= 21,150 psi compressini~
Range forces
F, = c* Af
= (21,150)(25/8 x 36)
= 2,000 kips
F, = F,, Van B
= (2000) (.l763)
= 353 kips
F,,
F =
cos B
1 2030 kips
sl zar stress in web
Siiice the external shear is-
V = A,,. 7," + F, or
V - F,
Tw z
A"?
stress in U:I& ut lower jfli~nge (it support
FIGURE 9
-
(55,000 X 12)(126)
.- - - - p~ ~~~~
(0,979;000)
= 20,900 psi, eompressio~~
These stresses in Figure 10. Irft-]land side, must
now be rotated 10" to line 1113 with the sloping ilange
in order that the radial cornpressive stress may be
added. This is shown on the right-hand side of Figure
10. '%is may 11e analyzed by one of two methods:
I. Graphically, using Molrr's circle of stress: (Fig. 11)
a ) Dmw thc gi\,en st]-cssrs (w,', u,', and 7') at the
two points (a' ) nrid (b' )
h) Constrni:t a circlc thro~igh these two points
c ) Rotate clockwise ilirongli an angle of 20 or 10"
d ) Read the ncw stresses (c,, u,, and 7 )
2. Analytically; woi-k is 1)rrforrncd as follows:
0 = -
FIGURE 11
sin p - ,0886
cos p = ,9961
7 = m sin /3
= (11,540) (.0886)
= 1020 psi
n == m cos /3
= ( 11,540) (.9961)
= 11,500 psi
o ; = k + n
= (10,450) + (11,500)
= 21,950 psi, compression
v 7 = k - n
= (10,450) - (11,500)
= 1050 psi, tension
radial force of l o o m compression @nge againat we b
FIGURE 12
= 846 ibs/linear in.
resultant radial cornpresshjc stress in uocb
This produccs the final sircss condition of :
d-Y
U, = - 21,950 psi
FIGURE 13
critical stress
Using the IIuber-Miscs formula:
,--~ ~~
ucr,, = V urZ - 0; O; -t wTZ + 3 T~~~
. . -- . . - .
= \ (-21,Q50)2-(-21,050)(-180)+(-180)' +3(1020)Z
= 29,000 psi
--
This results in an indicated factor of safety against
y~elding of-
Analysis of Fish
NOW wing the same load conditions on t l ~c fish belly
hannch with the same web and flange dimensions:
FIGURE 14
At this point: crx = cr,, & F, = Fh
stress in weh or lower flange from bending moment
= 20,900 psi, compression
average stress in lotoer ftange from bending moment
= 21,150 psi
force in lower flange from bending moment
F, = Uf Af
= (21,150)(2% '/a 36)
= 2000 kips
radial tensile force of lower compression flange
against web
restiltur~t radio1 trnsile stress in web
r; 2420 psi
6930 psi
combining strcssrs to f t l d fhi, critical dress
Using tlic IIuhi-r-Lliscs formula:
ridge Plate Girders
This rcs~ilts in an iidicatcd factor of safety against
yiolding of-
F.S. =-
u,
IT, r
It is apparrnt fmm this that tha paxii1,olic haunch
lins a sligl~tly lowcl. criticirl stress and, i hi wforr, a
slightly 11ighi.r fiwtor of sixfcty.
3. WELDS CONNECTING SLOPING
FLANGE TO WEB
f,,
f __ . . ~~~~
cos 8
but the distance dong this sl qw for I W ~ l~orizoni~il
inch is-
i"
- -
cos H
s o that t11c s11mr f ~ ) r w on t hi ~ wt,ld iilwrg this sloping
Hang(, is obt;iiried froin i h ~ , :ii)ovr: fonnrilii for the lrori-
zontnl flange, using the rnoiliiird v;rlue of \":
Erection view of New York State Thruway
bridge shows haunched girders. Siraight-
ness and true camber of the lower fianges
are apparent. Note veriicoi stiffeners and
suspended (235') span bearing suriaces
at girder junctions.
Portion of 295' span of bridge on Connecticut Turnpike being settled onto supporting
piers. Note continuous parabolic haunched girder construction.
1. RECENT PROJECTS
Today, it is accepted practice to design and fabricate
plate girders with horizontal curves when necessary.
Several such bridges or freeway overpasses have been
built within the past several years.
A series of 4 lines of curved welded plate girders
with 90' spans are a part of the Pasadena-Golden State
Freeway's interchange in the Los Angeles area, Figure
1. These have a curve radius of 400'. They were fabri-
cated in Kaiser Steel's plant at Montrhello.
e One of Milwaukee's new expressways has a
section of 4 continuous spans with n total lengtli of 345'
in which tlie two orrtcr girders have a 9' horizontal
curve and the 2 inner girders are straight.
Bristol Steel & Iron Works, Bristol, Tennessee,
rt:cently fabricated several curved girders for the South-
west Freeway-Inner Loop in Washington, D. C.
2. DESIGN AND FABRICATION
Although there are torsional stresses within the curved
girder, usually the degree of curvature is not overly
high and these additional stresses arc- offset by the
diaphragms connecting the girders. The number of
diaphragms has occasionally been increased for this
reason, and sometimes the allowable stresses have been
reduced sligl~tly.
FIG. 1 Welded plate girders, having a 400'
radius of curvature, dominate the interest in
Los Angeles interchonge of Pasadena-Golden
Stale Freeway. Curving girders permit econo-
mies in deck system by keeping overhangs
uniform from end to end of curve.
Curved flange plates are laid out by offsets and
flame cut from plate. By cutting both edges at thc samc
time, there is no bowing from any unbalanced shrink-
age tBect of the flame cutting. The web plates do
not have to he prcfonned, usually being rasily pulled
into alignment along the ct.nterline of the flanges.
Caution must he ustad in placing attaching plates
for t hr diaphragms to the webs and flanges. The proper
angle for these plates may vary along the length of
the girder. Shear attachments are added mainly to
accomplish composite action between the concrete
dcck and steel girder, and thereby increase torsional
rigidity. During erection, a pair of curved girders is
usually attached togethcr by moans of the dinpluagms
and then hoisted into position as a unit.
4.5-2 / Gi rder-Rel at ed
FIG. 2 Bridge plate girders being weld fabricated. With flanges flame-cuf
on a curve, weight of the rolled web is utilized in making i t conform to
desired radius.
FIG. 3 A two-span continuous box girder and curved ramp construction pro-
vided the answer to space iimitotions in reaching elevated parking area at
busy New York terminal complex. Smooth, clean lines, without outside stiffen-
ers, demonstrate oesthetic possibilities inherent in welded design.
The use of tapercd girders has hecome widespread,
especially in the frarning of roofs ovrr large ;ireas where
it is desirable to minimize ihe number of interior
colnmns or to clirniriatc them ;iltogelhcr. They permit
placing maximum girdrr depth whm: it is needed,
while rpducing tho dcpih consiclrrably ;it points whcrr
it is not necdcd.
Tapr ed girders are fahricatcd either 1) by weld-
ing two flange piates to a t;ipcmd \vch plate, or 2 ) by
cutting a rolled WE' b u m kmgthwisc along its wcb at
an angle, tnrning onn half r d for md2 arid then
wt:lding the two h;ilm>s back togct1tt.r again along tila
web. Sea Figure 1..
Gtlniber can he built into the t apend girder when
required. Wlien thc girder is made from WF beams,
each half is clamped into the propcr canher during
asscmhly. Then the h i t joint dong the web is groove
welded while the girder is held in this shape. Sincr
the weld along the 1)earn web lies along the nentral axis,
no bcnding or distortion will result from welding, and
the girder nil1 retain the shape in wltich it is held
(luring wtlding.
When the girder is made of two h n g e plates and
a tapered web, the proper caniber can ?it: ohpained by
simply ciitting thr wel, to the p q w r wmbrr outline.
The flange plat<,s during nssombly are then pulled
tightly against the web, into the proper camlier. The
four flllot welds joining the flanges to the web are
l>alanced about the ncuiral axis of the girder and as
a result there shodd he no distortion pr o?hn.
Application of Tapered
When the tapered girders are used with the sloping
flange at the top, their t a p r in both dircetions from
the ridge will provide t l ~c slo:,e needed for drainage.
By varying the depth ai the ends of successive girders,
the deck can bc canted to drain tow:lrd roof boxes in
thc valleys betwecn adjacent galikd spans and at flank-
ing parapet walls.
For flat roofs, the girders are inverted, with their
tapercd flange down. Thcre art: inany combinations of
roof framing systcins possible. For example, on a three-
slxm dc*sigil, the central span can use the tapered flange
lip, forming thcb slop!: of the roof; the two ndjaccnt
spans usc the taperrd liangc rlo\vn to provide a flat
roof, hnt tiltrd to in. t l ~ swn<. slope as the
cmrtml swtior~.
Th? pro1)lrnl of 1ntt.r;il srrpport for the top ?om-
prisioii Wnng~s of tapcrrd girders is 110 different than
with other lirnms and gird:,rs. C~~nrral l y the roof deck
is s:rfficit?iitly rigid to function as a di:ipl~ragm, ;md it's
only neetxary to attach the deck to the top flange.
Tl~ci-e's appnrcntly no advantage in clrsigning with a
rodticcd stross :illow:~blc, in aieord:mce with AISG
Foi-inol:is 4 or 5, in order to pwinit a greater distance
between bracing points ;kt thc top ilange.
Whmc iapcred girdrrs are critical, Section 5.11 on
Rigid Fr;nn<> Kriccs g o c ~ into more detail rclative to
stresstss (elastic design).
Bcca~lsc of the rrduccd dcptli at the ends of thi.
FIGURE I
eided Structures
Required depth, Required depth,
(a) Conventional beam (b) Tapered girder
FIGURE 2
Curve of required section
modulus [S) has same shape
as moment diagram for
uniform load on simply
supported beam
Moment d i a g ~
(a) Conventional beam (b) Tapered girder
FIGURE 3
tap(:red girders, their connection to supporting colum~ls
may offer little resistance to horizontal forces. For this
rcason, sonre knce braces may l x required ur~less the
roof deck or a positive system of bracing in the plane
of the roof is stiff enorigh to transmit these forces to
adeqr~atcly braced walls.
At first glance, there appears to bc quite a weight
saving in tapered girdcr; how?ver, this is not always as
great as it might seem:
First, the flange arca remains the same; the only
weight saving is in the web. See Figure 2.
Second, the depth of the tapered girder at midspan
r n~~s t he iricrcased over that of the conventional straight
beam to he sofficicnt at thc critical section (about "4
span). This is necessary to dcvelop the required section
rnodulus along the full length of the tapered girder.
This will slightly offset the initial weight saving in
the? wcb. See Figure 3.
FIG. 4 For f l at roofs, tapered
girders are used inverted, with
tapered flange downward. Fre-
quently the girder i s tilted to
provide a slope t o the roof or
roof section.
itders / 4 . 6 3
2. DETERMINING CRlTlCAL
AND SLOPE
The critical depth scction of a tapered girder is that
section in which the actual depth of the girder just
equals the minimum d ~ p t h required for the moment.
It would be the highest skessed section of the girder in
bending.
In the case of a uniformly loaded, simply supported
girder, its sloping flange must be tangent to the re-
pi red-dept h cilrve at this point in order for the beam
to havc sufficient depth along its length.
Setting thc slope of the tapered girder flange so
that the critical section is located at the V4 span will
result in about the minimum wcb weight. See Figure 5.
The properties of this critical section are-
[depth between
I-
CG, of flanges)
df
FIGURE 6
FIG. 7 Tapered gi r der s used
with the tapered flange at the
top provide for roof drainage
in both directions from the ridge.
Multi-span designs often call for
combinations of girders having
tapered flange up and others
having tapered flange down.
This formula for section n~odulus can be simpliIied
with little loss in accaracy, by letting-
dw = dl = dl,
I I
If the section modulus required to resist the bend-
ing moment is known, the required beam depth ( d)
is solved for:
For a simply mpported, unitormly loaded, tapered
girder-
w = 50 l bsi i n uniform lood
4
L
b
FIGURE 8
or to find the depth in one step-
To find the slope of the critical-depth curve forined
by points d, along the girdcr length, this expression for
depth (d, ) is digcrentiated with respect to the dis-
tanccs ( x ) :
3 w
. ---
(I, - %I
dd 2 t, u
8 = ---x = - .
- -
dx A,
( L - x)
w
It is simpler to find the slope at Y4 span, letting x
= L/4:
Also, at x = L/4:
and:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
= d, 4.- 4 tan B
4 1 ( 5 )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d, = d, - tan 0 (6)
Since loading on the girdcr is not always ouiform,
the ~h o v c formulas do not always apply. Table 1 sum-
marizcs the working formulas to use for various con-
ditions of loading, as wdl as locating the critical depth.
Fignre 9 shows the effects of placing lnultiple loads
npon a simply-s~rpportrd tapered girder. These effccts
on the hending rnonxnt and the critical depth of the
girder can be explained as follows:
In the case of the single contcntrated load ot
midspan, the critical dcpth section is :it midspan, and
the maximum slope is 8.
* In the casi: of 2 cqual conccntratcd k~ads applied
at ' h points, the critical depth section is at the pi nt s
of lotid application and the m;~xinnlrn slope is 0. .lssi~rn-
ing the slope n we to pivot itbout this criticnl depth
section, any slope lcss than this value \ r m~l d cause ihc
dcpih at the end to incrmisi. at twice the rate at which
the depth at centerline is dctrcasing. Sincc such a shift
would incrt:;isr the web weight, this maximum slope
vahle of 0 should be nsed initially.
If morc dt:pth is ncedcd at tllc end because of
higher vcrtical shear, do this by pivoting about this
critical depth section. This will rcwlt in thc least
increasv in \vet) wcight. It can IIC shown that, nnder this
condition, the rcst~liing depth at centerlinc will be-
3 d, - d,,
d, = - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 7 )
rn
* In tho case of 3 equal concentratsd loads applied
at 'A points, the critical depth section will he chosen at
U4 spa^ Thr slope of the girder mnst lie sonrcwhcrc
bctwcen 0 and 4. For any ar~gle l~etwecn these two
values, the wcight of the web will rcmain tlw same
8.1-12 / Reference Design Formulas
Influence Lines
Effect of position of force (F) upon moments Ma, MI, M2 and upon kmax
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Position jo) of applied force F
M
S = -
u
-
(1687.5)
- -
( 22,ooq
= 76.7 in."
To use an "eficient" section (Sect. 4.2, Topic 2),
the efficimt depth would be-
It would be prefcra1,le not to have to use transverse
intermiitcwt stiflei~crs. 1,ooking in Section 4.1 on i'latc
Girders for Rnildings, Topic 2, it is secn that these
stiffeners are not n:rjuircd i f:
a,
:I) The ratio K = ,- is less than 260
rw
b) The shear stress (7) does not exceed that of
AlSC Formula 9.
This means the values of K and shear sircss (7)
shall fall within the values of the right-hand column of
AISC Tahlc 3-36, in Section 4.1, page 25.
Assume a value of K = 70 at the end of the girder;
herc the shear ( V) is highest. Assume a value of K =
170 at midspnn; here the shear ( V) is very low. This
means at 34 span (t he critical section under consider-
ation) K would fall halfway between these two values,
or K = 120.
therefore, the eficicnt depth
required flung6 area (&cicnt section)
=. 2.4 in.' or usc Yz" x S' flange, the area
of which is Af = 2.5 i a 2
ue b thickness
= .W' or use a 3/,6" thick plate. Then-
ratio of tccb's depth to thickness
And from Table 3-36 in S<.ct. 4.1; since wi& no
stiireners a/& = n (over 3) , allowable shcar is 7 =
5000 psi.
nctual shear stress
v
7 = -
A,
(7.5 kips)
= (3/16)(24)
= 1670 psi < 5000 psi OK
required slope of tapered girder
= ,0852 radians, or 4.88'
required depth of web
L
= d, + - tan 0
4
= (24.0) + -- (m) (.08538)
4
= 24.0 + 12.8
= 36.8"
eck Shear St ress at End
A, = 3/16 (11.2)
= 2.1 in.'
-
(15 kips)
-
(2.1)
= 7140 psi
flcre:
d,
K = -
t,
- (11.2)
- ( 3/16)
= 60, and from Table AISC 3-36 in Section 4.1,
page 25 it is dctelmined tha't no stiffeners are required.
Check Section of Midspan
d,
IC =
t,
- (36.8)
- rn)
= 196 < 260 OK
Also, practically no shear here.
W L2
M9 = - 8-
-
(50) (600)'
-
8
= 2250 in.-kips
tu dW2
S,
= At d . + ---
6
(3/.L6) (36.8)2
= (2.5) (36.8) +
6
= 134.4 in."
Ma
cr* 'e- -
ss
- .-
( 2250 in.-kips)
--
(134.4 i n3)
= 16,750 psi < 22,000 psi OK
Alternate Design
FIGURE 1 1
To make this tapered girder by splitting a WF
rolled beam, and weiding back together aftcr reversing
one-half end for end.
Since the reqoircd section modulus of the critical
section at '/a span is-
S = 76.7 in."
an 18" M;F 50.11, bcam could be used
properties of this rolled beurn
A, = (.57)(7.5)
= 4.27 in.'
d, = 18.00 - 2(.57)
= 16.86"
8 = 89.0 in."
shear stress at ' h span
\I
= 1240 psi OK
slope of tapered girder
= ,05415 radians or 3.10'
L
dg = d , + tan 0
L
d, = d, - tan 0
4
Before going further, check the
sheav stvess at i hc end of beam-
A, = t, d,
= ( 3 8 ) (8.8-i)
= 3.17 in.'
ing point for flame cutting the WF beam to prepare
a tapered girder.
- (15R)
- (3.17)
Check Girder Section at
= 4730 psi OK
depth of beam
sturling poini of cut
= 2.0014 a and
Also, practically no shear here.
= 13,500 psi OK
26.12
a = -
2.0014
EFLEGTlON OF TAPE
= 13.06" The area-moment method may be used with good
results to find the deflection of tapered girders, where
or use the dimension ( a = 130") to determine the start-
no pori~on of the rnember has a constant mo~nent of
FIG. 12 Turn one- hof f end
for end, and submerged-arc
weld this web ioint without
rpecid edge pr epar at i on.
Trim ends.
4.6-10 / Girder-Relaled Design
Depth of web ot end
of centerline
d = 11.2" dw = 36.8"
FIGURE 13
inertia. This method is described under Topics 5 and
7 of Section 2.5 on Deflection by Bending.
To compute the deflection of the tapered girder shown
in Figure 13. This girder has a uniform load of 50
lbs/in., and a length of 50' or 600".
Usin the area-moment method, the distance of
point from the tangent to point equals
the moment of the area under the moment diagram
taken about point @ , divided by the EI of the
section.
Divide the girder into 10 equal lengths ( s = 60"
long). The greater the number of divisions, the more
accurate the anywer will be.
For each division, the moment of inertia (In),
moment (M,), and distance to the end ( x) are deter-
mined and listed in table form.
.3,76" 14.26" 346.in." 427.5in.-k 37.2
90" 18.88" 19.3W 669.in.' i147.5in.-k 154.6
-
150" 24.00" 24.50" l I 17.in.' 1687.5 in.-k 226.7
-
210" 29.12" 29.62" 1702.in.' 2047.5in.-k 253.2
270" 34.24.. 34.74.. 2439.h." 2227.5 in.-k 246.7
-- -
FIGURE 14
Total +
Here, for each segment:
918.4
Since:
* , - 3.0 in.=
t* =
-
Tbe above formula, in this problem, reduces to:
Since:
and:
Dramatic savings can be obtained from an often for-
gotten design conccpt. The opcn-w-ob expanded bcam
has already paid substmtial dividends for various engi-
neering firms. It shonld hc considertd on many more
projects.
The opening up of ii rolled beam i ~i cr e~scs iis
section moclnlus and rnorrient of incrtia, results iir
greater strmgth a i d rigidity. Thc reduction in bcam
wright has a chain cfFiict on savings throughout ihc
structure.
The open-wcb expanded beam is made economi-
cally by flime cutting a ri)l:ed henrn's weh in a zig-zag
patiwn along its ccnt~~rlinc. S<v Fig~irc 1. One of the,
two equal l~alvcs is then tnmed end for end and arc
welclcd to the other half. The rwnlt is a deeper bium,
stronger and stiffer than thc original.
Rolled beam cut along web
Welded back together to produce
open-web expanded beam
FIG. 1 Result: a deeper beam, stronger and
stiffer than the original. Design starts with a
lighter beam for immediate savings in material
and handling costs. It often eliminates need
for heavy built-up beam.
Starting the design with a lighter rolled heam
realizes immediate savings in rnatcrial and handling
costs. There is no waste material with this mcthod. It
often clirniitatcs the ~i ccd for a hmvy built-up beam.
In the design of hnildings, the web opcning is
frequcrrtly oscd for duct work, piping, etc. which con-
ventio~ially are suspmtled below the bearrr. See Figure
2. On this Basis for cqnivalcnt strength, open-web ex-
pandcd 1x:nms usnally permit a reduction in the distance
between wiling hclow and floor dmve and thus pro-
vidcs savir~gs in Iniilding hcight.
Oxygen Barnc cutting of the light heam wcb is
FIG. 2 Use semi-automatic arc welding to rejoin
the two halves. A 100% fully penetrated butt
weld can often be mode with a single pass on
each side of web withoiit beveling.
relatively easy on ;I template-rrjuipped machine.
The !is<: of stm-automatic arc wclding to rcjoin
the two hnlvcs onablcs good, soirnd welds to be made
faster, more economically. M7i>lding is confined to a
portion af tho web's total length. A 100% fully pene-
tratcd butt wcld c m usually be made with a single pass
on each side of thc wrh, without prior beveling of the
cdges. See Figure 2.
18" W 5 0 2 ~ opened up to 27"
Duct work inside
Wetghs 65%, saves 3" tn heqhf
FIG. 3 Opening in web used for duct work,
piping, etc., normally suspended below beam.
For equivalent strength, open-web expanded
beam usually reduces distance between ceiling
below and floor above.
Cutting the zig-zag paitmn along a slight angle
to the beam axis results in a tapercd open-wih cx-
panded heam. See Figlire 4. This has many applica?ions
in roof framing, etc.
FIG. 4 Cutting the zig-zag patlern along an
axis at slight angle to the beam results in
tapered open-web expanded beam. This has
many applications in roof framing, etc.
Two opm-wd> i,xp:ud(:d bcams can sornctirncs be
nested togatl~er to form a coltrrnn l~avirig ;I liiglr rnoment
of inertia alxnrt lrotll its x-x and y-y ; i xt ~. Sce Figilre 5.
EOMETRY OF C U T I N G PATTE
The zig-zag cutting pattern and the rrsiiltirig geometly
of the web cut-or~t help determine prtipr,rties of the
section.
f
Cut W benm olong rig-zag line
FIGURE 6
tan & = -
rn
In gencrd, the angle ( 4) will be within about
45" rninirnrrm and about 70" n~axirnu~n, with 45" arid
60" beir~g most commonly used. This angk: must be
Tied together
with plates
FIG. 5 Two open-web expanded beams can
sometimes be nested logether to form a col-
umn having a high moment of inertia about
both its x-x and y-y axes.
si~fficient to kecp thc horizontal shcar stress along the
web's nentral axis Eroiri txcrciling the allowable; see
Figurc 7.
FIGURE 7
The distancc ( c ) may 11r varied to provide the
prop"- \ wh opmirig for duct work, ctc., and/or the
pro pi:^ dist:iircc for ~ ~ l d i l l g between openings. Set:
Figure 8. I-Iov~~\.cr, as this distarrce ( e ) increasrs, the
b(wding strt:ss witl~in the Tce st,ctioir dtrc to the applied
shear forw ( V) iricr~~ases. Thus. t h c is a limit to bow
largr ( e ) rnay be.
irders / 4.7-3
FIGURE 8
. RESISTANCE 10 A
Since the bmrn flanges carry most of tbr 1)rncliiig load,
the loss of well area is not much of n prn!~lc.m as far
as mor t i t ~~t is conc~w~c~l . However, sl ~ear (V) is carried
by the web, and must he considered.
.4t cuch we!> op2ning, two Tee scciions act as
members of a framr in resisting vertical shcar forces.
At midspnn b , Figure 9, the shcar ( V) is
minimum and may have little rftnct on the beam's
strength. Approaching the srrppori in the rcgion of high
shear a , the hcnding strcss produced by this shear
on tlic shallow Tee st ~di on must be added to the con-
ventional bending stress f n m the applied beain load.
The bending moment due to shear is diagrammed
in Figure 10. Usually, thr point of inficction in top and
Auulied load
Looded open-web expcnded beam
d-
Shear di cgi om
Moment diogrorn .-
FIGURE 9
bottom Teo scctions doc, to thc rnommt prodi~ccd hy
shear. is ;iss~irnr~l to ba at inid-scction of the opcning
(c.' 2). It is furtl~cr :mnmed that thc total vertical
shcnr ( V ) at this point is divided ccpally bctmcen
tbcst: two Tre scctions. sincc they arc of rqunl depth.
Actually, thc dcsign and st]-css bchzrvior of an opcn-
weh expandid heam or girder is wry similar to that of
a Vicrci~dm>l truss. Thc primary d('sig11 consider:itions
;in. as follows:
I . The top and bottom portions of the girder are
suhjectcd to coinpression arid tixnsion bcnding stresses
from ihr m:iin bcnding moment. u,, = hf/S,,. Thcrr
must be ;r continuity of thew sections tl~rougbout the
girder lcrngtk to transfer tlrcsr stresses. In addition, the
comprssi i o~ portion most hc cl~ccked for lateral sup-
FIGURE 10
4.7-4 / Girder-
Point of inflection
4 0, k
t' - s
/ t ~ompr essi on
Bending stress of Resultant (total) Bending stress of Tee section
beom section due
bending stress ( 0) due to application of vertical
to load on beam sheor at point of inflection
FIGURE 11
port, niinimurn width-to-thickness ratio, and ;rllowahle
compressive stwss; scc the left end of Figure 11.
2. The vertical shcar ( V) in tho girder i q carried
by tile web, and producrs vertical shear stresscs in the
wch section, both in the solid portion of the web, and
in tho stein of thc Tee scctiou of tlic open portion.
3. In the open portion of the web, the vertical
shear ( V) is divided equally between the top and
bottom Tee sections (assuming same depth of Tee
sections). Assuming the shear is applied at the mid-
opening, it will produce a bending moinent 011 the
cantilevrrtd Tee section; see the right-hand end of
Figure 11. The resulting secondary bending stresses
must be added to those of the main bending moment,
Item 1. If needed, a flange may be added around the
inside of the web opening to give the Tee sections
added strength.
4. The horirontal sliear force (V,,) applied at tho
solid portion of tlic web along the girder's neutral axis
may subjcct this portion to buckling. SIX: Figure 20.
The resulting co~nprcssive bending stress on this un-
reinforced web scction is important because of the
possibility of this w:b scction buckling under this
stress.
5. The solid portion of the web may trnnsfcr a
vertical axial force (compressive or tensile) tqiial to
one-half of thc cliffermce between the applied vertical
shears (V, ) aild (Va) at thc cnd of any given unit panel
of the girder. See Figure 27.
6. There should be 100% web depth at the points
of s ~~ppor l . Bcauing stiffeners m;iy hr needed at the
t:n& of th? ~i r d c r w1icr.e rmctions an: applied.
4. TOTAL BENDING STRESS IN t
?' h~ main bending stress ( r , ) Itern 1, acting on ;I
section where tile open Tre swtion stabs. is assunred to
increasc linearly to a rnaxiinu~u at tlw outer fihcr. To
this stress must be :~ddwl or snbtractc& depcndiilg
up011 signs, the secondary boridii~g stress (u.~,), Itein
3. See cerrtr;il portion of f:iguw 11.
~t point @
Second:rry hendir~g strcss at stem of Tee due to vertical
shear ( Vj at Section @ , atidcd to main bending
stress at stcm of l'ce d11c to inair1 moment ( M) at
Section @ :
A* point @
Secondary brnding stnlss at fiange of Tee due to vertical
shcar (V) at Section @ , added to the main bending
stress at flange of Tee* du? Lo main moment (M) at
Section @ :
Open-Web Expended Beams ond Girders / 4.7-5
Research at the University of Texas- indicated these
main bending strcsses in the Tee scacfion do not increase
linearly to a maximinn at thc ontar fi l m of the flange,
hut in some casrs the revt:rse is true; the stress along
the stem of the Tce scction is high(,r than that at the
outer f i l m of thc flange. For this rcason, in their
analysis, they calci~latcd the bending forcc 17 = M d
using the moment ( M) on thc girder at Section ,
.- . .~ ~-~ ~
d
" "Experimmtul Investigntions of Espencicd St sd Bwrms", by
M. 11. .4ltflliscl1; Tlirsis; Aug. 195%.
"Stress Distribution in Enpandml Strel Br and' , by R. W.
Lidwig; Tlrcsis: Jan. 1957.
"An Invrsiipntion of Wclilrrl Open Web l i xpai al d Beams",
by Altfilliscli, Cooke, and Toprac: AWS Jouiml, Feb. 1957,
p 77-s.
DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS
d = Distancf: h~:twe~:n neutral axes of Tcc srction
db -: Dcpth of original beam
d, = Depth of cxpandt:d girder
e = Lnrgth of Tee swtion, also lcngth of solid
web srction along nrntra! axis of girder.
h -= Height of crlt, or distance of expansion
AT = CIOSS-s~ctionid area of TI:? section
I, = Moment of inertia of open section of cx-
p:indrd girdw
s - Section . modolns of flange of T m section
S, = Section modulns ol strm of Tcc stxction
X X
A36 steel
C, = .40
Secondary bending stress In,) from applied shear, ksi
(AISC a,)
Near t Neor support
(high moment) [high sheor)
FIGURE 12
the point of inflection of the Tee scction. This is con-
venient because it is the same section at which we
assume the vertical shcar ( V) is applicd for the secon-
dary txnding stress. They also assume this force ( F ) is
~miformly distributed across the Tee scction.
This simplifies the calculations, since for a given
unit panel only onc section must he considered for
both the applied moment ( M) and the applied shear
( V) . This is Section @ at the point of inflection of
the Tee section. Also, only one total bending stress is
required for this sectinn-the maximum secondary
bending stress at the stem added to the average main
bending stress. It does not require calculating at two
different points-the stem at Section @ and the
flange at Section @
M
since F =A and
d
The main bending stress (v,,) and secondary hmd-
ing stress ( my) may be considered according to AISG
Interaction Formulas 6, 7a, and 7b. These are shown
graphically in Figure 12. (Note that .41SC refers to
main bending stress as u;, and to secondary bending
stress as u,,.)
Buckling Due to Axiof Compression
The Tee section, because it is subjected to axial com-
presiooli, also nnut bc checked against hnckling accord-
ing to AISG Sec 1.9.1. See Figure 13, and see Table 1
of limiting ratios for steels of various yield strengths.
i
FIGURE 13
Tee Section Stiffened by
Tee Section Flange Welded Around
Unstiffened Web Opening
< 3000
hi -
- . ..~ -
< 3000
b, -- -
T- &
- -
r
tf \ vr
Number of Poinfs t o Check Along Girder's Length
It w11l hr dmrabl c to chcck the proposed dcsign at
only a limited number of points to determine initially
whether it will work.
Total bending stress
t
Support '/i Span Midspon
Point Along Length of Beom
FIGURE 14
eams and Girderr / 4.7-7
Total bending stress
Support '/a Span Midipan
Pomt Along Lengih of Beam
FIGURE 15
Referring to Fignre 11; notice the bending stress
(u,,) from the applied moment is assumed to be maxi-
muin at the outer fibers of the flange. The bending
stress (VT) from the applied shear is greatest at thc
stem of the Teo because its section modnlns (S,) is
less than the section i nod~~l us at the outer flange ( Sf )
For this reason, combinations of bending stresses must
be ~.onsidr.red at the outer fibers of the flange as \wil
as the stem of the Tee.
In Figure 14, thc total trending strcsses at the outer
fiber of the flarige as well us at the stem of the Tee
section arc plotted along the length of thc beam. This
data is from a typical &sign l>rohlcm. ln this case, the
vertical shear :it the support is \' = 25 kips.
111 Fignre 15, tlic example has hren rcworkcd with
cliffererit span lengths. and with diiferent applied
nniform loading so that t hr bcnding moment (and thc
bending stress dnc to this moment) rtmains the same.
Tho sliorter sixins reqnirt: an incrt:ased load, lierice in-
creased shotir ( V) . The longer spans require ;i lowcr
load, hcner dncreawd sllear ( V) .
Notice in Figure 15, tllat for short beams with
higlrcr shcar form relativc to bending moment, this
curve for tlir total hending stress (moment and s11t:ar)
will rise on the left-hand sidc, a i d tlic point of maximrnn
strcss will movr to the left. or ncar the, support. Of
conrse there is a limit to how short and how high the
vertical shrar ( V) ma)- he, bocausc this type of open
web construction docs weaken thc web for shear. For
TABLE I-limiting Ratios of Section
Elements Under Compression
very high slit:ar loads, tllc opcwing in the exp;\nd(d web
would dofcat its pnrpose, and a stantlard solid wch
l mun 01- girder sl i o~~l d he u s d For longer spans, with
rd;itivdy lower sbrar force to bending moment, this
c ~ ~ r v c \vill lower. shifting thr point of inaximum stress
to tho right, or near the niidspm.
An altcmatc mctliod to finding the bending stress
dircctly from the appl i d momcnt ( M) is to convert
the moment ( M) into a concentrated fnrct: ( F ) applied
at the centcr of grxvity of the Tec scction and assume
it to bc uniformly distribotcd across the section. See
Figure 18.
FIGURE 16
Then:
This bending stress is the s a~ne at the outor flange
of the Tce section 21s well as the inner stern. It is now
only necessary to add the gr ut er bmding stress from
the applied shcar ( V ) of the Tee section. Therefore,
the smaller section modulus at the stem of the Tee
section will he nscd, and only one st:t of total stress
values will be considered.
In Fignre 17, the applicd inomcnt ( M) has been
converted into a concentrated force ( F ) applicd at the
center of gravity of thc Tee section and assumed to he
uniforndy distributed across the section.
This ilh~strates that the point of maximum combin-
ation of bending stresses due: t o applied shear and
;litplied momcnt lirs sonitxhcrt. hchvccn I ) the support
(region of high vcrtical shcar) and 2 ) the midsparr
(rcgion of high hcnding moment). This point of
maxinmrn stress is indicated in Figure 17 by an arrow.
Unless the hcarn is cxaniincd as in Figure 17 for
t.he maximum stress all the way between the support
arid micispan, it would he well to check a third point
in addition to the support and midspan. A conveniont
point wonld 11e at 'A span.
Thcre are threc mrthods of checking the horizontal
shcar stress along the beam's neutral axis (N. A. ):
1. Use: the n~nvcntional formula for shear stress,
Totol
bending
stress
I
I
i
0 %a & %6 X %a % %a %
Support % Span Midrpan
Point Along Length of Beom
FIGURE 17
pea-Web Expanded Beams and Girders /
assuming the web to be solid ( 7 = V - 9 ) . I t
Then
1
- .
increase this stress by the ratio of overall web ;egment
to net web scgment (s/ e) to account for only a portion
(e/ s) of the web along the nentral 'axis being solid.
FIGURE I8
2. Treat a top segment of the beam as a free body
acted upon by the bending moment forcc. The differ-
ence in this force from one end of the segment to the
other is transferred out as horizontal shear along the
neutral axis into the similar section below. This hori-
zontal shear force is then divided by the net area of the
solid portion of the web section along the neutral axis.
See Figure 19.
By substitution:
V!, =
Mz - MI
d
which acts along distance ( e) .
This horizoiltal shear force is then divided by the
net area of the solid web section ( e t w) to give the
shear stress:
3. Using the same free body, Figure 19, take
momcnis about point ( y):
V, + V2
Assuming that
= V,, the average vertical
2
shear at this point, this becomes-
and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t . e
(6)
EB BUCKLING DUE TO HORIZONTAL
SHEAR FORCE
The web of a conoentional plate girder may have to
have transverse intermediate stiffeners to keep it from
bnckling due to the diagonal compressive stresses re-
sulting from the applied shear stresses. If stiffeners
are used, the girder will have a higher carrying capacity.
This is because the web, evrn though at the point of
buckling, is still able to carry the diagonal tensile
stresses, while the stiffener will transfer the compres-
sive forces. The web of the girder then functions as
the, web of a truss.
However, in the open-web expanded girder, treated
as a Vierendeel trrrss, the opcn portion prevents any
tension acting in the web. Therefore, a transverse
stiffener on tho solid web section will not function as
the vertical compression member for truss-like action.
Since this solid portion of the web is isolated to
some extent, the horizontal shear force (V,) applied
along the neutral axis of the honm will stress this web
portion in bending.
The simplest method of analysis would be to con-
sider a straight section ( I ? ) , Figure 20. However, the
resulting bending stress acting vertically would some-
how have to he rcsolved about an axis parallel to the
FIGURE 20
sloping ~ l g c of tliis tapervd web srction.
Onc method by which tapered l ~cams arid knees
are analyzed is the 'it'cdge hlethod, or-iginally pn~posed
by W. R. Osgood arid iatcr modified ' 7y H. C. Olander
(ASCE Transaction paper 2698, 1954). With this
method, Figure 21, tlic non-parallel sides are extcnded
out to where they intwscct; this becomes point 0. From
this point as a rrnter, an arc is dr;iwn tlirough the
wedge section reprmenting tlir scvtion ( a ) to be con-
sidered. Tlie section modnlus of this curved section is
determined.
Thc actual forces and rnoments npplied to the
member are then transferred old to point 0. The?
horizontal force ( V, , ) \vill cansc a moment at point 0.
It can l ~ o shown that these forces and moments
acting at point 0 i~allse the bvnding stresses on t l ~e
curved section ( a ) of the wedge; sce Figurc 22.
Moment acting on curved section ( a ) :
FIGURE 21
where
Since:
ni + f
p =--- or
cos 0
Since:
= 2 p 0 and
t,v a2
S
= - - . . .
Radial bending stress on this ct ~rvt d section ( a ) :
6
FIGURE 22
eb Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-1 1
buckling
I
+
FIGURE 23
Thereforc, the radial bending strcss along cu~.ved
section ( a) :
It can br shown that the curvt:d section ( a ) haviug
the greatest bending strvss ( u ) occurs at a distance
of:
This value of ( m) will be Icss than ( h) and may
be used in the following Formula 12 if ( e ) docs not
exceed these values-
1 for 0 = 30', e 5 1.58 111
For most drsigns, this wo~ild he true and Formula
12 could be rlscd directly witlmut first solving for ( m)
in For~nula 11.
This vahw of ( m ) for thc position of the greatest
bending strcss may 11c inserted 1,ack into Fonnula 10,
and tlre following will give the grratrst hending stress
along ( a ) :
Tlir next step is to drterrnine the allowable corn-
pressive I~ending stress (d. If thc above bcnding strrss
in the solid portiori of the web ( u ) is excessive, it
might be possil~lc to incrrasc the distance ( e) . IIow-
ever, this will also increasc the length of the Tev
Moment applied
to member
section, resulting iii ii~crcwc of the seco~iclary bending
stress in the Tee st,cticin j uT). -4s an alternative to
incrmsing distanw ( e ) , it u-odd he possiblc to stiifen
the outcr edge, of this wedge portion of the web by
adding a flangt: around the edge of the hole in the
well in the particular panel which is overstressed.
Allowable Compressive Bending
Tlicre ;m, two srrggt-stions for determining tht: allow-
able coinpressivt~ bending stress along the sloping edge
of the wrrlgc scction of thr web:
I. Trmt this srv.?ion as a prismatic member and
apply ALSG Scc. 1.5.1.4.5 Formula 4; sce Figure 23.
ATSC Fonnula @ for allowable compressive stress:
when:
and
Scc additional 11otrs; Section 3.1.
I I : - hi? i l l thc ahow formula, C, - 2.83;
I I I I ~ siiicc it carmot rxcwd 2.3 therefore C,, = 2.3 and
AISC Formilla @ becomes-
Scc: Tal11c 2 for viiliirs of Form111:i 13 for various stecls.
2. As an alterl~ntc method, treat this as a canti-
4.7-12 / Girdea-Related
TABLE 2-Allowable Compressive Stress
On Wedge Section of Qpen-Web Girder
For Various Steels
where:
Co~lsider the oriicr fibcr of this cmtilcver as an element
in coinprt~ssion. Using the resrrlting (I&) ratio, deter-
mine the allon-ablc c<~nlpressive stress from the AISC
tables.
or:
l e Shear Stress
From eithrr 1'ormol;i 13 or the ahovr. Mcthod 2; we
obtain the allov-ablr compressive bmding stress ( u ) .
Since V,, =: 7 t, c and holding the inaxiinum bending
stress (u,) of Formula 1.2 to the allowable ( u ) , we
-
obtain the followitrg-
3 v,, t m 0
= - . - -.
4 t, e 0"
lever beam, and measure its unsupported length ( L)
from the point of inflection ( e ) to thc support; sec
Figure 24.
Formrda 14 for nlloud>le shear stress ( 7) has be~m
simulifird for various anrrles of cut ( 0 ) : see Table 3.
6 hupport
%, ~ ,,
If the allowablr: shaar stress ( I ) in this web scction
-
is hcld within the value shown in Formula 14, no
f111.ther chock of web lxickling dut. to the comprtissive
bending stress will have to 1)e made, nor 1\41 this
.,
edrre have to be reinforced with a flancrc.
"h
FIGURE 24
Reverse top holf end for end
1
., .,
To kcrp the resulting shcar stress within this
allow;lble, either ( t , ) or (t.) may have to be increased;
see Figurc 25.
Reverse top holf end far end
-
I
t
+i e, i t- -+lk 4 2 e , i C I
YA point ez % point
Support
1
Support
FIGURE 25
Open-Web Expanded Beoms and Girders /
Adjusting t he Distance of Cut (el
The clistance ( e) may be varied to providc the proper
strength of the web, or the proper opening for duct
work; sec Figure 8. Howevcr, as this distance ( e)
increases, the secondary brnding stress within the Tee
section due to the applied shear force ( V) also in-
creases.
In otht,r words, ( c ) must he snfficiently large to
provide proper strength in thc web section, pet must
be small enough to provide proper Ixnding strength
in the Tec scsction. In both cascs, these s t ns c s are
eauscd directly by the applied vc:rtic:11 shrnr (\!) on
the mon~her. This l xcom<~s nioro critical mar the, snp-
ports whwe the shcar is thr: highest. Largcr trial WF
beam sections arcp choscn rlntil the v: he of ( c) will
satisfy both conditions.
It would be possible to gradually wr y the s ke of
the openinzs from the support to thc ceuterlinc; how-
. .
ever, this \vould be diiiicult to fabricate. If this is
desired. it might he better to use t\vo dimcrisions of
horizontal cut ( e l ) and (e,), altcrmating them and
reversing their order at the ' / s point. See Figure 25.
This would allow a larger value of ( e l ) for the
strength of the web and a smaller value of (e2) for
the strength of the Tcc section, near the support in
the region of high shear ( V) . In the central region of
the girder between the 'I4 points where the shear ( V)
is onc-half of this valrre or less, these values \viil reverse,
resulting in the smaller value of ( e2) for the web and
the larger value of ( e l ) for the Tee.
The top portion of the cut WF bexm would be cut
in half and each half turned end for end. This will
require a butt groove weld. However, this top section
is in comp~-ession and the requirrment for the wald will
not be as severe as though it were in the bottom tensile
chord. It might be possible to make this compression
butt joint by fillot welding splice bars on cach side of
the Tee section. This lap joint would transfer the com-
pressivc force; the splice bars u~ould apply additional
stiffness and therefore a higlrcr allowable compressi\v
strrss for this Tee section at midspan.
FIGURE 26
This cutting pat t cn~ results iii the hole at the
wntcrlinc having twice the: lcngth as the othrrs. How-
eve,-. this is the. ~rcgion of (mly high momont ( M) ; there
is almost no shear ( \ ' ) . This section should be snfficient
if it car devclop the requirrd compn.ssion from the
main btmding load.
TABLE 3-Allowable S h e w Stress
For Various Angles of Cut
The edge of the wedge section of the weh may be
strengthmed against buckling due to the horizontal
shear force, by adding a flange aroiind the web open-
ing. Set: Figure 26.
6 = 4 s
Here:
t , a'
S .= At a +
6
Inscrling this into Formula 7, we gct-
n _ r s
It can he shown that the value of (in) for the
position of t hi ~ gn3at<.st bending strrss is-
, ,8225 o.
FIGURE 27
This value of ( m) could then he 1rst:d in Formula
12 for the bending stress. This \vould give the following
formula for the greatest bending stress:
where:
Moment d i o g s
V = 25k
EB BUCKLING DUE TO CO
Any dircct triursvt~rsi~ loiid :ippiied to the upper flangc
of the open-weh girdcr is carried as vertical shear on
t11c web. Sce I'igmo 27. Since this resisting shear is
eqt~ally dividod b<,twet:n the top and hottonr Tee sectioli
chords, half of this transverse load applied to a unit
17mel scginent of thc girdcr (distance s) must he trans-
fi:rrtd as compr~ssiorr dou~n through thc solid portion
( <* ) ot' the web into the bottom chord.
If it is felt that this solid wet) section, acting as
a column, cimnot handle this forw; it could he rein-
forced with a transvcrsc (vcrtical) stifl'cner. Usually
this force, one-half of tho applied trnnsvcrse load with
tbc segmcnt ( s) , is small. Thus, the resulting corn-
pressivc stress within this web section ( e ) is low, and
stiffwing is not usually required.
Compressivc stress in web section ( c ) :
The allow;~blr compressivc stress would he found
in the AlSC tnblt~s; wing -
Shear diogrom
--
FIGURE 28
eb Expatided Beams and Girders / 4.7-15
8. GENERAL OUTL1NE FOR DESIGN OF
OPEN-WEB EXPANDED GIRDER
l)esib% of an open-web cxpandcd girder will be facili-
iated by following the design outline bclow. Its appli-
cation is dernonstratd by working a. typical design
l r ohl ~~m: l h i g n an opcn-web expanded girdcr with a
span of 38 ft to support a nilifor~nly-distril~~~te(l load
of 50 kip. Ilrsign on tlic basis or wing ,436 steel and
Eli0 welds, and angle of cut d, = 15". Sre Figure 28.
STEP I . Determine the expanded girder's required
5ection snodulns (S,) at midspan for the main bending
moment:
STEP 2. For the relationship of the cspanded girder'?
depth to that of the original beam, let-
Assume it = about 1.5
STEP 3. Select a trial WF beam having a section
modulus of-
1.30
Sh = ~- = 86.4 i n ? (use this as a guide)
1.5
Try an 18" W F 50#/ f t h a m, liaving S, = 89.0 in."
Now, refigure K, using the S,, of the actual selcctect
beam:
STEP 4. Determine the height of ct
off to the nearest rnch or fraction of a
it ( h ) and rol
n inch:
in order to keep tlw vertical shear stress in the stem
of thc Tec swtion within the allowable:
h 5 d,, - 2 d,"
STEP 5. Then
STEP 6. Dctcr-mine the allowable compressive bending
strws on wedge srction of web, using modified AISC
SEC 1.5.1.4.5 liormula 0:
However, ( h) cannot exceed the following value
" Could nsstimv shear ( V ) is :itmiit !IS% 01 nmximiinr shear (at
the snpporl) liei.;iosc first panel will be away from tha point of
SiippOrt. Howcwr, bcciiise wt. arc not ;at the support, t hwc
will l w some main hmdirrg st i i sses lo hr nd&d lo thiw:
sctondaiy hi,ndiiig st nscs in t hc 'Tec scct i m from applied
slienr ( V) , tlmce, it would be hr t t r r lo use i d1 vaiuo of shear
( V) .
Open-web expanded beam serves os longitudinal roof
girder in the Tulsa Exposition Center. It provides the
needed high moment of inertia, at minimum weight, and
eliminates lateral wind bracing. Below, weldor is shown
making connections of beam to the tapered box columns.
tlis shrar ( V) at this ''i point is rcduccd to about lralf
of that ;it thr slqiport, thc distancc ( e , ) may hc dor~ble
thiit of (c,:) and still not inuxisc tlit rcsnlting second-
ary heiiding sticss (rr. , ). Th<,ri,forrs, K:% =- c 2 / i s i sl~onld
not t)l> Iws thas1 ?i.
Using the t\vo dirntnsions ( e , ) and ( ~ 2 ) ; the ;ihovc
formulas btworne:
P 9. Now determirir. the properties of expanded
girder:
. At the suppof t , cheek the secondary bending
stress:
FIGURE 32 FIGURE 33
A , ~ = A, + A, - b t, + d,t,] = 5.861 in.'
( W) ( 8)
I Ml = *, ( 4. +
T LtB i nz i UT =- ~ - . ~ - - = 20,300 psi
.1(2:16)
Tht. :illowahlo cornpi-t~ssivo hi~iiciing stress nxiy be
found in ;i similar inaniicr to tliat of Step 6, exccpt the
unsupportrd Icngth l i ~ r o is ( o ) .
-= 105.53 in.l
At the support, t hl w is no main bending mainexit,
TABLE 4 - 4 0 s Various Steels
a = 22.000 - 14.44 ( ~h) ' 1 c = 22.000 - 3.61 (.:;.I'
t , ~
hence no axial coinpressive force acting on this Tee
section. The allo\vablc stress here is-
or, fsosn Table 4 of vdue5 for dllrelent steels-
cr = 22,000 - 3.81
- = 20,200 psi
STEP I I . At midspan of girdel; check the main bend-
ing seess:
(as a compressiv(: or tensile stress)
"50""
a, ".. - U)200
(24.08) (5.861 ) --
, psi
or
(as a bending stress)
STEP 12. If the main hellding stress ( m) in Step 11
is excessive, it niay be redlicecl slightly with a higher
vdur of ( h) ; howcvcr, this will greatly increase the
sea,i~d:uy bending stress ( Q) of Step 1.0, since it re-
duces the depth ( d+) of the Tce section. In this case
~indoubtcdly, the WF hcam selected cannot be used
and a larger WF Iimm must hr tried.
If tile miin Bmding stress ( a, , ) is within thi?r.
allo\\~ablc, hut thr sectmd:rry lwnding stress ( m) in
Step 10 excocds the allo\viihle, ( u , ~ ) may be greatly
rednced by decri-asing ( h) with jnst a slight increase
in ( u, , ) .
Strtwes (u, , ) and (u.,.) may bc considered accord-
ing to AlSC interaction formulas @ , @ and @,
shown grap11ic:tlIy in Figurc 12.
As a matter oi interest: Table 5 shows that de-
crmisiilg ( h ) rrsnits in a largc decrcase in the secondary
bending strcss (u.,.) and n slight increase in the main
bending stress ( u, , )
If (11) cannot bc rcduccd bccaosc (u, , ) is close to
the nllo\val~le, me two different size holes, (el ) and
( e 2 ) . Pn~\.ide ;1 larger vnlne of distance ( e , ) for the
compressive bending strcss in the \vcdge section of the
woh, but a lower val w of ( el ) for the cantilevered Tee
section.
TABLE 5
earns and Girders /
STEP 13. h/iake any adjustments necessary to facilitate
fabrication. See the text immediately foilowing this
design outline.
STEP 14. After the girder is detailed, the stresses may
be rechecked in view of marc exact valrm of (V, ) and
( M, ) since the cxact positions of the pancls are not
known. .Also, i t may be well to check additioiial points
between the point of support and midspan. SPC Figwe
34 and Tablc 6.
The practical aspects of structural fabrication may
mean some adjustincut of original girder design is
required.
ame Size Holes Are to be Used
If openings in the web are to be of uniform size for
the full lcngth of the girder, that is c, = e2, and the
open-web expanded girdrr is to he synzmetrical about
its centerline, let n : I skumber d unit panek and use
as a starting point in measuring a unit panel either:
( a) Cmterline of wedge web section.
Figure 35, or
( b ) Ceuterlinr of open Tee section,
Figure 36
Divide the length of thc reqnired girder (L,) by the
length of one unit panel ( s ) to get the number of
units ( n) . Then reduce ( n) to the nearest whole
FIGURE 35
s .
FIGURE 36
number. The distance left over ( z) on each side is-
Since the length of the open-web expanded girder
1s-
L , = n s + 2 z
the length of thr WF beam to he cut is-
L ? , - -- ( u + %) s -+ 2 z
The extra length of WF beam required is-
L, - L, = % s
FIGURE 34
Girder-Related
FIGURE 37
I n either case ( a ) or ( h) , there probably will be
a small hole left in the girder at the ends which must
be filled. The simplest method is to add one or a pair
of web doubling bars or plates at each end to cover
and lap over the holes. See Figurc 38.
Web doubler plate Web doubler bar
It m~ght be po?cihle to adjust the value of ( e) so
that the panels wl l fit exactly into the length of the
girder (L,), See Figure 40.
Here:
L , = n s + e
= e ( 2 n i - I ) f 2 n h t a n 4
First, determme the number of holes ( n) from the
following formula and round off to the nearest whole
number-
FIGURE 38
If the same size holes are to be used, that is c,
- - e?; and the c i de r is not to be symmetrical about its
centerline, then start a unit panel right at one end of
the girder. The othcr end may have a partial hole in
the web which will have to be ~vvered. The only ad-
vantage to this method is that just one end will have
a bolo in the web to be covered. See Figure 39.
Second, find ihc required vairle of ( e ) from the
iollowinlg formula-
f - , L, = (n + Y2)s + e
-
FIGURE 39
I>, - 2 n h tan +
e = . ..
2 1 1 1 1
Hole in web on this /
end must be covered
, . , , , , , , , . . , , , , ,
( 2 0 )
eb Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.9-21
FIGURE 40 nsc/
L , = n s + e = e ( 2 n + 1 ) + 2 n h t o n +
This arljiistcd valiic of ( c ) xin not be less t hm
I, - (11 - 1 ) h tan +
that of S t q 8 in the dmign nirtiii~c, nor exceed the
. . . . . . . (2%)
~; i l uc which wonld rt wl t in ;iu extcssive secondary
heridiug stress (w.,) i n Stcp 10.
Cn,w (1)). There artL an evcn number of holes in each
I f Ditferent Size Holes Are to be Used
half, therefore:
Adjnst ( n) so i t is a multiple of 4, and rolvc for
If distances ( e, ) and ( e2) are riot to be the same, and
(,,) fmin the fol1<,wing-
the girder is symmetri<:nl ahout its cmteriine, then the
following method may be employed.
I, - (11 - 1) h tan
I13 ordcr to easily fabricate this type of opeu-web
el . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . ( 22b)
n ( I -+- K:t)
zirder. it is necwsarv to be nhie to rotate each tow half
1
'2
about the % point. This prcsents two possibilitics-
In both case ( a j ;md cast, ( I , ) this resulting value
case ( a ) rotation at the '4 point abmt the larger dirncn-
of ( el ) shonld not 131. less th;m tliat obtained in Step
sion ( e , ) , and case ( I ) ) rotation at the ?k point aboiit
8 and that jl~st used in Poi-mula 11 to find (11).
the sn~aller dimension [ c.. ). See Figure 41.
. . -
Let ( n) = number of holcs in thc web, counting
the cvntc4ine hole as two holes.
. TAPERED BPEN-
Iktermine the approxilnate number of holes from- c~~~~~~~~ pattern axis at a slight
angle to the axis of tho heain results in a tapered girder.
. . . . . . . . . . (21)
Sec Figiire 12.
In ordcr to have ilie dcrper scction at the mid-
span, it is nwx!ssary to crit the top portion in half and
Case (a). There are an odd number of holes in each revcrse these two top halvcs. The cut could be made
half, therefore:
in ihc lower portion; howc\:cr this is in tension, and a
Adjust ( n) so it is a rnuitiple of 2 only, and solve simpl<,r \w4d a)iild be ni;idc in the compression or
for (e,) from the foliowing- top portion,
/ Girder-Related
Reverse top half end for end Reverie top half end for end
Q -
FIGURE 42
In iapercd open-web expanded girders, the axial
forcc in the chord which slopes has a vcrtical com-
ponent (F, =. F, tan a ) ; here ( F, = M/ d).
Whenever this chord changes direction, for example
at the midspan of the girdcr, this vertical component
must be considered. It will be carried as shear in the
web members back to the suppol-t, and in this case has
a sign opposite to that of the main shear ( V) . Hence,
its effect is to reduce the shear over most of the girder's
length, but to increase it in the midspun region.
The modified shear bccomes-
This means there is a vcrtical shift of the initial
shear diagram on each half of the gir-der, so that the
central portion to be checked which initially had zero
shear ( V = 0) now has a shear valuc (V' - F,) as
wcll as the maximnin hrnding moment. See Figrirt: 43.
A transvcrsr stiffener at the point where the sloping
flange changes direction would transfer the vertical
component of the flange efficim~tly into the wob. The
greater the change in slope, the more important this
would bccome.
If there is a panel opcning at this point, the Tee
section must resist this vertical component in bending
(in this cxample, the top Tec section). This is similar
to the arlalysis of the secondaiy 1)cnding stress (ul.) due
to the shear applied to the Tee section at midopening
whrrre each half behaved as a cantilever beam. See
Figure 44. However, in this ease, t he cantilever beams
have fixed ends ( at the centerline of the girdcr); rr-
sdting in one-half the bending monient and stress.
(This half length Tee section is treated ns a beam fixed
at one end arid guidrd at the other end, with a con-
centrated load.)
. . . . .
Girder with Iood
- vertical componenl
(F,] causes shear
I
11 in web
Shear diagram
from applied
load
Diagram of
modified shear
V' = v - F,
FIGURE 43
earns a n d Gi rders / 4.7-23
Q
FIGURE 44
The open-web expanded rolled
beam is sometimes an economical
substitute for o heavy built-up
plate girder.
In the 21-story Washington
Bldg., open-web expanded
beams led to significant sav-
ings in construction costs.
Open-web expanded beam serves os longitudinal roof
girder in the Tulsa Exposition Center. It provides the
needed high moment of inertia, at minimum weight, and
eliminates lateral wind bracing. Below, weldor is shown
making connections of beam to the tapered box columns.
The concrete floor may be attached to the top flanges
of the steel girders or beams by the use of suitable
shear connectors. These allow the slab to act with the
steel and form a composite heam having greater
strength and rigidity.
The concrete slab lxcomes part of the compression
flange of this composite element. As a result, the neut+al
axis of the section will shift upward, making the bot-
tom flange of the bcam more effective in tension. By
such an arrangement, beam cross-sections and weight
can he reduced. Since the concrete already serves as
part of the floor, the the only additional cost will be
the shear connectors.
The types of shear eounectors in use today take
various shapes and sizes. Some typical ones are shown
in Figure 1.
In addition to transmitting the horizoutal shear
forces from the slab into the steel beam making both
beam and slab act its a unit, the shear connector pro-
vides anchorage for the slab. This prevents any
tendency for it to separate from the beam. While pro-
viding for these functions, conllector placement must
not present difficulty in the subsequent placing of
reinforcing rods for the concrete slab.
Because of lower shop costs and better conditions,
it is more economical to install t h e e connectors in the
shop. However, this may be offset by t hr possibility of
damage to them during shipping, and by the difficulty
presented to walkiug along the top flanges during
er~vtion before the slab i s poured. For the latter
reasons, there is a growing bend toward geld installa-
tion of connectors.
The previous APSC Specifications had no infonna-
tion on the use of shcar attachments for use in a m -
posite construction. If shear attachments were to be
used, AASIlO allowables were followed. These require
the use of rather long fonnnl a~ to detcnnine the in&-
vidual factor of safety to be used on the connector.
It also made a difference whether the beam was to be
shored or not shored during the placing of the con-
crete floor.
Facsor of Safely
The ncw AISC Specifications recognize the use of shear
attachments and, as a result of recent research on this
subjcct, has taken a more liberal stand on this. The
design work has been greatly reduced, and no longer
is it necessary to compute the factor of safety. A more
liberal factor of safety is now included in the shear
co~rnection foimulas. The use of shoring is no longer
a factor in the design calculations of the connector,
since it has heen found that the ultimate load carrying
FIG. 1 Representation
nectors welded to top
overlayer of concrete
are sketched.
of five common types
flange of steel girder
, Only short portions
of shear con-
to anchor an
of connectors
I t v
Steel beam
(a) Slab on both sides of beam
capacity of the composite beam is umffrcted whether
shores have or have not been used.
hear Connector Spacing
AASHO requires the determination of shear connector
spacing, which may vary along the length of the beam.
Now AISC requires just one determination of spacing,
and this value is used throughout the length of the
beam, greatly simplifying the worli. This is because
the allowables are such that at ultimate loading of
the composite beam, some of the comlectors will yield
before the others. This moverncnt provides a redisbi-
bution of shear transfer so that all connections are
ultimately loaded uniformly, hence uniform spacing
is allowed.
Composile Section Properties
A further help is a series of tables listing properties of
possible combinations of rolled beams with typical
concrete slab sections, similar to tables in wide use for
available rolled beam sections.
These new tables have been published in the AISC
"Manual of Steel Constnzction,'' Sixth Edition, 1963,
and in Bethlehem Steel Co.'s "Properties of Composite
Sections for Bridges and Buildings."
The new tables eliminate the various calculations
for composite sections. A simple calculation will in-
dicate the required section modulus of the composite
section, and a quick reference to the lablcs will in-
k Effective slab width (B)
--i
i ~i st dnce to outer fiber
_k
of tension flange
FIGURE 3
(b) Slab on one side of beam
dicate possible combinations of rollcd beam and con-
crete slab.
In order to get the transfonned area of the concrete
floor, it is necessary to decide how large a width of the
concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the
composite section. This is known as the effective width
(B) of the slab. AISC (1.11.1) requires the foUowing:
shb on both sides of beam, Figure 2(aj
B 'h beam span
a 5 M distance to adjacent beam
a 5 8 times least thickness of slab (k)
slab on one side of beam, Figure 2jb)
B 5 4/12 beam span
B 5 '/z distance to adjacent beam
B 5 6 times ieast thickness of slab (t,)
This effective width of concrete is now trans-
formed into an equivalent steel section, having the
same thickness as the concrete (t, ), but having a
width equal to I/n that of the concrete. See Figure
3. Here n, the modular ratio, is the ratio of the moduh~s
of elasticity of the stcel to that of the concrete.
From this transformed section, the various proper-
ties of the section may be determined.
I = moment of inertia of transfonned section, in.'
S = section modulus for thc extreme tension fibers
of the steel beam (bottom flange), in.3
Beams may be totally encased within the floor
slab as a Tee section in which the top of the beam is
at least 1%" below the top and 2" above the bottom
of the slab, and encased with at least 2" of concrete
around the sides of the beam. With thcse conditions,
ear Attachments -
shear attachments are not iised (AISC 1.11.1).
if no temporary shores are used, the total bending
strass in thc telrsioil flange of tlre ciicnsed stcel hearn
is figorod under two conditions:
1. The steel hcani acting alone for any dead loads
applied prior to hardening of the concrete.
2. The steel beam acting with the concrete for
any live loads and additional dead loads applied after
hardening of the concrete.
The henin shall be so proportioned that. the above
stress nnder either condition does not cxcecd .66 5,"
( MS G 1.11.2.1 j.
If temporary shores are used, the tension steel
flange of thc enc;ised beam acting with thc concrete
slab to folm the composite section shall be designed
at u = .66 a;,* to carry all dead and livc loads applied
-
';If steel section is not compact: a = .60 c,.
-
With
Sharing
-
Withoul
Shoring
after hardening of tlrc concrete.
If shcar attacl~mc~its are used, encasemcxt is not
needed and it ilocs not inntier in the design whcthi:r
temporary shores are used or not used. i n either casc,
the steel tension Range acting with the concrnte s1;rb
to f o m thc coml~osite s'~tion shall hc dcsigned at cr =
.66 uJ" to carry all of tile lands (AISC 1.11.2.2). If no
temporary shoring is used, the section modnlus of the
cwnpositc section (S,) in rcgard to thc tension Range
of the bcani shall not cxcced t hr following:
I ( MS C Forniula 17) 1
where:
S, = section modulus of composite section (rela-
tive to its tcilsion steel flange)
esign of Section or Composite &onstructiora
Encored Beams (1.11.2.1)
(no iheor ottach,nanti)
Section Modulus
-
and
Me M
. , a = -- + 5 66 0, ( .60 a,
s., s. - '
With Shew Attachments
(I .I 1.2.2)
Section Modulus
Used
I
(AISC formulo 17)
I
* o = .66 a, ior "compact" beams; otherwise a = 6 0 or
4.8-4 / Girder-Related Design 1
-4 n L
k "r 4
Within elostic limit Uitimate iood condition
FIGURE 4
S, = section tnodnlus of steel beam (relative to beam, is equal to the total horizontal forces ( F, ) from
its tension flange) bending acting on either the slab or the beam. See
M, = dead-load moment prior to hardening of con-
Figure 5.
crete
MI, = moment .due to live and additional dead Ioad
alter hardening of concrete
where:
Table 1 summarizes these requirements for encased
beams without shear attachments and for composite
B = eifective width of slab
beams with shear attachments. t, = thickness of slab
Farces Carried by Connectors f t . - - compressive strengtl~ of concrete
For elastic design, the horizontal unit shear force is
A, == cross-soctional area of steel beam
obtained from the well-known fonnula:
A, = cross-st:ctional area of effective concrete slab
V a y
cr, = yield strength of steel
f = ----
I
Figure 6 diagrams the bending inoment that results
However in the new AISC Specification for build- in horizontal forces; compression in the concrete slab
ing applications, the cl(2sign is based on thc shear and tension in tlie steel beam.
connectors allowing the composite beam to reach ulti- Thcse horizontal ultimate forces are then reduced
mate Ioad. In the usual con~posite beam, the ultimate hy a factor of safcty of 3, and concrete is taken at 85%
load is reachcd aftcr the full dapth of the steel beam of its strength. These formulas become:
reaches yicld stress in tcnsion. This forcc is resisted by
the ~mnpressive area of the concrete slab. See Figure 4.
3 5 f', A,
The total horizontal shear (V,,) at ultimate load v ,, = -
. -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . .
to be transferred from concrete slab to steel beam
( 2 )
between section of maximum moment and ends of the
(AISC For~nnla 18)
4 f: t=-
rn
k-%-I F " y i
(a) Neutral axis lies within steel beam (b) Neutral axis lies within concrete slab
VI, = FJ, = b t, f', Vh = Fh = A. my
FIGURE 5
Shear Ateochments -
I
I
Moment dmgm
I
I
4-
LLLL
+ } F, = f: b t (compresrioo)
7,- - 3 7
-- F, = A, o, (tension)
i =I
FIGURE 6
I (AISC Formula 19) 1
The smaller of the two values above ( V, i ) is taken
as the total horizontal shear force to be carried by all
of the connectors betw-cen the point of maximum
moment and the ends of the beam, or between the
point of maximum moment and a point of contra-
flexure in continuous beams.
The number of shear connectors needed within
this region is found by dividing the above force ( Vh)
by the allowable ( q) for the type of connector used.
Allowable loads
Formulas have been established to give the useful
capacity of three types of shear connections. These are
used hy AASHO in the bridge field with the proper
values of ( K) :
channel
q =: K2. ( h + % t ) w
(Ibs/channel)
where:
w = channel length in inches
spiral
q = KB da GC ( ~bs/ t um of spiral)
Later the Joint ASCE-ACT Committee on Com-
posite Construction recommended these same basic
formulas, but applied a factor of safety of 2 and these
became allowable loads for the conncctors.
In thc meantime additicmal testing has indicated
the cvnnectors to have greater strength than previously
thought. Although AISC did not pnblish these final
formulas with their constants (10, they did produce
Table 1.11.4 of values for allowable loads on some of
the typical standard shear conncctors. See Table 2.
Working back from this table, the basic formulas
for allowable loads on shear connectors would be the
following:
TABLE 2-Allowable orizontol Shear Load (q), Kips
(Applicable Only to Sfone Concrete)
Conneder If'. = 3,000 if', = 3,500 if', .= 4,000
%" diom. X 2'. hooked or
heoded stud
i/B" diom. X 2%" hooked or
heoded stud
%" diam. X 3" hooked or
headed stud
'/s" diom. X 31/2" hooked or
headed stud
3" channel, 4.1 lb.
4" choonel, 5.4 ib.
S' channel, 6.7 lb.
I/2" diom. spi ral bar
1/8" diom, spi ral boi
o = l ength of chonnei in inches.
FIGURE 7
live load momcnt
(6) WI. L
ML = --
8
-
(240,000) (480)
-
8
These will enable the engineer t o compute the
value for a shear cvnnector not covered in the AISC
table.
The connectors may be spaced evenly along this
region and shall have at least 1" of concrete cover in
all directions.
pziL7-l
Check the composite beam of Figure 7, and its shear
connectors. The following art? given conditions:
36" WF 150-lb beams on 7' centers, with a 6"
thick concrete slab
A36 steel, E70 welds, and 3000 psi cvncrete
A nnifonnly distribnted live load of 240 kips
Span of 40' between supports
E
n = " = 10 (modular ratio)
E,
dead load moment
Steel beam = 6,000 lbs
Concrete slab = 20,160 Ibs
Total WD = 26,160 lbs
proiection of conmete slab
a S S t ,
5 8(6")
5 46"
a 5 'h distance to adjacent beam
5 %(84 - 12)
5 36" < 48'' OK
efjifectitic width of concrete flange acting with beam
B 5 - Y4 beam span
5 - %(40)
5 - 10' or 120"
B = 2a + hi
= 2(36) + (12)
= 84" < 120" OK
and width of transformed concrete area is
84"
B/n =- = 8.4"
10
properties of steel beam section
36" WF 150-lb beam
I = 9012.1 i n4
S = 502.9 in.%
A. = 44.15 in."
db = 35.84"
bi = 11.972"
tg = ,940"
t, = ,625"
properties of compo.rite section
Tro~isformed
k 8 4"4 / concrete ai eo
M
N.A. = -
A
( dirtmce from reference
to iicutral axis)
axis
= 670 in."relative to bottom tension Range
in steel beam)
,
I 1 check bending stress in hcam
-
Check the tensile be~lding st~ess in bottom flange
of steel beam. From Table 1-
VB =
M, + 5,
S"
- -
(1570 + (14,400)
( 670
= 23,800 psi < .GG uy
check secMon modulus
Since no shores are to be used, a further require-
ment is that the section modulus of the composite
section shall not exceed-
1.35 + 0.35 s,
I
FIGURE 8
( 14 400)] (5019)
5 [1,135 + 0.35 ( 1570 )
Taking reference section (y-y) through the beam's
center of gravity:
5 2220 i n3
SCc ,,., ,, = 670 i nJ < 2290 in.3 OK
horizontal sheuli~
The horizontal shear to he transferred by connec-
tors will be the smaller of the following two values:
T", II -. .- ' 85 f', A,
2
-
--
.85 (3000)(6 x54)
-.
2
= 642.6 kips
= 794.9 kips
So, we Vh = 642.6 kips
Use %" x 4" studs. From Table 2, q = 11.5 kips per
stud.
number of studs
or 60 studs from centerline to each end of beam.
If using 2 rows of studs, use 28 lines on each end
of girder.
approximate spacing
S =
240" (half length)
28 (studs)
Place first line of studs at ' h of this space (or 4%")
from end of beam; from there on give all studs full
spacing (89/16").
hannel Connectars
Use 4" 5.4-lb channel of 10" length. From Table 2,
q = 4.6 w
= 4.6 (10)
= 4.6 kips per channel
number of channels
Vh
n = -
q
(642.6)
-
- (4.6)
= 14 channels
from centerline to each end of beam, or 28 channels
per beam.
approximate spacing
S =
24G" (half length)
14 (channels)
and use M of this or 8'k" for spacing first channel from
end of beam.
To compute the required size of connecting weld:
F = 46 kips, each cl~annel
length of FUet weld
L = 2 x 1W'
= 20"
force on weld
leg size of weld (E70)
= ,205" or use %" h
Check: Welding lo .94" thick flange calls for
minimum weld size of %6" , but the weld need not
exceed thickness oi the thinner part joined, which is the
channel. Hence, use % 6"
Use %" diameter bar. From Table 2, q = 17.8 kips
per t un.
number of turns
v
. =! !
cl
= 36.1 from end to cnd or 37 turns from center-
line to e a d ~ end of beam.
approximate pitch
240" (half length)
S = -- -
37 (turirs)
= 6.49" or use 67/,,"
To compute the required connecting welds (E70), lcngth of uvld at each turn of spiral
assume weld size is equivalent to a %" h fillet weld
(has same throat). Force on the weld is-
9
L = -
f
f = 11,200 o
-
-
(17.8 kips)
= 11,200 (%) we'd ( 4 2 0 lhs/iin.)
= 4200 lbs/in. = 3.18" or 1%'' on each sue
-- OK
Application of one type of proprietary shear connector for composite construction,
providing equivalent strength with less steel tonnage. Connectors welded to beams
makes concrete slab integral with supporting member.
Lightweight stud welders permit shear
connectors to be attached to girder
flanges at high speed. Studs are the most
papular form of attachment #or anchor-
ing concrete floor slab to the steel gird-
ers, permitfing steel and concrete to act
together for greater strength and rigidity.
Concrete roadway dccks may be attacl~ed to the top
flanges of s t 4 girders or benms by the use of suitable
shear connectors. Tht w coi~riectors allow the slabs to
act with tlw steel and form a coinpositr heam having
greater sbcngth and rigidity.
7% cont:rete slah becomes part of thc compression
flangc of this composite dcmerrt. As a rcsnlt; the neutral
axis of the section will shift upward, making the bottom
flange of the beam more cfft 4vi . in tcnsion. By such
an anangcment, beam cross-scction and \veight can be
reduct d Since the concrete already serves as part of
the floor, the only additional cost will he tho shear
connectors.
The types of shcar connectors in use today take
various shapcs and sizos. Sonrc typical ones arc shown
in Figure 1.
In nddiijon to iransmitting t h ~ horizontal shear
forces from the slab into thc steel heam making both
beam arid slab act as a unit; the shear connrctor pro-
vides anchorage for the slab. This prevents any tend-
ency for it to separate from the beam. While providing
for these functions, connector placement must not pre-
sent difiiculty in the subsequent placing of reinforcing
rods for the conmete slab.
Because of lower shop costs and better conditions,
it is more cronomical to install thew connectors in the
shop. Ilorvcver, this may be oiTsct by the possibility
of damage to them t l ur i ~~g shipping, arrd by the tiiffi-
culty presented to walking along the top flanges durixg
i.rection before the slab is poure(1. For the latter rea-
sons, there is a growing t rmd toward ficld ir~stallation
of cori~rectors.
Erection procedures influenci. the dei gn of the
composite hwm. If thr girder or beam has proper
tenrporasy support during construction, its d c s i p can
be bastd on the dead loads plus live loads being carried
by the composite section after the concrete has attained
75% of its %-day strength.
If the girdcr is not shored, then the steel alone
must he designed to support the entire dead load during
the curing period, and the composite section designed
For ;my live, impact, and additional dead loads. This
usually requires greater steel cross-section than is
required for thr eoniposite design using temporary
shoring. Howcvor, in bridge construction this savings
in stoel usually cannot offst:t the high shoring costs for
the long spans iiivolved. As a result, most bridges are
designed withont shoring.
111the negative moment regk~iis at the supports of
continuous boams. the concrctc slah would hc stressed
in tension ai d cannot be considered offodive in the
design. Some bridge designers assume the reinforcing
FIG. 1 Representotion of five common types of shear con-
nectors welded to top flange of steel girder t o anchor an
overlayer of concrete. Only short portions of conneciors
are sketched.
1
Concrete slob/
Steel beam
(a) Slab on both sides of beam
FIGURE 2
steel in this area to be effective in tension when proper
shear attaclments are continl~ed throughout the area.
This approach slightly reduces the beam's cross-
sectional area.
Shear connectors should have at least 1" of concrete
cover in all directions. They should be designed for
only the portion of the load carried by the composite
section.
horizontal shear
where:
Vb = horizontal shear of steel flange, at junction
of slab and beam, lbs/linear in.
V, = total external shear a&ing on composite sec-
tion after concrete has attained 75% of its
28-day strength, ibs
m = statical moment of transformed concrete area
about neutral axis of composite section, or
the statical moment of the area of rein-
forcement embedded in slab for negative
moment, in."
I, -. moment of inertia of transformed composite
section
transformed area
In order to get the transformed area of the concrete
deck, it is necessary to decide how large a width of
the concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the
composite section. This i~ known as the effective width
( B) of the slab (AASHO 1.9.3).
Thus effective width of concrete is now transformed
into an equivalent steel section, having the same thick-
ness as the concrete (t,), but having a width equal to
l / n that of the concrete. See Figure 3. Here n, the
(b) Slab on one side of beam
modular ratio, is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity
of the steel to concrete.
From this transformed section, the various section
properties may be determined:
m = statical moment = A, d, of concrete about
neutral axis of composite section
I, = moment of inertia of transformed composite
section, in.*
S = section modulus for the extreme tension fibers
of the steel beam (bottom flange), in.3
The moment of inertia of the transformed concrete
section (I,) may be read directly from Table 1, the
section modulus ( S ) from Table 2, and the coefficient
value of m/I, for horizontal shear (V, )) from Table 3.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 are from "Composite Construction in
Steel and Concrete" by Viest, Fountain and Smgleton,
McGraw-H111.
where:
n =: E,/E, = 10, the modular ratio
B = effective slab width
t = slab thickness
design load (umking value) for one shear connector
Distance to outer fiber
1
of tenr~on flange
FIGURE 3
where:
Q = useful capacity of one shear connector,
beyond which the connector permits an
appreciable slip between concrete slab and
steel beam, lbs
F.S. = factor of safety
useful capacity of one shear connector
omen(. 04 Inertia, Transformed
Gomposih Seckion
Modular inlio n = lo, h = dfective slab width, t = slab thickness
........ .....
-.
1 a , I i - n , < b - l r t
From "comporite C~ r f r v n i o n i n Steel m d Concrete" by vier*,
Fountoin & Sineleton. Copyright Q 1958. McGraw-Hill Bwk com-
pany. Ured by permirrion.
Note: f', = 28-day compressive strength of concrete
For most conditions, the uscful capacity ( Q) of the
she.= connector may be read dii-ectlp from Table 4, 5, or
6 which makc it unnecessary to work the above for-
mulas.
factor of safety
The factor of safety to be used in coinputlng the
allowable design load for one shear corincctor, is ob-
tained from the following formula*:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(7)
" AASIIO (1. 95) now allows as an alternnte, a factor safety of
4 in lieu of calculating it with the above formula.
TABLE 2-Section Modufus.
Modular ratio n = 1 1
st"?: I,r,<,"
.
:,i W,.$,ii
:,B wr ?Bi
i t , W P ?d
80 WY i l i
I 6 WFZJ:
:so WF i OI
91, O F 18:
I" WF ,,L
:3<, W,? ,<a
l 0 WI 110
:<I WT 220
WI i(10
Y 1 V F i i z
a:, W,? 18"
30 Xi' i 2 i
YO Wi ' i l "
SO WF i<i8
2: U P 101
2: WP Y<
2' Wi- ,Mi
?i WF 9,
$4 W I U
9F 1II
2% wi 7s
Z i W P 68
2, WP ' 8
i 8 WF Ce
18 W* 56
i B WF 60
16 Wf ,m
I 8 WF 48
i i i WF I 0
16 WP 36
34 w i :<a
1.i W f 10
-
I Beam
b = effective slob width, t = slob thiikners
?.,,.*,~," ,,%,,,,,>I,,. .Y,,. "I =,,,,, ,,,, ~ , $ = ,>*A ,I,, ,,,. 8
i I i -
Fiom "Comporiie Conrtruction in Steei end Concrete" by Viest
Fountain & Singleton. Copyright Q 1958. MiGraw-Hill Book corn:
pmy. Ured by iiermiision.
where:
where:
MD, = max. moment caused by dead loads acting on
composite section
MD, = max. moment caused by dead loads acting on
steel beam alone
Mr. = max. moment caused by live load
S, = section moddus of composite beam for ex-
treme tension fibers
S. = section modulus of steel beam for extreme
tension fibers
3-Coefficient m/i, for Horizontal Shear
Modulor ratio n = 10, b = ciiective slob width, t = dab thichnesr
ham "Comporiie Cons<nidian i n Sk r l and Concrete" by Viert,
Fountain & Singleton. Copyright @ 1958. kGi ow-Hi l l Book Com-
W" Y . Used by peimiriion.
TABLE 4.-Useful Capacity, Q,
of One Stud Conneckw. Ibs. (h/ d > 4.2)
S c m d o .
CONCRETE S l k t h G T ~ . pr
6,500 1 7,100 1 7,600 r , 2 0 0
I
9,300 10,200 I 1,000 1 1,700
% 12,600 13.800 15.000
---
1 6.000
- ~. ...
Note: A faitor of ioiety must be opplisd to t he obove useful co-
pacity, Q, to orrive at t he working volue, q.
TABLE 5-Useful Capacity, Q,
er Turn o( Spiral Connector
CONCRETE STRENGTH, f',, psi.
Spiral wire p~--
- - ...-. . - . - .. . . .
dia. in. 0 0 i--c0 r ... 7 4000
Note: A factor of safety must be applied to the above useful co-
aacitv, Q. to oirivs at t he war4ina volue. s.
VD --- vertical shcar caused by dead load acting on
composite section
VL I= vertical shear causcd by live load
spacing of slzcer connectom
where:
s = spacing or pitch of shear connectors in the
direction of beam axis, in.
n = number of shear connectors at one transverse
beam cross-section
q = capacity of one connector, Ibs
Vh = horizontal shcar to be transferred, lbs
The spacing of shear connectors sllould not exceed
24".
ESlGN OF CONNECTING WELDS
Welds joining shear connectors to beams should be
designed to the allowable fatigue force (f,?.), for the
range ( K) of shcar stress and the working load ( q )
of the connector. See Table 7.
where:
min. shear ( V)
K =
max. shear ( V)
w = leg s i ~ e of fillet weld, in.
f, = allowable force on fillet weld, lbs/lin. in
1 Problem 1 I
To determine the working load ( q) , spacing (s), and
weld length ( L. ) for each of several typcs of shear
connectors, for a typical composite section.
In the building field, the total horizontal shear
force to be carried by the shear connectors is based on
the total bending force in either the concrete or the
steel section resulting from the maximum positive
moment on the beam. It is assumed this force will be
transferred from the concrete slab into the steel beam
by the connectors along a distance from the point of
maximum positive moment ont to the end of the beam,
for simply supported beams; or from the point of
maximum positive moment out to the point of contra-
fiexure, for continuous beams.
In the bridge field, this shear transfer is based on
the vertical shear applied to the beam. In most cases
this value will vary along the beam's length. For this
reason, more than one section may have to be checked
when the size and number of shear connectors are
determined.
This example considers just one point of appli-
cation, the section near the pier supports, and assumes
certain conditions:
Stud Connectors
Use W dia, x 4" studs. From Table 4, Q = 10.2
kips/stud.
working load
Q
q =-
F.S.
spacing of connectors (use 4 studs per transverse
section)
weld length
Complete contact surface of stud is joined to beam.
No calculation of weld length is necessary.
hannel Connectors
Use a 4" 5.4-lb channel of 10" length. From Table 6,
Q L= 49.6 kips/channel.
working load
F.S.
q .= -
Q
FIGURE 4
L
f,' = 3000 psi (concrete)
m
- = 4 i n (See Table 3)
1,
F.S. = 3.81
V,,, = 49.6 kips
V,,, = 5.06 kips
calculating for horizontal shear
spacing of connectors
= 10.75" or use 10%''
allowable force on weld
Assume fillet leg size of w = 3/1$" and N =
600,000 cycles:
V, , "
I< = -
Vm,,
- .-
(+EL06 kips)
(+46.6 kips)
= 1.4 kips/in. of weld
required ueld length
= 9.3" < 20" actually used OK
-
This indicates most channels are overwelded.
Use %'' dia rod. From Table 5, Q = 21.31 kips/tum.
working load
Q
q =-
u S
4.61" or use 4K"/turn
-
force on weld
Pissumc fillet leg size of w = %" and N = 600,000
cycles:
- -
( i 5. 06 kips)
($49.6 kips)
7070 o
f -
W - K (From Table 7)
= 2.8 kips/in. of weld
= 2.0" or I" each side in contact area
.- - ... -. . . --
Studs are widely used in both building and
bridge work as shear connectors for composite
construction. Quickly attached by efficient orc-
welding equipment, studs serve to anchor the
concrete slab to the steel beams. The compos-
ite beam provides high strength at lower cost.
Typical scenes of modern bridge work
featuring composite construction. Prior to
pouring the concrete deck, studs are ot-
tached to girder flanges by specialized
arc-welding equipment. Connectors allow
the concrete slob t o act with the steel.
1. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Many hridge designs use reinforced concrete slabs for
floors. These may be suppoited by stringers and floor
beams of the bridge. When no iloor beams are present,
the concrctc floor is supported directly on top of the
primary longitudinal members.
On deck-type bridges, with the concrete floor rest-
ing on the top flange or top chord of the longitudinal
member, the concrete slab may be anchored to the
steel by means of shew attachmcnts. In this manner,
the concretc floor becomes an integral part of the steel
member in compression.
This composite construction is rccugnized by most
structural authorities as an effective means of insuring
economy (particularly in steel tonnage); of promoting
shallow depth and more graceful shuchual lines, and
of improving the rigidity of bridges. Typical savings
produced with composite construction alone are in the
range of 8 to 30% by weight of steel. To be effective,
of course, the concrete must always be in compression
to prevent cracks in the pavement.
Some types of shear attachments are shown in
Figure 1. See Section 4.9 on Shear Attachments for
FIGURE 1
Steel grids may be used for floors for the following
reasons:
1. Reduced dead weight of flooring. This reduces
the required size of stringers, floor beams, and girders
arid results in a savings in the amount of steel and
cost of the bridge.
2. Snow does not remain on the grid floor; hence,
grids greatly lower snow rcmoval cost during the
wintcr.
3. Since s11ow and rain do not remain on the grid
floor, therc is no reason for a crown for drainage
purpose"^ This si~nplifics construction costs.
4. For the same reason, scrlppers and drains are
riot required.
5. Tlrr grid flooring a n be installed easily and
quickly.
Sometimes a light concrete layer is applied to the
steei grid.
FIGURE 2
3. STEEL PLATE
Steel plate welded to the hridge structure and properly
stiffoned has been used for flooring. By welding a corn-
parativcly thin steel plate to the top flange of longi-
FIGURE 3
tudinal members, a built-up section is produced which
greatly increases the strength and stiffness of the
member. This has sometimes been called "battledcclc
flooring".
. TYPICAL FLOOR SYSTEMS
The design in Figure 4( a) utilizes a steel grid floor
in order to reduce the dead weight of the structure.
The steel grid rests on the main girders and the longi-
tudinal stringers. The floor beams are set lower so that
the stringers, when placed on top, will be flush with
the top of the girder. Brackets ,ue shop welded to the
girders to receive the floor beams. The top bracket
plate is slightly narrower than the flange of the floor
beam, and the bottom bracket plate is slightly wider
than the flange of the Boor beam. This is so that down-
hand fillet welds may be used in the field connection
of the floor beams to the girders.
With a little extra care in shipping and creeting,
it would be possible to shop weld the railing and like
attachments to the girders and further reduce the field
welding.
The floor system in Figure i ( b ) is made up of
two longitudinal steel girdcrs with a concrete floor
attached to the girders by means of shc'u connections.
Althongh spiral shear cmncctiuos are shown here, this
composite beam could be made by using any type of
shear attachments. Shrar attachments can also be used
on the floor beams.
i n the design in Figure 5( a) , the top portion of
the girders hclps to form t he curb. For this reason,
the floor bcams mnst be lowered, so as to get the bridge
floor helow the top flange of the girders. To keep this
floor level down, the stringers nnl Between the floor
beams and their top flanges are flush with the top
flanges of the floor beams. Although this produces a
very compact and Aci ent design, it does involve a
little more fitting and welding than the previous floor
designs.
A vcry popular design today is the continuous
girder deck bridge, Figure 5( h) . Several plate girders
are placed side-by-side with sufficient cross bracing.
A composite concrete Boor is attached t o the top of
the girders by means of shear connectors. For short
spans, rolled beams are used with cover plates added
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
Fl oo~ Systems f or Bridges / 4.10-3
at points of high moment. For longer spans, deeper
plate girders are fabricated. For a more efficient design,
these girders are deeper at points of high moment. The
outside girders usually have their intermediate stiff-
eners placed on one side only, the inboard side, so that
they have a more pleasing appearance.
Box girders have been used for bridges; usually
two or more are used. They may be joined by several
metl~ods. The example in Figure 6( a ) uses floor heams
flush with the top of the box girder, on which is placed
a concrete floor attachcd with shear connectors.
with floor beams extending outward to support the
bridge Boor. In Figure 6( b) , longitudinal stringers are
sapported on the Woor beams, and the floor rests on
tticse. It has evcn been suggested that a similar design
could he made from a large diameter fabricated pipe
section.
5. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
Designers arr coming to realize the importance of
designing bridge floors, etc.; with more inherent lateral
stability and torsional resistance.
Box girder constrnction has sevcral :tdvantagcs. It
presents a flat surface for otlicr r~tt;tch~ncnts; hmce,
the floor bcam do not havc to be copad whcn they
are welded to the girder. Then, is irss of a c ~ l ~ o ~ i o n
problem because of thl. flat srirfaces. Also, since tlie
box girder ends may hc s cal d off, the illside is pro-
tected. Perhaps the grmtcst advnntaga is the treman-
dous incrcase in torsioi~iil rcsistanee offered by tlw
closed box section. It ;tiso lias good lateral stability.
These torsional and l at ~r al st;ihiliiy proper tit.^ nrc br-
coining recognized advantagis. and morc bridge engi-
neers are making use of tlrim
Some designs havr made use of a single box girder,
When a simple inernher is subjected to a torsional
moment, shmr stresses occi.ir; one set being at right
anglrs to the axis of the member and the other set
ltmgthwise. In I'igr~rr. 7, shear forces ( b ) act at right
angles to the lengthwise member and causc it to twist.
A fiat scction 01- any opcn section offers vcry little
rosistanec to twist. Thv cross membcrs are subjected
to thr sl i cx forccs (; I) and. likewise, twist. If a diagonal
mrmber is placcd in the: strncture, both shear forces
( a ) mid ( b ) act OI I it. 'fowcver, the coinponents of
thesr forws. acting at right angles to the diagonal
FIGURE 8
member, cancel each other out, so there is no twisting
action applied to the member. These forccs do combine
to place tension and compression in line with the mem-
ber, thus placing the diagonal member in bending for
which it is very rigid. Welding can be used to very
good advantage in diagonal bracing.
Figure 8 is From a bridge designed by Camilo
Piccone and ermteted over the Rio Blanco River in
Mexico. It is based on an earlier design of Thomas
C. Kavanagh. The floor makes use of diagonal mem-
bers which procluce a grid type structure, extremely
resistant to twisting and lateral movement.
Thermal chianges in temperature cause certain physical
changes in the size and shape of all construction
materials and in their completed strudures. The changes
are in proportion t o the dimensions of the structure,
the coefficients of expansion for the materials, and the
number of degrees of temperature change.
The structure contracts with the cold and expands
with the heat, so a typical bridge might be approxi-
mately 1" longer per 100 linear feet in the summer
than i n the winter. It will also have daily and short-
time changes of a lesser degree in proportion to every
change in temperature and it will have additional move-
ments from the elastic deflections of the structure.
These changes in lcngth can be compensated for
hy corresponding drformations within the structure
itself. This is because changing the stress in the stnic-
ture will also cause it to change in length in proportion
to its modulus of dasticity. However, it is usually more
economical to us e expansion joints since the forces
that are required to deform a structure are very large.
Masonry materials such as stone and concrete
compress elastically but will not stretch. Therefore,
they are iilcely to crack when subjected to the stresses
of temperature contraction.
For these reasons and others, most structures are
dosigned with provision for expansion joints at intcr-
vals to take care of the uormal movements of expansion
and contraction and to relieve the thermal forces. Many
types of joints in common use have been designed to
do this, varying from open joints, simple planes of
wealmess, 'md elastite joints such as are commonly
used in pavements, to the long interlocking fingered
castings and sliding bar joints used in bridge work.
One Example
The all-welded expansion joint shown in Figure 9 is
similar to those in the deck of a large bridge built in
recent years. This joint is made entirely kom rolled
structural plates m d angles at a great saving in cost by
welding.
It is typical of many cases wherein welding has
FIGURE 9
Door Systems for -5
not only simplified and improved bridge deck designs
b ~i t has also reduced the cost of the installation to
corlsiderahly less than half the estimated cost of con-
vrntional type of segmental cast steel fingered joints.
The joint as shown provides for 16" of movement
computed at the rate of 1%'' per 100' for the 1200'
length of stnicturc.
The joint (Fig. 9) is made in two halves, each half
being symmetrical by rotating 1180" with respect to the
other half. Thc joint integral with the curbs, extends
the full width of the 24' roadway in one piece. This
teeth. The slight side taper of %" in the length of the
tooth adds to the clearance as the teeth are pulled apart.
The 18" length of i wi h is dctwmined by adding 1"
ciearancr at extremc expansion movements, plus a
minimum lap of I" whcn the bridge is fully contracted
to the 16" of required movement.
The treth are spaced on 4" centers. This spacing
is as small as practical in order to distribnte the loads
from the roadway sm-fitce over as many treth as pos-
sible. It is also desirable in ordcr to avoid having large
l~oles between the teeth when the joint is open. The
LAYOUT OF FLAME CUT TEETH
FIGURE 1 1
is fabricatcd to fit t l ~ curvature of the roadway crown. upper surfaces of the ends of the teeth are ground
The intwlocking teeth which form the top surfaces down and rounded slightly to insure a smooth tran-
on both sides ol thc joint are flame-cut in a single op- sition of the loads from one side of the joint to (he
eration from a common 28" x I" x 24' plate as shown other.
in the layout of Figure 10. The cut is made just wide The joint shown in Figure 9 is designed to support
enough to insure finish on both edges of t he cut and 16,000-lb Ii-20 tmck wheel loads with 100% impact.
to give proper clearance fur the final meshing of the This load is distributed equally to each of five adjacent
teeth and is assumed to be applied on a contact area
3" long, centered I.'?" from the end of the teeth. While
in this extreme position, the teeth on only one side
of the joint support the entire load. On this basis the
depth of the web, the thickness of the plates, and other
proportions are determined to support these load re-
quirements.
The unusually long cantilevered projection of the
teeth is reduced by snppolting the teeth directly on an
auxiliary end cross beam. The cross beams in turn are
supported from the end flwr beams at 10'-3" intervals
by means of cantilevered stringer brackets. The floor
beams span 35' center-to-center of busses, and the
trusses are supported on expansion rocker or roller
bridge shoes.
The strength of the tecth in this case is obtained
by continuor~sly groove or fillet welding 5" x 'h" x 1'-
8%" vertical web plate ribs to the underside of each
tooth, as shown in Figure 11. Thc rear ends of these
ribs are anchored for uplift by groove welding to the
back of the 7" x 4" x %" slab closure angle. This angle
is continuously welded to the I" surface plate, and
serves also as a latesai distribution beam between the
plate anchors.
Plate anchors composed of 5'' x %" x 1'3" web
plates are welded to the rear of the joint opposite the
web of every fourth taoth. These plates are spaced at
16" centers, and each plate engages two Y4" jacking
bolts to the flange of the floor beam. These bolts serve
both as erection bolts for setting the joint to elevation
and grade, and as anchor bolts to hold down the rear
of the joint against uplift caused by traffic. The plate
anchors lap with the main longitudinal reinforcement
bars in the slab for continuity, and the end of the con-
crete casts into the pocket formed by the surface plate
and the 7" x 4" x %" angle.
The vertical leg of the 7" x 4" angle is flame cut
to fit the curve of the roadway crown before welding
to the 1" plate. This helps to hold the joint in proper
shape. The ribs are all held together at the bottom by
welding to the 5" x %" continuous plate bolted to the
anxiliary cross beam.
The entire joint should be assembled in the shop
with the cross brams :uid the field holes drilled to
insure a proper fit in the field.
Field erection consists simply of setting the bridge
shoes the proper distances apart, shimming the end
cross beams to proper grade, and a final adjustment of
the jacking bolts and the bolts to the cross beams. The
concrete slab is then cast up to the joint around the
anchors and cured, and the joint is ready for traffic.
One complete 24' joint as shown in Figure 9
weighs 6250 lhs. This compares to an estimated weight
of 8500 lbs for a conventional cast stecl fingered joint.
This comparison indicates that the welded detail
accomplishes a saving in metal weight of 26%, in addi-
tion to rpplacing expensive cast steel metal with rolled
structural material. The relative cost of rolled metal
is much less per pound.
A very important type of floor construction is the ortho-
tropic deck, in which all elements of the structure work
together. Having principal application in the bridge
field, orthotropic constn~ction will be covered separ-
ately in the following Section 4.11.
1. THE ORTHOTROPlC DESIGN CONCEPT
There is a growing interest in this country in the use
of orthotropic bridge design and construction, a system
now commonly used in Europe.
With conventional bridge structures, the three main
elc?ments-longitiidinal main girders, transverse floor
beam, and lighter longitudinal stringers or stiffeners-
all act indeperldently of each other. Usually an 8"
thick concrete floor distributes the applied loads; see
Figure 1(A).
In contrast, a11 elements of the orthotropic structure
work together; see Figure 1(B). This new system uses
a thin steel deck plate across the entire width and
length of the bridge, and this serves as the top flange
plate of the (1) longitudinal main girders, (2) transverse
floor beams, and (3) lighter longitudinal stiffcners. The
deck plate also contributes to the torsional resistance
of the stiffeners when it forms a closed section.
I-Iaving a common top fiange member, all three ele-
ments act and load up together in the most efficient
manner. The steel deck plate is topped with a light
1%" thick asphalt wearing surface for complete elimina-
tion of the heavy concrete floor.
The combined orthotropic deck st ~uct ure acts as a
single plate or membrane with three separate sectional
properties: hending resistance about the x-x axis (trans-
verse to the length of the bridge), bending resistance
about the y-y axis (parallcl to the bridge), and torsional
rcsisiance about the y-y axis. A corrcentrated load
placed upon the deck plate is distributed over a wide
area to several adjacent floor beams. The longitudir~al
stiffeners below this load act as beams on elastic sup-
ports. With increasing load, the rather fiexible deck
and stiffeners spread the load over a greater area. This
action has been confirmed by many tests on modcls as
well as actual bridges.
In the tests of the model of one bridge, the computed
test load corresponding to maximum allowable design
stress was 2.06 tons. The computed ultimate load was
5.6 tons. During testing, measurements indicated there
was perfect dastic behavior up to an actual load of
4.1 tons. When loaded above the dastic limit, there
was no rapid and unrestrained increase in deflection
as is customary in the usual bending of beams; rather
the deflections increased linearly just a little faster
than the applied load. At a load of 48 tons, a crack
started to appear in the stiffener region, and at 56
tons this had spread over the entire depth of the
stiffener. This test hldicated an apparent factor of
safety of 27 to 1.
With optimum use of welding, orthotropic construc-
/ $" a~phai t surface
Conventiono 1 Brldyr Conventiono I Brldyr
, -.
' N o o r beam
FIGURE 1
tion rt-sults in the bridge superstruclur? ns~inilly weigh-
ing only half as rnrrch as woi~ld rmrlt froin any other
design system. This weight :a\,ing is such a tremenclorrs
advwtagr on lorig span bridges, that ortliotropic de-
sig:r is rapidly replacing truss dcssign on a11 European
bridgt.s having spans of 100' or more, and shoiild do
thc same in this coiintry.
AISC hns piiidishcd ail cxccllcnt design i~xirrunl oil
"Orthotropic St r d Plate Deck Bridges" by Roman
Wolcliirk (1963). It contains thcory, methods of design,
and sr~ggcstcd details of orthotropic bridges.
This typo of hridge design ivor~ld be impractic;il
without the i.xtensive usc of welding. The miles of
welded joints afford a good opportimity to sub-
~~s s o r h l e the sections (or anion~atic dobvnhand wilding
and rnodrrn fabricating methods. Sincc riumi~rorss i dm-
tical dwk sections are rrquinrd, they may ix. set up in
;i jig and autorn:~tirnlly suhmrrged-:trc we l dd with
~ni r~i mr~i n time and cost.
. JOINING LONGITU lNAL STIFFENERS TO
ECK PLATE
In Er~mpean orthotropic hridgt- design, longitudinal
stiflcners :ire cominonl!. of trixprzoidal cmss-scction for
torsional rigidity. .4mwican &%sign interest appears to
favor this approach; sre Figure 2. -4ltho11gh riot too
clear on the slwtrh of the Port hlann bridge, the edge
FIG. 2-Typical Hollow Trapezoidal Ribs and Connecting Welds
floor beam
1 Wesei Porta
rib
Web of 4"
floor beom. 1 1
AiSC Standard (initial]
I (Feb 1960)
interrupted
Mannheim-Ludwigshafen
Continuous
floor beam - 1 I
Port Monn
-
L6%'4 They considered
Poplar Street
both interrupted
St. Louis and continuous
(proposed) trapezoidal ribs
FIGURE 3
ca
of the stiffener was cut square without any bevel. It
was shown in tests by the f~lbricntor that a single pass
madi. with the aut.om;itic srihrrrerged-arc wclder would
prodilce a sound weld with tbroat grmter than st sener
thickness; see Figure 3.
The torsional resistance of any closed tubular
section, as indicated by Figure 4, is:
where:
[A] = area encloscd hy the: trapczoid
t g = thickness of deck plate
t, - thickness of stiffrwcr
bR = width of deck p!:ite within region of stiffcner
b, = umlevoloped width of stiffener
In designing the Port Monn Bridge in British
Columbia, Canada, engineers specified or-
thotropic deck construction for maximum
weight reduction ond dollar economy. Deck
plate is stiffened by longitudinal trough-
shoped stringers formed by press-brake.
Welding of stringers to tronsverse beams i s
done by a progressive ossembly technique
. . . for near continuous-flow production.
FIGURE 4
l'hv &sign Manniil fur Orthotropic Sttel Plate
I hck liridgcs innlti~lics this torsional rc~sistairce ( R)
by a rcdnction factor ( p ) which lias Ivwr dciermincd
hy trsting of varims shapes of stiffcm:rs. %is factor
is afFcctrd by the shape. of thc stiffcncr.
Stiffcncrs can readily fomreri to the trqwmidal
shape oil a prcss hr;rke. Recmse of the torrnagc re-
(psired, it might hc more eco~iomical to pnrchase a
spt.ciai irrill-rolled srvtion for the stiii'cnms; see Figure
5. T h ~ n thc outer portions of tlw platr w-kith which
become webs of the lmilt-np trapmoid scction are
rollcd thiimcr, md tlic ccntral portion is left thicker
for tho lowrr fiangc,. This places the inatcrial where
required: f o r t h r(.ducing the bridge uvight and ton-
nage of stccl required. The plate conld bc rollcd to the
final trapeztrid section, thiis ciiminating the braking
operntion Imigths of this scction would nest and
preseiit no problem in shipping.
Another rt+hment \vould bc to pnwicie slightly
greater tliickness at web cxtreniities so as to give more
hearing against the deck plate and greater throat to
the connecting weld.
Thitker section
FIGURE 5
Back~ng bar,
Y
Z 9r40ve welds
Two splices every /5'
FIGURE 6
3. FIELD SPLICE OF LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS
There are two basic methods for detailing the inter-
section of longit~~dinal stiffeners and transverse floor
beams; see Figure 6.
( A) Following the common European practice, the
floor beam webs run continuous and stiffeners are but
to fit between the beams. The stiffeners are thus limited
to about 15' ui length, and the main bending stresses
of the structure in the stiffeners must be transferred
trausversely through the w ~ h of each floor beam by
means of groove welds ( T joint). There niight be a
question of the possibility of a lamination in the web
opening up because of the transverse force applied
through it. This method requires a large nnmber of
field groove welds to be made in the vertical and over-
head position. There are 2 welds at each heam per
stiffener.
( B ) An alternate method would be to have the
trapezoid stiffeners run continuous throughout the
length of the structure, with webs of the floor beams
cut ont to fit around the stiffeners. This would clirninate
any questions as to the safe transfer of main bending
stresses.
This method wonld grcatly rcdnce the required
field welding. For exaniple, the stiffcnrrs could be shop
fabricated into 60' lengths; this would require just a
single groove meld in the field every 60'. This would
be a single groove butt joint in contrast to the 2 groove
welds at each floor heam required by Alethod A. The
critical field welding thus u~ould be only % of that
required by Method A.
" -
In a translation of a German paper, l'atigue Tests
on Ilollow Rib C:onncctions" by FI. Hansch and C: .
Mullcr, rcsnlts of fatigne testing three different dctails
of longitndinal stiifeners were snmmarizcd:
1. The longitndinal stiffeners were internrpttd at
the transverse floor beam wcbs and joined by fillet
welds to the webs of t l ~e floor boam.
2. The longitlldinnl stifl'mers cverc interrupted at
the floor heam wehs, but \ \ we \vrldcd with single bevel
groove wclds to thc webs of tlif. floor beams.
3. The longitudinal stilfencrs ran continuously
tln-ough the floor beam webs.
The results sholved the continuous stiffener (1)
to have the highest fatigue strength, cr = 28,000 psi,
when tested with a stress range of
'Thc shape of tllc closed t~ibiiliir k~ngi t \ ~di nd
stiffrnm- tcsted hail no appri.ciahlc rficct lipon the
tcst I-csulls. Cold formirig of tlrta stiflcnrrs had no ci I t ~t .
T h q rcconimend thxt thr dcsigncr place the firld
splice of t l w stiilcncrs iri low-stressed regions.
4. SHOP FABRICATE SUBASSEMBLIES
l t is possihle to lal~ricate nrzirly the rmtir~. drck of the
bridge, in sections. r~ndcr optimum shop nmditions and
thcrchy miriimizp the amo~mt of fir.id w~icling. This
includes dcck swt i ms lying 1xhw11 tlit. mnin box
girders. and ;my swtiorls to hr c;intilrv<vd out from
the hox girdcr.
Thr drck unit wliicli is to rrst hrt\r-wr~ tlic main
box girdrrs can be in;idc initially in thrnc swtions. For
;In average bridge, each of thesr prciabricatd sections,
9' wide by 60' long, would weigh about 8% tuns; see
Figure 7.
Three of these sections \vould he 1;tiil out, still
upside down, and tack wclded together; see Figure
8 ( A) . This work would preftmbly hc done on the
f i nd means of transpoi-t. in some cases :I barge. 1':acii
longittrdinal joint ol thc top d ~ k pi nk can he made
\i,it!i a two-p:ws ivi~ld; o~i e pass on r d ~ sidc using x
sr~hmergerl-arc :~utorii;itic wclder. This joint is a simple
sq~~arc*-bistt joint witliout i~ny b;icLing bar, a ~ ~ d rcquircs
rio l>r:vi:ling of plat[. edqm. : \ l t ~ ~ making the first pass,
tllr fonr floor bcams 21re r i i i ~n ~~a l l ~ welded in place.
Each bran1 consists of ;I hottom flmge p!atc and a a e h
having t r ; i pr ~oi ~l d <,litorlts ;ilong the top edge to
fit : ~rorn~d ewh stifk:rir:r.
With the, tr;~nsvrrsc. foor hc~im welded in pl:icc;
FIGURE 7
v2 l Sepe~s on deck E
FIGURE 8
4.1 1-6 / Girder-Related
the entire nnit can be turned over without undue strain
on the incompleta butt weld. A second pass is taken to
complete the automatic welding of the longitndinal
joints, all in the dovvlihand position; see Figure S( B) .
The result is a complete dock unit, 27' X 60', weighing
abont 29 tons, to be hoisted from the barge into position
between the two main box girders.
The Port Mann bridge d t ~ k panels were fabricated
and wc4dcd in the shop as units 65' wide, the width of
the drck lying in between the main longitudinal girders,
and 25' long, the distance 1)etwt:en tlie imnsvmse floor
beams. Thesc panels weighed bctwecn 32 and 36 tons,
drperiding upon the deck plate thickness. In Europe,
panels up to 58' X 18' have bccn Fabricated and trans-
ported by barges to the site. The Save River bridge
had prefabricated panels weighing 27.5 tons. The
Mannheim-Lndwigshafen tiridge was erected in panels
18.5' wide and 60' long. The Severin bridge in Cologne
was erected in panels 62.8' wide and 47 to 54' long.
. FIELD ERECT10
The ontire superstructure probably wo~ild he erected in
units, starting from a pier support and cantilevering
out. A travelirig crane coirld place tlic individual units.
For any givm scgment of the span, the main longi-
tudinal box girders would be put into position first.
The field splice of tho top flange deck plate should be
weidrd bec;rnse the l'h" thick asphalt floor to be
applicd leaves little room [or splice plates and bolts.
The erection bolts probably shoold bc on the girder
webs. The girder's bottom flange may vary from %" to
3 or 4" thick platc, and could be spliced by field weld-
ing because field bolting of this thick plate would be
costly.
Transverse shrinkage of the weld on the $5'' dack
platc witliin this 1x1s girder is estimate1 at ahout .03",
and shrinkage of the groovc wcld of 3 3" bottom flange
plate at about .10". Under this condition, a suggested
I ~~- ~~cedui - c is to weld the bottom flange to about ?*
completiorr, thrw weld the top deck simultaneous with
welding the remaining % of the bottom flange. In this
maiinrr. bot l ~ ilangcs shonld pull in togctller evenly.
T l ~ r nest stcp would be rrrction of the sohassem-
bled dwk unit hctucen these two main box girders.
Wit11 a dcck unit raised into place, tlie ends of each
floor beam would hc field wel dd to the main box
girdcrs. The two lor~gitudinal joints and one t r ansvax
joint of thc l / ~' r deck platc siiould he weldrd in a single
p s s with :I submcrgcd-arc tractor. Plates should be
imrtially hrveled at the top and a backing bar i i s d
so that iull-penetration u d d s can be made in the down-
FIGURE 9
hand position; see Figure 9.
Longitudinal stiffn,crs would be field spliced by
n~anr~ally groove welding tlic hntt joint using a light
hacking bar placed on the inside of the trapezoid, very
similar to pipe welding. The upper edge of the stiffener
could be notched at this joint so a backing bar can run
contin~iously across the deck to facilitate automatic
welding of the deck piate transverse joint. Under these
conditions, tlic joints of deck plate and stiffeners shciild
be offset at least 2", as shown in Figlire 10, so each deck
unit can he lowered down u-ithout interference of the
backing bars.
ckiny bar f or ~t I ' f f ener
e
Mew akcksection about
t o be lowered inp/a.ce
FIGURE 10
If there is :my doubt ahont thr fit-up of multiple
stilfcnm for field splicing, (wl s of the stiffrncrs can
br left un\veldc(I to the deck plate for about a foot.
This will permit thrm to ho i~idividually aligned hori-
zontally for welding.
If slxcific dimensions OF the stiffener indicates a
possiblc prohlcm in accssihility for the wcldor in niak-
ing the ficld splices, the deck plate can be left sliort
by about 10" from cxch md of tlir section; see Fignre
11. This worild also allow tlir back of the joints on the
illside of tlic trapezoid stitrcner to bc root gonged and
R mot or back p x s inadc. .4 20" wide deck platc sec-
tion wolild thcn hc inserted, and two transvcrsc groove
xelds made. This would doi~blc the icngth of translwsc
welds for splicing the deck plates; ho\wver, all of this
wclcli~~g would hc automatic, singlc pass work. Ends of
the stiifenrrs \vonld then 11c overhcad welded to this
deck insert; as shown i n Fignrc 11.
An alterriate way to field splice the trapezoidal
stiifenrrs is to place the 1x:vrl on the inside and a
backing bar on the outsidc; tire weliior then makcs all
the splices while working from the top of tlie deck.
ecks 1 4.11-7
transverse eut onkt i c weld \
o f deck
F;eldsplicc of stiffener
Deck R + stiffemer v
serving es the top Deck E + stiffener
f l uye, js in
servioj as the t o p
comprcssioo f l mye, i s in tension
FIGURE 12
This type of inspvction should he limited to critical
joints \\hicli the Engineer should seli~ct. Fatigue con-
ditions that reduce the allo\v:ible stress in design may
indicate such a nwd; for rxample, groove wcldcd h t t
joints snhject to tension, 3 \vide mngr of stress, ;I high
stress, and a large ntirnher of cycles. As the factors
that produce fatigue loadi~ig ;il-e reduced, the necessity
for mdiographic inspection is likewise rcdoced.
If all of 1111. groove \vcicls in the deck plate are
madt~ by the suhmergcd-arc antomatic proccss, proprr
procedures car1 1)c cstahlishad to insure good mvlding.
This should eliniinatc the ~ i t d lor costly radiographic
inspection ol tllesr \velds, altho~igh linritrd spot chocks
conld IF mad<>.
Any ficld spl i ~i . in the lower flanga of the main
box girticrs in ;i rcgion of pwitivc moment, rnight be
inspected by radiograph)-.
Fi,.ld splir:t!s in the longitudinal stiifcners must be
considcrr.d from the type of loading:
1. The stilfecer si>rves along with the deck plate
as the top f l ang~ of thc main structure, and as such
is subjected to tension in the negative rnornent region
near tlic pier supports. liowcver, this comes front the
dred load of thr strvcturc and any live load sprt:;rd
over ;t rather Izirge arm, thus the range of strtw varin-
tion and the n~m~l wr of strcss c.yr1t.s would hc ri:lativcly
small; S<Y. Figuri. 12.
2. l'hc stiifi,xlcr srrvcs along with the deck pl;ite
;is n short hiwn iwtwwn l h l - hc;ims, ; ~ n d : ~ny 1oc;llizcd
wheel load worild prndricc n wide range i r l si res and
thc i ~i i rr~hw of ;ippiic;iti(~ns <vrild hc vei-y high. Ilo\ir-
wc,r, by using 4 l e t l d B to dotnil thc network of floor
1w;:rns and stiKrners the only critical wclds wo ~ ~ l d oct:nr
;it abont cwery 60' of hridgc h g t h . 'l'he influciicc lines,
sfc I'ig~irc 13, show the sni~incrit dike to conc<~ntr.;ttcti
\vliccl load at givc~i poii~ts as the load progrcssm along
thc span bctwecn floor 11r;ims. Hy locati~ig the field
splice of thc stiffcuw ;it :1 point ahout '/ro I, along
the span Iwtwct:~~ s~~pport i ng Roor brrams, the hcndii?g
strcss on thc n d d is rath1.r lmv md ~vithmrt much
Ructnation.
Spot checks of the stiifcner liald spliccs by gnmma
ray irisliwtion, if rcqriircd, could he m:i& by rlrilling
a small l i do in the 12" deck piate and lowering thc
capsiilc dowr~ li;~lf\v;iy into the interior of the [rape-
zoidal area, with thc film wi-appcd arourid thc outside
. I 1 4 / Girder-Related Design
eld splice in siiffencr
I L -----------------A
Deck @ in thsi on ; bottom
Moment diaqram
Concentrated wheel load
Max. moment (due t o ?-
concentrated l oud)
on deck section
Infhence /;nes showing shift of maximum moment as t he
concentrated toed moves along span.
--
FIGURE 13
of the stiffrner. This hole can he filled later by- welding,
or by tapping it and screwing a pipe plug into it.
. WELDOR QUALIFICATION
In addition to the standard .4\1'S uddor qualification
test, it would he well for those men assigned to field
weld the stiffeners to &st weld a test joint of this splice
in position. This can be givcn a visnal inspection,
including sawing of the joint at one or more points and
etching to determine if proper fusion was obtained. It
might bo well to consider weldors who have had some
experience in pipe welding.
I Problem 1 I
An orthotropic deck is to be fabricated in units 104"
wide containing 4 trnPoidal stifleners cach 13" wide
and on 11" centers. The stiffeners are weldcd to the
3 n
/8 deck plate along their edges. If these nnits are 30'
long, cstimate the amount of bending or camber due
to the shrin1r;lgc of the welds; see Figlire 14.
To find the prnpcrties of this section, seiect refer-
ence axis ( x- x) along ~ ~ n t l t r ~ ~ c a t h sill-face of deck plate.
This is almost through tlrc ciwtcr of gravity of the 2
welds, and tlw resr~lting distance to the ncritrxl nsis
( n) will also hc the disiancc I~etwern the neutral
axis aim1 the ccnter of gravity of wt.lds ( d) .
(-3.5.412)2
= (279.87) --
( a 7 9 j
- (Proin Table A )
- - -2.19" also = d
Orthotropic Bridge Decks / 4.1 1-
- L- -
Neut r al oxi s
% (%") (' L") = 1/ 24
FI GURE 14
TABLE A
bending or camber I , = 30' = 360"
I n orckr to find t l i ~ propi.rty of tlnis 111iilt-tip
005 A d L'
section, it is newss:rry to lmrw tlit: properties of the
A = ' "
I
i ~rc of a cil& whicli fornns tlie roui ~d huttom portion.
-1- ,585" ( r ~i ds wonld go iip this ;Imolmt)
Tl ~i s 1~1e;ins when tlie 30' long unit is upside clown
for \ wl di ~r ~. the fixturt, should be curvcd suEcicntly
to pull tlir. central section of thl. unit down by this
arnouut ( ,585").
/ Problem 2 1
FI GURE 16
k t r t i i i I I I n I t .\lami bridge
in British Cohirnhia coiisists of tr;n,c;.oiclal stillpni:rs 11 m ~ i Iw d ~ n v ~ i t l ~at Ilic f(1l111wi11g is trii~.:
with r o 1 1 1 1 bottoins spac(d OII 2-1" cpntcrs and
n-eldtd to u 'r" to dcck plat<,. Tl~cs(. dtrck se<,tir~ns h 2 t r H
artx shop \wldisd illto p;ii~ris ; ~l ~ori t 65' \\-id,. th<s M-idth
of tlrt~ hridgr i n bi,t\v<x~~i tlii. maill Iorigiti~di~~;il girders,
dl
and 25' Itmg: as sliown in Fignrc 15. 1:stimate tint
2 \ i l , ~ ' 11
ainoirnt of htwiing or c;nribt~ dnc to tht: sIirii,k;igc of l g ~ t r t [ O ; I z s i ~ t ? ~
the welds.
8
k t n t r 0 1 ri i i i t y )
irder-Related Design
In this example:
0 = 72.45" or 1.263 radians
TABLE B
These values will now be used in finding the prop-
erties of the built-up section. To find these properties,
select reference axis (x-x) along the w~derneath surface
of the deck platc. This is almost through the center of
gravity of the 2 welds, and the resulting distance to
the nentral axis ( n) mill also be the distancc between
the neutral axis and the center of grnvity of welds ( d) .
= (323.35) - -- (-38'76)2 (From Table B)
(19.27)
bentling or camber L = 25' = 30G"
0 0 5 A d U
A = .: ~ ..
1 -
= .48" (ends would go lip this amount)
This means when the 25' long unit is upside down
for wclding, tiit. fixture shoi~ld be cnrved sufficiently
to pnll the central section of the :mit down by this
amount or about irY,
FIG. 1 Multiple burning torches cut
heavy steel plaie to be used in fabri-
cated bridge girders.
1. PLATE PREPARATION
Flange plates may be ordered as bars rolled to the
proper width and thickness. No further prepamtion is
rcquired excppt cntting to proper length and beveling
the ends for thc butt joint.
Some fabricators will flame cut the flange plates
from wide plates; Fignre 1. Since there is some shrink-
;tqe due to the &%me cntting opwation, the flalrge will
have a swoep or bend if it i? cut along just one side.
For this reason the flange is rnadc by cutting alorrg
both sides, usually with a cutting unit having mnultiple
torches which are cut at thc same time.
For girders with a horizontal curve, the flange
plates arc flame cut to the proper cnrve.
2. FIT-UP AND ASSE
Fabricators having fnll-automatic, submerged-arc weld-
ing hc;rils usrx~lly fit thc flanges to the web ; ~nd then
cornplcte thc fillct wrlc1ii1g.
Platc gii-dcrs may be fitted a ~ d assembled by one
of the follo~ving pl-occdures:
First, one flange is laid fiat on the floor. A chalk
Un,: is markcd along tlrc wrrtrrlinc of the flangc and
srndl right-angle clips tack wel dt ~i at intervals along
the Inngth of the flangc war this ceutcrline. See Fignrc
2. Next, thc web is plaetd vertically on the flange and
temporarily si i pport d with :~ngl<is or bars tack welded
hctwccn the web and the Range. The clips along the
flange align the wcb along the ccnterline of the flangt:.
Thc top flange plate may then ba placed on top of the
wel). This rncthod may bi: nsed for straight girders if
thry are not too deep
Thc plat(: girdcr r~iay be assembled hy placing
the wcb down on a fixtrirc in the ho~izonral position:
Figure 3. The fiangr platcs art p t in position and some
.?2-2 / Cirder-
FI GURE 3
FI GURE 4
clamping method (such as wedges, screws, jacks, or in
some cases compressed air) is used to force the flangc
tight against the edge of the web. Thcse fixtures auto-
matically hold thc flange in propcr vertical alignlnent.
If thc wch is thin and very deep, caution must he
used so that exccssive prcssllre is not used against the
flanges because this may bow the web upward. See
Fignre 4. Since the Ranges arc: vcrtical in the fixture,
when the pressure is rcloascd and the web straightens
out, the flange3 may rotate ;md not be parallel.
I-Iaunched or fishbelly girders are usually asscmhlcd
with the web horizontal in this manner. However, some
fishhclly girders that ,are not too deep have hem assem-
bled upside down with the web vertical. Sec Figure 5.
What would be the stmight top flange is placed on the
bottom of the fixture, and the web is positioned ver-
tically. What would he tho bottom flange is asscmhlcd
on top, and its own weight is usually sufficient to pull
it down against the cnrved edge of thr web with little
additional force or heating.
FI GURE 6
3. CONTINUOUS
If r ol l d hams with cover plates, plate girders, and/or
hox girdcrs arc symmetrical, the firnr fillet welds will
be well balanccd about the neutral axis of the section.
Rt wuse of this, there should ho very little distortion
or bowing of the gil-der. Sre Figure 6. The seqilcnce
for antomatic wcldi~rg to produc? the four fillet welds
can he varicd without major dfcct on distortion.
In most cases the welding seqnence is hasetl on
the type of fixturt used and the method of rnoving the
girder from one welding position to another in the
shop.
In Figurc 7, the fabricator has two fixhlres to hold
the girder assembly at an inclined angle. Thcse fixtures
lie on each side of the automatic weldrr which nxns
lengthwise on a track. Since, it is more difficnlt to corn-
pletely tnrn tho girdcr ovcr, the scqucnce must be
designcd to do this as low times as possible.
In Fignre 7; the girder assembly is first placed
ricatiom of Plate i deas / 4.12-3
FIGURE 8
in the left fixturc and \veld a is made. The ncxt
casiest stcp is to pick up the g i r h with the crane
hook(:d to the upper and swing it over to the
right fixture. Heris is made on thc samt: flailgr
but opposite side of the veb. Now the girder rr~rist he
picked up, laid down on the flor~r, turned over, and
placid hack into one of the fixtures where weld @
is madc in thc flat position. Findly the girder is picked
and suvng over to the other fixture where weld
4 is made.
b
In Figure 8, the fabricator uscs a set of trunnions
on the cnd of the girder asstmbly, or places the girder
within a serirs of eircdar hoops, so that the girdor may
he revolved. After weld @ is com lctrd, the girder
is turned complctely over and wcld & is made. Now
the welding head must be moved over to the back
side of the girdi.r and wcld @ is m;&. Finally the
girder is hmwd coinpk~tr~ly over 2nd wi:ld @ is
made.
The dilfcrcncc in the above sripience of wrl dhg
pnsses dcpends twtirtily on thc fixtoring zind methods
ustd rzither [ hm any &ect on distortion.
4. ANGULAR DISTORT10
STIFFENERS
Usually thr flangr-to-w-eb fillet welds have been
t ompl md; the trmsvcrse stiEoncrs ;,re fitted and
wcldcd into the girder; Figure 9.
If the flanges arc? thin and wide, the girders may
exhibit some angular distortion of thc flange platis.
If this has occiirrcd, thl. Aangcs may have to be forced
FIGURE 9
apart before the stiffeners can be inserted between
them.
The following formula will holp in estimating
the amount of angular distortion of the flanges:
/=oa?:Yo_/ FIGURE 10
TABLE A
See Table A for value of 1)
corresponding to actual leg
of weld (a). --
,406
- --
,543
.... .~ - -
,688
. .- ..
1.000
AASHO bridge specifications (2.10.32) state that
these stiffeners shall fit sufficiently tight after painting
that they will exclude water. In addition, no attach-
ments should be welded to the tension flange if it is
stressed ahove 73% of the allowable.
Some interpret the AASHO specikation to mean
a force fit; this is costly and not necessary. The follow-
ing procedure will comply with this:
1. Use a loose stifEener so it may be fitted easily.
2. Push this tight against the tension flange.
3. Weld this to t he web of the girder.
4. Weld this to the compression flangc.
Some states have not been concerned with this
tight fit and have cut the stiffeners short by about
1"; these have been pushed tight against the compres-
sion flange and welded to the web, If just a single
stiffener is used, it is also welded to the compression
flange. The recent plate girder research at Lehigh
University found that the stiifenrrs do not have to be
against the tension flange in order to develop the full
capacity of the girder. The new AlSC specifications
follow this in allowing transverse inte~mcdiate stiff-
eners to be cut sl~ort at the tension flange by a distance
equal to 4 times the web thickness.
Fabricators having scmi-automatic welding equip-
ment sometimes insert the transverse stiffeners into the
girder before welding the flanges to the web. This is
easily done since the unwelded flanges are flat (not
distorted). With the girder weh in the horizontal posi-
tion, the semi-automatic welders are used to make the
fillet welds between the flange and web as well as the
stiifenen in the same set-up.
The corners of t l ~c stiffeners are snipped so that
the flange-to-web fillet weld may be continued in back
of the stiffeners. Quite often all of this welding is com-
pleted in a single pnnel area before moving to the next.
The girder is then turned over and the welding com-
pleted on the other side.
5. POSITION OF WELDING
The girder may he positioned with the web at an angle
betwoen 30" and 45" with the horizon, pcrnlitting the
welds to be deposited in the flat position. This position
is desirable, since it makes welding easier and slightly
faster. It also pelmits hctter control of bead shape and
the production of larger welds in a single pass when
necessary.
For example, the Iargcst single-pass fillet weld
made in the horizontal position is about .X6'' with a
single wire, and %" with tandem arc; whereas in the
flat position this single-pass weld may be about 3/4"
u-ith either process.
For a 1/4" or Gr' fillet weld, the position in which
the weld is made, whether horizontal or flat, would not
make mnch difference.
If a %'' or 1 % ' ' fillet weld is required, the fabri-
cator has several choices.
If the girder may be positioned with the web
vertical, this will allow both welds on the same flange
to be completed without moving the girder. See Figure
l l ( a ) . If the fabricator has two welding heads, these
two welds may be made simultaneously, thus reducing
the overall welding time. However, this horizontal
position does limit the maximum size of the weld which
may be made in a single pass.
If the fabricator has a single-wire automatic head,
he must make this fillet weld in two passes. If he has
a tandem setup, this weld can be made in a single
pass with less welding timr.
By tilting the girder at an angle, either a single
wire or tandem heads can make this weld in a single
pass; however, only one of the welds can be made
at one time. See Figure i l ( b ) . I t would be necessary
to rotate the girder for each weld with increased
handling time.
A fabricating shop with two automatic welding
heads can make two fillct welds on the girder simul-
taneously. To do this, the shop must decide between
two method^ of positioning the girder; Figure 12.
It might be argued that method ( a) should he used
(a) Two welds-multiple posr (b) One weld-single pars
FIGURE 12
Y- - Y
lbl
becausr tlw girder is in~ich morr rigid about this axis
( x- x) md thrrcforr: would d d r c i less as a result of
the first two welds on tlir hottom Aarigc.
However in method ( h ) tile weld is next to the
neutral axis (y-y) of the girder. Its distance t o this
axis is rnr~ch less than that in ( a ) , and therefore it
would have very little hending efi'ect on the girder.
Since this is a thick ffange, therc may be concern
about gcttiilg a large cnongh fillct weld to provide
enough welding licat for thc mass of flange plate.
Tlier:rcfore, it might also he argued that method ( a )
would provide douhle the amount of heat input on the
flange.
.4ctmlly then: should he little diffcrence between
these rncthods in the efFect of wcld shrinkage after
all of the welds have heen made
6. COVER PLATES FOR BEA
Many times, rolled bnams mnst have cover plates
added to their flanges for increased sircngtl~. Usually
two cover plates are added, keeping the section sym-
metrical al ~out the horizontal axis. For composite be a m
having shear attachments on the top flange so that the
concrete floor x t s compositely with the bean, a cover
plate may he added to the bottom ffange for increased
strength. All of tiiesc hcams mnst have a certain
amount of camber.
The u-clds conuecting thc cover plates to the
beam Aange tend to shrink upon cooling. With a cover
plate on cadi flmgr, this shrinkage on top and bottom
flimges of the beam will halnncc and ihe beam will not
distort. liowcvm-, if there is a cover plate on just the
bottom flange, the unbalanced shrinkage will cause
the centcr of tlw beam to how upward; in other words,
it will increase thc camber of the beam.
The cauihr~ing that resoits from this unbalanced
welding can be estimated by the following formula:
where:
A -: total cross-sectional area of welds, sq. in.
~ & e r piote
Neutral axis of
of weid oteo
4.12-6 / Girder-Reloted Design
If more comber is needed
Position of beam Welded in this If less comber is needed
in service position
(a) When cover pl ate is less than flange width
position
If less camber i s needed
in service
FIGURE 14
(b) When cover pl are is greater than fl ange width
d = distrrnce from the center of gravity of welds
to the neutral axis of the section, inches
L = length of the beam, inches
I = moment of inertia of the section,
This may be more or less than the final desired
camber, Figure 14. If this camber due to welding is
excessive, the beam must be snpported in such a man-
ner that it tends to sag in the opposite direction before
welding. If the camber due to welding is not enough,
then the beam must sag in the same direction before
welding.
A good experienced shop man will support the
beam either near its ends or near its midpoint so as
to control the direction and extent to which the beam
bends before it is welded.
If the cover plate docs not extend to the full
width of bottom fiange, it must be welded with the
beam upside down, Figure 14(a). Supporting this beam
near its ends will increase the final camber, and sup-
porting the beam near its midpoint will decrease the
final camber. If the cover plate extends beyond the
bottom flange, it must be welded in this position and
just the opposite technique must be used in supporting
it; Figure 14(b).
The fillet welds holding this cover plate to the
beam should be i nt em~pt ed at the comer, if it is wider
than the beam flange, as shown in Figure 15.
9. SHOP WELDING VS HELD WELDING
It is practical to do as milch welding in the shop as
possible and to makc only those weids in the field that
can't be made in the shop. The following two sections
on the Field Welding of Buildings (Sect. 4.13) and of
Bridges (Sect. 4.14) include some recomrnendaiions on
shop welding specific connection joints.
Cover plate
1 -
Don't hook weld
round corner; will not
hove full throat
' ~olled beam
FIGURE 15
Hardwood bloiks
FI GURE 2
. ERECTION HEL
Several methods of ieinporarily fastening these con-
nrctions have heen used. Tack welding alone may br
u~lsatisfactory l~ecause it does not malie :~llomvance for
plnn~hing the hnilding before final welding.
Clamping the beams to the colnmn scat is not
ahvays safe, althmgh this hiis hwn itscd for "sito
erection" of lighter strncttirrs; see Figure 2.
The steel is ordered cut to length and delivered
to the site of erection. Trmporary se;lt angles are
clamped onto the colutnrr at the proper position, and
a temporary lug clampc~l ot ~t o tlrr: top flange of thc
btwn. The 11eam is hoisted into position and set npon
the. temporary seat angle of the coiornn. A tie bolt is
thert s c r md on to hold the beam in proper alignment
with the colrnnn. Next, the hcam is weldcd directly to
the colrmm, and any tcrnporary lugs then disconnccied
and used over again.
Saxe rrwtion clips, which arc w ~ l d ~ d to the beam
mds and the colrrmr~, have h c m ilsed with success;
s w Figi1ri.s 3 and 4. Thcse rrnits mnsist of a forged
steel clip and scat. The clip is shop wrldcd to the
end of the bcnm, and tlit: scat is shop wrided at the
pr opa position on the column During erwtion; the
beam is placcd in position so tllat the clips drop down
into the sent. An adjnstnble clip has hem devclopcd
to take care of possible poor fit-up between the beam
FI GURE 3 FI GURE 4
and t h cohimn.
It is rt~comniriided that th:. wor1;ing lo;id on any
onc s u t sho~rld not c mwl 10.000 11,s. i f n gcat cr
erection load is to h~ ciirriid. sucli iis a hoavy plat?
girder or truss, it is r ~ ~ c ~ ~ mr n ~ ~ n i l e d that tw-o or mow
swts be used, side by sidc.
The use of a feu. wcction l~olts lras 11cm found
to br a satisfactory incoris of trrirlior;irily fastening
b~f or e \wldirig. fiolting nuy br: donr dire<:tly to main
inc~~il~ei-s. It is I t s rostly to plmclr sinall attaclnnents
for erection holts than to niovc hcavy main mr'ml~crs
into the putich sliop for plriiching. Many tinios; holcs
;irv llatnc ciit i r i thc ends of lisams for r:rt:ction bolts.
In Figure 5 ( a ) , a sm:rll ronnt.ction plate is shop
wel<lc:d to the bottom beam llnng~, at ill<, end. A scat
is also shop \vddvd to tlic column fl;rngc. at the p n q w
height. Illiring zrcctiorr, thc !xwrt is plact:d upon the.
scat and two crcctiori holts nw rised to hold them i n
place.
III Figure 5 ( h j , thc I is conriectcd to the
colnrnn \ v& A scat angir is shop wc l d ~ I to the imiclc
laces of thc column Aangcs and/or to the c * h n n wcb.
-4 flat is shop ~ M e d at the orrd of thc lo\ver bcam
flangr; sec Figurc 5( c) . I hr i ng crcction, thc )warn is
held in place by tu.0 erection holts. All pnnchirig has
licen done on small attaching plates or angles. No
a n mctn- puitc,hing tias hem noccssnry on thc hcavy In, '
tiers. 4ny of several methods may bc used to tic in the
top Loam Aangc.
I'igurc 5( d) ilidicatrs that \vhm thc 1,rarn flangr
is too wide for ty:isy access to Iiolts iipplicd as at Figlrrr
j ( c ) , t ht ~ anglc \velded be hww~ the colmnn llanges
may lrc revwsed. Isi t!tis castx, another angle of smne
size is welded to thc underside of the lower hcam FIGURE 6
hrmn cnd into pmprr ulignrnmt with the connection.
I-iowevt!r, \vith tlit. :iccurxy of placing the welding
stilds arid laying oril t l ~c corrrsponding slottcd Iiolcs so
;is to allow for sonrc horiz~~ntal ;tdjirstmcmt. tl~crt, should
lic. little diificolty.
i'lrlrnl~ing of a 11dili1rg risrially stiirts amrrrd un rlevator
shdt or srrvicr core. This is rrsoally centrally Iocatcd
;1nd has grt,atrr l i ri i ~i i ~g. The butt wtxlds of the hram
; i d girdcr fl:iiigc,s to t h ~ supportirrg column \\,ill haw
sonr~. Iralisvrrsr siiriokirgr. It is ~~~~ccs s ; i r y that this
shrii1k;ige be mti~n;it(d and t h ~, joint opmr d r ~ p by
this amount bnfor~, \w,l(iing. Otherwis(>, this shrinkage
will accunir~liitc~ :dong the lcrlgth or width of the
buildii~g a n d hiiild up to a si zal ~k ;mount. Sce Figuw "1.
.A good r,stim:~te 01' this transwrsc shrinkage is-
whcrc:
A, -c cross-scction;il area of weld
'I'he a-oss-s~~cti~~i?:iI arm of tbc wcld may 11e corn-
p i t d by hreaki~rg it (lo\r-rr into st;~r~dard arms; that
is, rcctnnglrs for root opening. triariglt:~ for ilicludr~d
imglo of !~rsvt+l, arid par:il,olas for wold I-einforeenre~it.
This c:ilcdutio~i can he grmtly shortened hy making
i ~s c of starrtlard tal,lc giviiig thc wright oi weld mst:iI
for v:irious joints; risc T:~blc 6 in Section 7.5. It is
only necessary to divid~: t h ~ w values by 3.4 to arrive
;it the arca of the weld. This \ di re is then placed into
one of the above For~n~ilas for shrinkage.
I Problem 1 I
To dct rrmi n~~ thr shrinkage dFccts in making the welds
i ndi cat ~d in Figilre 0. The ginlrr with a 1%" flange
is to be \veld(d to :I colrirnn. The joint has a 'h" root
olwning, an included angle of 45", and uses a backing
bar.
From Table 6 in Scction 7.5, the weight of weld
metal is 5.93 lbs/ft. md has an are;? of-
Before welding, open up joints to
increase distonce between faces of
columns to allow for weld rhrinkoge
Beam or girder
-~fter welding, welds wi l l - j
shrink and pull columns
back to proper distonce
FIGURE 9
. I 3 4 / Girder-Related
FIGURE 10
The transverse shrinkage is-
Using 'A'' fillet wclds on the w& will result in
vcry littlc transverse shrinkage. The average width of a
'/4" fillet weld is ?'V, and 10% of this is .012" or about
10% of the shrinkage of the flange h t t welds.
In this example, thr joint of the girder Wangcs
FIGURE 11
would be opened up an cxtra '/a" on rach rnd of the
girder so that the distance Letwecn the faces of the
two n)lnmns is ?%" greater thiin the detail calls for.
After w-c,lding. tllc two joints shonld shrink snificient
to tiring the two columns back to the, dcsircd spacing.
This shrinki~gc coiild he checked after w-elding and this
vahc adjnstcd.
Thr box coh~mns in thc building shown in Figure
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
10, wcr? fai~ricatrd by \wlding togt.ihcr four ailglcs.
After they werc cn.ctcd; 21 short :niglc, scction was
rrmovrd and a iong srciioii oE tlw girtltr- was slippic!
into position within the colnmr~. Later the anglc swtion
was put back.
Thr ends of the hcams were coped back so they
coirid b(5 slippcd into pl aw with their top Aangc rwi-
ing on thc top flangr of the girdcrs; Fignre 11. 4 short
seat angle shop wclded io t he girder web supporicd
t hr lower hcarn fi;~nge. This r(~srr1tcd in a very fast
crectiot~ proccdurr without t he rise of crection bolls.
Latcr the hottom beam Bang<. was field wc l dd to the
girder web, wi ng the seat angle as $1 backing strap.
FIGURE 14
-4 plate was placcd between the top bsam flangcs
and tlir giudnr. Thc top Hangcs of tlir 1)cams wt w hntt
groovc wclclc~I iogr~ther, nsing the plate as a hacking
strap. The plirtc was then fillct welded to thc heum
Bangcs. A long cover plate \rm them vdrird h, ilic 1)c~im
8angi:s l o tnkc care of the incrcnsed negatiue inonimlt
of the. bwm at this support point. 1V1)ticc that this t y y .
of w i ~ l d ~ l connection rn;ilir,s the 11t.am contin~ious,
t hmr l ~y rrclncii~g its rcqnircd size. At the same time, it
cloos no: tie the top ilangcs of the ),earn to the girder,
which rniglit pridncc some l~iasial stressrs. All of t he
ficld w~l di ng sho\vn lrerc was done in t hr flat position,
groatfy specding lip the crtbction \velding.
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
Welding is iised quite extensively on rigid frames.
Figure 12 shows the sliop fabrication ar ~d wclding of
sectior~s of a large rigid fi-amc. For small structures, the
entire frame is fabricated and erected in one piwe.
For larger strtictures, the frame may be divided
into two or more sections and assemhlcd at the job site
and eroctcd. Figun:s 13 and 14 show the construction
of a rigid-frame freight ttmninal area, and the upright
portions of the framc hcing ~infoaded from the railcar
and hoisted into position by thc rail crane. Later tlie
central portions of the arch were put into position.
Welding macliincs, also on flat cars, were brought in
and the field joints welded.
Frames for tile Long Beach Ihrhor Sired were
FIGURE 17
;rssemhlrd on the groin~d, E'igort 15. The scctions wcre
Inid out on wood blocks and jacked u p to proper posi-
tion arid cliccked with n transit. The field joints were
tlicn mcl~icd. T h e crawler crmcs picked tlie elitire
frame np and pl;ictd it in j~osition. Some of the Elcld
welding which was in:rcccssihl(~ wherr on the ground,
such as the back side of tlie web lxitt joint, was com-
pleted in the air.
4. WELDI NG OF JOISTS AND FLOORlNG
Welding is used univrrsally in tlrc attschmcnt of open-
vr& joist to heams. This becomes a simple matter of
laying the joist on the heam at the proper place and
l;rtcr wclding in thc flat position. A considerable amount
oi light-gai~gt, stecl roof dt&ing is used on top of joists
or beams. This is easily and qnickly attached by means
of wddirig in thr flat position. The use of both open-
web joist ai d sterl decking is shown in Figure 16.
Flotx dccking of bravier gauge has been used as
:I support for any of several iloor materials. Welding is
used in the flat positio~l to fasten this steel deck to
Imams of the steel strrlctorr. Many timcs this deck is
designed to take the horizontal forces on the structure
caused by wind or t:arthquakr.
5. WELDOR PLATFORMS
It does not take much in tha scaffolding to support a
weldor and his equipment. Many of t hr joints can bo
reached without any platform; the weldor simply works
off of the beam or works from a ladder.
For welds below the beam, it may be necessary to
put up a platform. Figure 17 shows a rectangular
wooden platform with four ropes att;lcbed to it. The
platform is fastened to the steel structure at the proper
Icvx~l by tbc ropes. Altliorigli tliis type of platform is
sclf-contained, it is reiher hmi,y; cspcciallp for onc mall.
Figrrrta IS slio\vs ;i sirnplr.r scafiold for a sin~ilar
position in thr i d strii(.trirr. It is lighter 2nd easier
Cor one mini lo set lip. Two wood pl:iiks have ropcs
f;ist~wcd at tlicir ~ d s ; tlic miws art, tird to steel grab
hcmks. Tho hooks, siipporting thc wood planks, are
droppc~l owi- tlw ti111 flange, of' tlic h r m, and the other
two plmks arc, put into pl;icc. This platform can hc
irscd oil all hi r ns lr;lvi~~g approsim:ltcly the same dcptli
\rithoi!t ;in?. fririhcr :!djiisln?~~nt in the rope length. It
c;in hr. r i sd in nlmost any coiidition. L~snally a weldor's
lieilwr or one fmm thr crcctirrg crew will set np thc
necessary sc;~Roiding al~cod of time so there will he
no delay in nelcli~ig.
On large structnrfr u&h liavc ronnections re-
yniring quite a bit of wr l di ~~g ;..t the connections, it
may help to rist: a woldor's cage \hphich hooks over the
top flange of the bcanis and is pnt in place by the
dcni ck. This is SIIOWII in Fi gur ~ 19. I11ose cages can
be c o v ~ w~ l 011 tlircc sid1.s to f mn a windbrcok when
used or, the ontsidr of t1i1. st wi strr~ctni-r. The weldor
is not awnn, he is working :it 8 great height whon he
is inside this shieltled cage.
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 18
Semi-automatic welding, using self-
shieiding cored electrode, being
empl oyed i n maki ng beam-to-
column connections on Wilshire-
Ardmore Building in 10s Angeles.
Semi-ai
erecti o
Towers
Making
in the
use of
and coi
cored e
~tomotic wel di ng speeding
n of 32-story Commerce
in Kansas City, Missouri.
weided girder connections
open was facilitated by
lightweight compact gun
ntinuously-fed, self-shielding
dectrode.
1 . BUTT JQl NTS
111 butt groove weldir~g the cnds of Bang<, plates, some
thoxght s l h ~ l d tx sivcn to thr kproper iype of joint.
J and U joints require lh(: l r u t amolmt of weld metal;
however, these joint typrs gmrrally require the plates
to he preparcd by planing or milling which is impracti-
cal in most structtird fabricating shops. This limits the
preparation to flame beveling, giving n V joint.
In the V joint, less wcid ~r ~et al is necessary as thc
inclndcd angle is dwrc:~std. Howevcr, as this angle
decrcascs, thc. root opciiing mnst he increased in order
to get the clrctrode down into thta joint and producc
a sou~i d weld at the root of the joint. Obviously, the
on(: tends to o i h t the other slightly in rtspect to the
amount of weld m&l necded. On thicker plates, the
joint with the smaller i nc, l r~dd angle arid larger root
opcning, rtquires the least weld metal.
If a hcki ng strap is usrd. any arnourit of root
openiiig within rcason can he tolerated, and ail of the
welding most he done on thc same side; in other words,
a single-V joint. If a backing strap is not rmployed, this
root oprning must bc held to nhout ' /ar' . This enables
the root pass to bridge tlir gap and not f dl t l ~r o~~gl i .
The welding may be done on one side only, single-V;
or it may be (lorre on both sides, double V. In cithor
case, the joint is Imck-goug~xi from the opposite side
to thc root bcfore depositing additional wcld metal on
thc other side. This xi11 insure sound nictal throoghout
tho rutire joint.
Single-V joints may be acceptable if the plates
are riot too thick; for thicker plates. double-V joints
;ire prderred sincr they reqriire less wcld metal.
Kcmernher thtrt ;i singlc-V joint will pl-oduce more
ang~rlar distortion 'This incrcnses rapidly ;is the Range
ttlickrress iricreases.
Shop Splicing
Shop splices in flange and web plates shoi~ld be rnade
before tht: girder is fitted together and wolded, pro-
viding the resnlting scctiotrs are riot too long or hcavy
to h:uidle. These shop splices do not have lo lie in a
single plane, hut are pl;~ced where they arc most con-
venient, or where a transition in section is clcsired.
i n the shop, flange plates can he turned over
e;isily as woldir~g progresses, so that on thicker plate?
double-V joints would be osed. They require the least
Fieid Splicing
t'i~sld splicrs u s ~~: i l l ~ arr lomtnl on ;I siuglc>. plane.
Slaggering the h t t iwlds 01 fiariges ;md wrbs will not
irnl~rove perforru;irice of the gi u~kr. It is much casier
lo ~".c~pax: lhe joints ;uid maintain proper fit-up by
flarnc-cntting :ind lxvrling whni a11 ure iocatrd in the
snme plnnc. Sce Figure 2. Tlrcrr is :in advantage to
haviiig estci~ded thr: fillet welds of l1:ii~gcs to the web
d l the way to tlic wry crid of the girdcr. This provides
hc t t ~r support when thc flanges arc clamped togcther
for temporary sl~pport di~riiig erection.
Most welding sqnonces for ficld splices of beams
ar d girders arc* hasvd on tbc iollowing general outline
I Manual-Flat
L w hwr
I
r powdcr E-6024 . T?S emps d 40% OF #/.6.?/lb.
rydmgrn iron p*dw E~6018
/80 ompr k 30% Of % 55/1b
Sam; ;-Automatic -Rat 500 amps d 60% OP I. 05/16.
FIG. 1 Relative cost of flange butt welds.
FIG. 2 Three methods of preporing edges of
girders for field welding. Placing the three
welds in three different planes makes it difficult
t o get close fit. It is easier t o lay out ai l three
butt welds in same pione. Placing two flange
welds i n the some plane and slighdy offseeing
the weld i n the web offers o method of sup-
porting one girder on the other during erection.
in which both Aanges and web are alternately welded
to a portion of their depth, after secnring with sufficient
tack welds; see Figure 3.
1. Weld a portion of the thickness of both fianges
(about 'h to %), full width.
2. Weld a portion of the thickness of the n e b
(about M) , full width.
3. Complete the welding of the Aanges.
4. Complete thc welding of the web.
For deep webs, the vertical welding is sometimes
divided into two or more sections, and a baekstep
method is used; Figure 4. This will result in a more
uniform trausverse shrinkage of this joint.
Most butt joints used in field splicing the webs are
of the single-V type. For thicker webs, perhaps above
M", a double-V joint is used in order to reduce the
amount of welding required and to balance the welding
about both sides to ciirninate any angular distortion.
Most flange butt joints to be field welded are
either the single-V or double-V type, depending on the
flange thickness and the method of welding used. For
higher welding speeds, such as when using iron pow-
dered manual electrodes, or scmi-automatic, or fully-
automatic bubrnerged-arc welding, more of the welding
would be done in the flat position, with less in the
overhead position.
It must be remembered that a single-V jcint will
result in more angular distortion, and this increases
FIG. 3 &oth flanges and web are alternorely welded.
Direction oi
welding:
vertical up
FIG. 4 For deep webs, use back-step sequence.
rapidly as flange thickness increases. A double-V joint
with half of the welding on both the top and bottom
of the joint is best as far as distortion is concerned, but
it may require a considerable amount of overhead
welding. For this reason the AWS Prequalified Joints
allow the double-V joint to be prepared so that a
maximum weld of 3/a of the flange thickness is on top,
and the remaining 'A on the bottom; Figure 5. This
will give some reduction in the overall amount of weld
metal, and yet reduce the amount of overhead welding.
Table 6 in Section 7.5 givcs the amount of weld
metal required (lbs/ft of joint) for the various AWS
Prequalified Joints. This wiil aid in making a better
choice of the actual details for the best overall joint.
For the double-V butt joint for the flange, the
State of Texas allows the field weldor to place the
overhead pass in i l x bottom side of the joint first, and
then after cleaning the top side to place the next pass
in the flat position. Their thinking is that while some
overhead weldillg is needed regardless of the sequence
used, this procrdure eliminates a11 of the back chipping
or back gouging in the overhead position. If the welding
is done properly, there should be less clean-up required.
EB AT SPLICE
Considerable questioning has been directed toward
whether the web should have coped holes to aid in
field welding butt joints in the flange. The disadvantage
of the cwped holes must be carefully weighed against
the advantages of making a sounder weld in the flange.
Tcsts on 12" deep girders at the Unkwsity of
lllinoisr have shown that the field splice having welds
* "Fatigue in Welded Beams and C,irdors", W. H. Miinre & J. E.
Stallmeyer; Highway Research Board, Bulletin 315, 1962, p 45.
(0) Single-V groove joint. Simplest preporation.
Tendency for ongulor distortion.
(b) Double-V groove joint. For thicker plate,
reduces amount of weld metal. I$ welds alter-
note between top and bowom, there's no ongu-
lor distortion. Unless plate is turned over, will
require overhead welding on the bottom.
(c) When plates cannot be turned over, the
amount of overhead welding con be reduced
by extending the top portion of the double V
to a moximum of 3/4 plate thickness.
FIGURE 5
FIG. 6 Results of ioiigue tests on welded beoms with splices.
in a single plane and wing coped holes has a fatigue
strength of about 83% of the corresponding splice with
no coped holes st 100,000 cycles, and about 90% at
2,O(K),000 cycles. See Figure 6.
Knowing these figures represent the maximum
reduction in fatigue strength because of the coped
holes, it is felt these holes will do more good than
harm since they insnrt. the best possible weld in the
butt joint of the flanges, The reduetion in fatigue
strength dne to coped holes on much deeper plate
girders woirld seem to he less, since the reduction in
section modulus ascribable to the coped hole would
he mr~ch less. Of course, any notch effect of the coped
hole wo111d still be present. If necessary, tbis bole can
he filled by u&hg after the hutt joint of the flanges
is comp1t:ted.
Good fit-up is essential to the development of efficient
welding procedures. This means proper al i h~ment and
correct root opening. Placement of flange and web butt
spliccs in tire same plane greatly increases the ability
to achieve correct root opening when the girder is
pulled into alignment.
Figure 7 ilh~strates a misaligned double-V butt
joint in a girder flange at the point of transition. Note
the offset of the joint preparation makes it difficult to
reach the root of the joint and deposit a sound weld
FIGURE 7
throrlghont the entire joint. The flange joints should be
checked for alignment throughout their entire length
before weiding.
This illustrated condition can exist at the ffange
exiremitics even though perfect alignment exists in
the web area. Accidental tilt of the Aanges during
fabrication, mishandling during movement to the job
site, or even a difference in warpage of the two flanges
can cause this condition. The warpage problem in-
creases with the size of web-to-flange fillet weld and
decreases as the flange thickness increases.
Various methods exist for correcting this condi-
tion. Figure 8 illustrates one such method. When the
pl a t ~s are not too thick, small clips can be welded to
the edgc of one plate. Driving a steel wedge hetwcen
each clip and the other plntc will bring both edges into
alignment. Welding the clips on just one side greatly
simplifies their removal.
Figure 9 illnstrates still another method wlucb is
used comn~only when problems develop in respect to
misalibaed thicker flanges. Here (top sketch) a heavy
FIG. 8 Weld clip along one edge only, so it may be removed eosily with o
hammer. Drive steel wedge below clip until piare edges are in alignment.
(a) Plates forced into alignment and held there by means of strongbocks.
Pressure is opplied by means oC wedge driven between yoke and strongback.
(b) For heavier plates, pressure may be applied by means of bolts tempo-
rarily welded to the plate. Strongback is then pulled tightly against the plote.
bar or strongback is pulled up against the misaligned
plates by driving steel. wedges between the bar and
attached yokes. An alternate method (lower sketch)
involves the welding of bolts to the misaligned plate
;ind then drawing the plate up against the strongback
by tightening u p on the bolts.
4. RUN-OFF +A S OR EXTENSION
Rutt joints of stress carrying members should, where
possible, be welded with some type of nm-off bar
attadled to the ends of the joint to make it oasicr to
obtain good quality weld metal at the ends.
In general the bar should have a similar joint
prcpnration to that being welded: gonging or chipping
may be osed to provide the depth of groove. For auto-
matic: eldi ding, the bars should have s~lfieient width
to support the flux osed during welding. These bars
are {isu~ally removed after welding.
A flat run-off bar may not give proper support for
weld metal to keep the top comers of the plate from
melting b:ick at the mds; Figure lO(a), i f the bars
were placed high moi ~gh for this, they would be above
the groovt: of the joint and \vould interfere with proper
welding at the ends; the welding wire (i f automatic
welding) \v[.ould have to drop down into the groove at
the start and climb out at the other end very quickly,
undoul~tedly sticking; F i y r e 10( b) .
The flat run-off bar in Figure 10( c) for manual
welding does not give proper support or maintain the
FIGURE 10
sides of the welded joint at the ends as welding pro-
gresses and requires special effort on the part of the
welding operator to build these ends ilp.
The types of run-off bars illustrated in Fignre 11
wodd give the proper equivalent joint detail at the
ends.
FIGURE l l
Steel sulky seat aids weldors on
bridge construction. Float at left
lacks stability in windy weather,
while sulky at right enables oper-
ator t o sit comfartably and safely.
Shop weld-fabricated girders of variable depth provided important economies and
facilitated erection of Thompson'r Bridge near Gainesville, Georgia.
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-5
s 2 4 d
d 2 t* +
< 2% tw
Spacing and Sire of SIof
L s 10 t,
w 2 t * + X8" 5 2% t,
s , 2 4 w
ST, 2 2 L
r 2 t *
4. PARTIAL-PENETRATION GROOVE
Partial-penetmtion groove welds are allowed in the
building field. They have many applications; for ex-
ample, field splices of cohimns, br~ilt-up box sections
for trnss chords, etc.
For the V, J or U grooves made by manual welding,
and all joints made by snhmcrged-arc welding, it is
assirn~ctl the hottom of the joint can he rcached rasily.
So. thc effective throat of the weld ( t , ) is equal to the
;ictlinI throat of the prepared groove ( t ) . See Figure
13.
If a hevcl groove is tvclded manually, it is assumed
that the wcldor may not ( pi t r reach the bottom of the
groove. Thcrefore, AWS and AISC deduct 36" from the
pr cpr cd groove. IIere the effective throat ( t , ) will
q ~ a l the throat of the groove ( t ) minus %". See
Figure 13( a) .
(a) Single bevel joint (b) Single J joint
FIGURE 13
Tension applied parallcl to the weld's nsis, or com-
as the plate.
Tension applied transverse to the weld's axis, or
shear in any direct~on, has a reduced allowable stress,
e q d to that for the throat of a corresponding fillet
weld.
Jnst as fillet wolds have a minimnm size for thick
plates because of fast cooling and greater restraint, so
partial-penetration groove welds have a mininium cffec-
tive throat ( t , ) which should be used -
>
t, =
where:
t, = thickness of thinner plate
a. Primary welds transmit the entire load at the
particular point where they are located. If the weld
fails, the member fails. The weld must have the same
property as the member at this point. In brief, the
weld becomes the member at this point.
b. Secondary welds simply hold the parts to-
gether, thus forming the member. In most cases, the
forces on these welds are low.
c. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to
their axis. In the ,case of fillet welds, the throat is
stressed only in shear. For an cqnal-legged fillet, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the 45" throat.
d. Transverse welds ]lave forces applied trans-
versely or at right angles to their axis. In the casc of
fillet welds, the throat is strcssed both in shear and
in tcl~sion or comprrwion. For an wpal-lcggcd fillet
weld, the m;iximum shear stress occurs on the 67'h"
throat, and the masin~um normal stress ocmrs on the
22%" throat.
Fl exi bl e connedlon
No i ei t i ol nt , R = 0
Moment diogrnrn
-
Full rei troi nt, R = 10096
Fully Rigid
(3
Moment dioqiom
Poitiol reitroint
Moment diogiam
. -
Moment diogiam
FIGURE i
I,<, <~q~l:ll, 01- hl : ~: : I < , : I' Y I>, This \ ~l I ~i l i l ~)ro(lli?<! the
1r;ist rcqnircrnciit for swliim n ~ o d d ~ r s , being ' 12 of that
nwded for the origir~al sinipl!; siipported beam. This
is true, but tlris i dcd codi t i on d c p n d s on two
rt~quircmcnts:
1. l'lic supports t o which tlic corinection joius tlie
bra111 rnrist be iii~)-i(~lditig. i.c, ahsolutcly rigid.
2. Tlie beam must not lie ii~il~icliccd by adj;icent
earn-fa-Column Connections / 5.1-3
4. RIGID CONNECTIONS (Elortic Design)
5. PLASTIC-DESIGN CONNECTIONS
.l'hc nsc of \veld~!d crninc<.tions based on plastic design
11;is scvci-;:I ;~dvantages:
I. i\ more acwr at ~. in<Iiation of thc truc carr!-ing
mrpacity of thc str~ictr~re.
2. Rcq~tircs less stivl tli:tri wnventional simple
I ~ m m construction. Jn riii~ny cases; there is a slight
siivitig ovrr cot~vr~ntional el;istic dcsign of rigid frmxs.
3. Rrquires lcss &sign tinre than docs elastic
desigli of rigid franws.
.1. Tcsted Iiy scv~:r;~l yrars of rrse:trcli on full-scde
sti-uct~ircs.
i. Hacked hy tlir .AISC.
So for. plastic [lwign coni~cctions have hcm 1;lrgcly
rc.siricted to on<,-story strnetrrrcs, a i d to applications
tvbcrr fatigue, or rrpwt loading is not a prohlrrn. Sec
scpwatc Swt. 5.12 in lliis r~rnnrial for n frill disc~ission
of \ Vel d4 Connections Sol- i'lastic Design
6. BEHAVIOR OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
Onc Ivay to lvttcr undcrstaiid tbc behavior of a
Iirain-to-wliirrrlr cc~iir~cctio~i ~ n ~ d t ~ r load, and its load-
c;trrying c;~p;~city, is to plot i t on n rnor~lcnt-rotntior~
chart; sce Figure 2.
The vertical ;tsis is tlw ct ~d momci~t of thr bwm,
Beam Ice at working load
End rotation (0,). rodions
FIGURE 2
\vhii.Ii is ; i ppl i d to t l i i c.mlr~i.ction. The liori2o11t:il axis
coinpicti,ly rcstl-ai11r4 (0,. -- 0) , in othcr
is tile rcsiiltilli: rot:ition iii rndi;lns. kisically tilis is f ~ x l ~ &c ~ ~ d hKii11, ;llld is t Y ~ l l d to-
cqimtion cxpi-essiiig ihc rcsnltir~g eiid moi i ~cnt ( >I v)
alrd end r.ot;itio~i 10, ) . inr a iiiiifor~iiiy l o a d d bciun
and ;my cild r. cst r; ~i ~, l froiri ( ~~mi pl ct r rigid to siniply
s u p p t 1 ~ 1 , is:
This is a straiglil line, 1i:i~ilrg puints o and b on
thc cliart.
Point a i s the e ~ l d moinci~t when t l ~ c wi l nccl i o~i is
words ;i
I'oint h is thc tvrd rotalion whcll thc collrlcction has
no ri,struint (.\I,. :- 0) . in other i r i ~r ds a si~iiple beam.
and is cqnal to-
\\' L'>
( b ) 0,. : = -~ ,~ ~~- .
24 il I
For. inwe:iscd loads on the l mm~ , t he beam linr
iiioYrs o ~ i t parallrl lo tlic first line. wit11 corri?qxmdii~gl)
incrc:ised valncs of end i no~i mr t ( ) and thc end
rotation ( 0, ) . This (d; i shrd) sccond 11cam linc or, t he
Beam-to-Column Connections / 5.1-5
c,)l:~rt ~ q > r < ~ s m~ t s tllc xldition of ii saft>ty f wt o- , ~! I ~I cI is
,,sll~lIly 1.67 t c 1 2 ti17it.s t1iat of t i , , , &st d t i d i is l>:ls<d
Cj ~ i thcb w1rki11g 10:~l.
'i'hi, poiiit at nlri(.li tlrr coi~ri:~ciion's curii. ii1ti.r-
sc~cts tlw 1wm11 lint>. gi ws [ I t ( , riw~liii~ig t wl ~ n o i n ~ ~ n t mid
r~j t ; i t i o~i L I I I C ~ S t h givcw 1~1;id 1:rom this it is ~ WI I 111n\:
tlie he;~in' s l x~l i i i i i ~~r ~ l q ~ c r ~ i l s on its con~i r ct i or ~.
It is ;issnni:~il. i r ~ illis wx, . ilic I XYI I ~I is sylnin<.lri~
i , dl y l i ~ l c ~ c l m d the, t \ w end ~ T I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I S iw<, tllc S; I I I I <, .
113 this \ my hilt11 <wl s will react si~nil;irly.
CIII-vc 1 r ( , l ~~- t w, nt s a k x i l ~ l c ~ ~~I I I I I K: ~OI I . At >I \?t,ry
Imv I ~ I O I ~ I ( ~ I I ~ it safvly >,ic,lcls ( MI ) mid allo\vs t!~c> W ~ I ~
ti^ to rot;itiz ( 0 , 1 . This is typical of top :i~?glt,
<:~l1lll~~ctiolls. \v1+1 fr~llllillg ; l l l gl ~~s, slid ti)]) pI:1tt, <.i>lllll~c..
t i s r l l r g h I i c Notiw, N~>I I with tIr<~sc~
s ~ I - ~ I I I ~ ~ fkxihli~ eor~~~c~i:tions, SOIIIC. < ! I K~ I I I <I I I I ~, J I ~ &ws
Simply supported beam
'
designed for R = 0
Fixed end heom
designed for R = 100%
FIGURE 3
w d tlw h ; ; m I i r ~ t > ill 1%; lo;>d l-<, htivt~ to 1hc.i~ crossilig
(11 ill<. I XYUI I l i n, ~ at wo r k i ~~q 10;id.
nit, Z ~ ~ . I L I C I I r t > s l l ~ t 5 ,I{ t t >~t i r l g ~ I ~ I - W ~ O I I ~ I X I P CO~ I -
iic.ctions O: I :ill IS" \ii;F S'i* I KWI ~I arc s1iou.n in Figtirr
4, 'i'\,r(! w ~ d i t i m s i ~r <, wn s i i l c r d as S~I ( I \ WI I by the, h d
di:igm~a~s, Fi g t w :3.
Reiiin linr 11 ( I i s 4 ) is k);iscd oil a tl(:sign
~ I I ~ I I I ~ Y I ~ of \V I, at WI I ~ < YI ~ I I < ~ . i. , , , si11q11y s t ~ppoi - t t ~l .
1bi;m lint, ( 1 , is l'cx ;I 1~1:iiI 12: s tini<,s that of t!i<, workiug
l<l:ld.
li(>;irn l i r ~ c , 11 is 11:isid oil a <l<,sign nioiniv! of 1;
\I' 1. :it tlw cwls, i . <c fiwil 1 ~ 1 s . i n ~ l will s ~ q ~ p o r t :I ,50V
greiitcr 111x1. 1kx11a i i ~ ~ c , IJ, is [or a load 12:: ki ~r ~<% t l ~xt of
tiic ~vor ki ~i g l(tad, liotti of t l i : ~. 1 \ ~ 1 bi wn l i i ~cs stop ;it
ii .' ,50c,;. I I ~ Y~ : I I I S P :it t l ~i s r c~st r ~i i i ~t th<> c t wt < ~ of t he
~ W I I I I ~ V h ; ~ s this I I I OI I XW~ of 1,; \Y I, mi l ;i rc4r:iint
~ v i r I I t i t i 1 s ~ s s I central portion
! ~f the l i can~.
Top plat? ;I I is ;I 5,;'' t l ~i r k platt:, 3" widi. :it the
r l c c s~~c:timi, : I I I ~ has ;I i : r ws - s wt i wd nri.;~ of
ii,, :~ .>J.$ ill.: It is \vid(,r~ecl t o 6" :st tht, h1tt-\vc~1dcd
~ O I I I I W~ ~ O I I . T11is i w ~ r ~ d i o n s1101!1d ~ w d i yield a! :11w11t
f -= A, , I I , - ( 4 ) (:30.000) (18) r- ,553 i ~ ~ . - k i p
T11c. :i:.tml WIII(, {mni tlic~ t<%t is :I!IIIII~ M -: MI iii..l<ip
Abovr this inoii~iwt, the plati. yit,lds mi l (IIIC- to st]-iiin
I ~; i r di ~~i i ng will havr inciw;ixi~cl ri~sist:niri~. 7lri. ~iitin~ntc:
mmntwt s11011ld i i l xj ~~t tlrict, t!~is yit,l(l ~ ~ I I I C . , or al x~ut
hl r 1200 iii.-kip. 7'hc~ rcstilting ri:str;~irrt is :about
R I ~ , 3 4 5 7 ; . :I l i t t k too high fox t11c 11(mi1 t o l~c, cl ~s s ed
:is simply s ~ i p l x ~ t d
Top plat<, #? 11;is t l ~i , siirnt, tl~ickncss, hiit !;as
;I ii" \vidtIi t l ~ r o ~ r g l ~ o ~ ~ t its Icrrgth. f t has dol~l)le the
o-oss-sectioi1:11 :~rt.;i. A,, 1 : 1.88 in.' .4s i , r pr c i d, it is
twici. :is rigid, It sl ~r~i rl d rr~aclt yic,ld at ; i l l o~~t h2 1110
I - k i p I I is t M = 1000 in.-kip. The
rc3str;iint is :illoilt R := TiS';. Yotic? if tlie 11c;u11 h i d bmm
cl esi pr d fi l l - n rnon~i.nt of ' ; - 5Y L, i.c. :I ri>sti.;rint of
I i - 100% thc ~ ~ I I I I I W ~ ~ O I I ' S c n s w \?oiild !MW inter-
scct ~>d the 11w1m I i w 1) illst shml of t11c R = 505 v a l ~ ~ ~ .
' l ' l i t ~c \votild tlri.11 1w ;I slight m ~ ~ s t r - i ~ s of the bema at
ct ~i ~t c~-Ii n(, .
Top platr, %:3 is "d' tliid< ~ I I I ~ 7W' i\,ide, h:ivirig
a cross-swt i oi ~d XI-ixn of 1,, =: (5.56 irr.' This grmtei-
asva p~-odiii.<*s ;i nloi-c rigid cm~i ~r ct i on with greater
ri.str;iint. I ~ c t i I I ~ I I (sol i d) s h o ~ s
slightly more f i i i t tliali tlrir cal c~~l at cd c o r w
(clotted). The mt r a llr\\:ibility probat ~l y conies fro111
sonic r n~~wi i i c ~i ~t t ~ i tii:, Itj\vcr portion of thc cinii~cction
which has ~ ~ 1 s t short p; ~al l i , l fillct \velds joining tht:
lower i i mge of tile lmirn to t l ~ c scxt. A butt wrl d
pl;icrd d i r i d y :I~I-oss thc ciid of this lowtrr fialigc t o
the colnirur. i ~ndoobt cdl y woiilci lwing the rigidity of
t!ic coii~ic~ciion c u r w up alii~ost t ( ~ t h t of the caloi-
lated curve.
elded-Connection Design
.-
A,: . 34I N a
FIGURE 4
I
Figure 5 illwtr;it~.s tlie additional rrstraining action
provided by column flange stiffcncrs. Both connections
I r e 'jl<,'' x 6 top plates.
Corinection # I has column stiffeners. In the case
of the beam designed for a moment of '/;? \V L
( R =I 100%: down to R = 3%), it would sllpply a
restraint of ahout R = 70.2%.
Connection li2 lias no column s t i f f e ~~r s md loses
sufficicnt rigidity so that tire hram dcsigned for a
moment of ' j W L, (1% = 100% do\\-n to 11 r= 50% )
will be overstressed. This is bcc;i~lse tli(, connection
restraint wotdd hc only ;iborit 1% = 45%.
This sho\vs the i ~nport mce of proper stiflrning.
7. FACTORS I N CONNECTI ON DESlG
Tbr following iterns grcittly :dFrct the cost of wrldcd
st!-octt~rnl stccl and ~a l i ~l ot he overlooke(1. In order to
takc f111l ad\,aiitngc of n-cldcd wnstri~rtion, they mnst
he consi d~wd.
oment Transfer
The hc~rdi l ~g forws from thc r n d momcnt lie dmost
entir-ely \vitI~ix t h ~ ~ I ~ I I I ~ I ' S of the 1)eiim. Tl i en~ost effec-
tivc and diri,ct mrtliod to t ral i sfi ~ ihcsc forces is solne
t y p of flangc weld. The rrlativc n ~~v i t s of thret: types
are discussed llert~.
Beam-to-Column Connections / 5.1-7
BEnM FOR
y#:* 8
.W1 .#04 .OOb 9 0 1 . DM .NI .OW .Or6 .Old .#LO
ROT4TION (6$, RADIANS
I n iFiglire 6. tllc flai~gi.s ;:re dii-i.i.tly i ~ o n i i wt ~ l to Tlw h ~ ~ k i i i g strip illst ~ I P ~ O I V C Y I ( ~ of i11? f h ~ g v s
th<. ro11111ii~ 1,) I I N ~ I S of gi-o(,v(~ xi-(;Ids. This is ilic inosl dl ows t l i ~, \s<~l(l to lw m x l ~ ~ ~vi l hi n r ~ x s o i ~ ~ ~ l i l ~ ~ fi t -~ql .
di r wt 11i~tliii~1 01 iriiiisiwrii~g forws :uid rtqiiir(,s tlie 21s long :IS t l i c w is :I pr qwr root op(wirig.
l mst : I I I KI WI ~ of ~ I ~ \ ( I I I I ~
'l'hr.ri. is littli, prnvisioi~ i i i i - r ) vr r - r r ~~i of ilir i.oIiiiiiir
di i r~~~i i si rms is-11iih ~ri:~?: 11~. ;is iii~ich :is For
<,xi.~.ssi\-i, ii\~c2r-n~ri. tlw i\:~irgi,s of ilw 11e:rrri in;iy h v t .
to \I(. fImii(,-c~~t 11; i di . i l l t h ii<,ki, ill orc!<,r t o pro-
vi d~, the, r ni ~~i r ~i i ~ni root o p i ~ ~ i ~ i g . o r I I I I ~ ~ I ~ I , t ht 2
c!sct,ssiw I I I I I ~ I I ~ ivill i~icrcose Ilic :unoiiilt of
w(>Iilir~g r e q i ~ i r ~ d , 1n1t llw joiiit is still possil~l~:,
I t is iisii:rlly niorr costly lo i.111 tlw lic:un to mzct
le11gI11: i l l :uI,liti~xi thvw is t 1 1 c ~ cost of 11mviiiig t he
f h ~ ~ g t s . hiillilig I h Iw:uri to ~1~11gIh is ~~os l l y and not
~ C( , ( I I I I I ~ ~ I , I > I ~ < , ( ! ~ W: I I I S I ~ 1111~ ovt,r-rllll I I X I I I I ~ ( ~ I - ~ ! I S I of t1-c
I I I 1 1 1 i 1 t l r ~ ~ i c I 4 ' 6" ~ wi i l d reduce this
FIGURE 6 a r c ~ i r ~ c ~ y i!i fit-lip
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 19
The stiffcning of the latter connc:ction is mainly
dependent on thc thickness of the stem of the Tee
stiffener, tlie Ranges of the colnmn being too Ear away
to offer much resistance.
The column wcb is ably assisted in preventing
rotation at the connection by the flanges of the split-
beam Tee stiffeners.
4. ANALYSIS OF STIFFENER REQUIREMENTS
IN TENSION REGION OF CONNECTION
(Elastic Design)
The following is adapted from "Welded Interior Beam-
to-Column Connections", AISC 1959.
The colomn flange can be considered as acting
as two plates, both of type ARCD; sec Figure 19. The
beam flange is assnmrd to place a line load on each
of these plates. The effective length of the plates ( p )
is assumed to be 12 t,. and the plates are assumed to be
fixed at the ends of this length. The plate is also assumed
to he fixed adjacent to the column web.
where:
m = w, + 2 ( K - t,)
~nal ysi s of this plate by incans of yield line theory
leads to the, ultimate capacity of this plate being-
where:
Let:
For the wide-fiangr colrimns and beams used in
pactical connections, it has h e n found that ci varies
within the range of 3.5 to 5. A conservative figure
would be-
P, = 3.5 u, t,'
The force carried by the central rigid portion of
thc column in linc with the web is-
ekded-Connection Design
In Fig111-e 12, a shopwcldetl seat provides support
fol- tllc dcad load oT the b~; nn. The 1re:rm is lit~ld i l l
place hy inwns of erection holts tlrrm~gh tl~r lmttoirr
flangc.
In Figure 1:3, a slrop-\icldrd plate on the columii
provides temporary support Tor thc be;irn. Erwtion holts
FIGURE 13
tl~rougli the beam wcb hold the heam in position. An
anglo could be used i ns t t d of tlw platc. Altho~iglr tliis
~ o t ~ l d increase the matari:11 cost slightly, it would be
easier to install and hold i n proper alignment dnring
welding. Sometimi:s a small seat is shop welded to
the column, as sho~vn, to give support wliilc the ercction
bolts are being installed.
If the beam is supported on a seat, the elevation
at thc top of the beam may vary hccause of possible
ovi:r-run or nnder-run of the beam. If thc beam is
supported by a web connection, this may be laid out
from t1r1. top of thr beam so as to eliminate this problem.
Saxe erection clips, Figarc 14, are made of forged
stet31 and are readily \vel&aIrle. The clip is shop welded
FIGURE 14
to the nrder side of the beam Hitnge and the seat is
sbop welded in tile proper position on the column.
Tl ~i s :illows t11e beam to slip easily into place during
wcction. O11e typo of S:ise (,lip is adjnstaldc aild allows
;r movement of :i<e" as w-t:lI as sorniz rotation.
(,'onsider the use of \ \ ~l dc d studs on mtin members
in plat(: of erection holts; this will eliminate thc pouch-
ing of main members. These 1m.e alrmdy been ac-
i:eptcd in the br~ilding and bridge fielcls for me as shear
attachments, and an increasing nrilnber of fabricating
shops have this eqniprnent. Sce Fignres 15, 16 and 17.
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
earn-to-Column Connections / 5.1-1 1
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 18
General
Usc the neu-c.r 1 0 6 strcl for a 1 0 5 liighcr strtsss allow-
:IIIIP and ahout 5 to ; ?; - s;ivirrgs in stw1 ; ~ t little, addi-
tioir;tl rmit pricr3 iu s t t d EiO \i-clds 1 l : i i - ( 2 16%' highhtar
allowal~le for fillot welds.
Use ;I 10% l~iglicr : i l l o~~a l ~I e herrdi~lg stress for
"compact ben~iis"; u == .66 ui irrstcad ol .CiO u,, and
for ~ity,ativt: moment rrgior~ ;it srrpports use only 90%
of tlic tm~rrriwt (-4ISC Scc 1.5.1.1.1).
Mnriy cmnwtiorrs prrrvid~, a dircct m d etFrctive
transfr,r of iorct,s and yet arc too costly irr preparation,
fitting ; ~nd wt>ldiug.
' \I:trim~~nr r c o ~ ~ o my is obtained wlreii a joint is
rlf.signcd for w<.lrling. It is not siiflicicnt t o apply
~ ~ ' l d i t i g to a riv~' ted or b~rl t cd design.
Us<, rigid, r,ontinrimis connectiotrs for a more ef&
('icnt structlrl-r,. This will rcdrrct. the beam weight nnd
1 s 1 1 y r t d~i ces tlw overall weight of t he completc
strurtrtrc.
Use plastic design t o r d u c e steel wei gl ~t hclow
that ol simple f r a n h g . :irrri r edwe tlrc design t i m:
below that of conve~itional elastic rigid design.
Thc grratcst portior~ of wclding on a co~ineciion
should 11c d w e in the shop and in tlie flat position. As
much ;is possillle. rni sc~. l l aneo~~s plates u s t ~ I in conri(:c-
tions, soch as scat angles, stiffelrers on coiritnris, etc..
s l ~or ~kl l x asscmhlcd. f i t t t d ntrd weldcd in the sliop in
the flat position.
Tlir ronncctiot~ t l ~i ~s t off~m proper n~~cessibility for
welding; whetlrcr clo~rc in h o p or field. This is c s l w
ci;rlly true of bc;rms fr:iming into the wcRs of coloinns.
I'roper fit-tip must hc obtained for l mt wel~lirip.
Care must be i ~s ed in layout of tlie conncrtion, fl:rmi.
vutting thc hc~i m to the pnlpcr irngtll. preparation of
t hr joint, aiid crc,ctiilg t h rrlcnlber to tile propcr posi-
tion a i d al i g~~r ncnt . Coo11 wwkmanslrip, resrilting in
good fit-up pays on.
Weldor makes continuous beam-to-column connection on
Inland Steel Co.'s office building in Chicago. At this level,
the column cross-section i s reduced, the upper column
being stepped back. Spandrel beam is here joined t o
column by groove welds. The weldor, using low-hydrogen
electrodes, welds into a backing bar. Run-off tabs are
used to assure full throat size from side to side of flange.
For New York's 21-story 1180
Avenue of the Americas Building,
welded construction offered im-
por t ant wei ght reductions and
economy, quiet and fast ereciion.
Maximum use of shop wel di ng
on connections minimized erection
time.
When designing a flexible seat angle, it is important to
understand how it is loaded, and how it reacts to its
load. See Figure 1
FIGURE 1
The outstanding ( t op) k g of the seat angle is
snbject to bending stresses, and will deflect downward
(1, a). Tlre vertical reaction ( R) on tha connecting weld
of the angle results in direct shcar (1,b) arid in heirding
forces ( 1,c).
If the seat angle is too thin, the top of the connect-
ing weld tends to tear, because only this portion of the
weld resists the hcnding action. Wit11 thicker angles,
the whole lcngth of the conricciilig weld would carry
this bending lo:~d (Fig. 1, d).
The top leg of the seat angle is stressed in bending
by tile rmction ( R ) on the end of the henm which it
supports I t is necessary to determine the point at
which this force is applied on the leg in order to get
the moment arm of the force. See F~gur e 2.
A simply snpported beam is pIacct1 on the seat
angle (2, s). Because of the loading on tlie beam, thc
bean] deflects and its ends rotate (2.b). Consequently
the point of contact of the rcnction ( R) tends to move
outward. This increase in moment arm incrcases thr
bending moment on the seat, causing the leg of the
angle to dc5ect downward. As the deflected leg takes
tlic same s l o p as tlie loaded beam, the point of contact
moves back ! 2.,c)
FIGURE 2
if tht: Icg of the angle were macle thicker, it woiild
deflect less. Conseqircntly, the! point of cont:ict u~on1d
extend farther o~i t along tire leg, i-lrns irlcrcasing the
bending Inoment.
If the angle were made too thick, this hearing
reaction would he concentrated :ind might overstress
the heam web in bearing.
If the angle \vex: nradc too thin, it would deilect
too easily and the point of wntact would shift to the
end of the beam, therehy not pmdncing snfficimt
iengtltil of contact for proper srippt~st of the beam web.
Definitions of Symbols
w = k g sim of fillet wdd, inchcs
a, = yield strrnpth of material u d , psi
a = clearanve betwccn column and t nd of heam, usu-
ally 55"
b =- width of sent angle, inthcs
v -- rrrommt arm of reaction ( K ) t o witical section
of iiorizo~ital k g of scat angb,, inrhc,s
ee = distance of n:actim (N) to liack of fIexible sciit
noglc, inclrei
t = thickiicss of mil mgli,, inches
t, = thicknrss of h.nm wrb, inches
I( = vertical distancc from liottoin of bean flar~gc to lop
of fillet of beam web, ohtainei! f nm steel liand-
book, irichcs
Lr = liorizuotal lrl: of sest an&., inches
L, = vertical 1i.g of scat angle, also Icrigtl~ of vcitical
i.onnectirig wckl, i n c h
N = miriinnim bcaring lcngth
Ii s: vcrtical henring reaction :at mil r i i hcarn, kips
AISC (Sec. 1.10.10) specifics that the compressive stress
at the web toe of the fillet ol a beam withoot hearing
stiffcners shall riot exceed u = .75 us psi. This stress
is located at distance K up from bottom face of flange.
See Figure 3.
FIGURE 3
For mcl reactiom, the following formula is given:
R
........... == not over .75 rr, psi
i t v ( N + K T
. . . . . (AlSC See 1.10.10) . ( l j
This means that the web scctioi~ ( N + K ) may
bc stressed to u = .75 cr, psi. This planc lies at the
top of the toe of the fillet of the beam web, or at
height K. This can he projected down at 15" to the
h u e of the hram flange to get the minimum bearing
length ( N ) . l t is assnmed the hearing renction ( R) may
bt: centered midway ;dong this length ( N) .
3. SEAT ANGLE
AlSC (Steel Constn~ction Manual), recommends the
following method for finding the required size of the
scat angle. Thc point of critical bending moment in
the auglc k g is assr~med to he at the tangent of thc.
fillet of the ontstandirlg leg of the angle. This is approxi-
t 1 - :!6"
I c y in from the inside face of the vertical leg,
for most angles rrscd as seat anglcs.
St e p I : Determine the point where the beam
re;wtion is applied to the arrglr, so that the eccentricity
or moment arm ( e j of the 1o;id may he known.
Nomograph No. 1 (Fig. 1 ) for A 36 steel will give
the \ , due of cr for Nesihlr seats or e, for stiffmid scats.
(Stiffened scat brackets are discussed fnrther in the
following section.) Known \ dues needed for use of
this nomograph are the cnd reaction ( R) of tlre beam
in kips, the thicliriess of thc beam web ( k) , and the
distance frmn the hottom of the hearn flange to the
top of the fillet ( K) , obtained from any steel hand-
book.
St e p 2: Dtstcrmirle thc required thickness of the
angle ( t ) to provide sofficiait bending resistance for
the giver1 heam reaction ( R) .
Fmm this we gct-
0- b t'
R e .I: 1 s t = rr S ~=: -- - .
6
Since the ontstarrding leg of the angle acts as a
be:rm with partially restrainrrd ends, tlre AISC ;\I:inuai
(1956, 11 263) allows a hending stress of u = 24,000
psi for A7 or A373 stacl. For A36 stecl, a value of u =
26,000 psi will br 11set1. Tliis thcn hctomes:
A7 or A373 Steel
A36 Steel
Flexible Seat An
FIGURE %Thickness of Flexible Seat For A36 Steel
NOMOGRAPH NO. 2
Flexible Seat Angles /
To solve directly for ( t ) , the forlnula +9 may bc,
prlt into the following form:
] A7 or A373 Steel I A36 Steel I
Knowing tlic values of A and e,, the tliickncss of
the scat aiigle ( t ) may he found from the above
formnla.
Ko~nograph No. 2 (Fig. 5 ) for A36 steel makes we
of Formiila $9 md will give values of seat angle
tlrickiicss ( t ) . Tlic width of thc svat :nigIc ( 11) is knowil
sincr it is nsn;rlly made to estcnd at lcast %" on ench
side of the beam Rango. -4 linc is dr:t\in from this
valne ol ( h ) throrrgh the d r r e of ( R ) to the vt.rtical
axis A-A. The rrqtiired thickness of the angle, ( t ) is
foiind at thc intcwc.ction of a Irorizontal line through
!-A and a vcrtifiil line through tlic givrn vaiw of
( ( 2 , ) . In case these 1inr.s intcrswt hetwcen t\vo values
of angle thickncss; ilic lnrgcr value is wed as the
answer.
'Tal~lc 1 will give \.;iht.s of Rj b in tcrms of smt
angle tliickncss ( t ) and eccentricity ( r , ) . Table 1 is
for 436 steel.
Step 3: 1)ctc~rrninr~ the horizontal length of the
seat angle leg (I, , , ). This mrrst bc srtiiicicnt to permit
vasy ercrtion and pro\5da aniplc distance for the coil-
uccting \velds and rrcction bolts on the hottoin flange
of tlic heam.
This lniniinr~m lcngth is:
I ' : 1 - K 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
St ep 4: I>rtcrminv the vmtical length (I, , ) of tlir
eoniiecting fillc~t \vdd7 for a givm leg size of weld (o)
This will deii,rrninc the rqi ri r(d lengtli of the seat
LE 1-Values of R/b
For A36 Steel
THICKNESS OF SEAT ANGLE i t )
angle's vertirnl Icg, k i n g assumed equal.
horiron/ul forcc on weld
K
Moment (each weld) - - ~ ( q ) == I' (31 LT)
9
-
FIGURE 6
also:
P = '"L ( f b ) ( % Li )
omneetion Design
From this:
2.25 R el
f, =
L,'
ljertical force on weld
rrsultant force on weld
leg sizc of fillct weld
actual force
o =--
--
allowable force
A7, A373 Sreel; E60 Weld* 1 A36 Steel; E7O Weldr I
Since there are a Limited number of rolled angles
available (for example, L = 9", S", 7", 6", 5", 4", etc.)
it might be well to select a vcrtical leg length (L,) =
vertical weld Iengt11, and solve for the required leg
size of fillct weld (w).
Nomograph No. 3 is based on formula #14 and
will give the required length of the vertical connecting
wekl (L, ) and its leg size ( o) if the other vah~es ( R
and el ) are known. (The weld length is assrimed equal
to the seat's leg length.) Nomograph No. 3 is for A36
steel and E'iO welds.
Table 2 will give values of R/o in terms of vertical
leg length of the seat angle (L,) and ecccotricity (e, )
Table 2 is for A36 steel, and E70 welds.
R
-
19.2 L,'
.- -~ -~
0 -
4. APPLYING CONNECTING
R 22.1 L,"
- ~-
. . . . ( 14)
0 m-;~ 2 o . z es
The two vertical fillet welds should be "hooked around
the top portion of the seat anglc for a distance of about
twice the leg sizc of the fillet weld, or about K", pro-
vided the width of column flange exceeds the width
of seat angle.
A horizontal 6llct meld across the top of the seat
angle would greatly increase its strength; however, it
might interfere with thc end of the beam during erw-
tion if the hcam were too long or the column too deep
in section.
When width of the seat angle exceeds the width
of the colunrn flange, coimecting fillet welds arc placed
along the toes of tbc flange on the back side of thc
TABLE 2-Values or R/ o
Par A36 %eel & 270
R Reoction, kips
- -. -
-
22.4 L',
w Leg r i m iillet weld L', + 20.25 exl
n~.. I
VERTICAL LEG LENGTH OF SEAT ANGLE (Lr)
angle.
These seats may line up on opposite sides of a
supporting web, either web of coliunn or w-t,h of girder,
if the leg size of the fillet wcld is hcld to 3/4 of the web
thickness when determining the lcngth (L,) of the
weld. This will prevent the web within this length of
coniwction from being stressed in s1it:ar in excess of a
value equivalent to 3/4 of the allowable tension.
Don't hook wed oround corner; Hook weld around
will not have full throat corner of seat angle
Seat Angle Width Seat Angle Width
Gi eotei t ha n Column Flange Less tho" Column Flange
FIGURE 8
A fiexihie top angle is usually used to give sufiicient
horizontal stabi1it)- to the bcim. It is not assumed to
carry uny of the l ~cam rc:ietio~-i. The most common is a
4" s 1" x %" arsglo, which will not restrain the beam
end from rotating under load. Aftor the ht ~i m is twcted,
this top angle is field melded orsly alorsg its two tocs.
For beam flanges 5" and less in \vidtli, the top angle
is usually cot 4" long; for beam Hanges over 4" in width,
the angle is usually cut 6" long.
In straight tmsion tests of top connecting angies
at Leisigh University, the 4" s 4" x 'A" all& p~illed out
as much 2: s 1.98" before failul-c, which is ahout 20 times
W C o l u m n flange
Greatest rotofion occurs
FIGURE 9
greater than us11al11. r epi r cd under noimal load con-
ditions.
Notice in the following figure, that the greatest
mo\~e~ncnt or rotation occurs in the fillet \veld cxmnect-
ing the upper icg of the mgle to the column. It is
important that this weld be made full size.
This trst ulsu inriicatnd that a return of the fillet
weld around the: ends of the an& :it the column cqml
to about '14 of thc log length rcsulted in the greatest
strength askc1 mo\irJinelit hrfon: failure.
Hook oround
1
FIGURE 10
I Problem 1 /
Design a ficrible seat angle to support a 12" WF 27#
heam, having an end rcwtiou of R = 30 kips. Use A36
steel, ETO welds.
l e Seat Angles / 5.2-
FIGURE 11
ihickncss of seat unglri
horizontal leg of scat nngle
( 1 j I , = 1 +- N
- ( ? 4 ) + (3. 82)
I~: 4.32'' or 4%" min.
- ~~ - .
A 5" anglc. 1" thick, is not rollrd. The only 7"
and CJ" iing1t.s n d l d haw a 1" liorizor~trrl leg which is
not sufficient. 'This leaves just the 6" and 8" angles.
a ) Using a 6" r 6"x 1" srat mgl c I,, = 6"
.- ,461 or rise V2"
-~ - .
b) I'sirig a 8" i 6" x 1" scat mgle L, = 8"
Thc structural dcsigner might bc incliired t o selrct
the, 6" s li" r 1" angle hi mri sc of th(, obvioris saving in
\veigl~t. The shop man knowing that tbc ?i,;" fillet weld
in ( h ) is a single-pass wcld and can be made very
fast, wlirrens the %" fillet weld in ( a ) is a three-pass
Don't hook weld
more than fir' i'
Ploce top angle on
-4 Angle leilgth /-.-
FIGURE 12
weld, would select thc 8" x 6" x 1" angle ( b ). He knows From Table 2, using et = 2.4"
that the cross-sectional area of a fillet weld, and there- a ) If L, = ti", R/ o = 65.2
fore its wcighi, varies as the square of the leg size. He or leg size of fillet weld,
figures the ratio of the leg sizes for ( a ) and for ( h )
to he 8 to 5. This ratio squared produces 64 to 25, or
30
- - 4 ~ ' or use W'
65.2
as far as he is concerned 2k times the amount of weld
metal.
b ) If L, = 8", R/ o = 107.0
or leg size of fillet weld,
From Table 1, K/b := 30/S = 3.75. Using ef = 2.4"
30
would give this value if t = I". (Here R/b = 4.22)
o .= -~,-- = ,280 or use x6"
101.0 . ..
(From Anicncan In~titute of Sled Construction)
SEATED BEAM COMNECTIOMS
Welded-EGOXX & E70XX electrodes
TABLE Vl l l
. .
(o aitm:li bulm m ma* (optiundi.
Nnnunol bem snthach is 'LA'. AUownbir londa in Table VIII-A ue
&XI on 9,. x t bc k, r hi r l i pnvbdes for pssible miU unds mn b k m
SECTI ON 5.3
ene e e
Ilihcn the r'action load ( K ) rcqnircs a tliiclacss of
angle greater than tlie alailable sections, a stifferred
seat bracket may be usvd. Tht w are t\vo alml>ws: ( A)
in uhich the scat stiffener is at riglit angles to the web
of the heam, arid ( B) in u-hie11 the seat stilfener is in
line with the web of the beam.
For analysis, the stiEener of Type ( A ) is consid-
ered an eccentrically loadcd colnmn with the rmction
load applicd at a f i x e d point. 'rli~. mtirin~im strcss is the
sum of the direct load and brnding alfccts. The line of
action of thc- comprt%ivc lo;rd is approxim;~trly parallel
to thc outer edge of thc stiiFeni,r. Tlic criticd cross-
scction of the stiffcirw ( t o hc u s ~ l lor the area and
section modillus) is at r-ight ;tnglrs t o thr linc of action
of the load.
The arca a i d sccti:io moduli~s i m-
A = t X = t L,, sin 4
X = Ll, sin tp
FIGURE 1
Sinci the inarirniiir~ strcss,
thc rcqiiireil thickncss of thc bracket web is-
The thickness of tlic imcket wrh car 1 x 7 c1cti:r-
miircd qnicldy f nm Noniograpli No. .4 (Fig. 2) for
1\36 steel; tliis is h:wd on formnla +I. The v i ~t i c d
line at thr left is for v;iln~~s of load eccnrtricity (c,)
and length of ontsianding braclict li'g (L, ]). Tlie ~ l mt
line is for thr angle 1)ctvwn the sidc of ilic brad&
PROBLFW FIND THICKNESJ Of ITIffENED SEA7 FOR THE FOLLObW6 CONDITNNS.
L h ' 8 .
e * 4.5-
B . 90'
P ; 58 KIPS (EN0 REACWON)
R E M t . v6 /NCH (STIFFENER ISNCI(NE;S)
2. S OF STIFFENE
EB
If tlie beam rests in line with the bracket stiffener,
Type B, Figure 3, the bearing length ( Y) of tlie be;~m
(AISC See 1.10.10) is-
and this would he tlie miniriium valuc allowed.
FIGURE 3
The eccentricity jc,) of the reaction load is-
e, = L,, - -
This value of load eccentricity (e,) can be quickly
found by using Nomograph No. 1 (Fig. 4 in previous
Sect. 5.2). Sonictimrs it is figured as 80% of tho bracket's
outstandirlg leg length (I,,,).
The eccentrically loaded column forniula ( +I ) is
seldom used in this case because it will result in an
excessively thick bracket web or stiffener. This is be-
catise the formula is based upon stress only and does
not take into consideration some yielding of the bracket
wliich will causc t11c point of application of the load
to shift in toward the support, t hi s n:dncing the
moment arm arid t~ending stress.
AISC Maniml, page 4-39 recomnic~ids for A36
brnckct material that the bracket wcb's thichiess be at
least equal to 1.33 tinics the requii-ed fillet weld size
(E70 welds). Also it should not be lcss than the sup-
ported beam web thickness for 47, A373 and A36
beams, md not less than 1.4 times the beam web thick-
ness for A242 and A441 beams.
For stiffcncd seats in line on oppositc sides of the
colnmn web, the fillet weld size should not esceed %
the column web thickness when determining its length
(L).
If the bracket is made up of plates, AISC rccnrnmcnds
that thc wc4ds conncctiiig the top plate to the wcb of
the stiffcnrr should lhave s t r e~~gt h equivalent to tile
horizol~tal n&ls between thc bracket and the column
support.
The depth of the stiffener is determined by thc
vertical lcngth of w.&l (L,) retpired to connect the
bracket.
Thc lcilgth of the 1)rackct top plate (I,,,) sl i o~ki hr
sufficient for it to rxtcnd at loast beyond t l ~c hearing
Icmgth of the beam ( N) .
The stiffened scat bracket is shop welilcd to the
siipporting m(.mbcr in the flat or downhand position.
IJsually the top portion of the bracket is welded on
the underside only, and tllc useb of tlic stiiiemr is
rvt:lded both sides, full Icngth. By placlng the weld
on the underside of the bracket, it docs not interfere
in any way with the beam which it supports.
Sorne rngineers do 11ot like the notch effect of this
fillet weld's root to be at the outer fiber of the con-
nection, and would prcfer to place this fillet wclcl on
top of tlie bracket; this can be done.
The folIo\ving method is uscd to detennine the leg size
of the connecting fillet weld ( w) . For simplicity the
length of the llorizo~ital top weld is assumed to be a
certain prrccntage of the vertical weld lcngth (I,,). The
top weld length is usoally less than the bracket width,
and the vrrtical weld Icngth is assuinttd equal to the
vertical length of the bracket.
This analysis uses the value of 0.4 I., for the top
weld as it is a more i mn n o ~~i y uscd value, although any
reasonable value rniyiit be used, Figure 4.
'hus it can bo shown &at:
rwutrul oris of connecting t ~ e l d
section 111odt~2t1.s of connerlzng weld
S, = 0.6 LT2
(t op)
titfened Seat Brackets / 5.3-5
where:
length of connccling zticld
A, -- 2.4 L,
bending force on wcld
1% K
f = = .. ..
A , 2.4 I,,
resultant force on u.eld
leg size of fillct weld
actual force
= .- .. .. --
or
allo\z.able force
vertical weld length (L,.)
1 I
mwwer
By knowing the value of R a d e,, the ( -'
may solve directly for I,,.
The lcngth of connecting \vrticai weld (I,,) mi y
he dctcrmined quickly from Nomograph No. 5 (Fig.
5) for A36 steel arid E7O welds; this is based on Eonnula
gi. The wclded consiectioii is assmntxl to ewtrmd hori-
zontally 0.2 1. on ctich side of the bracket web. The
~nasirnnm k g size of fillet weld ( w ) is held to % of the
stiifener ttsickncss. Ilra\v n h e from \wid size ( w)
through thr re:iction ( R ) to the vertical line ( U) . The
rtqi~irecl lcngth of weld (I>,), - vcrtical length of
stiffener (I,), is found at the intcrsectiols of a horizontal
line through ( D) and tt vertical lisle throligh the: given
d r r e of (e,).
For stiffcner brackets which have a top width ( b)
other than 30% of the depth (L, ), the Table I ionnulas
may be isscd.
AT, A373 Steel; EEO Welds
R
B = . - -
23.04 w
I Problem 1 I
Design a bracket to support a beam with an end re-
action of 58 kips. Tho beam lies at right angles to tile
bracket. Use A36 strt%l and E70 welds. See Figure 6.
A36 Steel; ETO Welds
K
13 = - - -
26.88 w
Using Nomograph No. 4:
f, - 90"
R = 58 kips
TABLE I-Fillet
A36 Sfeel K E70 Welds
W = - ~ \ / ~ 1 6 . 0 ~ + e',
26.88
B m c b t Width
~ 7 , A373 Steel K E60 Weldr
~~ ~
ii = 0.4 L,
&, fi.1-z
23.04 l',
~ ~~~ ~-
~~ ~ -~ ~ ~~ . ~ -
J ~ 2 ~ + ~ 4 . 0 6 ~ ~ r=Lm 28.00
i? = 0.6 Lr
= . - JL' , + 12.57 c2,
w = JLzv + 12.57 + ex6
24.96 L'r 29.1
,.~-~ -~
I
-
R
J L ' - + 1 1 . 3 7 ~ 2 ~ W = . - R J ~ 2 v + i 1. 37+eP, b = 0.7 1, w =
11 01 $ 2 ~ . 30.24
FIGURE 6
read the required stiffener thickness as-
t = y1*''
Using Nomograph No. 5:
0 = X6" ( t =
R = 58 kips
e, = 4.5"
FIGURE 7
Using Nomograph No 1 (Fig. 4, Sect. 5.2):
read the hearing Icngth and 1o:rd ecceiitriciky as-
N -. 1.54''
(if L,, = 4")
e, = 3.23"
Since t = 1 XG", use t = Y4.' - plate.
read the required vertical length of the stiffener as-
using Komogral;h xo, 5 :
L - 13"
v - - R - 58 kips
~ - x i C q
e, = 3.37"
for o = %"; read L, = 10"
Design a bracket to support a 2N', 65# I-beam with
fi,r -- 3;o", read L, = 11"
an end reaction of 55 kips. The beam lies in line with
the brackct. Use A36 steel and E70 welds. Use tile qi / ; O" fillrt \w111 wit11 a length of 11".
FIGURE 8
Stiffened Seat
(From Amcrican lrrstiti~te of Stcel Constniction)
STIFFENED SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS
Welded&E60XX or E70XX electrodes
TABU X
Aiiow;%ld<~ ioed* in 'i'&ir X i i rr b i d iiu tile urr of I!M)XX eintmdes. For
1170X'i ciiwLiinics. multi&y Labulri hndn i>y 1.16, or enter the U~t i l e vi t i i M'?o
of iliv aivae rwrfion. Note Advrntagc, may & t r kenaf t he higher nUownhle umlt
dias of F:70XX rl . ai rodw onlv i f hih bracket md r up~ur t i ng rnemkwz am
&STM 3 6 . A242 or A441 ma k i r i .
1 1 1
'02. 235 ! 159. 191. 1223 X i
~ 1 1 . i 1s 1 6 0 i oi 1 2% 168
~~~~~~ .
" =pal *jldl m*nr *-lh i i o r x r i r c
insus b y ! 16. a rnlrihr ,mnio *,,a 86% os
//lb/l 0",1 wnmn rmrx u=no<rr rrc vsra
I f the reaction values ola beam are not shorn on mnbrad draainm. the mn-
onnest i on Desi gn
Beam-to-coiumn connection being mode on the
Colorado State Services Building in Denver.
Operator i s anchoring the beam to o stiffened
seat bracket by downhond welding, using iron
powder electrode.
Extensive use of modern structural techniques and welding processes speeded erection
of Detroit Bonk & Trust Co. Building. Stiffened seat bracket can be seen at upper left.
Angle clip to facilitate field splicing of column lengths shows immediately above.
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
\Vrh framing angles are usually shop welded to tht:
web of the beam. cstending abont S'' beyond the end
uf the beam, md field nv1dr.d to the supporting
member.
Erection bolts are risually plactd near the bottom
of the angle, so they do not restrain the beam end
from rotating under load. For deeper girders, the
erection bolts may he placed near the top of tlie angle
for better stability during erection. If theri IS '. concern
about any restraining action, the bolts may he removed
after field welding.
The thickness of the framing angles must be limited
to that which will allow snfficient flexibility, otherwise
the connection wonld rcstrain the end of tho simply
supported beam from rotating and thns would load up
in end moment. AISC has a table of typical framing
mgle corini~ctions. It lists 3" and 1" angles of ' 46' ' to
- ,
, ,,;" thickness. Whcn thicker angles are used the leg
against the supporting iix~mbrr must be iricreascd in
;ihout the same proportion as the thickness in order to
maintain the same order of fit.xihility.
The analysis of this type of connection is divided
into two parts: a) the field weld of the angle to the
supporting member and b) the shop weld of the angle
to the web of the beam.
2. ANALYSIS OF FIELD
When the reaction ( R ) is applicd, the franring ang1t.s
tend to twist or rotate, pressing against each other at
the top, and swinging away from rach other at the
hottom.
It is assumed the two angles bear against each
other for a vertical distance eqrlal to of their length.
The remaining % of the lengtli is resisted by thr con-
necting welds. It is assuni d ds o that these forces on
the x ~ l d s increase linearly, rcaching a masimiun (f,,)
at tlie bottom of tlie conncctior~. Figure 1.
horizontal forcc on weld
Appl i d monient flom load =: Resisting moment
of weld
R 2
" L,) = - P I,,
- 3
where L,, = leg length ot angle
.75 R L,,
o r p
I>7
From force triangle, fin&
P = 95 ( f , , ) ( 3& L,)
Hook weld around top;
not to exceed % leg of
angle, usually M"
I
FIGURE 1
PRO&EM. FIND TN 1f hG7f l ( I ~/ Of ThE P%AM/#6 AN6lt
W :%,- (.VIE OF f/U WfZD,
R =IS KIPS (END .mcr/uN,
in 3- (LEG Jilt O i ANGl t )
RE40 1, ; /2" /irV67// OFRNGLE,
FIGURE 2-Framing Angles and Size of Field Welds
For A36 Steel & E70 Weldr
NOMOGRAPH NO. 6
FIELD R
2 2; 3' 3;' 4 5 6 7' 5'
i I L, (LEG SIZE OF IINGLE)
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-3
From thme two equations, detcrmine-
f 9 R I,,,
1, --
5 L,'
~~. . . ~ ..
~~ ~~~~~ .... .
f, flf,,' 4 f,' =
"".) 5 112 i+ ( 2L, I< ) 2
or:
- - -
f - ~ . Y I 2 + 12.96 I,,,?
I I -
d,.
2LY2
I A7, A373 %eel; E60 wel ds]
A36 Steel; E70 Welds
I
Be sure thc supporting plate is thick enough for this
resrilting weld size ( a )
Thc~ two vrrticnl \aelds comx'cting framing anglcs
to supporting incnibrr should be "hookcd" around the
top of the nnglcs for a dist;aice of about twice the leg
size of the \r-eld, or about 'i". (Origi~ml tests indicated
that a distance not t o cxwrd 'A of thc ;iriglr's leg lcngth
11ciped thc carrying capxcity of thy connection.)
Nomograph So. 6 (Fig. 2) may be used for the
f i l l l i n g This nomograph is for A36 steel and
EiO \velds. In the chart on thc: right-hand siclc, from
the point of intersection of the angle's leg size (LI, )
and the length of the angle (L,), draw a horizontal lint!
to the \ ~r t i cal axis 1.7.15. From this point, draw a line
throng11 the rc;lction ( H ) to the left-hand axis. Read tht.
leg sizc ( w ) of thc field weld on this axis.
Table 1, for A36 steel and EiO welds, gives valucs
of R/ o in terms of leg size of angle (L,7) and length
of angle (L,).
AISC, Sect 1.17.5 specifies that the leg size of a
fillet weld used in calculating its lcngth (L,) should
not came the web of the snpporting member to be
overstressed in shear.
For n single pair of framing angles on just one
side of the supporting web, assume thc leg size of the
R 19.2 L;'
-- _ ~ ~p~ - . .
~-
I" f~y-' + 12.96
TABLE t-Valuer of R/w
For Field Weld of Framing Angle to Support
For A36 Steel & P70 Welds
R Reaction, kips
- ~ - ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~
. -
w Leg sire of f i l l et weld
R .- 20.1 LV2
- . . ~~ .
(,)
L, ;"IA72 ,? 12.96 L,,'
(I?)
fillct weld not to exceed 1.3 t , .
For t ~vo pairs of framing angles, om on endl side
of the supporting wish. nssilme i hr leg size of the fillet
weld not to escw%l ? ! I t,v.
Ti ~esc faciors of ( ' i ) and !1.3 = 2 x %) mny be
dj ust ed lor the oxact type of steel used l ~ y referring
to Table 2.
4'.
R Assume !h" set bock
FIGURE 3
Leg of Angle ( Li d
~. ~~ . ~~~
7" 8"
,. .~ ~~
2"
4 3 1 30 / 22 1 I 9 1 1 6 / I4 1 12
~ . . ~~~
3" 4" 5"
,~ ~~
6"
In Figure 3, analysis of the shop weld sho\vs-
rcsultunt force on outer end of connecting weld
twisting (horizontal)
k
FIGURE 4
fk *
leg size of fll& weld
ttristing (oertical)
actual forcc on melds
= ~ ~ - -
f 2 -
- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4) allowable force
A7, A373 Steel; E60 W e l d r A36 %eel; E70 Weldr
..
shcur (oertical)
)
17)
0 =
9600
0 = --
11,200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 5 )
" b L,
Unfortunately there is no way to simplify these
TABLE 2-Maximum Leg Size to Use in Calculating Vertical
Lengrh of Weld
FOR VARI OUS COMBI NATI ONS OF WELD METALS AND STEEL
Gi ven these condi ti ons:
Steel
thickness
I
Then: Moximvrn l eg size of f i l l et wel d t o use in rol cul oti ng vei t i col l engt h
A7
A373
36,000
...........................
14,500
E70 or SAW9
11.200 w
.648
OY
T
wel d
- -
f
o / t 5
k g size
*
33.000
13,000
--
E60 or SAW-I
-
9,600 i o
.
,667
Web thickness i t u) over -
A36
42,000
17.000
..............
E70 or SAW-2
. . . . . . . .
1 1.200 w
759
A242, A441
, -
46.000
...
-
18.500
E70 or SAW-2
11,200 u
,826
Ow, 1%"
To 4"
50,000 .
20,000
-
L70 or SAW-2
--
1 1.200 w
-.
,893
Over j/,"
To ,
%" e r less
5.4-6 / Welded-Connection Design
Leis than % thick" / %'*.' thick or more
I
FIGURE 6
formulas into one workahlr formula. It is necessary t11
work out eai.11 step l~trtil tlw final restilt is ohtair~od.
The leg size of this shop w&i nray hr dctcrmined
quickly by rncans of Kornograph No. 7 (Fig. 5 ) , for
436 stcrl mi l Ii70 wclds. In thc c11;rrt on t l ~ r right-hand
side, from thc point of iuterstctim of t he anglc's h i -
zontal lrg length ( I ) and its vrrticnl length (L,)
draw a l~orizontal iinc to thl, vrrtical x i s F-F. Fmm
ttlis point, draw ;I liiic through the reaction ( R ) to the
left-11:ind axis, Read ttlc leg size ( w) of the shop wcld
along thp left-11;nnd svalc of this axis.
I f the nomogr;iph is u s d f mn l~xft to right to
i,stahlish ;in arrglr six,. be sill-<. that the leg size of tbt.
fillct wcld docs not cxcc~xl a v;rloc which voul d over-
stress the web of t / ~( ' hiwm in s11~:rr (AISC SCC 1.17.5)
by producing ~ I I O short a l orgt l ~ of connecting weld (I>,).
The follou.irrg limits apply to the fillet weld leg
size ( w) rclativc to thr thiclmess of the heam web (:IS
usr:d in c;ilctll:tti~rg tlw wrticnl length of connecting
weld ) :
A7, A373 Steel and E60 Weld
/T -- 10.000 , x i ) ( f , = 9600 w Ihs/in.)
A36 St eel ond E70 Weld
I
l-lo\\:rve~-, tlir acti~al leg six: of the fillrt wcld used
may exceed this value.
Tahlr 2 reflccts thr limiting \.aloe of w = Zi t,.
AISC holds to this limit for shop weld of the ;rnglr to
the beam (.4ISC M;rmlaf. pages 4-25).
Notice tlrc left-Iran11 :isis of Nomograph KO. 7 also
gives the millill-urn \veb thickncss of tlrc h(mn in order
to hold its sbcnr sti-css (7) within 14.500 psi. Illst 11c
sure the ttctr~ai \ ? - ~ I I tl~ickness of t l ~e supported hpain is
If edge is butit up to
ensure full thioot of weld
-
e q t d to or csi , ct ~i s t l ~i s \ d r ~ c for~nd just opposite the
resulting lrr: sizc of the wi:ld.
Somt: rnginwrs f i ~ l this limiting shmr v;ilire (.406
stt.c.1, r L. 14,500 psi) is to ins~~i-I, that thc wcb of t hr
hearrr dws not bllckli., and that a higlrcr allowable
vdnr iniglrt 11e IISCYI hcrt., pcr11;ips 3/r of the allowable
ttwsilc strength. In this rase thr ~n:rxim~im lcg sirc of
t hr weld would he Ireld to ?/r of thc web thick~rcss.
1 w : = % t, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 9 )
I S C (Scc 1.17.5) sp.rifics the mas i m~~m k g size
of fillct \wid rr1:itive to :rrrglc plate thickncss to be as
shown in Figtirc 6,
l';rhlc 3 \\-ill give ~, ; i l l ~cs of R/ w in trrms of leg size
of angle ( L, , , ) ; x r d lmgtli of :rngle (I,,). Table 3 is for
i t I S i t 3 6 stwl. and I T0 w~.lds.
TABLE 3-Values of R/w
For Shop Wel d of frami ng Angle To Beom Web
For A36 Steel & E70
R Reaction, kips
- .. - .................
. .
go Leg sire o i fillet weld
.4s i ndi al t d hv Fi rnrr~ 3 and the rolatcrl weld Shoo Weld of Fromins Anale t o Beam Web
, , ~> - -
;m:rlysis, thc fillct welds con~i(vtirlg anglc to heam w d ~
Nomograph No, 7 shows t l l nt for a rwction ( K) of
should hi, Irookd aroriud tlir ends of tllr anglc. top
58 kips. ;rn alrgle leg (I, , , ) of 3" and l<>rlgth (I,,.) of
mcl bottom, for the distance ( h ) to t l ~c end of tlic
l y , a fill(,t wrl(l ( w ) ~,,llllld hi, rt!(illireil, Ilellce
bcam wcti. They sh011l11 not ire continned aronnd the llsc G". 3,r %,, fralning ar,gles, 94t;,,
ci ~d of the wrb, Fignrr 7.
weld to crilunm and Sk" shop weld to boain web.
&,--
Don t hook weld I
"r ound this edge
Don t hook weld
oiound t hi i edge
Hook weld orovnd
4. STANDARD EB FRAMING ANGLE
CONNECTIONS
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 7
To design ;i wch framing ;aiglc cnnrlrctioll to
sl~pport a 70" 85,1 1 bcan~, Ira\-ing an rnd rt,action of
R = 58 kips. Use A36 steel uiid J+:X) u&k.
Sct: Figlire 8.
Field Weld of Framing Angle t o Column
Nornograpli No. fi s l ~o\ x~ that for a %" fillct wcld
( w ); a reaction j R ) of 58 kips and a11 mgle \ ut h a
1c.g (I,,,) of 3". its lciigtli ( I J, ) si-lonld br 101,L". How-
ever, for a %i,i'' fillct weld ( w ) the angk l t ~ ~ g t h (I, . )
violrid only li;tvc to be ir~creased to 12".
Tnbie 3 giws tlw I S C allowil~le lo:~ds (kips) on
n~f i h framing mglc conncctioris. rlsirig A%, r12.42 and
A141 s t t ~l s ; ~nd i-70 \n.t,lcls. T111, talilc givcs the capacity
;und sizc of (Shop) \'(,Id -4 coi~ncciing the framing
angle to the hcnm web. and of (Ficld) Weld I3 co11-
neoting tlic framing arigle to the h a m slipport.
pzL-q
To s?lcct a \wIi frmning ariglc roi?ncctioii for n
16'' H 263 Ir;rm (0.75" \vrh tlrickiirss and T =: 11") of
h3.41 stwl, \\-it11 rmd rwciion of R 1 : 05 kips. Usc I 30
wcl~ls. Allowal~lc s hr x is 20 ksi.
This h<vnm \r-cii~ld t;lhr ;III anglr xvitb length I,, =:
10'' ( r 12" I n T;ililt. 1, the ( Shop) \Trcld 4 ~i paci t y
\ ' .
FIGURE 8
TABLE L S t a n d a r d Web Framing Angle Connections
From American l nsti tutt of S t e e l Cotistruction
T1 FRAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
' @ I . & WeIded~&E6OXX el ect r odes
W e i d & ; . . ( ,
1 , , , I
FRAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
S t , , . - BJ 07 Wel ded E 7 O X X el ect r odes
&i
TABLE V!
1 , MI ,
hriir Llr" i
:*?*-51 : ?"
O,?X%,, i s
I*?> -r 39
4 ~ i r ; ~ x
i xi i : , 4h
4XI Y' . 39
L Xi * l , )i
!*i Y %< 48
i . i l %# 3 9
3, i x i , ii
1 x 3 ~ : ~ ~ 68
i * i X b ~ I
l Xl X* 46 29
i rl r%+ dB
1 Yi X' I ir
3 ' . '9
. i R
I*?*% 19
irix;i l i
i >, !i kt di
1Xir; 1)
3 , )1
A : , 4'
i * ! Y+ 39
i * i X ' i , ?Y
3 , !%
I < , < % !V
A , 1"
I,,. #,,A . t
-
, %, , "
-
7>,,
St '
>, L
)!I
'4,
).,
i.,
i,
l , 6
+IS
>,,
>>,
3 '
" 1 i
-
~ c ~ , . z
%,,,,
-
2-7
16:'
i s
71,
! X
L?:
19:
LIB
i!8
1 %
116
iar
i h7
l i 4
:00
cP'
I??
I41 ,,
i l l
i!"
81 4
:,,
n 0
i; i
!lil
R i
i : o
12 I
,: 3
$5 ;
!d i
b l b
t,' "
,,$ 0
il ;
I& i
5,: !
ii 6
:r
," ? >,...
a: ,
40 I
:i 5
34 6
?d i
! 0
"'
" 7
a 7
.: 5
16 4
:a 6
1"
l i 9
-
,&,,*,
' %*"-
nf 38.4 kips for a weld size of o = ?ip," and anglc
length of L, : : 10" sliglitly excteds the rmction. The
corrcsponding (Field) Wdd R, nsing w : 'h", also is
satisfactory. Sinct. the beanis r cqui r d wweh thickncss is
0.31'' while tlic actual ivcb thickncss is 0 . W, the indi-
catcd 3" x 3" x 5/,(1'' is d l right.
If the beam is rnade of A36 steel, this conncction's
capacity will bc rcdueed in the ratio of 0.25/0.29 of
actual to rcyrriml web thickness. The r t d t i n g capacity
of 33.1 kips is less than the reaction. The nest larger
connection with apparently sui6cient capacity sllows
that (Shop) Weld A's capacity is -17 kips, using same
angle section hut an angle lcngtl~ of L, = 12". Apply-
ing the multiplier of O.2.5/0.!?9 redr~ccs tho capci t y of
the connection to 40.5 kips, which excw:ls the end
reaction.
5. SINGLE-PLATE OR TEE CONNECTION
ON BEAM WEB
In the previous dcsign of the field weld, connecting a
pair of web framing angles to the supporting column
or girdcr, it was assumrd that the reaction ( R) applied
eccentric to ench angle, rt sdt ed in a iendeocy for the
angles to twist or rotate. In doing su, thcy would press
togcthcr at thc top and swing :way from each other at
the bottom, this bring r mi s t ~d by the welds. These
forces arc in ;rddition to thc vertical fol-ces c a ~~s e d by
thc reaction ( R) ; see Figure 10.
IIowrver, in both the single-pl;~te wcb connection
and the Tce-st3ction tyl~i., this portion of thc conrrection
welded to the col~nnn is solid. Thns, there is no
tendmcy for this sprcdi ng action which must be rc-
sisted by the welds. These vcrtical field welds to the
FIG. 10-Dauble-web framing angle
FIG. 11-Single plate or Tee
co111rnn \voold be designed then for just the vcrticd
rcaction (11); see Figure 11.
In the shop ~ d d of the singlc plate to the web
of the honm, Figrirc 13, this donlde vertical weld wonld
be designcd for just tlic vrrtical reaction ( R) . There
is not enough rc~witrieity to considcr any bending
action.
FIG. 12-Flat plate used for flexible connection on web of beam.
Tee section used far flexible
connecttaii on web of beam
FIG. 13-Tee section used for flexible connection on web of beom.
In the shop nr l d of thc T w connection to thc web
of tlrc bram. Figure 13, the size and limgth of t hr
fillct .ivclti wo ~ k l be dt,tcrniinid inst as in the cast, of
the doublr-ncl) fran~i nz ;nrgirs. (:xct.pt thew is jnst a FIGURE 14
single fii1t.t weld in this casc rather than two; so, for
n given cos~ncrtion, this wonk1 can-y just half of thc
rcwtion of the corresponding donblt:-anglc connection.
fillct tcelrl in slzetir; portillel load
6. DIRECTLY-WELDED WEB CONNECTION
2(96(10w)l, := t, 13,000 I,
To sec how this typc of connection hch;ivcs, consider
- 1
the follo\ving 18" WF 85# beam, simply supported,
15' soan. with a unifonnlv distributcd load of 139 kios.
A '
the same hcnm and load u s d in the grricral discwsion
on behavior of connt.ctions in Srct. 5.1, Topic 6.
If only thc wvl) is to he nvkl rd to the cohn~rn, tho
n~nst hmc stifficit>nt length ( L, ) so that the a&-
cent \vi,b of the hwim will not hc overstressed in s11o;tr.
For A373 stecl
== 10.2", or U.SC 11"
l.~ic~o;illy, tmnsvcrw fillct welds arc: ;ibout ?$ stron-ei than
p;tr;iild fillet wclds; this can i>e pnn.ril by thmry as d l as
The leg size, of this fillrt weld rnrist hc t ~ p d to the twtiiig. 'This m a n s h,r trmsverst, h;rtis, tlri; 1i.g si i c wodd bc
thickness, ~ , ~ ~ ~ d uporl stanci:lrd ;lllcl,,.~t~,les, if i t is
3 of tlw platr tliirkn<,ss, iiist ;is in l);ti;i!Ii,l luaiis. Iiowevcr,
~, r I di ng codrs do not ;,s yct i-wognim tliir; :ind for code work,
to matrh the :~liowahir strength of this web sectioii in
f i 1 1 ~~ rvl,~ds for tr.ir,svcrsc io;,~is .jiri,,,id bc. ii,itrIi~ ccliiiil to ilic pl;itc
shear as wcll as tcrrsion. tiiiclaiess.
I
FIGURE 16
. -
the k g size of this fillet weld is increased by this
nmount.
The moment-rotation chart, Figwe 17, shows the
beam line for this pnrtictilar bcmn lcngtli and load;
and the actual connection curve taken from test data
at 1,ehigh University.
In testing this co~meetion, thc heam \veh showed
initial signs of yielding adjaccnt to the lo\ver mds of
the weld at a monirnt of 3fi0 in.-kips. At a moment of
660 in.-kips, point ( a ) , thew wcrc indications that the
beam ~ v e l ~ along the full length of the weld had yielded.
At a moment of 870 in.-kips: 110th \velds cracked slightly
at the top; this point is ~narkecl with an "X" on the
curvc. With furlhcr cracking of the weld and yielding
in tho beam wch, thc lo\vm finngc of the beam roll-
t adcd thc colurnn, point ( h ) , arid this resultrd in
irlrreascd stiffness. Thr- inoment built tip to a ~i ~a xi m~nn
of 1918 in.-kips, and t b e ~ ~ gr:idually fell off as tire \ d d
continued to tear.
Notice in this partic~ular cminplr. the web wodd
haw yicldrd the in11 Icngtli of the \wid at design lo;~d.
The \veld s t : ~r t d to crwk whcn the corrnt.ction
h:d rotatrri ;ihout ,011 r;idi:ins; this woold corrcspond
to a hori zo~~t al inovenncnl of .OV at t l ~c top portion oi
the wold. Cornpaw this s ~n; ~l l :inro~~nt of mov~:mcnt with
that ol~tainrcl i r ~ t l ~c top conrn,ctiiiq plait: c~x:u~~ple of
Figure 4 n-hicb 1i;irl thc zihility to pnll out 1.6" Iwforc
failirrg.
This diicctly \velricd wrh conrieetion (Fig. 18)
FIGURE 17
eided-Construction Design
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 20
is not as dependable as a top connet:ting plate designed
to picld at working load (Fig. 19) or aither flexible
web framing angles (Fig. 20) or flexible top angle.
Also rcmember this highly yi el dd web section, in
the case of the directly welded wcb connection, must
still snpport or carry the vertical reaction ( R ) of the
beam, whereas in the top plate connection, the support
of tire beam at the bottom seat is still sound no matter
what happens to the top plate.
Fi gwe 17 ~vould indicate the directly welded web
connection rosoits in an end moment of M, = 720 in:
kips, or an end restraint of-
/ 'Field weld
This restraint is a little high to be classed as simply
supported.
The same top plate connection is shown in dotted
lines on Figure 17; it has about the same stiffness, hut
many times the rotational ability.
The use of side platrs, Fignre 21, would allow a
wide variation in fit-up, b.ut in general they are no
better than the directly welded web connection. Unless
the plates are as thick as tile beam web, the resulting
connecting fillet welds will he smaller and will rednce
the strength of the conncction
FIGURE 21
Fteld weld
shop weld
1 1 Field weld only
on toe of ongle
FIGURE 22
In the tests at Leliigl~ University, the correspond-
ing connection on the 18" WF 85# beam (S26"-thick
web) nsed :$6" thick side plates with fillet welds.
They failed at a lower load.
If 'htr thick side plates with %" fillet welds had
been used, they undoubtedly- wonld have becn as strong
as the directly welded wch connection.
7. ONE-SIDED WEB CONNECTlONS
A single web framing angle nsed by itself is not recom-
mended; see Figure 22.
Use of only a single vertical fillet weld to join
the angle to the supporting member imposes a greater
eccentricity upon the connection. This resdts in a maxi-
mum force on the weld of about 4 times that of the
double-angle connection; see Fignn:s 23 and 24.
It might be argued that in the conventional double-
angle connection, the fieId weld is subject only to
FIGURE 23
FIGURE 24
vertical shear because the stiffness of the angles largely
prevents any twisting action on the connection even
though the analysis is based upon this twist as shown
in Figure 23. However, there is no doubt that the
single-angle connection has this twisting action which
mould greatly decrease its strength.
Any additional welding on the single anglc, such
as vertically along its heel or horizontally across the
top and bottom edges, would make it rigid and prevent
it from moving under load. This would cause the end
moment to build up and greatly overstress the ccn-
nection.
In the original resenrcb at 1,chigh University on
welded connections, this single-angle connection wit11
a single vertical weld was never tested. Single angle
connections welded both along the sides and along
the ends were tested, but as already mentioned, they
did not have enough flexibility, and the cnd moment
built up above the strength of t l ~c connection.
Web framing angles ore commonly shop welded to the supported beam. To facilitate
erection, bolts are used in joining the other member until the web framing angle con
be permanently welded to it. The erection bolts can be left in, or removed if there
is any concern that they will offer restraint. Note the use of box section column, in this
case it being hot rolled square structural tubing.
1. DESIGN PLATE TO BE STRESSED AT WELD
A top connecting plate if designed to be stressed at its
yield will provide a flexible connection, suitable for a
simple beam and easily adapted to carry the additional
moment due to wind.
Since this flexibility is due to plastic yielding of
the plate, the portion of its length which is to yield
should be at least 1.2 times its width.
p Beam
b
I ~
(length of beam)
FIGURE 1
The plate should be capable of plastically yielding
a distance equivalent to the movement of the end of
the top beam flange as it rotates under load if the con-
nection were to offer no restraining action (AISC See.
1.15.4); see Figure 1. For a simply supported beam,
uniformly loaded, this maximum movement ( e ) ~vo~i l d
be:
where:
e =: movement, in inches
L = length of beam, feet
The graph in Figure 2 illustrates what this move-
ment would be as a function of beam length, under
various load conditions.
There is no problem in detailing a top plate to
safely yield this much, providing there are no notches
which might act as stress risers and decrease the plate's
strength. Any widening of the plate for the connecting
welds must be done with a smooth transition in width.
( 2 loads @ % points
4 loods @ 1/, points
6 Uniformly distributed load
5 loods @ v6 points
5
3 loads @ % points
.4 1 load at Z
.3
.2
. I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length of rimply supported beom (L), feet
(orruming beam to be stressed to u = 20,000 at C )
FIGURE 2
E 6024 weld metal
6010 weld metal
80
I I I I I I I
I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Elongation, % in 2"
FIG. 3 Stress-strain diagram for weld metal and beam plate.
ASTM specifies the following minimum percent of
elongation as measured in an 8" gage length for struc-
tural steels:
This minimum value of 2m for A36 steel would
represent a total elongation of 20% X 8" = 1.6" within
the 8" length.
Notice in Figure 2 that a simply supported beam,
uniformly loaded, with a span of 20 feet would rotate
inward about .106", so that this particular beam would
utilize only x5 of the capacity of this top plate to yield.
Figure 3, a stress-strain diagram, shows that a
miid steel base plate will yield and reach maximum
elongation before its welds reach this yield point.
The test specimen in Figure 4 shows that ample
plastic elongation results from the steel tensile specin~en
necking down and yklding. This is similar to the be-
havior of a top connecting plate which yields plastically
under load.
2. TOP PLATE FOR SI
There is some question as to what value should be
uscd for the end moment in the design of the top
plate for simple beams. Any top plate will offer some
restraint, and this will produce some end moment. Le-
high researchers originally suggested assuming simple
beam construction (AISC Type 2) to have an end
restraint of about 20%. On this basis, the end moment
for a uniformly loaded beam would be:
and this is 13.3% of the beam's resisting moment
Heath Lawson ("Standard Details for Welded
Building Construction", AWS Journal, Oct. 1944, p.
916) suggests designing the top plate (simple beam
construction) for an end moment of about 25% of the
beam's resisting moment. This would correspond to an
end restraint of about 37.5%, which approaches the
range of "semi-rigid connections.
In Figure 5 the end of the top connecting plate is
beveled and groove welded directly to the column, the
groove weld and adjacent plate being designed to
develop about 23% of the restraining moment of the
- - - - -
FIGURE 4
Top PIaies gar Simple Beams ind / 5.5-3
beam using the standard allowable bending stress. The
standard bending stress allowed here would be limited
to u = .60 u,. (Type 2, simple framing).
Just beyond the groove weld section, the plate is
reduced in width so that the same load will produce
a localized yield stress ( u7) . The length of this reduced
section should be at least 1.2 times its width to assure
ductile yielding.
This plate is attached to the beam flange by means
of a continuous fillet weld across the end and retum-
ing a sufficient distance on both sides of the plate to
develop the strength of the groove weld at standard
allowables:
A7, A373 Steels; E60 Welds
-- ---- ~-
. . . ( 2)
A36, A441 Sleek; E70 Weld
- ... .-
IND BRACING
Wind moments applied to simple beam c~nnections
present an additional problem. Some means to transfer
these wind moments must be provided in a connection
which is designed to be Rexible. Any additional restraint
in the connection will increase the end moment result-
ing from the gravity load. AISC Sec 1.2 provides for
two approximate solutions, referred to hereafter as
Method 1 and Method 2.
In tier buildings, designed in general as Type 2
construction, that is with beam-to-column connections
(other than wind connections) flexible, the distribution
of the wind moments between the several joints of the
frame may be made by a recognized empirical method
provided that either:
ethod I. The wind connections, designed to re-
sist the assumed moments, are adequate to resist the
moments induced by the gravity loading and the wind
at the increased unit stresses allowable, or
fhod 2. The wind connections, if welded and
if design& to resist the assumed wind moments, are so
designed that larger moments induced by the gravity
loading under the actual condition of restraint will be
relieved by deformation of the connection material
without over-stress in the welds.
AISC Sec. 1.5.6 permits allowable stresses to be
increased % above the values provided in Sec 1.5.1
(steel), and 1.5.3 (welds), when produced by wind or
seismic loading acting alone or in combination with the
design dead and live loads, on condition that the re-
quired section computed on this basis is not less than
that required for the design dead and live load and
impact, if any, computed without the % stress increase,
nor less than that required by Sec. 1.7, (repeated Ioad-
ing) if it is applicable. Since we are discussing Type 2
construction (simple framing) the initial basic allow-
able stress is 60 u,, not .66 u?
pz-tizq
The top plate (Fig. 6) is designed to carry the force
resulting from the end moment caused by the combin-
ation of the gravity and wind moments, and at a V3
increase in the standard stress allowable (or u = .80
u, ). This 4; increase may also be applied to. the con-
necting welds (AISC See. 1.5.3, & 1.5.6). The fillet welds
connecting the lower Range of the beam to the seat
angle must be sufficient to transfer this same load.
The top plate must have the ability to yield
plastically if overloaded (last paragraph of AISC Sec.
1.2).
FIGURE 5
At stondard ollowobler Minimum length of reduced
1" X W' backing bar
F =
rtandord allowabl
MI (gravity)
d,
Fillet weld at 1'/3
M, (grovity)+M,(windl
stondord allowabl
when loaded with F
In the alternate design of the top plate shown at
upper right in Figure 6, the reduced section ( W) is
designed for the force resulting from the end moment
caused by the combination of the gravity and wind
moments at a 'h increase in the standard allowables.
It will reach yield at a 25% increase in load ( F) . The
wider section at the groove weld (1% W) will reach
1% 5- or .SO u, when the reduced section has reached
this yield value.
I Method 2 1
The top plate (Fig. 7) is designed to carry the force
resulting from the wind moment (M,) using a % in-
crease in the standard allowables:
u = (1%) $0 up :: .80 up
The top plate must be capable of yielding plasti-
FIGURE 6
cally to relieve larger moments induced by gravity
loading, figuring the connecting welds at standard al-
lowable~.* This is the same method for figuring the
connecting welds of top connecting plates for simply
supported beams without wind loads.
The reduced section will reach yield stress (u,)
at a 25% increase in load ( F) . The wider section at the
groove weld (1% W) will reach standard allowables
( 80 u,) at this time.
In case there should be a reversal in wind moment,
the top plate must be thick enough to safely withstand
any compressive load without buckling.
It is recommended that the top plate's thickness
be held to at least x4 of its length ( L) between welds.
This will provide a slenderness ratio (L/ r) of 83; and
corresponds to about 80% of the allowable compressive
strength for a short column (L/r ratio of 1) .
-
'This weld altowable by AISC i s not clcar; AISC srmply says
welds shall not be overstressed when plate is at yield.
At standard allowables M~n~murn lensth of reduced
when reduced section is
section between welds
at yield in7)
1" X W' backing
At 1 % a when loaded
with [F) ivind moment
Fillet weld at standard
olloviobles when reduce
M, (wind)
db
FIGURE 7
Top Plates tor Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-5
FIGURE 8
Where:
Wt"
1 - --
x --
12
and
raditw of gyration
slenc1erncss ratio
4. EXAMPLE OF TOP PLATE DESIGN-
wltn WIND MOMENT
A 14" M7F 38# beam is simply supported and loaded
urtiformly with 296 Ibs/in. on a 15-ft span. Based on
these beam-load conditions, the masimum bending
moment at center is M = 1200 in.-kips. Use A36
steel and E70 welds. Wind moment on each end is M,T
= 600 in.-kips.
Beam conditions here: (See Figure 9.)
14" WF 38# beam
b = 6.776''
db = 14.12"
ti = ,513"
S = 54.6 in."
If there were no wind load, the above connection
might hc designed for about 25% of the present
(gravity) moment as a simply supported beam:
= 300 in.-kips on connection at each end
= 21.3 kips
The rcduccd section of the top plate is designed
to carry this force at yield stress (u,):
-
- (21.3 kips)
(36,000 psi)
-
- .59 in."
or use a 1%'' x W' plate
Connecting Welds at Standard Allowables
For the groove weld to the cwlnmn flange, this plate is
widened to 1%W, or-
width = 1% (1%)
= 2. V or use 3.0"
For the fillet welds to the beam flange, use 5/,,"
fillets at an allowable force of-
FIGURE 9
f, = 11,200 0
= 11,200 ( X e )
= 3500 lhs per linear inch
The length of this weld is-
-
-
( 6% in.2)(36,000 psi)
(3500 lhs/in. )
This would he 13h" across the end, and 2%" along
the sides.
efhod 1 for Additional
This connection will now he designed for the additional
wind moment of M, = 600 in.-kips, using Method 1.
FIGURE 10
Beam conditions here:
14" WF 35# beam
b = 6.776'
db = 14.12"
tc = ,513"
S = 54.6 in.3
Total moment on the connection is-
M = M, + M,
= 300 in.-kips + 600 in.-kips
= 900 in.-kips
Force on top plate is-
M
F = -
d b
= 63.8 lcips
The top plate is designed for this force at fS higher
allowahles:
-
-
(63.8 kips)
1% (22,000 ps?K
= 2.18 in.2
or use a 3%" x %' ' plate
--
A, = 2.19 in." 22.8 i n . 0 K -.
The connecting welds are figured at % higher allow-
abl e~:
For the fillet welds at the beam flange, use M"
fillets. The standard allowahle force is f, = 11,200 cd
= 11,200 ( M) = 5600 lhs per linear inch.
- (63.8 kips)
- in (5600)
This weld length would be distributed 3%'' across
the end, and 2%" along the side edges of the top plate.
The above connection may be cut from bar stock
without the necessity of flame cutting any reduced
section in it. This is a good connection and is in wide-
spread use. The connecting groove weld and fillet welds
are strong enough to develop the plate to yield plasti-
cally if necessary due to any accidental overload of the
connection.
Some engineers prefer to widen this plate at the
groove weld so that if the plate should have to reach
-
vield stress, the connecting welds would be stressed
-
only up to the wind allowable or % higher, hence u =
30 u,.
Accordingly, the plate is widened here to 1W =
(See Figure 11.)
The length of the fillet weld, using M" fillet welds
and allowable of f, = 5600 lhs/in., would he-
Top Plates for Simple Beams &
FIGURE 11
F
reduced section at yield
L,=- ( ) and fillet weld at
1% f,
'h higher allowable
-
(2.19 im2) (36,000 psi)
- -
1% (5600)
= 10.55"
-
This would he 3%" across the end, and 3%" along
the side edges of the plate.
Applying Method 2 for Additional
w
FIGURE 12
Temporarily ignoring the gravity load, the top plate
is designed to carry the wind load, M, = 600 h k i p on
each end.
Compression Tensi
t op R on top
Wind moment
FIGURE 13
= 42.5 kips
The reduced section of the plate is designed to
canr)- this at 44 higher allowable:
(42.5 kips)
--
- 1% (22,000 j
= 1.45 in.2
or use 3" by 36'' plate
The plate must now be modified so that larger
moments induced by the gravity loading can be relieved
by plastic yielding of tlre top plate, designing the con-
necting welds at standard allowablcs.
The plate is widened at the groove weld to 1% W
= 1% ( 3) = 5.c".
For the connecting fillet weids to the beam flange,
use %" fillets:
f, = 11,200 0
= 11,200 (%)
= 4200 lbs per linear inch
F 1.5 in.') (36,000 psi)
L, =- =L
f, (4200)
Beam
10,550 psi]
Connection
(28.330)
& = + 600 it?-k
M, = - 600 i n- k
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15
This would be 3" of weld across the end, and 5"
along each side.
5. EXAMINING THIS EXA
To better understand how this wind connection oper-
ates, this example will be examined, using Method 2.
1. The cmm~ctioq~ is Erst designed for the wind
moment of M, = 600 in.-kip at % increase in the
standard allow-ables applied to each end of the beam.
The wind moment will cause a bending stress in
the beam of-
= 10,990 psi
(See Figure 14.)
The corresponding stress in the top connecting plate
is-
- (600 in-kips)
- (14.12) (1.5)
= 28,330 psi
Note that the connection will not yield until a
stress of 36,000 psi is reached.
2. Now the gravity load can be gradrially added,
treating the beam as having fixed ends, until the right-
hand connection reaches yield stress. This would be an
additional stress in the connecting plate of: 36,000 -
28,330 = 7670 psi. This would corrcspond to a stress in
the beam end of: (.388) (7670 psi) = 2980 psi.
(See Figure 15.)
Since the allowable moment on this end connection
resulting froin gravity load is (hcated as a fixed end
beam)-
w* L'
Me, = --- -- also =cr, A, d
12
the portion of thc gravity load to be added here is-
The stress in this beam end due to gravity load
is then added to the initial wind moment diagram:
(See Figure 16.)
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-9
- Mc2
,490 psi
FIGURE 16
3 FIGURE 17
8010 pri
M = - 517.6 in-
',
Ma = - 762.8 in-k
,
9480 psi
\
Connection
13,970 psi
(24,430 psi)
FIGURE 18
At this point, the right-hand connection reaches or a bending stress of
yield stress (u,. = 36,000 psi) even though the beam
end is stressed to only u = 13,970 psi.
Mez (955 in.-kips)
ub2 = -- =
3. The remainder of the gravity load (w2 = w -
Sb (54.6 in.3)
w,
296 - 60.2 = 235.8 lhs/in.) can now be applied,
= 17,490 psi
treating the beam as having one fixed end on the left
and simply supported on the right. See Figure 17.
w* L*
Also since M = -
The resulting end moment here is-
16
-
ub at 9 = $5 (17,490) = 8750 psi
wz L"
Me* =
- -
(235.8) (180)2
8 8 'll~ese stresses are then added to the previous
955 in.-kip
moment diagram; Figure 18.
FIGURE 19
2670 ps,
Beam Connection
3660 PSI
4650 psi (36,000 psi)
FIGURE 20
990 psi
4650 psi
Connection Beom
(36,000 psi) 4650 p
FIGURE 21 (36,000 psi)
The corresponding stress in the top plate is-
A lower design wind moment will not require as
large a top connecting plate. The smaller plate will
yield sooner and it is possible that the h a 1 gravity
load would cause both end connections to yield.
Consider the same pl-obkm as previously but with
the wind moment reduced to M, = 200 in.-kip, applied
to each end of the beam.
The required top plate is designed for this wind
moment:
= .48 in.'
or use a 1" x M" plate
.- - -- - -. - -
(This very small top plate is used here only for
illustrative purposes.)
A, = 5 0 in.' > .48 in.'
This moment will cause a bending stress in the
beam of-
M, (200 in.-kips)
~~ -- - ~~ ---- ~~~
d A,, - (14.12) ( 5 0 )
= 28,330 psi
A portion of the gravity load is added, treating the
bcarn as having fixed ends, until the riglit hand connec-
tion reaches yield stress. This would be an additional
stress in the connection plate of: 36,000 - 28,330 =
7670 psi. This would correspond to :I stress in the beam
of: (.l29) (7670 psi) = 990 psi. See Fignre 20.
Since the allowable moment on this end conncc-
tion resulting from gravity load is-
M,
ub =-
the portion of the gravity load to be addert here is-
Sb
- - -. (200 in.-kips)
(54.6 in.:')
= 3660 psi See Figure 19.
W, =
12 u,, A, d, .- - 12 (7670)(.50)(14.12)
L'"
-
(180)'
Top Plates for Simple ind / 5.5-11
At this point, the right-hand connection reaches
yield stress (u, = 36,000 psi) even though the end of
the beam is stressed to only 5 = 4650 psi.
In this example, if the remainder of the gravity load
were applied, the left-hand connection would go over
the yield point. For this reason only enough of the
gravity load will be added to bring the lcft-hand con-
nection just to yield, treating the beam as having one
fixed end on the left and simply supported on the right.
See Figure 21.
To reach yield stress in the left connection, the
stress in the beam must increase from 2670 psi com-
pression in upper flange to 4650 psi tension, or 7320 psi.
This would correspond to an applied gravity
load of:
-
-
8(7320 psi) (54.6 i n3)
(180)"
so cr,= M(7320)
= 3660 psi
This now leaves a gravity load of ws to be applicd,
treating the beam as having simply snpportcd ends
since their connections have both reached yield stress.
The remaining gravity load:
Since:
= 13,150 psi
Ibi s stress in the bcam is added to the preceding
moment diagram; see Figure 22:
The total ue = 17,310 psi < 22,000 psi OK
7. AD APPLIED FIRST, THEN
In the preceding examination of the wind connec-
tion, the wind was applied &st and thcn the gravity
load. This is the seqnence of design followed in Method
2. The cross-sectional area of the top plate is deter-
mined by wind only, and then the connecting welds
are designed so that larger monlents induced by the
gravity loading under actual conditions of restraint may
cause the plate to yield plastically.
Of course in actual practice, the gravity load is
applied first and thcn the wind may be encountered
secondly. The same problem will now be examined in
this order of loading.
The bean with the gravity load is considered as
simply supported; however, the top plate which must
resist the wind moment does restrain the end of the
heam to some extent. ?he larger the plate, the greater
the restraint, this will also increase the end moment
rcstilting from the gravity load. It is necessary to get
some indication of the restraining action of the con-
nection so that the cnd moment from the gravity load
may be known.
FIGURE 22
To do this, a simple moment-rotation diagram is
constructed for both the loaded beam and the connec-
tion. The resulting conditions are represented by the
point of intersection of these two lines or curves.
In the Lel~igh research of connections, the actual
test results of moment-rotation of the connections were
plotted on this type of diagram; in this example the
properties of this top plate connection are computed,
and will be fairly accurate since practically all of the
movement will occur in the reduced portion of the
top plate.
Connection l i ne
FIGURE 23
I I bottom of beam
v-v--w
FIGURE 24
I
I I mld-he~ght of beam
G- Q- VS
where L, = length of plate section between welds,
inches
e
Since 0 =-and e =: E Lp
db
also M, = up A, db
If the bottom of the beam is securely anchored and
the top plate is relatively small, Figure 23, rotation map
be assumed to occur about a point near the bottom of
the beam. As the top plate becomes larger, offering
more restraint, this point of rotation moves up. If the
top plate has the same size as the beam flange, Figure
24, rotation may be assumed to be at mid-height of
the beam.
Since movement ( e ) depends upon the over-all
elastic elongation of the top plate, and for simplicity
length (L,) is shown only as the length of the reduced
portion, there is some elongation in the widened section
as well as in the reduced section within the fillet welded
zone. For this reason the value of the calculated rota-
tion ( 8 ) in this example will be doubled.
Two points will determine the connection line.
Since this line passes through the origin or zero load,
it is only necessary to have a second point; for sim-
plicity this second point will be a yield conditions.
At yield:
(36,000 psi) (4.5")
- --
- (30 x 10') ((14.12")
= ,382 x radians
This value will be doubled because of elastic
elongation of other portions of the plate:
0, =: ,764 x radians
and:
M, = a, A, db
=r (36,000 psi) (1.5 in.2) ( 14.12")
= 762 in.-kips
Beam Li n ~Gr a v i t y load, uniformly loaded
It is necessary to have two points to detelmine this
beam line on the moment-rotation chart:
( a ) the end moment ( Me ) if fully restrained
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-13
= 800 in.-kips
( b ) the end rotation ( 8, ) if simply supported
where L = length of beam in inches
Connection at yield in,)
moment, Me = 720 in-kips
Connection line
End rotation (OJ, X 10-3 radians
6.24
FIGURE 25
With the gravity load only on the beam, this would
indicate that the end moment7 would be Me = 720
in.-kip. This would leave:
This would correspond to a bending stress at the
end of the beam of-
= 13,200 psi
See Figure 26.
The stress at centerline of the beam would be-
= 8800 psi
U b
As before K =- = ,388 so that the stress
U"
in the connecting plate would be--
up =
13,200 psi
.388
= 34,020 psi
Now the wind load is gradually applied equally to
both ends until the right-hand connection reaches yield.
This would occur when the stress in the connecting
plate is increased from 31,020 psi to 36,000 psi, or an
increase of 1980 psi. This would correspond to a wind
moment of-
13,200 psi
i 3,200 psi
Connection
(34,020 psi)
FIGURE 26
M, = 42 in-kips
Connection
(1980 psij
J "
FIGURE 27
.- 8800 psi
Beam 7
12,430 psi
L
FIGURE 28
FIGURE 29
- 19,020 psi
pea..
13.970 psi
FIGURE 30
Connection
(36,000 psij
Top Plates far Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-15
And stress in the beam is-
= 770 psi See Figure 27
Adding this wind moment diagram to the initial
gravity moment diagram gives I'ignrt: 28.
There now is left a wind mornent of 600 42 =
5% in.-kip to be applied to each end, but since the
right-hand connection has reached yield stress, the re-
maining moment of 2 x 558 = 1116 in.-kip must he
added to the left end of the beam.
= 20,440 psi
.= 52,680 psi (compressio~~) to be added to the
32,040 psi in tension already in the left-hand
connecting plate
Adding this last wind moment diagram to the
diagram in Figure 28 gives thc final diagram, Figure 30.
8. ALTERNATE GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
This same example can he illustrated in a slightly
different manner. The right-hand connection and beam
end is on the right of Fignre 31; the left-hand connec-
tion and its l~earn ond is on the left.
As bi hr e, the beam line with gravity load only is
constructed for both ends. This hcnm line represents
the moment at the end caused by the gravity load, the
actual value of the lnolnerrt depends on the effect of
the connection.
A wind mornent would be represented by a hori-
zontal line throngh the actual value of the moment. It
would not he influenced by the connection iinless it
exceeds the yield of the connection; then the portion
of the wind moment carried would be limited by the
yield of the coimection. 4ny wind moment superim-
posed on the gravity load will shift the beam line verti-
cally up or down depending on the sign of the wind
moment.
By observation, the right-hand connection can be
' Jb = - 13,970 p s ~
oe = - 36,000 psi
- I O O O l
"3
a -- 900.-
[compression]
Left End
G
M- = - 762 in-kips 1
i
' 6.24 x l o 3
End rototion [OJ, X 10-3 radians
I
I
j. Add wind moment of negotive M, =42 in-kips
to right end of beom; connection reaches yield
%Add wind moment of positive
M, = 1 I56 i n-ki ps to left end of beam
Right End
FIGURE 31
increased another 42.0 in.-kip from wind, then it will
reach yield and no further moment can be applied.
Since the applied wind moment was 600 in.-kip on
cach end, this will leave a balance of 2 x 800 in.-kip -
42 in.-kip = 1156 in.-kip to be carried entirely by the
left-hand connection.
To do this, the beam line on the left of Figure 31
will be lowered vertically + 1158 in.-kip; see the dotted
line. This will inkrsect the connection curve (extcnded
into the positive moment region) at an end moment
of Me = 320 in.-kip.
This will correspond to a bending stress in the
beam end of 6050 psi, and in the connection plate of
15,600 psi. In this case, the connection curve h:~d to be
extended downward into the positive moment region
in order to intersect the new beam line. This indicates
a $ moment and reverses the stress in the plate, now
compression, arid the bottom of the beam connection is
now in tension.
The previous examination of this problem indicated
a bcnding stress in the left end of the beam of cri, =
8010 psi; this examination indicates a stress of ul, :=
6050 psi. Why should there be a difference? The previ-
ous examination stopped after the first end momcnt
due to gravity load was determined and then for sim-
plicity from then on considered the connection as per-
fcctly rigid, whereas this examination considered the
elastic properties of the connecting plate all the way
through the problem. This last approach would be a
little more accurate.
This same prohlem was pi-eviously worked with a
reduced w i d moment of M, = 200 in.-kip applied to
each end. Figure 32 shows how this can be worked
graphically. This is an intrresting prohlcm since the
lower wind lnorncnt reqnires a smaller top plate, with
?/3 the cross-sectional area, hence 'h the strength, and
the gravity load ca~ised the plate to yield plastically
at both rnds even before any wirid load is applied. This
is represented by the black dot where the beam line
(without wind) intersects with the connection curve.
When the wind moment is added, the right con-
ncction is alrt:ady at yield and can carry no additio~ral
moment, therefore the mtirc v.ind moment of 2 x 200
in.-kip = 400 in-kip must be carried by the left-hand
connection. Accordingly the beam line is lowered ver-
tically a distance of 400 in.-kip: see thc dashed line. As
this is lowered. tbt. resulting moment (M, , ) and rota-
tion (0,) of the connection (black dot ) slide down
parallel to the clnstic portion of tlrc connection line
until it intersocts with this new beam line (white dot ).
In Figure 33 these final conditions representing the
heam with gravity load and wind load are represented
with black dots. If the wind were now removed, the left
beam line moves npw-ard 200 in.-kip 2 n d the right
beam line movt.s dou.11 200 in.-kip, tho new conditions
being represented by the white dots. For a complete
reversal of wind, this operation is again repeated and
is represented by the broken lines.
? - 9004
+ - r uu
.- Gravi ty iood; no wi nd
- 800 2
Me = - 330 in-ktpr
A- -
8. = - 3.8 x l o 3 iudionr
\ @'
400 in-kips-.. < 6 2 4 X 1 0 "
Right connectton 1s at yieid and con toke no odditionol
moment; hence, odd wind moment of 21 + 2001 iwkiar =
Gravity load with wind
+ 400 in-kips to ieft end
M. = + 30 i n~ki ar
Left End
~~ ... . .
Right End
FIGURE 32
Y
Top Plates (or Si mpl e Beams &
4 Left End Right End
FIGURE 33
Typicol scene in structurol shop with weldors
attaching stiffeners in place on curved
knees. Proper use of welding results in sig-
nificant savings in structural steel weight
and in fabricating costs.
el ded-Connect i on Desi gn
Welded continuous connections were used extensively i n the Hartford
Building in Son Francisco. Photo shows the use of short Tee sections
welded in place under ends of girders to provide deeper section ot
the point of moximum negative moment. Note thot columns ore weld
fobricoted. The small ongle supports steel roof decking.
1. ANALYSIS OF CONNECTION --f H k -4 / i , k
M e ! - - 4 e +
-4 top connccting $ate designed to hc stressed only I
below its yicld point may he used as a semi-rigid con-
nection. The reduced poltioil of the plate is detailed
to have sufficient length ( L) for elastic elongation of
this section to provide the proper amount of joint
rotation. See Figure 1.
Analysis of this type of connection reqriires locating
the center of rotation. 'This depmds on the relative
stiffness of the top hottom portions of the con-
Rotation about bottom of beom
Rotation about mid-height of beam
neetion. FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
For the more flcxible type of semi-rigid connection,
rotation will occur closcr to thc bottom of the beam;
The rmisting mornc,nt of the connection is-
see Figire 2. For thc more rigid ccorir~cction, rotation
will occur closer to the rnidhcight of the beam; see
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Figure 3.
Alternote detail
i equi i ed for joints of high rei ti oi nt
Column flonge stdfenerr may be
1
FIGURE 1
My = A, or d; (top plate at yield)
I
t
8, 0,
[octuol) (flexible beam)
and the required cross-sectional area of the top
plate is-
The rotation of the connection, assuming rotation
about midheight of the beam is-
8, = -- mi and
The slope of this connection line is-
This connection line breaks at the yield point, or
becomes horizontal at:
I M ~ = A,, u). db I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 5 )
The actual conditions of moment (M, ) and rota-
tion ( &) are found at the intersection of the beam line
and the connection line; see Figure 4.
Table 1 shows the moments ( M) and end rotation
( 8) for various load and beam conditions.
The total centerline moment (ZMr ) and total end
moment (ZM,.) of a beam with any combination of the
Table 1 loads equals the sum of the individual values
resulting from each type of load.
When designing a beam for a given end restraint
( R) , the resulting maximnm moment at centerline for
which the beam is designed (MI, ) equals the difference
between the maximum centerline moment ( My ) when
R = 0 and the actual end moment ( R M,) for the
given value of R. See Figure 5.
This can also be found by totaling the individual
7-
ZM*
Simply Supported i- Beom with desired
R = O R = 100% end restraint (R)
FIG. 5 Moment diagrams for different restraints (R).
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections
W
@ Simply supported, wt h load
+ 1.- @
Apply negative moment at ends to
bring up to horizonto1 position
M* ( #
W
- c 1 ) 4 Final end moment for louded beom
@ $ 5 equal to oppiied moment in jb)
M, L
/ I = ~~ ~~~~
'' 2 E l
Me(#
W 4) Me @ Fixed end, ended beom
Me L
0 = .- . ...
" 2 E l
W Simply supported, lauded beam
FIGURE 6
TABLE l-Moments and End Rotation for Various Load/Beam Conditions
End Mornen! M. W L
~~. --
i x e o id
10
9.2-2 / Joint
In order to evaluate the weldability of steels, a
limited kno\vledge of the basic arc welding process
is advisable.
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal
by establishing a metnllurgical bond between them.
Many different welding processes may be used to
produce bonding through the application of pres-
sure and/or through fnsion. Arc welding is a fusion
process. The bond between the mptals is produced
by reducing to a molten state the surfaces to be
joined and then allowing the metal to solidify.
When the molten metal solidifies, union is com-
pleted.
In the arc welding process, the intense heat re-
quired to reduce thr inetal to a liquid state is pro-
duced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between
the work to be wt~lded and a metal wire or rod
called the elcctrode. The arc, which produces a
Welding Machme AC or DC
Power Source and Controls
Electrode Holder 7
\Ground Cable
I
temperature of about 6500F at the tip of the
electrode, is formed by bringing the electrode close
to the metal to he joined. The tremendous heat at
the tip of the electrode melts filler metal and base
metal, thus liquifying them in a common pool
called ;I crater.* As the arens solidify, the metals
are joined into one solid homogeneous piece. By
moving the electrode along the scam or joint to
be welded, the surfaces to be joined are welded
together along their entire length.
The electric arc is the most widely used source
of energy for the intense heat required for fusion
*For soinc applications, filler metal is deposited by a con-
sumnbl c wel di ng electrode; for others, a "nonmnsumabl e"
elcctrode supplies the heat a n d s separate welding rod the
filler metal.
wclding. The arc is an electrical discharge or spark
sustziined in a gap in the electrical circuit. The re-
sistance of the air or gas in the gap to the passage of
thc current, transforms the electrical energy into
heat at extremely high temprmtures. Electrical
power consists of amperes and voltage. The amount
of energy available is the product of the amperes
and the voltage flowing through the circuit and is
meastired in watts and kilowatts. The energy used
is affected h y such variables as the constituents in
&ctrode coatings, the typc of current (-46 or DC),
the direction of cul-rent flow, and many others.
In all modern arc welding processes, the arc is
shielded to control the complex arc phenomenon
mid to improve the physical properties of the weld
deposit. This shielding is accomplished through
varions techniques: a chemical coating on the elec-
trode wire, inert gases, granular flux compoi~nds,
and metallic salts placed in thc core of the elec-
trode. Arc shielding varies with the type of arc
welding process used. In all cases, however, the
shielding is intended: 1) to protect the molten
metal from the air, oither with gas, vapor or slag;
2) to add alloying and fluxing ingredients; ,and 3)
to control the melting of the rod for more effective
use of the arc energy.
Gaseous Shield
The arc welding process requires ;I continuous
supply of electric cnrrent suflicient in amperage
:md voltage to maintain an wrc. 'l'his currcnt may be
either altcmating (AC) or dircct ( DC) , but it must
be provirlecl through a source which can be con-
trolled to satisfy the variables of the welding
11roces" :mmnerage and voltage.
Me L
6 --
' - 2 E I
(762) (180)
-
- 2(30 x lO"(289.6)
= 7.9 x 10-Qadians
-
Design top plate for an end moment of 75% M. =
.75 (762 in.-kips) = 571 in.-kips.
Cross-sectional area of top plate:
M
A -- -
"--
u d,,
- (571,000)
- (eo,ooo) ( m8 6 j
= 2.06 in."
or use a ?k" x 5%'' plate, having A, = 2.06
Top Piales for Semi- igid Connections / 5.6-5
The length of the reduced portion of the top plate
will be made I. = 7".
Thc slope of thc connection line:
A,, d,,? E
M c -
--
8, 2 I,
This connfction line can also be constructed by
solving for end momcot (M,.) and end rotation (8,)
when stressed to yield, u. = 33,000 psi:
M, - A,, u> db
= (2.06) (33,000) ( 13.86)
FIGURE 9
WIDTH OF TOP
CONNECTIN6 &?
0
16
IS
I4
N
12
N
10
9
8
7
6
5
FIG. 10. Moment Capacity of Top Plate Connection.
KIP - INCHES
PIVOT POINT IN
f
THIS EXAMPLE
TDO
6 00
AI SC S K 1.5. I. 4.1 COO
IF COMPACT (SEC 2-61 AND AT
500
so0
NEGATIVE MO&E'IVl CAN USE
400
90% APPUED EffD MOMENT 400
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-7
W L
M, = -= 750
12
M = 410 in-kips
FIGURE 1 1
This calculated connection line is shown as a dotted
line in Figure 9. It rises to a moment of M = 943 in..
kips at which time the top plate should reach yield
stress. From tlicre on, this plate will yield plastically
and build up a higher resistance as it work hardens. It
would finally reach the ultimate tensile strength of the
plate unless some other portion of the connection would
fail first.
Superimposed upon this graph in soiid lines are
the actual test results of this particular connection,
from the paper "Weided Top Plate Ream-Column Con-
nections" by Pray and Jcnsen, AWS Welding Journal,
July 19.55, p 338-s.
The beam lines of the particular example are shown
as broken lines in tbc figure. Notice that the beam line
at working load intersects the connection curve (point
a) well within the capacity of the connection.
The second beam line at 1% working load also is
well within the ultimate capacity of the connection
(point b) .
Holding the length of the reduced portion of the
top plate to L = 7" has resulted in an end moment of
M = 680 in.-kips instead of the 75% value or M = 571
in.-kips as originally planned. This is a restraint of R
= 89.3% instead of R = 75%.
A lower restraint coulcl he obtained by increasing
the length of the reduced portion ( L) of the top plate.
However with the present conneetion the top plate has
sufficient strength:
= 21,400 psi < 22,000 psi OK
-
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1)
,y M
0' =---
A, db
Notice also that the connection curve lies quite a
distance abovc the R = 50% point of the beam line.
Since the beam is desigued on the basis of R = SO%, the
connection could drop down to this valuc before the
beam \i:onld be o\;erstressed.
The moment capacity of a proposed top plate con-
nection can be readily obtained from the nomograph,
Figure 10.
90% M used at negative moment;
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1)
2. CONNECTION BEHAVIOR UNDER
ASYMMETRICAL CONDITIONS
In the usual analysis of a connection made by super-
imposing a beam line on a connection curve, it is
assumed that the beam is symmetrically loaded and
has identical connectioris on both ends.
This is illustrated in Figure 11, where the member
is a 14" WF 43# beam, and:
W = 50 kips
L = 15 ft
I = 429 in.*
When these conditions of symmetrical loading and
identical connections do not exist, the following niethod
may be used to better understand the behavior of the
connection under a given load. The above beam and
load value will be used.
Step I. Start at the left end ( a) of the beam with
the right end ( b ) held fixed. The left end ( a) is first
held fixed (0, = 0) and the end moment (M,) deter-
mined; the left end is then released and simply snp-
ported (M, = 0) and the end rotation (0,) deter-
mined. See Figure 12.
released; @ fixed
simply @
supported
0 - - 2.62 x 10.l
" - 4 8 E l -
FIGURE 12
From these two points (M, = 750 in.-kips and 0.
= 2.62 x 10-"radians), the bcam line for the left end
( a ) is drawn, Figure 13. Upon this is superimposed the
connection line, and the point at which it intersccts the
beam line represents the actual cnd moment and end
rotation after the connection has allowed the bcam end
to move.
750 in-k Beom line
Connection curve
750 in-k
l. - 2.62 x ~ i ~ h t end@
1 - 1.6 X 70-3 held fixed
Left end @
FIGURE 14
Step 2. Thus with the right end held fixed (u, =
O), the rcsulting moment at the right end ( h ) consisting
of the initial momcnt and the additional moment d71e
to moven~ent of the left end ( a) , is-
Now the left end ( a ) of the beam is held fixed at
8, = -1.6 x 1 0 " while the right end ( b ) is released
and simply supported (M, = 0) and the end rotation
(Bb) determined. See Figure 15.
@
simply supported
[Leftm held fixed at R = - 1.6 x 107
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 15
This relaxing or movement of the left end ( a) ,
From:
from 0, = 0 to 0, = 1.6 x radians, causes the fixed
opposite end ( b) to increase in end moment (M, , ). This
2 E I 4 E I
Mb = .+ - - 0 + .-
W L
L "
O,, - - - --
increase may be found by the following:
L 12
If a uniformly loaded beam is supported by fixed
when:
ends which have previously rotated (0, and O,), the
two end moments (M, and Mb) are-
Mb = 0 and @, = -1.6 x 10-8
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-9
tlic rotatioti of the beam at the right end ( b) , if simply
supported ai d no restraint from the connection, would
be:
These two points ( Mh = -979 and 0b = +3.42
x 10- " ) detcrmine tile beam line for the right end ( b) ;
Figure 16. Its intersection with the connection curve
represents the actual end moment and end rotation
after the comxction has allowed the end t o move.
Left md held fired of
due to niovemen!
Left end @
FIGURE 16
Step 3. As before, this movement of the right end
( b ) from B,, = O to Oh = +2.1 x causes an in-
crease in the moment on the left end ( a) ; Figure 16,
left.
From :
when:
8, = -1.6 x 10 " and 0, = $2.1 s LOW3
the moment on the left ~ n d ( a ) is fomid to be
This ontirc procedure is repeated until the cor-
rections bccomc very small, Figures 17 and 15.
FIGURE 17
Step 4. Wl l r ~ ~ the left end ( a ) is simply supported
(M, = 0) , tlic end rotation wonld be 0, = -3. 67 s
lo--:'. Releasing the left end ( a ) allows it to rotate to
8, = -2.25 x 10 " .
Step 5. This movement 8, from -1.6 x to
-2.25 x 10-Qn the left end catrses the right moment
to increase to Mi, = -472 in.-kips. When the right end
( b) is simply supported (M. = O), the end rotation
would be Bb = $3.74 x Releasing the right end
( b) allows it to rotate to Ob = +2.3 x lo-'.
FIGURE 18
Step 6. This movement of BI, from 1-2.1 x 10Qo
+2.3 x 10-%n the right eud causes the left moment to
increase to Ma = -43.5 in.-Mps. When the left end ( a)
is simply s~~pport ct l (M, = 0), the cnd rotation would
be H, = -3.76 x lo-". Releasing the left end ( a) allows
it to rotate to 0, = -2.40 x 10P3.
Step 7. This movement of 8, from --2.25 x 1O"o
-2.40 x 10-%on the left end causes the right moment
to incrcase to M,, = --428 in.-kips. When the right end
( b ) is simply supported (MI, = 0) , the end rotation
would be HI, = +3.80 x 10 -:'. Releasing the right end
( b ) allows it to rotate to: B,, . = +2.40 x lP3.
Conclusion: The final end conditions resulting
from this sequential handling of the givrn connection
and beam loading a r e
Reference to Fignre 11 shows that thrse are the
same values as obtained when thc beam was considered
to be symtnetrically loaded with identical conditions
on both ends.
3. BEHAVIOR OF CONNECTIONS STRESSED
ABOVE YIELD
The same method wed prcvionsly may also be applied
to connections that arc stressed above their yield points
and thus yield plastically. See Figure 19, using same
beam as before.
'4
Connection curve
tj,
FIGURE 19
To simplify this ar~alysis, two changes will be
made.
Fi rst. In computing the two points of the beam
line ( M, ) for fixed ends and (8,) for this end simply
supportcd, it is noticed that these same values can be
obtained by considering the beam as fixed at one end
and sqqmrted at the other; with no gravity load. A
FIGURE 20
moment ( XI , . ) is applied at the snpported end and the
resulting end rotation (H,.) is fonnd at this same end,
Figure 20.
Here:
In this particular example:
With the particular scale used in the original con-
struction of Figure 19,
1" = 4 x 10 :' radians
or 1 radian = % x lo1 inch
and 1" = 400 in-kips = 400,000 in.-lbs
or 1 in.-lb = % x inch
The slope of this beam line is-
or an angle of 70.7", Figure 21
750 in-k
Beom lhne determiried by Me and o
Me
y supported
He
FIGURE 21
Another method of constructing this slope is to
use a convcnient valne of H,, for example, 0, = 5 x 10 '.
The corresponding end moment would be-
Top Prates for Semi-Rigid Connections /
These two values are plotted on the figure and
the slope determined by protractor, Figure 22.
Since the slope of the beam line remains constant,
it won't he necessary to compute the value of 6, for the
simply supported end for each step.
Second. Instead of computing the end moment
after it has been increased by the angle movement on
the other end of the beam, it is seen that the actual
increase in moment is-
This may be drawn on the figure from any con-
venient value of 6, and Me. Any given increase in 6.
is laid off horizontally on this line, and the increase in
moment (M, ) is measured off as the vertical distance
and added to the moment on the opposite end of the
beam. See Figure 23.
Application of Method
This method is now used on the same 14" WF 43#
beam, uniformly loaded with 50 kips on a 15-ft span;
Figure 24. The connection is made with a top connect-
ing plate, X6'' x 3", which is stressed to yield (cr =
FIGURE 23
Fixed end
I /
I /
rimply supported
/ !
1 /
FIGURE 24
V
Movement of left end (Ox)
Left end @
8,
FIGURE 22
33,000 psi) at a moment of 423 in.-kips.
With additional movement, the plate will strain
harden and its resisting moment will very gradually in-
crease. This accounts for the slight rise in the connection
line above the point of initial yield.
Increase in moment
on opposite end
_I
Right end @
-k
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Change in 0, 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x 1p3 go
x 10-3 8,
Left end @ Right end@
On the Ainsley Building in Miami, weldor is completing fillet weld on top
connecting plate, leaving an unwelded length 1.2 times the plate width. PIote
i s beveled and groove welded to the column.
Wcldirig is most effici~:ut in structures 11t.sipt.d tor full
contiriiiity. This typr of dcrign builds ir~to the structure
the i nh(rmt strength w1iir.h comes from (ontinuous
action of ;ill members. Lo;~(ls are easily rvdistrihuted
when ovcrluading occurs oil wrtain mi-mbcrs.
Tliic type of desigri rr;ilizrs a weight swing in the
beams sirrw a negativc mo~ncnt acts ;it the supports,
thus redui:ilij: the positive moment at tlit: center of the
span hy i11e same amount.
C;oiitiuuc~us couuc~ctioiw ;11so t ; i h ac1v:mtage of
what i red fct h ~ : a 20% iucr-r,:!s(: in t l ~ ;illow.il?le i ~end-
ing str(,ss irk the negativ~, rnonwrit rr:giorr new the sup-
port. This is ;iccompli:,htd tlinn~gh ;I 10% iucreue irr
bending ;111wwables for "crrrnp:~~'t" swtims. :md using
a 10% reduction in the: ncg;~:ivc rnornt.nt. 'i'liis ri dur-
tion iu negrtive moment is :illuwcd iur 'coi~rpact" st,(:,-
tions, provi<lrd the swtion m~~dul us Irwe is not 1t.s.:
than that rquil.ed for tb(, positive r~~oment s ill ttlc
same beam and provided thi, comprtwion flange is
regarded as unsupported from the point of suppurt to
the point of contrdexure.
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
5.7-1
Al ternate method of
but t welding top flange
connecting pl ate t o
column flange using
placed between the conriocting plate and the beam
flange to r ~r s ~~r c: a complete-pcrit:tr:~tioll groove weld to
the column. This eliminates b;rck gouging and welding
an overlicad pass on the other side.
Reducing Wel di ng Requirements
It is possiblc to design the seat stiffener to carry all of
the end reaction, eliminating any vcrlical u ~l d i n g in the
field. This reduccs the ficld \I-ekling to just dowithand
groove \vekiing of the heam flanges to tho column.
Where good fit-up can be assurtd, the beam fianges
are beveled from the top side and groove welded in
the field directly to the colurnn Aange. The beam web
is cut hack about 1" ar ~d fillet welded to the wcb con-
necting platc.
Some fabricating shops have jigs so that colr~mns
can be elcvnted into a vertical position. This allows
muclr of t l ~c shop welding on tho connecting plates to
he made in the downhand position.
Cover Plates
When addcd at crids of beams to carry the extra
negative momcnt; covcr plates must be welded to the
column for continuity; Figure 4.
Shop wclding tllc cover platas to the beam, with
the lower beam flange and the upper cover piatc left
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
Beam-$0-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-3
nnbeveled, prodriccs a type of "J" groove for the weld
corinecting them to the column flange.
If column-flangc stiKensr plates are needed in this
case, they should be of about the same thickness as the
beam Bange and cover plate combined. The ~ ~ s r ~ a l single
thick stiffener in line with tach heam flange can be
replaced with two platr:s, each having half tbe required
thickness. This means working with lighter connecting
matt:ri;~S and using two groove welds, each being half
the size of the original singlc groove weld, which re-
duces the amonnt of welding on the stiffeners by half.
2. ANALYZI NG NEED FOR COLUMN
STIFFENERS
If the flange of the supporting column is too flexible,
the forcrs transmitted by the connr,cting flanges will
load the outstanding portion of the column Range as a
cantilever beam and cause it to deflect slightly; Figure
5. As this ~Icflectiou takes place it reduces the stress in
the outer ends of the hum-to-column connecting weld,
thereby loading up the center portion of the weld in
line with the column web.
It was previously thought that unless the column
Aange is extremely rigid (thick), flange stiffeners must
be added to the colr~mn in line with the beam's top
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
and bottom flanges (or their connecting plates). Snch
stiffeners k w p thc column flange from deflecting and
load the u d d uniformly.
However, recent resmrcl ~ at Lehigh University
indicates that iri most cases thc deciding factor is a
crippling of the column web; Figure 6. If the column
web is thick enough, stiffeners are not required.
Buckling of Column Web Due t o Compressive
force of Lower Beam FIange
A test was set up, Figure 7, to evaluate effects of the
lower flange of the beam in compression against the
column. Two bars, one on each side of the column,
relx':sentt,d the cross-section of the beam flange. The
test member was placed in a testing machine and
loaded under compression.
In all cases, yielding began in the fillet of the
FIGURE 7
column just inside the column flange, and directly be-
neath the bars. Yielding progressed into the column
web by means of lines radiating from this point to the
column " K line, at a maximum slope of 1 to 2%. This
progressed for some distance. I\ slight bending of the
column Ranges was noticed at about 80% of the failure
load. Figure 8 shows an analysis of this.
Column web
+- / ~/ c
FIGURE 8
Overlooding of Column Flange Due t o Tension
Force of Upper Beom Flange
A test was set up, Figure 9, to evaluate effects of the
upper flange of the beam in tension against the column.
Two plates, one on each side of the column and welded
to it, represented the cross-section of the beam flange.
The member was pulled in a tensile testing machine,
FIGURE 10
Dimensions of both the column flange and the con-
necting plates were varied in order to study the effect
of different combinations of colulnns and beams.
First yielding was noticed in the fillet of the column
just inside the column flange, and directly beneath the
attaching plates, at about 40% of the ultimate load.
With fnrther loading, yielding proceeded into the
column web, underneath the colnmn flange parallel
to the attaching plate, and into the cohnnn flange from
the center of the conrrecting welds, and parallel to the
colnmn web. Aftcr ultimate loading, some members
failed by cracking of the central portion of the con-
necting weld directly over the column web, some by
cracking in the inside fi1lt.t of the column, and some by
cracking in the inside fillet of the column, and some
by a tearing out of material in the column flange.
FIGURE 9 FIGURE 11
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-5
FIGURE 12
Stondord Stitfeners
When some type of wrb stiffening is required, the
standard horizontal flange stiffcners are an eiticicrit way
to stiffen the column web. Figure 10 shows this type
under test.
A Tee section flamo cot from a standard wide-
flangr section may be lisnd for stiffening, Figure 11.
The stem of the Tee section is welclcd to tire colrrmn
web for a short distanw in from the mt l s . This could
be entircly shop welded, all of it being clo~ic in thr flat
position, pmsibly using a sc,mi-automatic wdder. This
type stiffnrer would ha w nt~mcrous advantages i n fom-
way beam connections. The bmms rrormally framing
into the columi~ web wonld now butt against this ilat
surface with good :~cc<:ssil~ility, Tllc flnngcs of the
beam coiild be beveled 45" and then easily groove
welded in the field to tllis sltrface, using hacking straps.
Thcre wonld be no 0 t h conrir:cting or attaching p1att.s
to be used. In effect this part of tlie coriucctiu~~ would
be identical to the connection used for beams framing
to colnmn flanges.
See Figures 28, 29 and 30 and related text for
speciiications of stiffeners applicable to clastic design.
Effect of Ecceni ~i c Stiffeners
In a four-way beam-to-column colmection, the column
flanges may be stiffened by the connecting plates of
the beam framing into the column web. It may be that
the bcam framing to the column flange is of a different
drpth. This in effect will provide eccentric stiffeners,
Figure 12.
The lower part of Figure 12 shows how this was
testcd. It was found that an eccentricity of 2" provided
only al)out 65%: of the stiffening provided by concentric
stiffont.rs, and an eccentricity of 4" provided less than
20%.
Three metliods of framing beains of different
depths on opposilc flanges of columns are shown in
Figure 13.
3. TEST COMPARISON OF STIFFENER TYP
The following is adapttxl from "We1dt:d Interior Beam-
To-Columrr (:orinections", AISC 1959, wllicli summar-
ized lcsls o11 various connections.
Figure 14 represents a dirwt beam-to-column con-
nection. Iiero tllc column has no stiffening and is not
as stiff against rotation as tllc 16'' WF 36# beams
which frame to the colu~nn.
This arrattgeinent showed high stress conccntra-
tio~is at thc ccnt ~v of the bc:im tension flanges, and
therefore at the celitcr of the connecting groovc weld.
FI GURE 13
However, it was noted that no weld failures occurred
until after excessive rotation had taken place.
The stiffeners here in Figure 15 provide thc equi-
valent of beam flanges to the columns, and the columns
become as stiff against rotation as the beams framing
to the column.
The stress distribution on the compression flanges
were uniform on the whole, while in the tension areas
the stresses were somewhat higher in the center.
In Figure 16 the column is shown stiffened by a
pair of wide-flange Tee sections. As a result the columns
are as stiff against rotation as the beams framing into
the columns.
From strain gage readings it was calculated that
each of the vertical plate stifIencrs in the elastic range
transmitted only ahout y/,, of the forces coming from
the beam fangcs and the column web transmitted %
of the forces.
Placing these stiffener plates closer to the column
web might have improved the distribution. However,
since the prime purpose of this type of connection is to
afford a convenient four-way connection, the plate
usually needs to be positioned flush with the edge of the
column flange.
The stress distribution was uniform in both flanges
at the working load. At 1.5 of the working load, high
Zero +
I d
I
4 20,000 psi w-
Stress distribution in tension flonge
FIGURE 14
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-7
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
tensile stresses occumed at midflange.
The con~lection in Figure 17 was stronger than its
two-way counterpart. This evidently shows that the
stiffening action provided hy two beams framing into
the column web strengthens the connection more than
it is weakened by the triasial stresses.
The connections of Figure 18 involving (East-
West) beams weldcd dircctly to the column Ranges
proved stiffer than (he com~ection of (Nori-11-South)
beams to the Tee stiffeners.
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 18
FIGURE 19
The stiffcning of the latter connc:ction is mainly
dependent on thc thickness of the stem of the Tee
stiffener, tlie Ranges of the colnmn being too Ear away
to offer much resistance.
The column wcb is ably assisted in preventing
rotation at the connection by the flanges of the split-
beam Tee stiffeners.
4. ANALYSIS OF STIFFENER REQUIREMENTS
IN TENSION REGION OF CONNECTION
(Elastic Design)
The following is adapted from "Welded Interior Beam-
to-Column Connections", AISC 1959.
The colomn flange can be considered as acting
as two plates, both of type ARCD; sec Figure 19. The
beam flange is assnmrd to place a line load on each
of these plates. The effective length of the plates ( p )
is assumed to be 12 t,. and the plates are assumed to be
fixed at the ends of this length. The plate is also assumed
to he fixed adjacent to the column web.
where:
m = w, + 2 ( K - t,)
~nal ysi s of this plate by incans of yield line theory
leads to the, ultimate capacity of this plate being-
where:
Let:
For the wide-fiangr colrimns and beams used in
pactical connections, it has h e n found that ci varies
would be-
P, = 3.5 u, t,'
The force carried by the central rigid portion of
thc column in linc with the web is-
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-
Setting this total force equal to that of the beam's
tension Hange:
FIGURE 20
Reducing the strength of this column region by
20% and making the conservative assumption that m/b,
= .15, this reduces to the following:
If the thickness of the column flange (t,) meets
the above requirement, colnmn s t i f her s are not needed
in line with the tension Rangcs of the beam.
If the act ud thickness of the column iiange (t,) is
less than this valne, stiffeners are needed.
5. ANALYSIS OF STIFFENER RE
I N COMPRESSION REGION OF
CONNECTION (Elastic Design)
It is assrimed i11e coucentrated compression force from
the beam flange spreads out into the column web at a
slope of 1 in 2% m~t i l it reaches the K line or web toe
of the fillet; see Figure 8.
Equating the resisting force of the column web to
the applicd force of the beam flange, assuming yield
stress-
If the tliickness of the colnmn web (w,,) meets
the ;hove rrqnircmrnt. column stiiicners ;we not neoded
in linc with the coniprcssion fl a~~gcs of the 1)ram.
If the ;~ctuel ti~ickn(,ss of the column xvob (w,) is
less than this value, tlie \veb must be stiffened in some
manner.
. HORIZONTAL STIFFENERS
FIGURE 21
Equating the resisting force of the column web and a
pair of horizontal plate stiffeners to the applied force of
the beam flange at yield stress-
A, 2; A, - w,. (tb 4- 5 K,.)
I
where:
A, - total cross-scctioual area of pair of stiffeners
To prevent buckling of the stiffcner-
where:
b, = total width of pair of stifleners
If the stiflcner is displaced not more than 2" from
alignment with the adjacent beam flange (as in Fig.
12), it may still be used if considered about 60% as
eBective as when in direct line. The stiffener thickness
(t,) fourd from the above formula sl i o~~l d than he
mi~ltiplied by 1.70 to gi w thc actual required value.
7. VERTICAL STIFFENERS
FIGURE 22
Becaust~ tlw vertical stiffelicrs (~lsually Tees) are placed
at the outer d g c s ol the column ilnngc. they are as-
sulncd to Be half as df r ~t i ve as tl~ougli p1:iccd noar the
colurnli wch. It is :rssumcd the corlcc~~tr:it<d beam flangc
force s p u d s out into ihc \ ~r t i cal stiffcnsr in the same
manner as thc column w<lh.
Equating tlic ri,sistiug Some of tlw column web and
a pair of vertic:ll Tee st i ffmt c to the applied force of
the beam flange at j-ield strms-
w, (tb $ 5 K,) ui + 2 x % tr (ti, + 5 Kc)
u, - A* u, or
To prevent buckling of the stiffrner-
1 PraHem 1 1
As an example of applying the preceding analysis
of the tension region of a connection, we will analyze
a connection which, wliel~ tested to failure, performed
well; see Figure 23.
w W A O i t column
FIGURE 23
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-1 1
where:
m = w, f 2 (K - t,)
= (.390) + 2 j ( 1 %e ) - (.606)]
Since:
h
A = -
(I
- (2.72)
- (4.69)
--
- .58
P
p = -
9
(7.27)
-
- (4.69)
= 1.55
and:
-
The total force which car] hc carried by the tcnsion
region of the colnmn stiffcncr's flange must eqnal or
exceed the force of the beam's tension iiange, or:
Provided both column stiffener and beam have same
yield strength:
4.28 2 3.00 O.K.
I f we nsed the conservativc formula:
but the initial design called for t, = ,606'' and the con-
nection tested O.K.
8. CONNECTIONS THROUGH VERTICAL TEE
STIFFENERS
Tests have shown that when thc beam flange extends
the full width of the connecting plate, Figure 24, about
3~ of the flange force is carried by tho central portion
of the plate. Each of the two outer edges carry about
x, of this force.
Figure 25 comes from test data of Lehigh Uni-
versity. Notice in the East-West beams, thc flange of
which extends almost the full width of the colun~n
FIGURE 24
FIGURE 25 ~
flange, 44% of the force is transferred through the web
of the connection even though it is only about half as
thick as the stiffener plates. This corresponds well with
the idea that the flange of the column in this region is
similar to a two-span beam on three supports with a
uniform load; in this case the center reaction is % of
the total load, and the two outer supports each carry
3$, of the load.
The report "Welded Interior Beam-To-Column
Connections", AISC 1959, mentiolis that "from strain
gagc readings it was calculated that the vertical plate
stiffeners in the elastic range each transmitted only
about 3/1,ths of the forces coming from the beam
flanges and the web transmitted %ths."
Of course, the same would not bc true in the Korth-
South beams becaose they do not extend the full width
of the flange of the Tee stiffener. As a resitit, most of
this force rniist be transfrrucd into the web or stem of
the Tee stiffener since any portion of this force. reaching
the outer edges of the column flange must be trans-
ferred as hcnding out along the flange of the Tee
section.
Weld Size: Stiffener Stem t o Col umn We b
On the basis of these tests at Lehigh University, on
coniiectioris where the beam flange extends the full
FIGURE 26
width of the stifTener flange, we will assume that % of
the beam flange force is carried by the stem portion
of the connection. See Figorc 26.
Because of the stiffening effect of the beam web
and the stem of the a~nncct i ng plate, tliis ccnlral (stem)
portion of the connection will load up in bending. This
assumes it rotates as a unit aboi ~t a point at mid-
height. The bending force on the weld is zero at this
neutral axis and increases linearly to a maximum value
at the upper 3 r d lower edges of the connection.
Treating the weld group as a line, the section
modulus is cqual t o-
The resulting maximum unit bending force at the
top portion of the weld on the stem is-
M % M D 3
f b = - =
S, (D" - g")
The leg size of this weld would be found by divid-
ing this value by the allowable for the particular weld
metal.
h7, A373 Steel; E60 Wel dr
f = 9600 o
A36, A441 Steel; E70 Welds 1
Here:
FIGURE 28
Weld Size: Stiffener Flange to Column Flange
The Tec stiffcwxs may be joined to the column flanges
by a ) fillet welds, b ) groove welds, or c ) corncr welds.
The groove welds ( b ) were used in the Lehigh Re-
search of this connection.
(4 (bl (4
FIGURE 27
Since tests on full-width flanges showed that the
two outer edges ol the connection carry about of
the flange force, we will assume that each outer weld
must carry 'h of the flange force. See Figure 28.
These welds will be pulled with an axial force of
K F. We may assume the same distribution of force
through the coniiecting plate at a slope of 1 to 2% into
the connecting welds. This will provide an effective
length of weld of tb + 5 t, to carry this force.
The unit force on this weld is-
The leg size of the fillet weld, or throat of groove
weld, is detelmined by dividing this unit force by the
suitable allowable.
The effect of the vertical shear load ( V) on these
welds could Le checked by using the elktire length of
the welds. Ilowever, this would represent little addi-
tional force on t i me wolds.
Proportioning t he Tee Stiffener
Tho following will be helpful in selecting a Tee stiffener
section for this type of connection, where the bcam
flange equals the full width of the stiirener flange:
FIGURE 29
1. The thickness of the stiffener flange (t,) must
be suificieut to transfer the tensile force of the beam
flange. In this case 3/4 of the beam flange will be used.
2. The width of the stiffencr flange (b, ) must be
sufficient for it to reach to the column flanges.
3. The thickness of the stifiener stem (w,) should
be about the same as the beam flange thickness (t,).
4. Tho depth of the stiffener (d, ), as measured
through the stem portion, must be sufkient for it to
extend from the face of the column web to the outer
edge of the column flange.
5. As a guide, the stiffener should satisfy this
condition:
or an approximation on the conservative side:
here Beam Flange idth < Stiffener Flange
idth
Where the beam flange docs not extend the full width
of the co~~necting plat(:, the stem portion oi the con-
nection is assumed to carry the entire moment. There-
fore thc maximum bending force on the top portion of
this weld will be--
FIGURE 30
The same items as before are used to proportion
thr Tee stiffener, except in items 1 and 5 where the full
vzilue of thc: heam flange's section area is used instead
of 3/4 of tbis value. These formulas bccome-
earn-to-Column Continuous Connectians / 52- 25
I Problem 2 1
To dcsigrr a fiilly wcldtd bcnm-to-volnmn conncction
for a 11" WF bram to all 8" WF coliimr~ to transfer
an end moment of M -- 1lCU in.-kips anti a vertic:il
shear of V == 20 kips. The solution of this problem will
be considered with sevcn variations. Use A36 steel and
E70 welds.
FIGURE 31
Hero:
M = 1100 in.-kips
V = 20 kips
Thc welding of both thc flailgrs and thc we11 along
its full dvpth enahlcs thc lieam to dt vl op its iull plastic
moment, thus allowing the "compact" beam to be
strcsscd 10% higher in brnding, or c . = .66 c,. This
also allows the encl of the bcam, atid its welded con-
nectioli, to be designrd for '30% of tlie elid snonwnt due
to gravity 1o;iding. (AISC Sec l.5.1.4.1 and Sec 2.6)
= 23,700 psi < .66 u, < 24.000 psi OK
-
The wcld on the 1je;rm's wcb niiist he able to stress
the well in benLing to yicld (u,) tlirongho~~t its 'i~tirc
dcptlr; see the bcndiiig strrss riistribntion in Fignre 5
The weld mnst also lic able to tr:insfer the vertical
slrear.
leg size of fillct u e l d
actual force
@ = ~ ~-~~~ ~ ~p
allowable force
I-lowever, since the beam web is welded to a
,433" thick flange of the column, the minimum size
for this fillet wt.ld would be % G' r ; see Section 7.4, Table
3.
WELD SIZE TO DEVELOP ULTIMATE LOAD
The next qi~estion is what size fillet wold would be
required to develop the bcam web to yield stress.
The forcc in question results from bending, so it is
transverse to the weld.
The AWS allowables for fillet welds are based on
parallel loading, AWS has not set up any allo\vable
values for transverse loading.
(l ~aml l t ~l load) (tr:insvi:rsc load-tension)
2(11,200 w) 2 t, ( G O us ) = t, 22,000
(transverse load) (transverse load-tcnsion)
For plastic design concepts, basrd on ultimate
loading, the allowable for the fillet weld would be
increased by the factor 1.67 (AISC Sec 2.7). This is
the same increase used for the member ( 3 0 u, up to
uy) , hence the same relationship betwcen weld size
and plate thickness will still hold.
Based on AWS Code allowables (for parallel load-
ing), this fillet weld on the web of the beam would
have to be equal to the web thickness.
t, = .27W or use o =: Ya"
However since it is known a fillet weld (o = j/4
t,") will outpull the web, a fillet weld will be used
here.
FIGURE 32
M = 1100 in.-kips
V = 20 kips
Thc welding of the Ranges and full depth of the
web enables the bcam to develop its full plastic moment,
allowing the "compact" beam to be stressed 10% higher
in bending, or u = .6G ui' In this casc the beam canti-
levehs out from the support so that 110 10% redoction
in the negative moment can be made.
-
(1100 in-kips)
-
(4S.5 in.")
= 22,700 psi < .G6 u, < 24,000 psi OK
The fillet weld on the web of the beam is figured
as in met~Ioct@
FIGURE 33
Here:
M =. 1050 in.-kips
V = 20 kips
If this cant~lpver beam had an end moment of M
-- 1050 in.-kips instead ol the previous 1100 in.-kips:
= 21,600 psi < .GO ur < 22,000 psi OK
-
In this case the bending stress is within .GO u,,
and the beam and connection must be able to develop
a bending resistance q u a 1 to the product of the beam's
section modulus and yield point stress (scc Fig. 27)
rather than the full plastir moment. As a result it is not
necessary to weld the web for its full depth.
For detormining the minimum length of the fillet
weld on the web, assume the leg size to not exceed %
tTV = ZiJ (287") = ,192". This will provide sufficient
length of wcld so the bcam web at the connection will
not he overstrossed in shear. (AISC Sec 1.17.5)
The minimum ler~gth of fillel weld on each side
of the web is-
(20 kips) 20 kips
- - -~
-
2(11,200 w ) - - 2(11,200) (.192)
If 3.: ," fillet welds are used (next size smaller than
. l Wr ) , their length wodd he-
v
L, = -
2 f,"
.-
(20 kips)
--
2 ( 1 1 , 2 0 0 ) ( ~, )
= 4.75"
Hence use Xe" 5" long on both sidcs < 4.65".
-. OK
Since the size of this weld used in detcrmining its
length was held to 24 of the wcb thickness, it is un-
necessary to check the resulting shear stress in the web
at this connection. Ho.rvever, to illustrate this, it will be
checked here:
v
7web = -
AT"
(20 kips)
= 5)(.2S7)
= 14,000 psi < .40 u7 < 14,500 psi
OK -
FIGURE 34
Here:
The wdding of the flanges and fnll depth of the
web enables the l ~eam to dcvclop its fn11 plastic moment,
allowing the "conrp;lct" beam to be stressed 10% higher
in bcnding, or - .66 u,. This also allows the end
of thc beam, and its wcldcd connection, to be designed
for '30% nf the end moment dne to gravity loading.
(AISC Scc 1.5.1.4.1 and Scc 2.6)
bending stress in beam
-
.9 (1100 in.-kips)
- -.. . - . - - - - .
(41.8 in.a)
= 23,700 psi < .66 a, < 24,000 psi OK
-
bending force on top connecting plate
- -
.9 (1100 in-kips)
-- - - ..
13.86'
= 71.5 kips
section area of top connecting plate
-
(71.5 kips)
-
(24,000 psi)
or use a 5%" x %" plate, the section area of which is-
If %" fillet welds are used to connect top plate to
upper flange of beam:
f, = 11,200 ( %)
length of fillet weld
-
(71.5 kips)
- - - .
(4200 ibs/in.)
or use 5?'zr' of weld across the end, and return 6"
along each side, fnr a total weld length of 17M".
Tho lower flange of the beam is groove butt welded
dircctly to the colnrnn flange; and, since the wcb fram-
ing anglc carries thc shear reaction, n o fnrther work is
reqnired on this lower portion of the connection. The
seat angle simply serves to provide temporary snpport
for the beam during erection and a hacking for the
flange groove weld.
The fillet eld on the web of the beam is figured
as in method 1 .
6
Top plate: 8%" x 3" x E"
Stiffener: 5" x 3" x %"
FIGURE 35
V = 20 kips
In this particular connection, the shear reaction is
taken as bearing through the lower ilange of the beam.
There is no welding directly on the web. For this
reason it cannot be assumed that the web can be
stressed (in bending) to yield through its full depth.
Since full plastic moment cannot be assumed, the bend-
ing stress allowable is hcld to u = .&I u, or u = 22.000
psi for A36 steel. (ATSC See 1.5.1.4.1)
bending stress in beam
= 20,200 psi < .60 a, < 22,000 pso
bending force in top connecting pht e
= 78.0 kips
section urca of top connecting plate
-
-
(78.0 kips)
(22,000 psi)
= 3.54 i n2
or use a 5" x 3 ' 4 ' ' plate, the section area of which is-
A, = 3.75 in.' > 3.54 in.' OK
-
If M" fillet welds are used to connect the top plate
to the upper flange of the beam:
f, = 11,200 (3h)
length of fillet weld
- (78.0 kips)
- (4200 lbs/in.)
or use 5" of weld across the plate end and return 7"
along each side, to give a total weld length of 19'' >
18.6" OK
-
DESIGN OF BOTTOM SEAT
FIGURE 36
The shcar reaction ( V) by itself, applied to the
bracket, produces a bending moment in the seat. This
causes a tensile force in thc seat bracket's top plate
and connecting welds.
In the usual simple bcam type construction, this
moment must bc considered in addition to the shcar
reaction when determining the required size of connect-
ing weld on the seat.
In a continuous beam, the negative moment pro-
duces a compressive force in the lower flange which, in
most cases, will offset the tensile force mentioned above.
Beam-to-Column Con@inuous Connections / 5.7-1
As a result, the welds connecting the seat bracket will
be designed only to resist the vertical shear force (V).
web crippling from end reactions
R
t g S 7 ~ )
=: 75 u, (AISC Sec 1.10.10)
or:
(20 kips)
- ~ ~~ -
- .75[36,000 psi) (.313")
1 . 0
IIcnce the top plate of the seat must extend to at
least M" gap 4- 1.37" = 1.87" and have a width at least
1" greater than the beam's flange width ( b ) = 1" -t
6. 776 = 7.776"; or use an 8%" x 3" x 'h" plate. The
3" dimension would allow room for erection bolt.
seat stiffener
The thickness of the seat stiffener (t , ) should be
slightly grcater than that of the bmm web (t, = .313"),
or use a ?8" plate.
For determining the minimum length of the Blct
weld on the stifrener, :lssunie the leg size to not exceed
Y J t - -. .. ( ) 1 lh". This krcps the stiffener at the
connection from being ovrrstr(:ssed in shear. (AISC
Sec 1.17.5)
Thus, the niinimum lengtl~ oi fillet weld on cach
side of the stiffener is-
(20 kips)
= 2 7 T m o w
Because the column flange to which this weld is
placed is ,433" thick, the miliimum fillet weld size
would be $/16".
Hence, use:
-
20 kips
-
2(11,200) ( :$;6)
or use welds of %," leg ~ i 7 c and 5" long, md of course
the stiffcner must be 5" deep.
In this case, the lower flange of the beam will not
FIGURE 37
be groove welded to the column flange. Instead, the
top plate of the seat bracket will be extended to pro-
vide sufficient length of fillet weld.
If Ys" fillet welds are used along the edge of the
,513" thick beam flange:
-
-
(78.0 kips)
- - --
2(11,200) (3/8)
= 9.3" or use 9%''
Therefore, allowing for 'h" fit-up gap, use a 10" x 8l/2"
x 'W top plate for the seat.
FIGURE 38
In this case the connection is made through the
Tee stiffeners of the column. Since the beam flange is
nearly as wide as thc stifIen~r flange, the crnt rd stem
portion of the stiffener is designed for % of the moment
and each outer edge of the stifiielrer flange for 'h of the
moment.
The welding of the upper and lower portions of
the stem to the column web is sufficient to stress the
beam web up to yield (in bending) through its full
depth. Thus, the beam may develop its full plastic
moment. This allow,^ the "compact" beam to be stressed
at u = .66 o;, and also to he designed for only 90% of
the end moment. (AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 and Sec 2.6)
DETAIL THE TEE STIFFENER
x b,, tb
5.* w,K, 2
5
2
x(6.733) (.387)
-
5
2 .39
-
* w, (t, -+ 5 K,) = 314 beam flange area
= x bb t,>
+lib
-'-TI
For simplicity,
use a conservative value:
011 this basis use Tee section cut from an 8" WF
48j: beam; see Figure 39.
t, = ,683''
-7 I -
r - i
FIGURE 39
CHECK SIZE OF WELDS ON STIFFENER STEM
maximum bending force
At top of weld on stem. Use % of the moment (M ).
leg size of fillet ucl d
~ct ni i l force
@ = . . .-
allowable force
CHECK WELDS AT OUTER EDGES OF
STIFFENER
Use Ih of the moment ( M)
force on weld
6270 lbs/Iinear in.
if fillet welds, leg size
actnal Eorce
= -
allowable force
if partial-perwtratian single-bevel groove welds, throat
size
actnal forcc
t = - -
allo\vable force
actual throat is-
t = t , + Y4"
= ,397" $ Yd'
= ,647" or use l%B"
CHECK EFFECT OF SHEAR
The vertical shear oi 20 kips was not considered
on the welds bccausr of the great length of welding.
This conld be cl~ecked out.
ossumcd total length of welding
L - 2 D i; 4 (t,, + 5 K, )
: = 2 ( 9. 18) + 4 ( 387 -+ 5 x I%,)
= 61.2"
unit shear force an zocld
For fillet welds. this would represent an additional
leg size of-
For partial-penetration groove welds, this would
represent an additional throat of-
These additional weld sizes are neglected in this
exainple. If they had bccn appreciably larger, they
would have been added to the weld sizes already ob-
tained for bending.
9. LARGE HEAVI LY LOADED BEAM-TO-
COLUMN CONNECTl ON
It might be wcll to consider the hasic transfer of forces
through a beam-to-cohrmn connection.
A forcc applied transverse or at right angles to a
member is transft:rrr:d almost wholly into the portions
of that mi~mher wlricl~ lie piirallel to this f or m See
Figure 40.
In the design of some connections, the portion of
this force ( F ) transfcrrcd into any given element of
the built-np member has been assumed to be propor-
tionate to the stiffness or moment of inertia of this
element compared to thc total. Soe Figure 41.
An axial force in n member can transfer out at one
end either as an axial forrc (norinal stress, either tensile
or compressive) or orit sidcwnys into an adjacent mem-
ber as shear.
FIGURE 41
Tensile Transfer
FIGURE 42
Tensile force from right-hand beam flange transfers
directly as tension through the right-hand stiffener,
FIGURE 40
column web, left-hand s t i f her , and into flange of
opposing beam.
~ e / d s lo column wch and flange must he designed
for this force. Although the total length of welding on
the stiffener would be figlwed for this force, actually
most of the force would bc carried by the transverse
weld hetwern the stiffener and the column web. Under
ultimate loading, we can assume the transverse portion
will have yielded and the force will he uniformly dis-
tributed.
Shear Transfer
FIGURE 43
Tensile force from beam flange transfers directly as
tension into stiffener and then out as shear into the
column flanges.
Parallel welds to column flanges must be designed
for this force, unless another stiffener is placrd on the
opposite sidc of the coluinn wob to back up this
stiffener.
Tensile Transfer
FIGURE 44
Tensile force from hcain flallge ti-ansfm clirectly as
tension throngh both stiffeners and web of colu~nn
into otllcr 1)carn Aanga.
Transverse welds bet\rwn column flanges wid stiff-
cnisrs intist be designed for t l ~i s form ( F) less that
which passm directly into the web f n ~ m the flange.
1'ar;illcl welds hetwccri stiffeilcrs and cohrmn web
transfer no force. Comprrssion portion of beam con-
nection wo1.11d keep stiifcner from buckling.
Shear Transfer
F = 2 F s + F w
FIGURE 45
Tensile force from beam flange transfers directly as
tansion into s t i f her s nnd colnmn web. The tensile force
in thc stiffeners thni transfers ont as shear thmugh the
parallel welds intr; coluinii web.
Trmsversr welds l~etween u1111mn flanges on the
beam side tmd stiffenrrs mint bc drsigned for this force
(I?) less that wl~ich passes directly illto !he web from
the flange. Pamilel welds to coluinn web must be de-
signed for this same force.
Any unbalanced lnomciit ( M = MI - Ma) enter-
ing the colinnn nlust be transierrcd into the column
flanges as a shear transfer. Assinne 211 > M2.
FIGURE 46
The tensile force F? of tlw flange of the left-hand
beam will t r a~l s f ~r as tension into the stiffener, then
throngh the transverse welds along the column web into
the other stiffenwj and into the flange of the other beam.
The unba1;ulced tensile force (F, - Fa) of the
flange of the right-hand beam will tr8nsfi.r as tension
into the right-lmid stiffener, and half of this through
the transverse wi.lds of thc coluinn web into thc left-
hand stilkner. This unbalanced tensile force in these
stiffeners now transfers through the parallel welds as
shown into the flanges of !lie u~lnmns.
Welds to column wcb must bc designed for the
2
FI + Fz
balanced force, or 1% 17 + F =
i- - ~ - ~ - .
Welds to column flange must be designed for the
unbalanced force or F, - Fa.
Distribution of Tensile Force
There is some problem in estiiiiating the portion of the
tensile force in the beam flange transferring directly
into the web of the column and into thc colnmn stiff-
eners.
FIGURE 47
At first glance it \vonld swm reasonable to assnme
this force wonlrl be divided according to tlle width of
the stiffeners ( b, j and thickness of column web (t,").
'column web
FIGURE 48
However, this column web scction is not limited to
the thickness of the bcam flange since there is some
spreading out of this force in the web. This might be
assumed to occur at a slope of 1 to 2%.
FIGURE 49
The effective depth of the colun~n web through
which force is distributed, is obtained as follows:
FIGURE 50
rolled column
d =t i , + 5 K ,
-4 K. /t
fabricated column
d = t b + 5 K ,
Since:
A, area i
~f colnrnn web over which force is
tributed = d t,
A, = area of one stiffener (there is a pair)
(web) F, = F -
(Aq. 2 2 As)
(stiffener) F, = F
(A,%. :2 A )
Combined Stress in Stiffener (See Figure 51.)
dis-
On the left-hand figure, tho shear stress (T,,) results
from the unbalanced East-West mumcrrts. This causes
the diffcrence in tensile beam flange force (FI-F2) to
be transferred as shear in the stiffeners into the colnmn
flanges.
Although coi~servative in this particular analysis,
it is assumed the small section in the stiffener to be
checked lies outside of the path which the East-West
tensile flange force will travel; hence us = 0. Actually
some of this tensile force will spread out into this
region, and this would result in lower principal stress.
In eithcr case, it would be checked by the following
formilla:
On thc right-hand figure, it is assumed the small
section t o be chrcked is not snbjected to any shear
stress, just biaxial tensile stress. In this case, the use
of the formula results in the principal stresses being
e q d to the applied tensile stresses. This does not result
in any higher stress.
Mohr'r Ci rcl e of Stress
FIGURE 51
To check beam-to-column connection shown in (9097 in-kips )
-
- -~
Figure 52 (next page) for weld sizes. (23.59")
= 3% kips
flange fo~.ce: 24" WF 160# beam
flange force: 21" WF 73# beam
, 1.135''
M = u S
= (22,000 psi) (413.5 in.3)
= 9097 in.-kips
d -- 24.72" - 1.135"
= 23.59"
M = c S
(22,000 psi) ( 150.7 i x3)
: = 3315 in.-kips
d = 21.01" - .74"
= 20.50"
FIGURE 52
F = 386 kips
FIGURE 53
FIGURE 54
= 162, kips
If I" ho~.izonlal plate stificners are uscd-
distvihution of ber~m force (See Figure 53.)
Depth of coli~rnll web t hough which beam force
A, .- (10%) (1)
is transferred is- = 10.5 in.'
I I
FIGURE 55
= 246 kips
= 70 kips
Figure 54 diagrams this distribution of beam force
for four situ:%tiutls. Only onc need he considered for any
one problem. Ilowever, in this example we will detail
the welds so they can carry any combirration of forces
from any of these four situations.
Figure 55 sl~ows t hc forces on the various welds
for \vhic11 size must be determined.
u:ckE size: stifienw t o colunm flange; case@ and @
= ,344" or %" if shop weld,
B
but 3%" plate would need "z"
B-
In the shop, fillet welds would he used, because
they can be made on both sides of the stilTener.
For field welding, use 45" single bevel groove weld
because it wonk1 be difficult to weld underside ovcr-
head.
weld size: stifcncr to column web; case c and d
= ,605" or 5/arr$ if shop weld
(2" plate needs min. of %'' \ )
For field weld, use 45" single hevel groove
weld.
weld size: heam flange t o stiffener; case @and @
= .6Yr or %''
check combinmi stress in stiffener; cuse @
FIGURE 56
= G6GO psi
= 3860 psi
FIGURE 57
eom-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-2
1 Problem 4 )
To cllrck tlrt. wi4d size joining the flange and web of
the bnilt-up we l dd column i i r Figures 57 arid 58.
@ weld on column bettoem floors
= 1310 lbs/in. lorrgitudinal shear on weld
= .1c"
but bccausc of 3%" plate, use .- V' &
@ uel d on column within, beam connection
L
Moment di agram
k - 9 3 / , . . 9 Y I, = 16.815 ind
FIGURE 58
The transverse force must he :~dded to this. A
portion ol tlic beam Range forct, must he transferred
through this ilal~ge-to-web weld witliiri thc distance d
-- ti, + 5 K, = 18.64"; the rem;~i~idur of this force is
transferred clirectly throilgh the horizontal stiffeners:
= 2-17 kips
This is a unit force on the weld of-
The resultant forcr on the weld is-
( a) If fillet welds are used, tlre rerjoired leg size
( b) If partial penetlxtiou J-groove welds are used,
the requircd throat is-
10.460
t -- -A-
13,800
= ,622"
and the root face is-
( c ) If partial penetration bevel groove welds are
used. the reauired t hr o~t is -
= ,662"
t = t,. -C %"
and the root face is-
10. ADDITIONAL STIFFENING OF WEB
WI THI N BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTION
In wscs of mnisually h i g unb:~liince of applied
inomelits l o a col um~~, it iniglrt br well to check the
rrsrilting sl i <w stresses in the wcb within the con-
ni~ctioir. Scc t:iqiri,s 59 a~l d 60.
IIrw tlic mtl nmnrnts (34, and h4,) of the beam
drlr to n coml~ii~ation oi the, gravity l o ; ~ l and wind,
are rcsisted hy tlie moments (M:+ and M,) in the
coli~rnn. .4 good csmiple of this occiirs in multi-story
hriildiligs hnvi ~~g iio interior columns.
Tllc forccs in the heam flanges (F, ) resulting
from tlic tmd rnonient ( Mi j , are t~xnsferred into the
web ol tlr? conliwtioi~ as shear.
The:-e are similar forces in the colunin flange (Fa
and Pi ) fro111 the samc resisting ii~oinei~t. These forces
Beom-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-31
FIGURE 59
are tr;ilisIiwrd into tlw colu~nn wel) within the con- Analysis of Required Web Thickness
nection rcgioo as shmr.
The unit shear force applied to thc web of the con-
It c:m be assurni,d that xilost of tbib vertical shear
nection is-
force ( V, \ of thr beain weh is tra~~sferred diucctlv into - ~
\ .,
the flange of the supportiilg cohim~i arid does not enter V F, - Vp Mi Vq
=. -=--- -
-
the web of tile corin(,ctioi~. d d c dud, d,
The Iiorizontal shear force (V, ) of the upper
columr~ will he translrrred through the web of the
The resulliilg unit shear stress in the web of the
connection illto tlie luw.er column if caused by wind;
comcction is-
or out across the beam to the adjacent column if ca~rsed
by gravity load. T = - - v 1 ME
wi - w ( d d.
FIGURE 60
Thcsr: rcsuiting vcrtical ;imI liorizontnl shear forces
cause a diagonal coin]?uessive force to act on the web
oi tlic co~inection; xnd, if the \vcb is too thin cornpared
to its width or depth, it may suEer some buckling
action. SFC Figlire 61.
Thc following a~lalysis, based on plastic design
concepts, rmay be used to chwk iliis condition.
Using plastic design concepts, the applied moment
(MI) will become tlic plastic moment. For this valuc,
thc allowable shear stress ( 7) will be based on the
yield streiigtli of the steel. The value for the shear
FIGURE 61
Resisting moment
at ollowoble [a]
Reststing plastic moment
FIGURE 62
stress at yield ( T, . ) may be found 11). usi~ig the Mises
Or assuming that a conservative shape factor,
yield criterion:
h'f Z
f ; -2 = - = 1.12
0;. = J uX2 - ur uy + q2 4 Q rxy 1\1, s
M, = 1.12 M,, and My = o; S
In this application of pure shmir, u, and o; = 0,
and setting the critical value (rr,,.) q u a 1 to yield (cry),
Formula 2 may bc reduced to-
we obtain:
hence:
T i
7 =
I ,,I
- ")
6 - \ d,,& d,:
The horizontal s h r forw ( V4) of the upper
column acts in the oppui t e dirwtion to ( F 1 ) and thus
r edr ~us t h: slirai- valili. in tilt: wr.h of t f ~c connection;
so this portiou <~oi ~i d be neglected for siinplieity. This
formrtla t hm bccomrs:
Tlw plastic mornmt ( hi l ) is obtainnd hy multiply-
ing tiir plastic swtion rno~lriliis ( %) of thc bmm by the
yield slrt?ngtli (v,.) of the st t ~>l .
l'ha plastic si:ctio~i mo11olri.s for all rolled sections
is availal~li~ in s e w d strr.1 malii~;~ls.
The plastic sectiori rn(~dii111s of a n~eided plate
girder (Fig. 62) is obtained Slam the following formula:
If tbc actual thidmess of the web in the connection
( v ) is equal to or greater than this required valiie
( I YI ) , 110 additional stiffening of the web would be
necessary.
If t l ~c web t l ~i i k~i ess is less tiinn this value, it must
be stiffened by some metllod.
Methods of Stiffening Web in Connection
A wch doubler pht e could be added to makc up this
difkrcnce bt.twer~i actual aud rcqiiired v;ilucs of web
thickness.
Web
doubler
plate
FIGURE 63
W
Z = b t ( d - t ) - 1 - ( d - 2 t y
4
. . . . . (3)
'I% most co~ni nm soliitio~r is to usr: n pair of
diagonal stiffe~wrs. Thcir cross-swtional area would
FIGURE 64
depend on the comprr~ssive force they must carry, over
and above that carried by thc web. See Figure 64.
The horizontal force applied to the connectiol~ is-
The horizontal shrar force resisted by the web is-
The rcsulting lioriLontal component applied to the
diagonal stiffener is-
The force on the di;igonal stiffener is-
and the required total area of hoth stiifmers is-
also
also
\/ d,,"- d,'
A . . (
d, ( \ v, - w?)
, - \ ) . . - .
a'--- 3
w, = miiiimoin reqiiircd web thickness, from
Formula 2 or 4
w2 : nctiii~l \v1,1) thickness of connection
d, - length of diagonal of conncdiosi area
11. COPE HOLES
in other words going from a givm stress down to zero,
etc. For a mow n;irron rmge of stress, for example
K :z~ I/*, going from a givm strcss down to just one-
I d , etc., tlierc was almost no diiference with or without
copc holes.
Provides orcersibrlity
( for root govg~ng
\
L'
for welding
No backing bar used;
joint must be back gouged
Bending stress ot
plostic moment (Mpj
FIGURE 65
Provides accesiibility
for welding
Bocking bar used; no
back gouging needed
Plastic dwig~n is not ri sd rirrder fatigw loading
conditions, so therc shonld he less concern here about
thc need for cope holcs and tl~eir rcsnlting cffcct on tlie
connectiori's stnmgth. Cope holes \voulcl prol)olily not
result in any npj,rr,ii;ible loss in plastic strcngth. The
additiond inomcmt brouglrt abont liy t r hvi ng tlic \veh
to be stressd to yicld strcngth uftcr the outer filxrs
once reach yic*ld is ahont 105, and tlie cope liole repre-
sents 2% \ - e n srnall portion of tliis wch scction. Ifcnce,
the rcd~rction in strmgth ca~r.scd by the cope liole
should lic only n small fraction of the 10%.
Along the sariie liric of thought, any minor lack
of weld pc~rictration dne to this lack of accessibility
with no copt, hole \\-onld not be as critical.
111going throrigli tlw original test rcports of wcldcd
coirncctioiis for plastic ilcsign. thwc ;ire rinany boam-to-
column connections or knccs in wlrich no cope holes
were used. In the AISC report, "\17eldcd Interior Reann-
To-Colnnin Connections" cope liolcs were nscd and a
detail of these sliowi; s w Figure 66. Notice that back-
ing bars were rrscd a i d the holes were not later filled
with n.cld metal.
111 plastic design_ cx>pe holrs we not rerlniri~d to
prn\,idc the weld quality rr:qniueti, althongh t h y would
make it easirr for tlic wc4ding opcrntor. And, if they
arc osccl, they \von't Slaw a dctrimental effect on the
strength of tlrr. connection if lelt ul ~fi l i d.
Thc cope hole hclps more for ;iccc.ssibility of the
groove \veld on the lowcr flange if weldrd in position.
In most cases tliis would be an amr of negatiw inomcnt
and this \r-rsld would he un&,r compression, so this
should not be as critical as the timion weld on the
upper flangc.
IF the rnmihrr c:~ir~ld he tm-lied ow~r for shop weld-
ing, both fl:nigt~ coi~ld be hr wl t d from tlie outside end
copc holes nwild not he nredcd: sre Fignrr 67.
Flame-cut cope hole
FIGURE 66
%,"
Bocking bar
EAMS CONTINUOUS THROUGH COLUMN
(COLUMN CUT OFF)
On orrc-story mnstrnction, it is qnitc common to
nlitnin continnity of the hcam by allowing it to run
continrioi~sly over tlic toil of thc colninn for two or more
spans. Freqnently the splice in tlie hcnm is carried out
to the point of coiitrailexure.
eom-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-35
FIGURE 68
FIGURE 69
Figure 68 ( a ) shows the Iwam resting on a plate
shop wckled t o t he top of t he column. In most cases
fillet welds made in tho iIo\vnliarld or Hat position will
be sufficient, since there is usrially very little moment
which must be tmmisfcrrrd from tlic heam into t he
column.
Figriro 68 ( b ) sliows a similar connection made in
t he hcarn ;ind t11c girilcr which sripports it.
Figiircs 69 ( a ) and (1-1) s l ~ow this mctliod c x t r n d d
to multi-story constriiction. In hoth cascs, stiffming
plates art, sliop m c l ~ l d ill betwwrl tiit. Rarlgcs of the
beam, in liilo with the voliirnn fiangcs. so that the com-
pressivt~ lo:id m;iy be t r ans f cr r d diret.tly from one
colrlrnn flange t o the other.
PLATES FOR CONTINUOUS FRA
Cover pliites nrl. sonwtimcs i ~s ed in vonnrr.tio~r with
rolltd helims in or&r t o illwc;ise t hc strcrigtlr ( S) or
stif%~iess ( I ) pn~pcr t i cs of thc he;rm.
Uiiless ni i i i i n~r~m wci gl ~t is ;I rcnl factor; t l ~ c usr of
covcr p1:itc.s on simply siipporttd 11c~nnis might not 11c
justified in l i ~d d i n g vo~i st ri ~ct i on since the savings in
strcl inight riot o f h t the ad~l i t i oi ~al cost of fabricntirig
and wclding the vovrr pl;it<. t o tho hcam. 'I'his is be-
caust tilt, cowr plate initst cxknd quite a dist;incc t o
hot11 si11i.s of t he beam centerline. Notice in the r r am-
ple showr for uniform loacii~ig, Figure 70 ( a ) . t hat t he
covcr plat? must extend 70.7% of the beam's length ( c ) .
Becausi: of this grtmt Ic~igtli. the wcight reduction is
only 8. 79.
On contiii~~oiis g i r d w ;in11 tieams, however, there
is a r t d ndvantagr in using covcr platcs since t he
iiicr<wt, d swtion p~- oOr ~ci d nerds t o oxtciid only a very
shi r t distance in from cmcli m d of the. 11rai~1, Figure
70 ( ( 1) . In tlir c~niirpli- s11own. tlw t ot d 11,ngtIi of cover
pl;ite is j~tst 1h.:i'4. of t l i i . 1~11gth oi t h? 1w;irn ( I ) . Ilore
wci gl ~t rcd~i (~t i on i ~ i apl ~l yi ng covcr platrs to tlic contin-
uous 1xvni is 29.8'3,.
A~lditioli;il n ~ ~ ~ i g l i t reduction is ;icl~icvrd in going
Eroiii tlw simply siijqmrtcd Ixxm t o t he coiitiiritor~s
Ironm \vitli fistd mds . 1 5 h 1 considwirig t l ~i s iii the
~ w m p k 1 1 l o v of i ~ g from 1 simply s~qqxxtr. d
1min1 t o the, wi ~ t i r i ~ ~ i ~ n s twmn with covrzr p1att.s. the
o\'i,r-all wt,iglit r ~dr i ct i oi ~ i i i tiit, I)mm 'rwcr~nics 35.8';.
Constants to Hel p Colculote Finof Moments
Chi11-is h:iv<~ IXYW t l t ~v~~1i q~c~t l 11y whicli tht, dc,sigiit>~-
c:m I-i.ndily fiiid crnistiiirts to I I W ill <k,tci-minirig sti{fnt,ss
fwtors, mr r y- owr ~ X C ~ I I I - S ~ :i~id f i s ~l - mi d r r i mi t ~~~t s for
bc;iiiis in \vliiclr tli(,rc ;XI-c ;il1riipt v1i;lngi~s in mi)mcnt
oS ini.rtia i111i. to ni,lrlcd v i ~ v ~ r l h i t i ~
Soiiwrs i ncl ~t dc:
( 1) tirill. 176. R. A. Caiigliy a i d 11. S. (: i ~l ~i l ; i :
l o \ w Ei ~gi nwr i ng Experi mmt St:,., Imva St ~l t r Col l qo,
Aint.s, Iowi . :36 cli;iits S i n l m n ~ s with c o \ ~ ~ - 1,l:itcs at
e ~ d . Also riyriiilcd as Stri~cturnl Stxidy 1102.150. The
Lincoln Elcctric Co.
etded-Connection Design
Sjmply supported beam
Continuous beom-fixed ends
uniform load uniform load
(a j
idi
Moment diagram
Moment diagram
weinht -- 100.096 weight = 100.0%
(c)
( f l
iengtli of cover ps = 70 7% L length of cover ks = 18 3% L
weight = 91.0%
cover ies increase S by 1
weight = 70.246
cover ps increase S by 1
FIGURE 70
( 2) "Moment I>istribulion", J . hl . Gmr:, 1963; D.
Van Nostrand Co. 29 cl~;rrts for hcnrns with cover
p1att:s at cnds; 42 i.1l;n.t~ for tapered hca~ns.
For methods of c;rlctrlnting t1it:se design factors,
see Scct i o~~ 6.1, on Dcsigrr of Rigid Frames.
Example
I
A frame is to he rlesigncd to support a nnifonn load
ol 2.4 kip"/E Tlirtv spans of 20' c:lclr ;,st: sr ~ppor t d by
fnur col~irnns, 12' Iiiglr. The beams arc 12" \VF 2 7 g
beams, r r i nf o~cd n,itli .?6" s 5" coves plates for a dis-
tance of 2' on wclr si& of the intcrior srrpports. The
colrimns arc S" \Z'F 31fi scctims. Sw Figure 71.
* I urt! The section proprrtics of tht: rolled lbeani, I.'&
72, without and wit11 cowr plates are as follows:
= 56 in."
, %" X 5" cover Fks
12" WF 27# beams
8" WF 31# columns
I I
FIGURE 71
weight of this continuous beam with
rover pl eter= 1750 Ibl.
weight of equi vdent simple beom
construction = 3480 lbr.
FIGURE 73
NTINUOUS CON
FIGURE 74 (a) FIGURE 74 (b) FIGURE 74 (c)
Shop rabvi cat ed and wel ded
Multi-Story Dormitory Buildinq con+inuous beam t wo i nt er i or
- - -
columns. Assembly er ect ed as single unit.
FIGURE 75
FIGURE 76
Beam- To- Col umn Cont i nuous Connect i ons / 5.7-39
Girder terminating at a column and not continuing through
loads the column web i n shear in the region of the beam
connection. This couses high diagonal compressive stresses,
and diagonal stiffeners ore used to resist the tendency of
the web t o buckle.
Typical column joint to develop continuity in both directions. The column is cut off at this point. The main
girder (left to right) has 100% continuity, no joint; column stiffeners on girder webs are shop welded.
The cross beams are provided continuity by the use of o welded top plote extending right across the
upper girder flange. The column for the floor above is positioned on top of this connecting plate, tempo-
rarily held by angles shop-welded to the column web, and then permanently field welded along the
flanges to the connecting plote.
elded-Conneciiion Design
Actual service conditions on beam-to-column continuous connections were simulated in
this experimental setup at Lehigh University's Fritz Engineering Laboratories. Here,
the column is subjected to compresrive axial lood by the main press ram while the
beam stubs are loaded individually by means of hydraulic cylinders.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bcams may be made continuous through their girder
supports by any of the methods illustrated in Figure 1.
In Figure 1 ( a ) , the beam flange and part of the
web below are cut back so that this flange can he bntt
welded directly to the edge of the girder flange, with
top surfaces of both members on the same level.
In ( h) , ( c ) and ( d) , the beam web is cut hack just
below the top flange so that this top flange rests on the
top flange of the girder. This allows a very easy method
of erection.
Additional plates are used in ( c ) along the top
after the top beam flanges have been welded to the
girder. This gives the necessary increased area for the
negative moment over the support, and reduces the
beam size for the reinainder of the span.
Sometimes a small seat is placed below the beam;
as in ( e ) and ( f ) . This facilitates erection and also
serves as a backing strip for tile groove weld on the
lower beam flange.
Top connecting plates are used in ( e) and ( f ) .
These also serve 3s covcr plates to increasc the stiffness
( I ) or strength ( S) properties at ends of the beam.
If beams are offset, Fignre 2, the top connecting
plate can be adjusted to tie both together with the
girder.
At exterior columns, Figure 3, the top connecting
plate is cut in the shape of a Tee so as to tie in spandrel
beams, girder and column.
FIGURE 1
5.8-2 / Welded-Connection
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
"4'
TYPICAL BAY
TERSECTING FLANGES
FIGURE 5
(1) For example, assume the girder to be simply
Should the intersecting flanges of beams and girders be
supported, and the beams welded for continuity to the
isolated or may they be welded directly togeththa? girders.
FIGURE 6
Design the girder as simply supported. Use 14"
WF 68# beam having S = 103.0 in.s
FIGURE 4
2oL 20X 20"
Consider the bay, Figure 5, with a dead - live
w1 L
Ma = --ij---
load of 200 lbs/ft2. On this basis each beam would have
a 20-kip load uniformly distributed; each main girder - - (WL) (24C")
would have three concentrated forces of 20 bps applied
6
at quarter points.
= 2400 in.-kips
Beam-to-Girder Comtimuour Connections / 5.8-3
Here:
- -
(2400 in.-kips)
(103.0 in.")
= 23,300 psi compression
Since the girder in itself provides very little end
restraint for the intersecting beams which it sup-
ports, the beams will be designed as simply supportcd
even though their flanges are welded to the girder. Use
a 10" WF 25jf hcam having S = 26.4 in."
However, if two beams framing on opposite sides
of a girder are loaded, their ends will bc restrained
and their end moments must be considered.
The resulting flange farces and stresses can be dia-
grammed as in Figure 7.
FIGURE 7
= 41.5 kips
= 15,900 psi
These two biaxial stresses, a, = - 23,300 psi
and u, = $- 15,900 psi, will &ect the yield properties
of the girder's top flange within the region where the
beam flange is attached.
A plate subjected to uniaxial tensile stress, or stress
in one direction only, will have a certain critical stress
(uc,) above which the plate will yield plastically.
In this case, this stress point is referred to as the
yield strength.
uniaxial stress
However, if in addition, there is a compressive
stress applied at right angles, this will allow the plate
to yield easier and at a lower load.
bioxiol stress
A convenient method to check the effect of the
applied stresses upon the yielding of the plate is the
Huber-Mises formula. If for a certain combination of
normal stress ( u ) and ( ) and shear stress (T~,.),
the resulting value of critical stress (u,,) is equal to
the yield strength of the steel when tested in uniaxial
tension, this combination of stresses is assumed to just
produce yielding in the steel.
= 36,600 psi
This would indicate the top flange of the girder is
on the verge of yielding, and the tensile flange of the
beam should be isolated from the biaxial compressive
stress. This may he done by one of several methods,
Figure 8.
( 2) Now assume the girder to be fixed at the ends
and the beams welded for continuity to the girders.
FIGURE 9
Design the girder as having fixed ends. Use 14"
WF 43# beam having S = 62.7 in."
6
Moment diagrom
9 0 M
0-1 = -
S
.W (1500 in.-kips)
- ~~~p
-
(62.7 in.3)
= 21,500 psi
(Only need S = 56.2 in.3, but this is the lightest 14"
WF section.)
M, L
M2 = +
48
(60k) (24W')
= + 48
= + 300 in.-kips
M
0-2 = 2
S
- -
(300 in.-kips)
(62.7 in."-
= 4780 psi
W L
Ma=+-
16
(SOk) (240")
= +
16
= + 900 in.-kips
M3
us = -
S
-
- (900 - -.. in.-kips)
(62.7 i n3)
= 14,350 psi
Beam-(a-Girder Continuaus Connections / 5.
a, = - 14,350 psi
a, = + 15,900 psi
a,,= J u x 2 - a , ~ , + a ~ 2 + 3 ~ x y
- - / ( -14,350)'-( -14,350) (15,900) +15,9002
= 21,600 psi
The apparent factor of yielding is-
This seems reasonable, and under these conditions
the beam flange could be butt welded directly to the
edge of the girder flange without trying to isolate the
two intersecting flanges.
FIGURE 10
ELDING OF TAPERED FLANGES
Figure 10 shows the method for butt welding wide-
flange rolled beams which have a slightly tapered
flange to the edge of a girder flange.
By using a light %" x 1" backing bar, it may be
hammered as it is tack welded so that it will be tight
against the joint.
Figure I1 shows the method for butt welding
wide-flange rolled beams with a slightly tapered Bange
to a flat plate.
By using a light YB" x 11' backing bar, it may be
hammered as it is tack welded so that it will be tight
against the joint.
If there is any criticism in doing this, the followi~tg
should be remembered. This type of butt welded joint
on the wide-flange beans with a slightly tapered flange
presents a smoother transition in section and transfer of
beam flange force, than the widely used type of (beam-
to-columnj top connecting plate shown in Figure 12
which is accepted.
In this case (Fig. 12) the flange force must work
groove bun weld, ond oiro server
or run-off tob ot outer edge
groove butt weid, ood olio server
or run-off tab at outer edge
FIGURE I 1
! / ~ o p connecting plate
itself up through the connecting fillet welds into the
top plate, and then out throngh the groove butt weld
into the supporting member. Although there is a trans-
verse Gllet weld across the end of the top plate, much
of the flange force must spread out along the edge in
order to enter the fillet welds along the side of the plate.
These connections stood up very well under testing
and showed they could develop the full plastic moment
of the beam.
FIGURE 12
eom-to-Girder Continuous Connections /
LES OF CONTINUOUS CONNECTIONS
FIG. 13 Beomr framing to girder web.
el ded-Connect i on Desi gn
Welded connections ore used throughout the Ainsley Building in Miomi.
Here, the beams ore given continuity by connecting top flonges, using
strop plotes reaching ocross the girder. Lower flanges ore butt welded
to the web on both sides.
Continuous welded connections were used extensively in building the
7-story Horvey's Deportment Store in Nashville, Tenn. Here cross beoms
ore given continuity through the moin floor girders by meons of a 1"
thick cover plote ond a bottom support plote, wider thon the beom
flange. This type of connection eliminotes any need for beveling plates
and loying groove welds.
SECTI ON 5. 9
1. INTRODUCTION
In trnsses of proper arc welded design, gusset plates
are generally eliminated. Tensiorl members in the
welded design are lighter bcwuse the entire cross-
section is effective, and the amount of extraneous detail
metal is reduced to a minimum.
Welded trusses may be designed in various ways,
using T shapes, 13 and WF sections, etc. for chords.
The diagonal members are t~snally angles. Various tll,es
of welded truss designs are illustrated in the following:
1. Perhaps the simplest lype of truss construction
.'
is made of angle shapes and Tee's. In this example, the
bottom and top chords are made of T sections, with
angle sections fur the diagonals. This is easy to fabricate
and weld because the st ~t i ons lap each other and
fillet welds are used, Fi y r e I .
FIGURE 1
2. For a heavier trnss, the vertical member can
be an I 01 WF section. The web of this member, in
the examplt~ illustrated, is slotted to fit over the stem
of t he T section. The T section is used for both the
top and bottom chord members. The diagonal members
are made of a double set of angles, Figure 2.
3. Some trusses make use of T sections for their
diagonal members. The flanges of the diagonal members
must be slotted to fit over the stem of the T section
used for the top and bottom chords. The stem of the
diagonal is also cut back and butt welded to the stem
of t he top and bottom chords, Figure 3.
4. Quite a few tn~sses arc made of WF sections
completely: both top and bottom chords as well as
diagonal ai d vertical members. This allows loads to be
placed anywhere along the cop and bottom chords be-
cause of their high bending strength. (With the con-
ventional truss design, loads must be placed only at
points where diagonal or vertical members connect
to the chord mcmbers.) Almost all of the \velds are on
the flanges of the top and bottom chords, and since
these are fiat surfaces, there is no difkvlt fitting of the
members to make these connections, Figure 4.
5. Where longer lengths of connecting fillet welds
are required, a simple flat plate may be butt welded
directly to the stem of the horizontal T chord, without
any joint preparation. This weld is then chipped or
ground flush in the area where web members will
connect, Figwe 5.
-
FIGURE 5
6. Sometimes heavier trusses are made of WF
sections with the web of the top and bottom chords
in the horizontal position. The welding of these mem-
bers would consist mainly of butt welding the, flanges
together. Under severe loading, gusset plates may be
added to strengthm~ the joint aud reduce the possibility
of concentrated stresses, Figure 6.
7. It is now possible to obtain hot-rolled square and
rectangular tubular sections in A36 steel at about the
same price as other hot-rc>lled sections. This type of
section has many advantages. It has good resistance
to bending, and has high moment of inertia and section
modulus in both directions. It offers good streugth in
compression because of high radius of gyration in both
directions. It is very easy to join by welding to other
similar swtions because of its flat sides. For lighter
loads, fillet welds are sufficient. These sections offer
good torsional resistance; this in tun1 provides greater
lateral stability under compression, Figure 7.
8. Rormd tubular sections or pipe have certain ad-
vantages in truss construction: good bending resistance,
good compressive strength, and good torsional resist-
ance. There is no rusting problem on the inside if they
are scaled at the ends by welding, hence only the out-
side must be painted. Although it is more difficult to
cut, fit, and weld the pipe sections t og~a e r , this is not
a problem for fitters and weldors experienced in pipe
fabrication and welding. Pipe is used extensively in
Europe for trusses. In this country it has been used for
some mill buildings, special trusses for material handling
bridges, extremely large dragline booms, off-shore drill-
ing rigs, etc., Figure 8.
Design of Trusses / 5.
TABLE 1-Effect of Eccentric Loading
f = 9,600 w A7, A373 iteel & E60 welds
f = 11,200 w A36 steel R E70 welds
Welded connection If consider momeni MI = - Pe
There are many methods by which to join the
various pipe sections together in a truss. In this case,
the pipe is cut back and a gusset plate is used to tie
them together. A gusset plate also provides additional
stiffness to the pipe within the connection arra. How-
ever, they tend to cause an unwen stress distribution
within the pipe, with rather high strmses in line with
the gusset plate. See Fignre 9.
These closed sections, with less surface area ex-
posed to the elements, are less subject to corrosion than
are open sections; in practically all cases they are left
unpainted on the inside. It is only necessary to see
that the ends are scaled hy welding.
If neglect moment
2. EFFECT OF ECCENTRlC LOADI NG
It can be shown that, with mcrnhers hack to hack, or
separated with a gusset plate, the connections will
supply a restraining cnd moment:
Since this moment is equal and opposite to the
moment due to thc eccentric loading [ M = P e ) , they
will cancel. As a result there will he no moment through-
1
, .
FIGURE 10
FIGURE 1 1
out the length of the member and it will remain straight.
However, this moment ( M, ) is carried by the
connecting welds in addition to thcir axial load (P).
This moment is usually ncglected in the design of the
welded connection, because of the difficulty in deter-
mining the length of weld ( L) when it is considered.
Further, there usually is not much clifferenee in the
actual length of the required weld whether it is con-
sidered or not.
(a) if the moment ( Me ) is neglected:
(See Figure lo. )
Assuming A373 steel and E60 welds,
AT = 2.67 in.=
P = u A T
= (20,000) (2.67)
= 53.4 kips
leg size of fillet u:eld
@ = % t i
= ?4 (.425)
= ,3185" or %, I r h
total length of weld
P kips
LT = -. --
Xo ( 96) kips/in.
This would be distributed 4" across the end, re-
turning 6.9' on the sides, or use 7" long on each side.
This would give a total length of 18" of %B'' weld.
( b) If the moment ( Me ) is considered:
(See Figure 11.)
Here:
e = y = .94"
d = 4"
w = g6"
P = 53.4 kips
since:
F
and from this we find L = 8". (This value was found
by plotting several valucs,of L on graph paper and
selecting that L value which gave the closest value of
P = 53.4 kips.) This would give a total length of 20"
of % 6r' h weld.
In this case, the extra work involved in considering
the moment did not pay for the very slight overstress in
the weld when the moment was neglected.
If only one member is used, and the plate to
which it is attached is not very rigid, this restraining
end moment will not be sct up. The member will then
have a moment due to the eccentric load ( M = P e) ,
in addition to its axial load ( P) . See Figure 12.
uxiul tensile stress in member
P
u = -
A
bending stress
Since the distance to the outer tensile fiber ( c) and
the distance of the st-ction's center of gravity from the
base line ( y) are equal, and since the eccentricity of
Design of Trusser / 5.
Moment d i o g ~ m
of section (obtained
m steel handbook)
FIGURE 12
loading ( e ) is nearly tqual to these, it is assumed for
simplicity that c = e r y. Therefore, the total (maxi-
mum) stress is-
or the maximum axial load ( P) for a given allowable
stress (G-) is-
For the ST 4" 19.2# member used in the previous
example, Figure 10, this additional moment due to
eccentricity of loading would reduce the member's al-
lowable axial tensile force to:
= 32 kips
In this particular case, the additional moment due
to the eccentrically applied axial load reduces the
mt:mber's allowable load carrying capacity by 40%.
This far exceeds any reduction in the strength of the
welded connection due to this moment. Thus, the con-
nection will be on the conservative side.
Conclusions:
( a ) If the attaching plate is very flexible and
offcrs no restraining action at the end of the member,
the full moment ( M = P e ) must be added to the
member and no moment added to the connection. In
other words, the connection is designed for the transfer
of thc axial force only.
( b ) If the a t t a c h g plate is rigid cnougl~ so there
is no end rotation of the member, this moment is not
added to the member, but must be added to the con-
nection.
Evcn in this example, if the moment were also
figured to he added to the connection, at thc reduced
load of P = 32 kips, it would not require as much weid
as in the previous case:
e = .94" P = 32 kips
FIGURE 13
since: ( b ) calctdatcd allowable load:
p =
f
.
1 1
i($)' ( l d + L) l + (diJ
= 32 kips
From this we find L = 4.4" or = 4%". (This value
was found by plotting several values of 1, on graph
paper and selecting that which gave the closest value
of P = 32 kips.) This would give a total length of 13"
of %/,," h weld.
This is another case where theory would indicate
a much higher reduction in the carrying capacity of a
connection than actual testing shours. The following
lap joints wcre welded and pulled to failure.
( a ) calculatcd allouable load:
= 7500 lbs
Theory would indicate that, in the above samples,
increasing the eccentricity ( e ) from '/a" up to 1" would
dccrcase the strength of the welds by 60%.
Yet, the actual test results showed:
( a ) f = 11,260 Ibs/in.
( b ) f = 10,380 ibs/in.
or that this large increase in ecxentricity ( e) , from V4"
to l", only decreased the strength by 8.7%.
The reasons for neglecting this eccentricity in the
detailing of most connections may be summarized as
folIows:
1. In the usual welded connection, the eccentricity
is not vely large, and in these cases the thcoretical
reduction in strength due to the additional moment in-
duccd by the eccentricity is not very much.
2. Actual test results indicate a much smaller de-
crease in strength due to this eccentricity than theory
would indicate. Also these test pieces were very short;
the nsnal member would be much longer and, if any-
FIGURE 14
Design of Trusses / 5.9-9
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
FIGURE 17
thing, would minimize this problem.
3. The eccentric loading would effect a reduction
in strength of the member several times greater than
any reduction in the strength of the welded connection.
4. It is very time-consuming to include this moment
in consideration of the connection.
AISC Sec 1.15.3 requires that welds at the ends
of any member transmitting axial force into that mem-
ber shall have their center of gravity line up with the
gravity axis of the member unless provision is made for
the effect of the resulting eccentricity. However, except
for fatigue loading conditions, fillet welds connecting
the ends of single angles, double angles, and similar
types of members (i.e. having low center of gravity or
neutral ixis, relative to attaching surface) need not be
balanced about the neutral axis of the member.
3. DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFER OF FORCES
It is assumed that the axial forces in a member are
uniformly distributed throughout the various elements
of the cross-section.
See Figure 15, where:
A, = area of web
AT = total arca of section
If the force in some element of a member cannot
be transferred directly through the connection, this
portion of the force must work its way around into
another element of the member which can provide this
transfer. See Figure 16.
This decrease in axial force ( F) of one element
of a member is accomplished through a transfer in
shear ( V) into another element. See Figure 17.
The length of this shear transfer (I,) must be
sufficient so that the resulting shear stress ( 7) within
thk area does not exceed the allou,able. This area may
also have to be reinforced with doubler plates so it
call safely carry this increased axial force.
If we assume uniform distribution of axial stress
through the cross-section of the following member, then
the web arca has a force of P,.
(See Figure 18.)
Shear transfer from web:
A* = area of flange
V, = P, = u A, and
t , = ,270''
T - 2.67 in2
( A, = 0.99 in2
J
Web
3/8/1V
FIGURE 18
P, = 5 A,
= (20,000) (.99)
= 19.8 kips
This force in the web area (P, = 19.8 kips) must
be transferred down into the flange by shear (V,), and
out into the conncction.
Theoretically, if the section is not to be stressed
above its allowable, this shear transfer (V,) must take
place within a length bounded by the connecting welds.
If this is true, then this 19.8-kip force in the web,
transferred as shear through a length of 5%" where the
flange joins the web, causes a shear stress in the section
(a-a) of:
-
-
(19.8 kips)
(. %' 0) (5%)
= 13,330 psi > 13,000 psi (A373 steel)
This is close cnough. However, if it were higher, it
would indicate that one of the following conditions
exists:
a. The shear transfer takes place over a greater
distance and, beyond the welds, must travel this short
distance in the flange as additional tension until the
weld is reached. It thus slightly overstresses the section
(b-b) in tension.
8"W 31 .#
t , =
F = 125 kcpr
+
W' doubler plater
FIGURE 19
esign of Trusses / 5.9-9
FIGURE 20
b. The shear transfer does take place within this
5%" length, and slightly ovcrstresses this section (a-a)
in shear.
In most cases the welded connt don will provide
sufficient length (a-a) for the proper transfer of thme
forces from one portion of the member to another.
I Problem 1 ]
To detail an attachment to the tension member shown
in Figure 19.
If wc assume the total axial tensile force ( F =
125 kips) is divided among the two flanges and web of
the beam by the ratio of their areas to the total area,
then the force in the flange which must be transferred
out is-
= 47.5 kips
( a ) If the doubler plates are 6" wide, this flange
force (F, = 47.5 kips) must first transfer into the beam
web along the length ( L) as shear, V = 47.5 kips.
This length ( L) must be-
The k g size of these parallel welds would be based
upon the force on the weld:
actual force
= -
allowable force
= ,194'' or use Y4" (A373 steel; E60 weld)
( b ) If the doubler plates are 7" wide and are
welded directly to the inside of the flanges of the WF
section, the flange force (F* = 47.5 kips) will transfer
directly through the parallel welds. See Figure 21.
If the leg size of these parallel fillet welds is o =
%", the length of these welds would be-
(17.5 kips)
- ...
- 2(Y600) ('h)
= 4.95" or use 5"
v
L = (See Figure 20.) Transverse Forces
t," T
Any transmme component of a force applied to a mem-
(47.5 kips)
-
-
her is carried by those dements of the member which
( 288) (13,000)
lie parallel to this force. In other words, a vertical force
= 12.7" or 12%"
applied to an I beam with the web vertical is camed as
h- 5,. -4
FIGURE 21
shear almost entirely by the web. If the web is hori-
zontal, this force is carried as shear almost cntirely by
the two flanges. See Figure 22.
In a truss connection subject to a moment (for
example, a Vierendeel Trnss), the applied moments, if
unbalanced, cause shear forces ( V) around the peri-
phery of the connection web. The resulting diagonal
compression from these shear forces can buckle the
web if it is not thick enough. See Figure B.
The Law of Force and Reaction states that in a
member constrained by its supports, an applied force
at any point sets up at this point an equal, collinear.
opposite reaction. This of course assumes the memher
to be a rigid body, that is one which does not change
its shape or dimensions.
In the following member which is supported, the
FIGURE 22
applied force ( F ) has two components: horizontal (F,,)
and vertical (F,). The result is two reactions in the
member: vertical (R, ) in the web stiffener, and hori-
zontal ( R, , ) for the most part in the lower flange. See
Figure 24. because therc is no stiffener), there will be little or no
In order for one of thcse components of the applied
transfer of the other component (hcrt: F,,) even though
force to bc transferred into another member, it is nw-
there is a member or slemmt present to do this. In
essary for the othcl- cwmponcnt to be transfmed also.
other words the amount of a force component (here
Figure 25 illustrates this. If either one of the form
F,,) which may be transferred into the member de-
components cannot be carried (F, in this example,
pends on the ability of the connection to transfer the
Diagonal compression
on web of connection
due to shear forces from
unbolonced moment
FIGURE 23
FIGURE 24
FIGURE 25
FIGURE 26
other component (here F ) . Of cor~rse the applied
force (17) will bc reduced also_ and under thcse condi-
tions some other portion of this member must transfer
it. In this case the web of member A will transfer thi?
halancc of the force ( F) .
Determining Need for Stiffeners
No~mally stiffeners woold be 21dded to a mcmber in
which largc concentrated transvrrse forces are applied.
IIowrver, for smaller mcmbers with lower forces,
thesc stiffeners are sometimes left off in truss ronncc-
tions. It is difficult to know under what conditions this
might have to bc stifiened.
In n:cent research at 1,rhigh liniversity or1 "Welded
lntcrior Ream-to-Column Connections", short scctiolis
were tested imder trarrsversc comprrssion as uel l as
tension, with 2nd without stiffoners. See Figure 37.
It was foond that the compressive force applied
over a narrow section ( t r ) of inemher's flange spread
out over a wide section of the wc11 by the time the net
web thickness was reached. A conservative val w for
this distar~ce is given as:
(te + 5 K)
- Stiffeners
ud~ere K = the distancr from the outer face of the
flange to thc web toe of the fillet. This
value for all rolled scctions may bo found
in any steel handbook.
tt = thickness of t he flange of the cor~necting
member which supplies the compressive
fo1-cc.
Although thcre usas no axial compression applied
to the member in this test, on subsequent work involv-
ing actual beam-to-colr~mn connections, axial compres-
sion was sin~ultanronsly applied. See Figure 28.
It was found that an axial compressive stress of
ahout l.fi5 times the working stress (14,500 psi), or
u -- 24,000 psi, had little effect on the strength of the
connection. At the end of each test with the final loads
left on the beams, this axial compressive strcss was
increased to twice the working stress or u = 29000
psi with no indicalion of trouble in the conncction.
From this, they concluded that the minimum web
thickness of thc c o h ~~n n for which stiffeners are not
required is found from the following:
Toe of
of web
$9 Bar represents
connecting flange
I
(0) Test to determine Compression region criterion
(b) Test to determine Tension region criterion
FIGURE 27
t* bb
w 2 ---
t, + 5K
This research, concrmed with the application of
. .
concentrntcd flange forces applied to flanges of WF
members, was directed toward beam-to-column conncc-
tions. However, it does seem reasonable to use this as
a guide for the distribution of Range forccs in tnrss
connertions. This will then provide an indication of the
stresses in the chord resulting from the flange force of
the connecting member.
In the test of the tension area, they found that the
thicknrss of the column flange ( t , ) determined whether
stiffeners were required. On the basis of their tests,
they made the following analysis.
Analysis of Tension Region of Connection
The following is adaptrd from "Welded Interior Beam-
to-Column Connections", AlSC 1959.
FIGURE 28
FIGURE 29
The column flange can be considered as acting as
two plates, both of type ABCD; see Figure 19. The
beam flange is assumed to place a line load on each of
these platcs. The effective lmgth of the plates ( p) is
assumed to be 12 t, and the plates are assumed to be
fixed at the ends of this leugth. The plate is also
assumcd to be fixed adjacent to the column web.
See Figure 29. where:
m = wTC + 2( K - tc)
Analysis of this plate by means of yield line theory
leads to the uitima<e capacity of this plate being-
where:
For the wide-flange columns and beams used in
practical connections, it has been found that cl varies
would bc-
The force carricd by the central rigid portion of the
column in line with the web is-
Setting this total force equal to that of the beam's
tension flange:
Reducing the strength of this column region by
20% and making the conservative assumption that
m/bl, = .15, this reduces to the following:
- bb tb - .12 b,, tb
t, - -
5.6
If the column flange has this thickness, stiffeners
are not required as far as the tension area is concerned.
We might cany this thought one step further and
apply it to a tension flange which connmts to the
member at an angle other than 9O0, such as in a truss
connection. See Figure 30.
resistance of supporting flange (t,)
P = (.SO) us tb (.15 bb) + (.180) 7 uY h2
pull of tension flange (tb)
PI = b, t , ITy
.'. (.go) U, t,, (. I5 bb) - + (.SO) 7 IT^ tC2
= bb tb us sin a
bb tb (sin a - .12)
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(4)
Application t o Truss Connections
This Lchigh work for beam-to-column connections will
now be applied as a guide for determining the distribu-
tion of compressive forces in a truss connection.
It is assumed that this transfer of the flange force of
@occurs in the web of membc@within distance of
( t + 5K) . See Figure 31.
Here:
tb
t = -;--.
sin d,
The vertical component of the web force of member
@ transfers directly into the web of member @
within the distance of d
sin d,
Within the region b-c, these compressive stresses
in the web of member @ overlap and would be added.
+
F , sin d,
+ 5.)- (&)w
FIGURE 31
FIGURE 32
I where:
or
sin' (h F
The vertical component of the web force of member
n = 1 - ! + - Fw]! ( 5) @ t~ansfers directly into the web of member @
t,, + 5K sm (h d ' . . ' ' '
If the thickness of the web ( w) of member @
satisfies this fonnula, stiffeners are not r eq~~i r ed. Nor-
mally, member @ will not be stressed up to its allow-
able in compn:ssion, so that this shorter method of
checking stiffener requirements is on the conservative
side.
within the distance d
- .
Another method would be to assume ultimate load sin 4
conditions, with all pzrts involved, stressed to yield.
Using the previous formula ( 5) : The compressive stress within this section would b~
or
4. VERTICAL STIFFENERS
w 2 sin2 d,
b,, tb
rt,, + 5K sin 4 + ] ( 6 )
force F, sin d,
(T: , =-- -
d area
sin 4
Within the re ion (b-c), these compressive stresses in
the member 6 overlap and would be added:
Now if ultirnatc load conditions are assumed, that is all
parts involved are stressed to yield:
I
where:
F, = h, t, o;
F, = d WD u,
(r =
.. ~~
Ff sin d, F, sin2 d,
(--,ti-+ 5K ) w + h, t, + a;.--
sm r6
If Formula 8 should indicate that stiffeners are required,
bt tr, UY sin 4
-
the same method of analysis may he extended to get
an expression for the cross-sectional area of the vertical
' - ( &+ s K
stiffeners. S c e Figme 32.
+
d w, ur sinP 4
It is assumed the transfer of the flange force of
d w
member @ occurs in the web of member @ within
the distance ( t + 5K) as well as in the flange stseners.
and the required cross.sectionaj area of a pair of stiffen-
The compressive stress within this section would be--
,,, becomes:
( 7)
force Ff sin 4)
Ul = =
'uea
h, ts ', _W bb tli sin 6
- - ( 5
w - wb sin2 4 sin d,
5. LONGfTUDlNAL STIFFENERS
The type of connection shown here may be reinforced
with two stiffeners placed parallel to the web, and
welded to the flanges of member @. See Figure 33.
In the Lehigh test of this type of stiffening for
beam-to-column connections, these plates were added
along the outer edges of the flange so that beams fram-
ing in the other direction could be attached directly to
them without extending within t he column section. It
was found that thcse plates each carried about x0 of
the applied compression, while the central web section
loaded up and carried the remaining %. For this reason
the recommendation was made to assume these plates
to be about half as effective.
It is interesting to remember that when a beam is
sopported at three points, the two ends and the center,
the hvo outer supports each will carry only xo of the
load and at center 56 of the load. If the outer supports
are pushed in for 3; of the beam length toward the
center, all three reactions will be equal.
By setting the stiffening plates about 5 bb in from
the edge of the flange of member @, as shown above,
it seems reasonable to assume they will carry a greater
load and can be considered as effective as the web.
Although the K value a lies only to the distribu-
tion in the web of member @ and has nothing to do
with these side plates, the Lehigh researchers for sim.
plicity assumed the same distribution in the plates. The
compressive stress i n the web @ and the two side
stiffeners due to the vertical component of the flange
force of member @ is:
force
0-1 =
area
FIGURE 33
The compressive stress in the weh of member @
due to the vertical component of the web force of
member @ is:
force F, sin d,
0-2 = -
-. .-
area d
.-.
w
sin d,
Th e s stresses are added together.
Now if ultimate load conditions are assumed, that
is all parts involved are stressed to yield:
where:
F, = bb tb as
F, = d wb u,
and the required thickness of the two vertical plate
stiffeners becomes:
@
FIGURE 35
These plates must have sufficient welds connecting
them to the lower Bange because the compressive force
of member A enters here. Since fillet welds cannot
be placed on Q t e inside, this would incan a rather large
fillet weld on the outside. It may be more economical
to bevel the plate and use a groove weld. In this
example, the vertical compressive force is transferred
from the plate down into the vertical member @;
thus a silnple fillet weld along the top edge of thc plate
to the upper flange would bc sufficient.
This discussion and resulting formulas will allow
the connection to be d~atailed without computing the
actual stresses. It is based on providing a connection as
strong as the members.
Since member @ will normally not be stressed
to its full allowable ~n~npression, a more efiicient con-
nection would probably result if the actual stresses
were computed, using these guides on distribution.
Instead of providing full-strength welds, their size
would then bc determined from thesc computed forces.
These ideas will now be applied to various parts of
a truss connection.
6. STIFFENING ACTUAL TRUSS CONNECTIONS
The vertical cnmponent (F,) from the flange
enters the stiffener and passes into the web of
shear, V = F,, along section a-a. The horizontal com-
from the flange of @ enters the lower
. The weld bet \ veu stiffener and web
would be designed to transfer this
shear form ((V, Figure 34.
The force ( F ) from the flange of @ transfers
directly into the stiffener, leaving no horizontal com-
ponent to entpr the lowcr flange of @ . This forcc:
( F) , now in the stiffener, gradually transfers into the
web of @ as shear, from section a-a to section b-h.
-
p7
This unit shear force is equivalent to v = -- The weld
bctween stiffeners and web of memb$@ would
bc designed to transfer this shwr force ( V) , F i y r e 35.
The force ( F ) from the flange of @ enters thc
stiffcner, and is transferred through to the opposite
end. The vertical component (F,) miters the flange of
, and the horizontal component (F,,) enters the
upper flange of @ . No shear force is transferred
throu h the weld between stiffener and web of mem-
ber 6 . Only enough weld is required near mid-
section of stiffener to keep it from buckling, Figure 36.
FIGURE 37
The force ( F ) from the flange of @ enters the
stiffener, and is transferred through to the opposite
end. The vertical component (F, ) is taken by the
second stiffener as (F,), and the horizontal component
(F,,) is taken by the upper flange of @ , Figure 37.
In these last two eases, it is assumed that no portion
of the force ( F ) in the stiffener is transferred into the
web of @) . The welding of the stiffener would be
similar to the previons case, that is Figure 37.
concentrated force into the web is to he taken, then
the conservative method may be used. Thus, it is as-
sumed that the flange force must first be transferred as
shear into the web of the same member before it is
transferred through the connecting weld into member
@) . This weld may have to be made larger because
of this additional force, Figure 38.
If this flange force ( F) is high, a web doubler
plate might have to be used so that these forees can
be effectively distributed into the web of @ without
overstressing it.
( Problem 2A I
Consider the connection of Figure 39, using A373 steel
and E60 welds.
In this case a portion of the vertical component
of @ is transferred directly into @ . It will be
assumed that the vertical component d the left flange
and the vertical force in the right flange of
be transferred around through the web of
of two vertical stiffeners. See Figure 40.
( a ) Cheek the size of the connecting welds on
the flanges of @ .
unit force on f mge fillet welds
- -
(138 kips)
2(10)
= 6.9 kips/linear inch
leg size of flange fillet welds
= .72" or use 3 / ' ' (or use a groove weld)
( b ) Check the size of the connecting welds on
the web of @ , which has a force of 74 kips.
unit force on web fillet welds
F
f" = t;
- -
(74 kips)
Z(17.5)
FIGURE 38
leg size of web fillet welds
2.11
OR = -
If there are no flange stiffeners on member A 9.6
and no advantage of the precceding distribution of the = .22"
Design cf Trusses / 5.9-19
FIGURE 39
FIGURE 40
However, the minimum fillet weld to be attached
to the 1.063"-thick flange would be - w, = %u". (AISC
Set 1.17.4)
( c ) Determine required sectional area of vertical
stiffeners.
- -.
(97 kips)
(29.7 ksi)
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.5.2)
=: 3.27 i a2, or use two %" x - 5" stiffeners
Their A, = 3.75 in.2 > 3.27 OK
-
( d) Check the size of connecting welds to trans-
fer this force (F,) as shear into the web of B .
unit force on stiffener-to-web fillet we&
97 kips
f = --
4(12.6)
leg size of fiUet welds
( e ) Check the vertical shear stress along a-a.
v
T = - See Figure 41
A,
- -
(97 kips)
(.660) (12.62)
= 11,650 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 ur OK
(AISC See 1.5.1.2)-
5.9-20 / Welded-Connection
FIGURE 41
( f ) Check the horizontal shear stress along b-b
in the web of @ arallel to the welded connection
betwen @ and &) . Thk length is about 20".
The total horizontal mmponent from
transferred into @ is 248 kips. The
@ ha5 a compressive force of 215 kips on the right
end and 118 kips on the left end. This means it will
pick up 215 - 118 = 97 kips from @ .
Hence, a force of 248 - 97 = 151 kips is to be
transferred into the web of @ over a distance of ?OM.
(151 kips)
= y m 2 q
= 11,430 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 u, OK
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.2)-
As a result no stiffening of the web of @! is
required as far as shear is cunce~ned. If these shcar
stresses exceed the allowable, the web of the connection
could be reinforced with a doubler plate, eithcr on the
web itself, or separated slightly and welded to the
edges of the upper and lower flanges of @ .
( g
There is one more item to check; consider
point b x in the figure below. It is necessary that the
vertical component of the right flange of @ be trans-
ferred into the left flange of @ , and yet its hori-
zontal componmt be transferred into the lower flange
of @
FIGURE 43
Theoretically, the flange of can only transmit
an axial force ( F) bcttween point and @ . There
would be no problem if these 3 flanges met at a com-
mon point.
FIGURE 44
In order for the flangc of @ to take the vertical
component (F,) from the flange of @ at @ , it
is necessary that the horizontal component (F,,) also
FIGURE 42
Design of Trusses / 5.
FIGURE 45
be taken at this point and somehow carricd up into the If the shcar transfer ( V) hetwcen thcse two stiff-
lower flange of @ . enws exceeds the allowable of the web of @ , a
Likewise, in order for the f an e of @ to take doublcr plate may hc added to the web; or a plate
the horizontal component (F.) at ($ , it is neccsrrry 1~my he set out on each side to box in this area.
that the vertical component (FY) also be takcn at this
point and carried into the flange of @. There are
.--.
several methods by which this may be done.
. . %
--:.,.
(5,) of the flange of @ into the web of @ so that
the horizontal cam onent (F,,) could be transferred
into the Range of 6 .
FIGURE 46
In this substructure for an offshore drilling rig,
the truss connections carry iorge concentrated
transverse forces. Vertical flange stiffeners are
required to prevent web buckling. The triangu-
lar "gusset" is welded i n to enclose the ores
for greater protection against corrosion i n
addition to stiffening.
Another solution of the same problem would be to
check the stiffener requirements using the Lehigh re-
search for beam-to-column connections as a guide for
the distribution of the forces through the connection,
( a) See if the web thickness ( w) of @ is suf-
ficient for stiffeners not to be required; Figure 47.
w 2 1.18" required > ,660" actual
On this basis some stiffeners would be required.
Ka"
FIGURE 47
( b) Check the tension flange of @ where it joins
the flange of @ , as to the necessity of stiifcners to
transfer the flange force; Figure 48.
t , = . 4 0 a x -
= .40 J (10.075) (.as)
= 1.05" < 1.063" OK
- .-
On this basis. stiffeners would not be needed on-
posite this flange of @ where it joins the bottom
flange of (@
( c) Check the tension flange of @ where it
joins the flange of member @, Figme 49.
h, t, (sin a - .12)
t" = 4 G :
FIGURE 50
FIGURE 51
On this basis, stiffeners would not h e required on longiturlinul flange stifcners
@ opposite this flangc of member @ .
Either tical flange stiffeners or longihidinal
flange stiffeners can be used to provide added stilhl-ness
for the compressive force of @ .
oertical flange stifiencrs
w h,,t,, sin +
-~ ,663
w - w,, sin"
--
2
(.660) (10.345) (1.118)(.707)
'r
.. ~~~~ 2 53''
- (.go)-(.6% j (.707 )" .-
1.118
+ 5 x 1 % ~
or use a pair of 35" x 12%" x 36" stiffeners.
2 - 7.03 in.'
so use two pairs of 3/4" x 5" stiffeners.
~. . - ~~- -
7. TYPICAL TRUSS PROBLE
FIGURE 52
Properties of Members Used in Problem 3
- 168'
Check the details of this connection, using A373 steel
and E60 welds.
( a ) Consider the moment and vertical shear on
section a-a.
M = F d = (16SV - 14L)(1(Y') = 1540 in-kips
V = 154 kips
bending
shear
resulting maximum normal stress (See Figure 53.)
= 10,980 psi
The resulting bending stress of u = 8,000 psi
at the outer fiber is for a horizontal edge. If this edge
slopes ($), the resulting fiber stress along this edge
may be found from the following:
(See Figure 54.)
= 5730 psi
n = 8000 psi
FIGURE 53
at top edge of gusset plate
Q, = 12. cos 12" = 977
8 000
u = -2-- = 8,390 psi (compression)
,977"
FIGURE 54
at bottom edge of gusset plate
@ = 30" cos 30" = ,865
8 000
u = 2;--- = 10,700 psi (tension)
,865'
( b ) Consider the transfix of the vortical compon-
ent (I.',) of the truss members @ and @ duough
gusset plate @ and into the web of column @
within the connection length of 43" as shear. From
this vertical component (F,), deduct the portion to be
carried by the right flange of A . (This does not have
to enter the web of column .) This portion carried
8
by the right flange can be determined by the ratio of
the flange area to the total section area.
The forcc taken by this flange is-
= 55.5 kips
This leaves 154 - 55.5 = 98.5 kips to pass into
the web (some of which will enter into the left Range).
The resulting shear stress within this 43" length of
web is:
- 5,490 psi < 15,000 psi < .40 u, OK
(AISC See 1.5.1.zj--
This transfcr can ho made while still keeping the
flangc compressive stress within the unifonn stress of-
( 168 kips)
= = 8400 psi
(20.00 in.')
( c
Consider the vertical weld between connection
plate b C and member @ . The forces applied on
the left side of this weld are-
FIGURE 55 ] '\\
f, = 1.76k/in \\ fr
M = (168" - 14")(7.03") = 1082-in.-kips
V = 154 kips
section morlwlz~s of ucld connection
bending forcc on weld
shcar force on zccld
rcwrltant forcc on weld
f, = d v = (1.76)' -+ (1.79)2
= 2.51 kips/in.
lcg size of fillet weld
(2.51)
= . - "1"
(9.6)
. or use X6''
( d ) Flange plates, %" by 4%", are welded onto
@ to extend the flange of @ back a sufficient dis-
tance. The cornpressivc force in the flange of @ is-
On this basis, the stress in each of these flange
plates is:
(78 kips)
LT = - - . . -.
( 2") (%") (4%')
= 13,100 psi OK
-
The force from an adjacent pair of these plates is
transferred into @ as double shear.
FIGURE 56
This shear stress in @ is-
(78.0 kips)
= q i T 7 ) v )
= 2600 psi < 13,000 psi OK
-
size of connecting zcelds
( 156 k/in. )
&, =
- - .IW or use x6,,h
(9.6 k/in.)
However, tho .4WS as well as the AtSC would
require a %" fillet .. wald bccause of the %" plate.
( e ) At section 1,-b at the termination of the flange
plates, wc will assume the 200-kip compressive forcc
must be taken by @ alone. The cross-sectional area
of @ is A = 15. B in2.
For the same stresy in 0 , this would require
-
the same cross-sectional area, or 15.88 in." and a net
width of
There is sufficient width; see Figure 52.
( f ) At swtion c-c halfway along the flange lates,
it is assumed that half of the flange force of 6 has
been transferred out into @ :
For the two Range plates, this reduction would
Ieave-
(200") - 2 (39.1") - 122.0 kips to be taken by
0.
For the same stress, this would require an area
of-
and a net width of-
There is sufficient width; see Figure 52.
( g) Another section which might be checked is
along d-d. The ioads on this section are the direct com-
prcssiivr load of the colnmn @ , a shearin? force
from the tension in the lowcr chord mcmber , and
a bmding moment from the eccentricity of both the
colun~rr A and the hottomchord h o d @ . This critical
section ( 9 - d ) is placed as high as possible above the
lomcr chord (@ without intrwxpting the stiffening
elements of the conneciion. In this case it is placed Y'
ahove the ce~nterline of mcmber @ .
The propcrtics of this built-up cross-section are
FIGURE 57
computed and the eccentricities determined. For
simplicity in this compntation, the reference axis (x-x)
is placed along the conterline of the column A
0.
From this:
c = (14.06 + 17) - (7.03 + 5.36) = 18.67"
Applbd Loads
Member
FIGURE 58
14" WF 68# 1 20.00 1 0 1 0 1 0 / 724.1
A d
compression
F, = 16Sk - 14k = 154 kips
FT
cr - - = 5050 psi (compression)
A
shear
F,, = 126&
M= : A d l = : Md
bending
I,
G- = --- (233'0.3.0) = a% psi (compression)
( 127.5)
This is a total compressive stress of 3050 + %%I =
7470 psi, and a shear stress of 7 6 4 psi at the outer edge
of the connection plate @ .
The resultant maximum normal (compressive)
stress at the edge of the plate is-
= 12:800 psi
Check the outer edge of this plate @ as a
colnmn.
radius of gyration
r = ,289 t t= (. 289)(%) = ,181"
The unbraccd length of this edge is L = IS", and
and the corresponding allowable compressive stress is-
u = 14,130 psi > 12,285 psi OK
( A I S C ~ ~ C 1.5.1.3.1)
If the calculated compressive stress had exceeded
this allo\vahle, a flange could have been added along
this one outer adge to give it sufficient stiffness against
lx~ckling.
Plate @ will have i/lBt' b 4'' flange plates to
extend the flanges of member 6 along a distance of
12". W' fillct wclds will ire sufficient to attach these
plates, tl~is size being n q o i l d because of the %" plate.
No further checking is necessary because, by observa-
tion, the lB-kip force is much less than the 200-kip
force of mrlnber @ and the same amount of plate
@ is available.
Determine the leg sizs of the four fillet welds connect-
ing the two %' ' gusset plates to the vertical leg of a
tower. A373 steel, $360 \velds. See Figme 59.
The horizontal component of the 350-kip force of
the diagonal mcmhrr (10" WF 100#) is transferred
back to the horizontal member (248 kips) through the
3.87"
I
-4 k-
Weld group
gusset plate. The only force transferred through this
connecting weid to the vertical memhcr (14" WF
136#) connecting weld to the vertical member (14"
TVF 136+) is the 248-kip vertical force acting 3l/2"
away from thc crnter of gravity of the welded con-
nection.
Trcot the weld group as a line:
tuisting nction
vcrticnl force:
FIGURE 59
horizontal force
vertical sllear
resultant
act ud force
(,, --
allowable force
l:iowcvcr, .\\.I5 and
becanse of 1:; ,".ilqge.
A373 steel
A, = 1.83 in2
SAa" X 6%" X 12" R
FIGURE 60
I Problem 5 1
Determine the weld sizes on this connection. A373
steel, I160 welds.
( a) Find the reqnired size of fillet weld hchvren
member @ and connecting platcs @ The total
length of connrcting weld is-
L = 1 ( W) + 2(6.08") = 36.0"
force of weld
F (95 kips)
f - = = 2, 641'
L (36")
upsjiri
(2.64 k/in.)
=
- 07-"
- J or use x6"
(9.6 kjin.)
Check the length of web @ within the conncc-
tion along section x-x, requirrd to transfer the force of
the web @ ont into the flanges of as shear.
force i n wck
F, '351, = 23.6 kips
(7.37)
( b ) Find tha reqnired s ke of fillet weld between
flanges of @ and platcs @. The total length of
connecting wrld is-
L = 1(3'/2") + 2(12") == 38.0"
jorcc on u&l
Trusses were essential to the al l welded froming of the steel and gloss Phillis Wheotley
Elementary School in New Orleans. The school was erected off the ground on two
rows of concrete piers, plus exposed steel supporting columns under end trusses of the
contilevered classroom wings. This provides both open and sheltered play area beneath
the structure.
The roof supporting space frame that tops the Upjohn Co.'s Kolomozoo office building
is of welded angle construction. A system of subassembly jigs focilitated the holding
of alignment during fabricotion of the giant frome sections. Nearly al l joints are
welded downhand.
Main load-carrying element in the world's
largest ore reclaimer, at Kaiser's Eagle
Mountain mine in California, is a 170' long
welded truss of triangular cross-section. Tu-
bular construction is used where practical
for extra strength and torsional resistance,
and in order to keep weight to a minimum.
Closeup below shows welded cluster where
vertical and diagonal members meet the
top chord.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tubular construction is bcginning to be used to a
greater extent in this country, although for many years
it has been an accepted method in Europe where it is
used extensively. Although the advantages of thc tube
have been known for a long time, it was the introduc-
tion of welding to the connections which made its
extensive use possible.
The tube represents an efficient section, having
good properties in all directions. There is no problem
in maintaining the inside of the tube against corrosion
and in most cases this is loft unpainted. The welded
connections seal the tube against any moisture entering
and prcvents the circulation of air, hence any rusting
very soon stops and equilibrium is reached.
The joints represent the intersections of curved sur-
faces, and therefore extra care and time is involved
in cntting the pipe to prepare the joints. Usually these
are flame-cut, although there are abrasive cut-off saws
which make a series of straight cuts and provide good
fit-up and there arc shears with special tools which
allow the end of the tube to be sheared. Fully auto-
matic flame-cutting machines have been built which
may be preset for the inner diameter of the tube to be
cut, the outside diameter of the tube which it intersects,
and the angle of intersection. This will very quickly
provide the proper cut, at the proper bevel, and results
in close fit-up of the joint.
Recently steel mills have introduccd square and
rectangular tubing; these of course, are much easier
to connect because of their flat surfaces.
2. GUSSET PLATES
Gusset plates have been used in pipe connections for
at least 3 reasons:
(1) Provides additional length of fillet weldii~g to
the pipe Most pipe is not very thick. For example, 4"
standard pipe Bas a V4" thick wall. Unless extra care
is used in cutting, beveling, and fitting, it is easier to
use fillet wclds rather than try to make 100% penetration
groove welds on thin-wall pipe.
Weld @ does not
hove i o be made os
carefully becoure
fillet weld @ provides
addition01 strength
FIGURE 1
( 2) Allows the inttmecting pipe members to be
cut short and the gusset platc cari es the cntire load
back to the main member.
In some cases, the web membcrs are shop fabri-
catcd and welded into assrmhlies. This facilitates field
erection and wrlding hecause only vertical wclds be-
tween the main pipe member and gusset plate are still
reqnired.
weld
Man pipe
FIGURE 2
( 3 ) Providcs a dirtzt transf(:r of force through a
main p i p member when othtr members connect on
nppositr. sides of thc ni ~mber. This may hc done if it is
felt that the maill menrhcr has too low a thicktiess ( t )
to diameter ( d) ratio and would need additional
stiffness.
FIGURE 3
Anothm solution to this problem would he to add
a "slwve" or "collar" around the main rncinher u'itlrin
this cr)nrwction mnc so that it ~voi ~l d have the required
thichrws. Tt a;onld ljc possible to insert hy welding, a
short lcngtli of thicker tiibing within this zone. Ustially
the inain pipe members must be butt welded together
somewl~cre to provide the required irngth, and this
weld could be located at tliis position. See Figure 4.
If the wail thicknrss, bevel, and fit-up of thc pipr:
arc sufficient for 100% pcnctxation groovr \velds to be
made, there should hc no rtaason lor gusset platss. In
most cases, with proper care, groovc welds could be
made easily.
Although gi~ssct plates arc used in pipe connec-
tions, they tend to stiffcn the pipe and, as a resiilt,
concentratr the stress in thc pipo at the end of the plate.
See Figure 5.
Ii has been si~ggested that, if gusset plates are to
be nscd, tlwy he t:rperrd at their ends so as to have
less stincning effect on the pipe and thus provide a
more even distribution of stTess within the pipe at this
connection.
Under static loads, any reasonable stress concen-
tration in the pipe near thc termination of the gusset
plate woi~ld probably bo reduced by some localized
plastic yielding; so, this \vould not be a prohlem. How-
ever, grisset plates should be avoidcd for connrctions
subject to fatigue loading.
3. ORDER OF ASSEMBLY
When web mtambers intersect at a connt7ction, normally
the tensile member is first welded completely all the
wny aroimd to the maill niemhcr. Then the compression
member is cut back to overlap the tensile member, and
Gi eoi ei stress concentration More uniform stress
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
Connections for Tubular Condruction / 5.10-3
1 Tensile member
FIGURE 6
this is wi.ld~xl to hoth of thesc mt~mbel-s. Evmy effort is
i r d e to obtain tlic hest tcnsile connection; Figure 6.
This is not quite as important as it first sounds
si rm most of the vertical co~nponent in the tension
member is tr:msfrrred directly into tho compression
memho. through thp \velds of this overlapping portion
( b ) witlro~rt wer passing throngh the wcld connecting
t h ~ ~ tension irmnhcr to i hr main horizontal member ( a) .
Thc portion of the x ~ l d ( a ) in the overlapped area
connecting the tcnsion m(,mhcr to the main member
is snhj cct d to two Sorces: tension from the tensile,
rnernbw, and r:ompression fmrn the cornpression mem-
her sincc it pushes agitilist this overlapped portion of
thc tensile member. One forcc offsets the othrr, so that
vt:ry little of any vcrtical force mrlst he casried by this
portion of the weld at (a). jwt the horizontal force
into thc top rnoml~er.
Fignrvs 7 :tnd 8 descrihc a trst condncted at the
Vniwrsity of Chlifon~ia, "~ic~scarch on Tubular Con-
rirctions in St]-uctnrd LVork" ]. C;. Uouwkamp, WRC
ji.71, .hog. 1961. This test shows the effect that over-
lapping the intwsocting web members has on the
strength of the joint.
It is seen that a more negative rccentrieity of the
connection ( c ) resnlts in more overlapping of the web
~ncmbers and greater stifl'ness of the main member.
With this grcat ovcriapping of thc ueb members, the
tr:tnsfr.r of the vertird component 01 the diagonal web
mmnhrr into thc vertical iwh momber will occur before
it miters thc main horizontal chord inember. The above
test shows this connection to have the highest strength,
actually slightly higher than the tube itself, which in
a separate test pulled at an average of 260 kips. Eotice
all three of the above tests failed in the tube wall
adjacent to the connecting weld.
4. APPLICABLE BRITISH SPECIFICATIONS
The following is taken from Addition No. 1 (Nov 1953)
to H.S. 449 (l.948), British Standards Institution:
Sealed tubes or sealed box sections, for exposed
structures shall not be thilmer than ,160"; for non-
exposed structures this limit is .128", and not less than-
D = outside diameter of pipe
t = . l o VE-
t = thickrms of pipe
The angle betwwn intersecting pipe shall not be
less tharr 30"; otherwise the strength of the connection
shall be demonstrated.
A cmnplete ptw:tration goove weld may be used
regardless of the ratio of the diameters of the inter-
secting pipes.
If the ratio of the diameter of the pipes is less than
'h, fillet welds may ho used.
If this ratio is '/A or greater, a combination of fillct
welds for a portion of the joint and groove welds for
the remainder may br. nssd.
Pipes eonrrected end to and shall be groove u-alded.
In a fillct u ~ l d or a combination of fillet and groove
eided-Connection Design
FIG. 80 This pipe connection (Fig.
7a) hod o positive eccentricity of
v4 the diameter of the lorger pipe.
Its ultimote lood was 137 kips.
FIG. 8b This pipe connection (Fig.
7b) had no eccentricity. There's o
slight overlopping of the connec-
tion. Its ultimote lood was 209 kips.
FIG. 8c This pipe connection (Fig.
7c) hod o negotive eccentricity of
$f4 the diorneter of the lorger pipe.
Because of larger ornount of over-
lapping, its ultimate load was 277
kips.
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-5
weld, the allowable stress on the t11ro:lt shall not exceed
the allowable shear stress of the pipe.
In a groove weld, the allownblc tensile, compres-
sive, or shear strcss on the throat shall not exceed that
of the pipe.
5. DESIGN OF TUBULAR TRUSS CONNECTIONS
The application of tuitular construction to a truss ar-
rangement is typified by the following problem. Here
the loading is similar to that on the connection which
was the snbject of Problem 3, in the preceding Section
5.9.
To design an eEcirnt connection on this tubular truss,
Figure 9.
( a ) First c h c k the allowable loads on the various
selectcd pipe sections against thc actual loading.
Member @
L (432)
-. -
r (4.38)
= 98.7
and the allowable is rr = 12,520 psi
P = u A
= (12,520 ) (14.58)
= 182 kips > 168 kips OK
-
Member @
and the allowable is IT = 16,660 psi
P Z U A
= (16,660) (14.58)
= 243 kips > 200 kips
OK
= (20,000) (7.165)
= 145.3 kips > 126 kips
OK --
-12" Std pipe
t = l/s"
A = 14.58 i n2
r = 4.38" (rodius of gyrotion)
FIGURE 9
( b) Use a W gusset plate on this connection,
resulting in Figure 10.
moment applied to pipe
M,, = ( 1Bk) ( 7. 8W)
= 990 i n. -ki p
also
M, = (154") (6%")
= 982 in.-kips
assumed oalue of e
e = 1 2 t
= 12 ( %)
= 4%"
maximum unit force jrudial) applied to
1" ring section of pipe @
= 1.98 kips
FIGURE 11
Althonglt there is just a single radial force ( f )
acting on tlw p i p shell, assume there is an equal force
on the oppositr side of the shell, resisting this force.
FIGURE 10
This represents a worse condition than actually exists.
t?
s =-
6
- - (36)'
-
6
= .0Z3 in."
M,,, ( at force f ) = k f r
= (.318)(1.98(6)
= 3.78 in.-kips
M
( r = -
S
-
( 3.78)
--
(.023)
= 164,000 psi Excessive .
Heca~ise of t h<w excessive bending stresses within
the pipe shell resdting from the moment applied by
thc connecting pl:rtc, somc mcans of stiffcning the pipe
\tithin this arra must lie ~ ~ s c d . T11<w arc several pos-
sibilit im.
( 1 ) On e pmsi l ~k solution is to pr~t a casing around
thc pipe so as to iricrtmc its wall t hi ckn(~s. This will
provide suilicient st-ction modulns so that the rcsnlting
bending strcss is rrduced to ; ~ r i allowable value. ( hs-
sum? u = 18,000 psi.)
= ,210 in."
Do not nerd cirrurnferent~ol
fillet welds oround either
I- end of %" liner unless to
ieol the ends
60" oroove weld on %" liner
-
also j pns pipe member. Weld
lies dong neutral oxi i of
plpe, so this becomes built-up
section to resist bending
%"
3/l"-thi~k stiffening
lhner around p,pe
FIGURE 12
Since 1.17" - %" (present thickness of @ ) =
,745" requirrd additkina1 thicla~css. or add :I %'-thick
wrap-arorind shcet around this pipc @ in the arcit of
tht. connwtion. See Figllrc 12.
( 2) :\notht~r possiblr solntion \tould hr to add to
the wall thickness at top and bottom of the eonnt:etion.
.. , ,,
X 10" wrap-oround R
FIGURE 13
= 2.77 in.:'
:== l.29" rqni rcd, and since i.29" - 3h'' =
.915", sldd a 1" x 10" plat? &-rapped aromd tlle pipe
@ at t h ~ top and bottom of the coirncction.
m t'
s =: ~
6
( c ) I)etcrmii~c the amonnt of required am~cct i ng
wtrld between pipc @ and gnsset plate @
where: w = width of
stiffening ring
For dotermining the minimum length of connec-
ti011 ( 1 .) to hold slrtw strcss (r) within the sillowablt~,
use the following lr~avimnrn leg size of weld:
plate
4 I, 9600 w = 4 t, 1. r
FIGURE 14
An alt(m~atr mt,thod woi~ld 11e to rise %'' fillet weld
all the way aroimd the md of the pipe @ :
FIGURE 15
Connections $or Tubular Construction / 5.10-9
-.: ,i.5.6", or 17.8'' o~r cadi sidc of the $6'' giisset
plate.
If thc transvrrsc \veld is 12" long, this leavcs 27.8
- 12 = 15.8". or 8" on cach sidn.
6. TEMPLATES FOR PlPE CONNECTIONS
Althougli pipc f;ibricatitrg shops have shop nwn who
an. cxpt~rimctd in laying out md prrprirrg t hi w joints
hy making thvir O\ VII tcmplntw this is somt.thing new
for most strl~ot:ir;il shops. It may hc, mwxar y to supply
templates for th? morc critical pipe joillts w11cre a
jiussct plat? is riot spccifietl.
Thwt: arc t;~I,los of ordirratrs amilahlc for most
standard pipe sizt,s ;ind given angk,s of intersection
(ED, 30' , 45", 6O", and $10" ) . tIou;cvt.r, t h( w may hc of
little, vdue btcause otlicr rormd tubi~lar s(:ctions ma);
be ustd which are ilot standard pipe sizes, : i r d in
structur;d work thc arlgl? of itltcrs~~ctiorl \<%I1 not iitw's-
sarily be one of the ahovc.
For good fit-rip. i t is nt,cessary that the inirnr radius
( 1, ) of the snrallvr pi ,tz @ and the outer radius ( r z)
of the larger pipe irrtersc.ct along a curve which
forms the root of the joint.
Followitig is a suggcstrd metlmd for making tem-
plates which will cover a11 possible connections at any
angfr of intwscction, any :irnount of offset, and any
possiblt combin;rtion of pipe sizes. This template will
allow the c t d of the srndlcr pipe to he cnt for proper
fit-lip against thr surface of the larger pipe. 111 struc-
t ur d work, it is not ncccssary lo cut a hole into the
side of thc 1;irgcr pipe at the conn?ctionl as is done in
pr css~r e piping so a srcor~d t r~npl at c is not needed for
this cut.
The inner radius ( r , ) of thc~ sinallcr p i x .\ and
6 0
the outer radius (r, ) of thc largcu pipe H .me med
to makr the template. This is done gr;ipliicnlly or
;~rr;~lyti~~;rlly, as explained a in\: lx~ragrapfrs further.
Tlrc tcniplatc is mad? of soiue type of iiravy p;ipcr.
It is nirapp(d arorlnd i ht pipe to he cut, at the propcr
location. The c?ntc,r of tlris tcnrl)l:rtc rdg? is transfcrrcd
onto the pipe with chdk. Thr: rhalkcd curvi. on the
pipeis tlien marked with a st:rics of c:~ntcrpmch marks.
Tht: pipe is thrn flainr-cut along this cl~rve, krrping
the torch tip trorni;rl or at right mglcs to the surface of
the pipe. This \vill prtid~ice the pr op~r curve for the
joi~rt as far as tho inside of tlrc pip(. is <,or~cerncd.
It is then necessary to brvt,l the edgo of this pipe
back from the outsidr, jnst torrclring tliis inside cut to
pro\.ide the raquirrd inclrldd angle, for the groove
weld. A good expcrie~rcrd flamc-cutting operator will
ilo tliis witliout any difhdty.
If fillct \wlds are to be irsed instead of groove
iwlds, t b i secmid cut or i~cvcl is only needcd at rc-
twtrant corrlcrs of th(, joint or whew the nnglc 11rtwec11
the siirf:iccs of tha iirtcrstbctirrg pipes is less than 90".
TABLE 1-Properties of Polar Angles
12 POSITIONS or (8)
mri f i on 1 a I r i n a I sin2 a I I-cor a
TABLE 2-Properties of Polar Angles
5.10-10 / Wetded-Connection Design
0 @ 0 @ 0 @ 0 @ 4 3 ~ ~ ~ @ @ @ @ @ ~
FIGURE c TEMPLA76 DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE A
FIGURE 16
Graphical Method of Making Templ ate
Refercnct>s at-? t o vir\\.s ( a ) , ( h ) , arrd ( c ) of Figrrrr 16.
1. Ilraw a sidc vie\v of the cormcction. figure ( a ) .
Drnw an end vi t v of the i,onnection. fig~rrc (11).
2. l a y off pipe @ into a gi \ w ti~~mhc,r of q r a l
swtions, for (~x;inrplc 16, ;ind nitmlwr these 1; " 3, ctc.
tlrrr~rlgh to 1G. llraw iitlrm throiigh thcsc points p;rrallcl
to thc axis of pipc @ in Imth f i g~i r ~s.
3. \Vhere tllrse prirrilld liiics of pipc @ intcmcct
pip? @ , in figrlrc ( b) , rnnkc points ( D) .
5. II'hcr~, th~sc* p;lrnll<,l liu<,s of pipe @ inter-
sect ci ~rri qm~di l rg p;~r,illi.! lini3s of pis" @ , in figiirc
( i i ) , mi l - k points ( I : ) . Krirnlwr thrsr points in accord-
alrce \rith the origirinl divisiiw of t111. pipe @ .
6. 111~ ; ~ J I I T ( c ) , lay ofr l i 111~ x- x, m1t1;d to t11c ort t <, ~
circrimfrrrtiw of pip<, @ , and di ~i do into 113q u a 1
scgm(x~~ts.
Connections tor Tubular Construction / 5.10-1 1
FIGURE 17
7. In fignrc [ a ) , dr:iw refermcts line %-Z at right
aoglos to tht: itxis of pipc @ and thnil~gli tlw vertex
of the coni~c~ction angle. From this line Z-Z mtSasure
thc 01-dinatr c1istam.c (11) to thc various intrrsccting
points ( E) . I.ay t ht w distattcr:~ ( h) off v(zrtically {I-om
linc Z-Z i n figrise ( c) . Do this for all the points and
draw a curw through thc upper cxtrcmitii~s of ilicss
vt,rtical h e s . This Becornrs the tcmplatc for cutting
pipe @ , figure ( c ) .
Analytical Method
Thc follon-ing f~xt ni ~l n will give thr value of the ordi-
~ ~ a t r ( 11 j tor ;my polar position ( m ) dong tlw s~riallrr
pip? This mcthrid of finding d t fly formda
c~Iirnin;rti~s thr mapping of f i g ~ ~ r ~ s ( a ) and ( b ) in the
'grapliic:il 1nclI1~1 of 1:igum lfi.
I'ri~cticdly all s t r ~ ~ c t ~ ~ r d pi p, co~~~~ect i ons u-ill 11avc
no offs~t , :I = 0; :ind this ljrcomcs-
or:
< . -. . r7-. . . --
r 2 - r. , --, -2 ' 2 m
ll = - . . ~ ~~ ~ ~-
I ( 1 - cos a )
tan 4
r., r
h =
[A] i- -- . ~ '
[ R]
. . . . . . . . . . . ( 3)
stn 4 tan 4
-;-I
[ R] = 1 - cos rn
r, = inner radios of s md r r intrrsccfing pipe
6 =- irnglc of interswtion h<>twcc~i ases of pipes
11 z ordiiinte of thc trmplate for the smallt:r pipe
for any 1)osition ( m )
Tahlrss 1 and 2 will give the rlcwssary valrrcs for
sin U- . sill' o , a 1 ~ 1 1 - cos m for the viirio~~s pt~lar
mgles ( a ) for r i t h 12 ~ ~~ positions or 16 positions of
the pipr.
I f Formula 3 is h) be ~ c d , tile followiirg norno-
graph, Figr~re IS, will give vollies of [ A] . Valurs of
/ 131 may I J ~ fo1111d in Tables 1 and 2.
I Problem 2 I
Foa thts tuhnlar coiinwtion wpnwnt ed in Figure 16,
the sn~;rllt.r pipc A , inside ri?clius r, =-: Y, iiitersrets
thc 1;trgw pipe R . rmlsirk r;idi~is r2 3", at an
8
a~rgtc of is'', and ~. i t l l :in oifset of a = 2".
Following are the ordinates ( h) for the various
positions figured both graphically (see Figure 16) and
analytically (with Formula 1) . This tahle shows close
agreement between the two sets of values.
porltion 1 graphical / onolyticd
A sheet of paper is laid out. A straight line X-X
is drawn across the paper, parallel to the long edge and
%" or 3" from this edge. Starting from the left edge of
the paper, measure off a distance on this line equal to
the outer circumference of the smaller pipe A and
mark this on the line. This can be done in two ways;
the circumference of the pipe may be figured by know-
ing the outside diameter of the pipe, or this paper may
be wrapped around the outside of the pipe and marked
where this edge of the paper overlaps.
The easiest way to divide this line (which repre-
sents the circumference) into equal segments is to fold
the left edge of the paper back toward the right until
it lies directly on top of this mark, then fold this flat
upon itself. This divides the circumference into two
equal parts. Now fold this edge hack toward the left
until it lies directly over this fold, and fold down. Do
the same for the similar portion on the bottom. This
now divides the circumference into four equal parts.
Open the paper and divide each of these quarter
sections into three equal parts and number each of
these vertical lines from 1 to 12. If 16 positions are to
be used, divide each of these quarter sections into four
equal parts and number from 1 to 16.
Lay off the comesponding ordinates ( h) on these
lines. Draw a curve through these points and cut along
this curve; the lower portion of the paper is the tem-
plate.
I Problem 3 1
in the connection represented in Figure 19, the axes
of these three intersecting pipes lie on a common plane;
there is no offset ( a = 0).
A template is re uired to cut pipe @ which
intersects both pipes &) and @ . The inner radius
of pipe @ is 2", the outer radius of pipe @ is 3",
and the outer radius of pipe @ is 21%". The graphical
work is shown in Figure 19.
Notice that the finished template is made of two
portions, that due to the intersection with pipe @ ,
and that due to intersecting p i p @ .
I Problem 4 1
In this example, the nomogaph (Fig. 18) will be
used to find the ordinates ( h) for a template to he used
in cutting the smaller pipe of a two-pipe ~xmnection.
The smaller pipe A has an inside radius of rn = 2",
the larger pipe 8 B has an outside radius of r2 = 3",
and the angle of their intcrscction is $ = 60'.
sin 60' = .8660
tan 60' = 1.7321
Formula ( 3)
The results are shown below in table form. As o
matter of interest, the values computed by Formula
(2) are listed on the extreme right and indicate the
reasonable accuracy of the nomograph.
FIGURE 19
FIGURE c
TEMPI ATE : DYElOPMNI OF PIPE A
7. BOX SECTlONS
The squara and rwtangiilar hox sections, in which tub-
ing has more recently hecome available at competitive
prices, eliminate the, prohlcm of fit-up that is associated
with the i r ~i ~nd st:ctions. With box sections, the tnd of
the sm:~Iler tuhc can be simply sawed with a single
cut at the reqnired angle.
Field erection of box sections is easily siiiqMied by
the use of Saxe clips, Figure 20. The clip and its seat
are shop u-elded to the two intersecting members.
Usually t l ~c clip is welded to tlie inside of the box
Ixam whm: it is loss \wlnorahle l o damage during
shipment to the projrct site. The clip also furrctions as
2% seat to help in support of the beam. Tliis allows the
joint to be made without any attachments on the ont-
side, and produces a pleasing appearance.
Square and rectangulor struc-
turol tubing, now ovoi l obl e i n
many standard sizes, tends t o
simplify desigv and focilitote
erection. Both shop and fi el d
connect i ons a r e gener al l y
more easily mode thon when
using round tubing.
ConnecPions for Tubular ansfruction / 5.1
Soxe seat i hop Sone clip shop
welded to face welded to inside
of columri of box beam
I of tubular box beom, oliowing
,
use of simple fillet weld "round
\ , outside, Ideal for exposed steel
L
FIGURE 20
5.10-16 / Wel ded- Connect i on
Space frame roof on the combined worehovse ond mochine shop in Bethlehem Steel
Co.'s reseorch complex offers on interesting silhouette (ot top). Roof frome is formed
by eleven 96'-span welded pipe trusses braced aport by inclined pipe struts ond
orched structural members. The result is a very rigid structure, olthough temporary
stiffening with steel chonnels wor required during erection.
Conneceionr for Tubular Construction / 5.1
Typical connections to facili-
tate erection of structure using
square tubing for columns.
Columns hove equally high
strength in both x and y di-
rections, plus excellent tor-
sional resistance. Connections
combine welding ond erec-
tion bolting.
Unique roof suspension system com-
biner with "tubular" design of
members and weld fabrication to
provide vast unobstructed area and
light oiry atmosphere to the Tulsa
(Oklahoma) Exposition Center. In
photo above, slag is being chipped
from root pass on splice of built up
box-section roof girder, prepora-
tory to making main f i l l passes.
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The knee is an irnport;~nt part of a rigid frame and
some thought should be given to its design.
The knee of any rigid frame must be capabl~a of-
1. Transfining the end nmnent from the beam
into the colomn.
2. Transftming thc vertical shear at the end of the
beam into the colurnn.
3. Transferring the horizontal shcar of the column
A kner differs from the usual straight beam in these
rqxx!ts:
1. The l i c~~t ral axis shifts toward the inrrt.r flange,
causing nn incrcnse in the i l s d l x d i n g Forces at this
point.
2. Axial Range forws must change dircction, caus-
ing radial forces to he set 11p.
2. EVALUATlON OF KNEE TYPES
IQuro 1 illustratt~s thc fin. principlil types of knees
into the beam.
for rigid frames.
(a] Squoi e corner
[ b) Square coi ner w~ t h bracket (c) Topered haunch
( d) Tapered hclutich
je) Curved homch
FIGURE 1
,0002 ,0004 ,0006 .0008 0010 ,0012 ,001 4 .a016 .[
Unit ongulor rotation (+). rodiondin.
FIGURE 2
I t might he thought that the simple square type
of knee connection would naturally he as rigid as the
connc.:cting members, since it is a continuation of the
same section. In many cases, this is true. However,
stress causes strain, and the accumulation of strain
over a distance results in a movement of some kind:
deuection, angular movement, etc. This means that the
sharp comer of this joint increases the stress in this
region by several times. This stress concentration resdts
in a higher strain and, therefore, grcater movement in
this local region.
With the square type of knee in which just Uange
stiffeners are addcd, it is difficult to cxcccd the stiffness
of the member. In most cases it will just equal the
member, and in some cases it will he less.
Figure 2 shours moment-rotation curves of various
knee connections.* The vcrtical axis is the applied
moment; the horizontal axis is the rcstsolting rotation
of the connection. The vertical height of the curve
represents the maximwn or ultimate strength of the
connection. The slope of the straight portion of the
curve represents the stiffness of the connection, with
the more nearly vertical con7es being the stiffer. The
right-hand extremity of the curve represents the rota-
-
*Figure 2 adapted from "Connections for Wolded Continuous
Portal Frames", Sccdle, Tripractsoglon, and Johnston; AWS
Journal; Part I July 1951, Part 11 August 1951, and Part I11
November 1952.
igid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-3
l l i l i l i l l l i i l l i i i i l l l l i l l l i l i i
Frame under load
v v
Point of inflection;
zero moment
Moment diagE
points of reflection;
, no moment opplied
v
Portion of knee in
testlng machine, subject
to compressive force (F)
to duplicate actual
load conditions i n frame
v
F
FIGURE 3
increase slightly, with slightly lower rotational capacity.
tional capacity of the connection.
Notice that the square-comer knee is the most
flexible. It falls slightly short of the beam itself, but it
does have the greatest rotational capacity. Tapered
haunch knees (not shown here) and those with the
additional bracket have greater stiffness and higher
mornent capacity, but less rotational capacity. The
curved knees are the most rigid, have the highest
moment capacity, and have a rotational capacity some-
where between the simple square corner and the
haunched knee. As the radius of curvature of this inner
flange is increased, the stiffness and moment capacity
Another purpose of the hannched and curved knees is
to rnovr the connection to the beam back into a region
of lower mon~ent so that the beam will not be over-
stressed in bending.
The dimensions of the test knm are so chosen
that they ~xt end out to the point of inflection (zero
moment) of an a c t ~~a l framc; Figurc 3.
In this manner, the ttxting machine applies a com-
pressive force ( F) which becomes the component of
the two forces V (vrrtical) and H (horizontal) which
would actually he applied to the knee at the frame's
point of infl~ction.
5.1 1-4 / Welded-Connection Design
3. SHEAR IN CONNECTI ON
shear into the connection web within the distance equal
to the depth of the connecting member, the resulting
An axial force (tensile or compressive) can transfer shear stress within this counection web is-
sideways out of one elemcnt of a ~nember as shear.
For example, the tensile force from the beam flange
will transfer down through the connection web as shear
- 1 . . . . , . , , . . . . . . , . . . . (1)
into the supporting column; Figure 4.
If this shear stress exceeds the allowable for the
- e F b
A web, it must be rcdnced by increasing the web thickness
within the connection area. Or, a pair of diagonal stiff-
eners must be added to transfer some of this flange
form as a diagonal component.
One method of detailing this connection is to cal-
...
culatc the imrtion of the flangr force which may be
I I
FIGURE 4
where the flange force in the beam is-
and the flange force in the column is-
transferred as shear within the web by stressing it to
the allowable. Then, diagonal stiffeners are detailed
to transfer whatever flange force remains.
Anotlicr method is to assume that the shortening
of the diagonal stiffener under the compression com-
ponent is equal to the diagonal shortening of the web
due to tire shear strrss. From this, the resulting shear
stress ( r w) in the web and thc compressive stress ( US)
in the diagonal stiffener may be found for any given
set of conditions.
Derivation of Stress Values
The final diagonal dimension ( dl ) of the web, due to
shear action on the web, will be-
d 2 = d" + dC2 - 2 db d, cos (90' - y)
but
cos (90" - y) = cos 90" cos ( y)
+ sin 90" sin ( y )
Assuming this flange force ( F) is transferred as
-
- sin y
. .
---
Initial conditions of
y = T/ G = E Finol conditions of
stiffener and web Final conditions of web stiffener
FIGURE 5
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-5
For small strains (t,) and angles ( y ) -
sin ( 7) = tan ( y )
-
- 6
Hence:
7
d12 = c$ 2 I d L 2 <I,, d ,
h i c and
E,
7
d, = 4 d 2
d,% - 2 dh d" - hut
E,
sin 0
db == dC tan 0 -- &--
cos 0
sin2 0 T sin 0
dl =
d"-- 4. &'- " 2 --
e cos? 0 C E, cos 0
d,
-
T
-
1 - 2 sin 0 cos 0
cos 0 ER
Thc final dimension of the diagonal stiffener (dz),
due to compression, will be-
Since the movemeot-
A = . : E d,
Since diagonal stiffener and web are attached, the
final diroension of diagonals in each case must be equal:
Squaring both sides:
T
1 - 2 =- sin 0 cos 0 =
or
I Since for steel:
7
-- sin 0 cos 0 =
E = 30,000,000 psi
E, E, - 12,000,000 psi
.'. E = 2.5 E.
and the compressive stress in the diagonal 3tiEener is-
Now we go back to the flange force ( F) since it
causes this load on the connection region.
The flange force of the beam is equal to the shear
force carried by the web plus the horizontal component
of the compressive force carried by the diagonal
stiffener.
u. = 2.5 T sin 0 cos 0
Subytih~ting ( 2) into ( 3 ) gives-
F = 7 t, d, + (2.5 T sin 0 cos 0) A, cos 0
= T [tW dc + 2.5 A, sin 0 cos2 01
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 2)
or, the shear stress in the connection web is-
F
7 =
I t, d,. + 2.5 A, sin 0 cosY 0
Also, from (2)-
ux
T =
2.5 sill 0 cos 0
Substituting this into (3)-
i t w 6 + rs As cos 0
2.5 sin 0 cos 0
tw d, .
= - ( 2.5 sin 0 nu 0
-t 4, cos 0
or; the compressivr. stress in the diagonal stiffener is-
Some knees are more complex than those described
here and analysis most consider factors that are covered
more adequately in Section 2.12, Buckling of Plates.
0, = -
t, d"
-- - .
i A, cos 0
2.5 sin 0 cos 0
To check stiffener requiremcnts on the square knee
connection shown in Fignrc 6, for the loads indicated.
A36 steel and Ei 0 welds are used.
. . . , , . . . .
( 5)
-L 14" UZ 84+ column
I
tw = 451"
FIGURE 6
Here:
14.18
cos 0 = :-- = ,561
25.33
20.99
tan 0 = - = 1.480
14.18
flange force on the beam
- 117.6 kips
ethod 1
hor i z~nt d component carried by u e b in shear
F, = T t, d,
= (14,500) (.45l)(14.18)
= 92.8 kips
This leaves (117.6 - 92.8 =) 1.4.8 kips to he
carried hy the horizontal component of the comprcssivc
force on the diagonal stiffener.
compresrice force on stiffcrm
required ~ect i oml area of stiffeners
- -
(26.4)
--
( 22.0)
= 1.2 in.' (pair)
Also required:
b,/t, = 17
Hence, nse a pair of ?*it' x 3" diagonal stiffcners.
- - - .
Checking this size against the requirements:
A, = 2 x %" x 3"
= 3.0 in.' > 1.2 in.' OK
-
ethod 2 Plastic Design (See Sect. 5.12)
required thicknrss of connection web
This exceeds the actual web thickness of t, =
,451". so stiffening is required.
= 5.64 in.' (pai r)
Use a pair of V4" x 4" diagonal stiffeners.
-~ ---- ~~~ ~. ~ .. .
Checking this size against the requirements:
A s - . - - 9 3/21 1"
= 6.0 in.? > 5.64 i n . 0 K
= 26.4 kips
ethod 3 Start with a pair of 'A'' x 3" diagonal
stiffeners and, assuming both diagonals contract the
same amount urrdrr load, check stresses in web and
stiffener.
shear stress in web
7 =
F
--
t, d, + 2.5 A, sin 0 cos2 0
compressiue stress in diagonal
u. =
F
t, d,
--
+ A, cos 0
2.5 sin 0 cos 0
= 14,200 psi
As a matter of interest, increasing the size of the
diagonal stiffener to 3/" x 4" would decrease these
stresses to-
T = 11,400 psi
06 = 13,250 psi
4. COMPRESSIVE FORCES IN CONNECT1
WEB
An axial force is able to change its direction if suitable
resisting components of force are available.
In the square or tapered haunch, this abrupt change
A F,
Rodiol cornpresslve
in direction of the compressive Range force is accom-
plished by means of a diagonal stifleuer; Figure i ( b )
In the curved haunch, this change in direction of
the axial force is uniform along the curved edge of the
flange and resnlts from radial con~pressive forces in thc
web; Fignre 7( a) .
The force in the inner flangc of the knee is greater
than the force in the outer fiangc because: it has a
smaller radius of curvature. Iisually this inner flange is
the compression flange; therefore, this is the region to
be checked for stiffening requiremonts using the follow-
ing formula for radial compressive forces in the web.
In this case, the unit radial force (f, ) is a function
of the compressive force (F, ) in the flange and the
radius of curvature ( r , ) of the flange.
This action is similar to the radial pressure applied
to the rim of a pulley by the tensile forces in the belt.
As the radius of curvature decreases, these forces
increase.
As this change in direction of the flange becomes
more abrupt, as in a square or tapered haunch, these
radial forces are concentrated into a single force. And,
they must be resisted by a diagonal stiffener; Figure
5@) .
The axial force in the flange is assumed to be
uniformly distributed across the width, therefore the
radial pressure or stress is-
F
f, = 2 lbs/linear in. of web
ri
Diagonal resisting
F< = a A,
. . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
FIGURE 7
When applied to the flange, this radial stress will Also:
load any cross-section as a cantilever beam, since it i s
M = u t S
Where:
supported only along its centerline by the web; Figure
1" tf2
ut t12 S=--
8.
-
-
6
- or
h
ut t f 2 0- ti b12
6 -
and
& inner flange
8 r,
3 u bf2
F T X
b - b + 4
From this relationship, it is seen that in order to
hold the transverse tensile stress (u,) to a value not
exceeding the axial compressive stress of the flange (u),
FIG. 8 Cross-section of lower flange and web.
the following must be held:
The bending moment along the centerline of 1
beam flallge due tn th;. ~~ai . 1 lnla Y ~ ~ I I he.
the
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v ... *" . - . * . - a ."--
(81
YX bi2
- --
-
-
\ - I
8
If this value is exceeded, stiffeners would be used
between the inner compressive curved flange and web.
-
G- tf hr2
- .-
ri 8
bl = width of flange
tf = thickness of flange
ri = radios of curvature of inner flange
ut = transverse tensile stress in flange
a = axial compressive stress in flange
Radiai compressive
force exerted
by web ,
/ \ Tionweire tensile
stress due to bending
I I J of f l . . , .
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
This analysis assumes a uniform distribution of
stress across the cross-section of the flange.
If this is based on plastic design, the plastic section
modulus ( 2 ) is used instead of section modulus (S),
where
Then (7) becomes the following:
Bleich has carried this analysis a little further; see
Figure 9.*
Because of the slight yielding of the flange's outer
edge, there is a non-uniform distribution of flange stress
( u) . This compressive stress is maximum in line with
the web. In the following formula, the value of a
comes from the graph, Figure 10.
The transverse tensile bending stress (u, ) in the
curved flange is found in the following formula; the
value of p comes from the graph, Figure 10.
If this value is too high, stiffeners should be welded
between this flange and the web. These keep the flange
from bending. These stiffeners usually need not extend
all the way between flanges, but may be a serics of
short triangular plates connecting with the curved
flange.
The unit radial compressive force (f,) which acts
transverse to the connecting fillet welds between the
curved flange and the web is found irom-
-
* Fmm "Design of Rigid Frame Knees" F. Bleich, AISC
curvature
' """'
Sirerr on
inner flange
2
Inner face
of Ronge
(b/
1
FIGURE 11
F
f, = - Ibs/linear in.
I ( 2 welds)
F RADlUS OF CURVATURE ON
STRESS IN INNER CORNER
A straight beam has an infinite radius of curvature ( r
= m ). As the b e d becomes curved, this radius de-
creases, and thc 11eutral.axis -na longer coincides with
the center of gravity, but shifts toward the inner face.
See Figure 11 ( a) .
Because of the shift of the neutral axis, the bending
stress in the inner flange increases greatly while the
bending stress in the outer flange decreases. This in-
crease at the inner flange becomes more severe as the
radius of curvature decreases.
In a squarsknee connection, this radius of curva-
ture is provided by only the reinforcement of the bevel
groove weld or fillet weld on this inside comer; Figure
11 ( b) . For this reason, the square knee may not quite
develop the full plaqtic moment of the connecting
member unless it is somehow reinforced.
If for some reason a reversal in moment should
be applied to the knee and the inner face of the lnee
is subjected to tension instead of the usual compression,
it is important that this be a good sound weld. This
is especially true at the surface of the weld. If the knee
is loaded up to its plastic moment, the metal within
the section below the weld is stressed up to its yield
strength. During this time, the weld undergoes a con-
siderable amount of plastic yielding and some strain
hardening. The weld metal does have the ability to
elongate about 28% as measured in 2" before failure.
However, this zone in which the yielding is confined
is very narrow, being the width of the weld. Consc-
quently, the overall movement of the connection due to
plastic yielding of the weld is very low, although
s&~cient.
In this case almost all of the weld's ability to
elongate may be used in developing the plastic moment
of the connection. Any defect in the weld which would
lower its ductility would probably prevent the con-
nection from reaching its plastic moment. The knee
could have greater strength and rotational capacity if
this inner face were changed to a haunched or curved
knee section. In testing these square knees in tension,
plastic moment was reached when this weld was of
good quality. Fortunately most knees are stressed in
compression at this inner comer, without any tendency
for this weld to fail.
6. LOCATING SECTION OF HAU
CHECK
Most theories concerning the strength of knees differ
only in the placing of the neutral axis, and in locating
the resul~ing section for determining the section
modulus.
FIGURE 12
One method, Figure 12, uses straight sections nor-
mal to the axis of either the beam or column. The
section modulus is dctcrmined about an axis through
the center of gravity of the section. The resulting stress
in the inner flange is increased by the factor
where 4 is the slope of the flange. Although this method
is easy, it might indicate excessively high stresses when
the flange has a rather steep slope.
FIGURE 13
Another method, Figure 13, is to extend the center-
lines of the beam and column to intersed in the knee.
Straight sections are used, and the section modulus is
determined about an axis lying on this centerline. This
will give conservative values for the stress in the sloping
flange. Because of this, no factor is used for the stress
on the sloping flange.
A more accurate but longer method, Figure 14, is
based on a curved section forming a wedge beam by
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic)
5.1 1-1 1
FIGURE 14
W. R. Osgood* and aodified by H. C. Olander.**
-
* "Theory of Flexure for Beams with Nonparallel Extreme Fibers''
by W. R. Osgood, ASME Vol. 61, 1939.
**"Stresses in the Comers of Rigid Frames" by H. 0. Olander,
ASCE Transactions Paper 2698, 1953.
Method of Using a Straight Cross-Section
Dimension of Straight Section
The dimensions of a straight sec%ion (A-B) of the
haunch may be found from the following:
Here:
Bending Stress in Curved Flange (See Figure 16.)
v = r sin ( 2 a;)
Here:
b = a cos d,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13)
fa
fa = -------
cos d,
f b
a,, = -
b x I"
-
fa
--
1
x --
cos d, a cos d,
FIGURE 16
FIGURE 15
P'
H
(a) Curved knee (b) Tapered knee
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 18
Here: \,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
. . . . . ( 16)
. . . . . (17)
Wedge Method of Determining Section
The wedge method may be used on any beam section
whose flanges are not parallel.
A curved section ( A- R) is constructed where the
stresses are to be checked. This is normal to both
gauges and has a radius ( p ) the center of which lies
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
on the straight flange. See Figure 17. 1 - (18)
The transverse force ( Pi ) , axial force (P,'), and
moment (M' ) acting at the apex ( C) of the wedge are
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
found. See Figure 18. ( d , l
(19)
d - + r[l-cos ( 2 a ) ]
P = s i n T 2 a ) sm ( 2 a )
d
=
-
r[l-cos ( 2 cc ) ]
tan ( 2 a ) sin ( 2 a )
Ri gi d-Frame Knees (El asti c) / 5.1 1-13
transuerse force applied to wedge at point C
(P{ = pi cos a - Pa sin cc 1 . . . . . . . .
axial force applied to wedge at point C
moment about point C
M' = 3- P t m + Pa-
- , " I . . . . . . .
the curved haunch section, as described in following
paragraphs.
. (20)
Mameot (M') Applied t o Wedge Member
The horizontal bending stresses (u,,) resulting from the
applied rnommt ( M' ) , Figure 19(a), may be replaced
. (21) with its two components: radial bmtiing stress (a,)
and tangential shcar stress ( T) , Figure 1Y(b). In Figure
lY(c) arc shown the resulting stresses.
It is seen in taking moments about the apex (C)
. (22)
of the wedge that all of the radial bending stresses
pass throngh this point and cannot contribute to any
moment. The tangential shear stresses along the curved
These applied forces result in various stresses on section ( A- B) acting normal to, and at a distance ( p)
(a) Resisting horizontal
bending stress
(b) Components of (c) Resisting radial bending stress (a,)
bending stress normal t o curved section (A-8);
also tangenfiol shear stress (7)
FIGURE 19
(a) Resisting horizontal (b) Components of these (c) Resisting rodial bending
bending stress and two stresses stress (u,) normal to curved
vertical shear stress section (A-B)
FIGURE 20
u ~ i l produce an eqnal and oppo~i t e moment. The value
of this tangentla1 shear force ( V) acting on this cr~rved
section (A-B) may he found from the following:
Transverse Force IP,') Applied t o Wedge Member
The applied transverse force (P,') results in horizontal
bending stresses (cr,,) as well as vertical shear stresses;
Figure 20(a).
These two stresses may he completely replaced
with a single component, radial bending stress (err);
Figure 20( b) . The results are shown in Figure 20(c).
Notice that no tangential shear stresses are present.
Axial Force (Pi) Applied t o Wedge Member
The axial force (P,') applied at the apex of the wedge
member, causes radial stresses to occur along the curved
section (A-B); Figure 21. There are no tangential shear
stresses from this force, because they cancel out.
Summary
The effects of all these forces applied to the wedge
member may he summarized as follows:
shear stress on section A-B
(a) Resulting
axial stress
moment applied to section A-B
normal stress on inner flange
normal stress on outer flange
I Problem 2 1
To check stresses and stiffener requirements on the knee
connection shown in Figure 22, for the loads indicated.
A36 steel and E70 welds are used.
STEP I : Check Lower Curved Flange (Figure 23)
properties of haunch section (1-1)
Use reference axis (y-y) through centcrline of
web plate.
(b) Components of
axial stress (c) Resisting radial stresses (crJ
FIGURE 21
FIGURE 22
FIGURE 23
Ided-Connection
average stress in lower curved flange at (1-1)
P M ct
Uf = -
A ' - 1-
(150 kips) (100" x 100 kips) (!Z3.1%")
-- -- --
- (41.6%) +- (15,153 in.")
= 18,870 psi (compression)
force i n flange
F, = ur At
= (18,870) (10)
= 188.7 kip?
radial pressure of flange againsi web
radial compressive stress in web
- -
(1887 Ibs/in. )
( W' )
= 3774 psi
The outer edges of the lower curved flange will
tend to bend away from the center of curvature under
this radial pressure, and will cause an uneven &hi-
hution of flange stress.
The maximum flange stress will be-
and the transverse bending stress in the flange will h e
-t = p Urn,,
The values of a and /3 are obtained from Figure
10. In this case,
and we find-
- = .96 p = .70
Hence:
maximum flange stress
transverse bending stress in flange
0-t = p ur nax
= (.70) (19,600)
= 13,760 psi
These stresses are a little high, so radial stiffeners
will be added between the lower curved flange and
the web.
STEP 2: Check Nounch Section tor Bending Stress
Using Ol ander i wedge method and curved section
(A-B) (See Figure 24.)
Here:
sin 1.8" = ,30902
cos 18" = .95106
tan 18" = ,32492
sin 9" = .I5643
cos 9" = ,98769
18" = ,31417 radians
dimensions of wedge section (ABC)
I Haunch
I
I section
= 19,660 psi
Wedge section (ABC)
, 8 e ~ 8 c ' ~
Point of inflection in beom (M = 0)
Point of inflection
,
in column [M = 0)
M' = + 14,456 in-kips
d r
= .:.-- +-;- (1 - cos 2 = )
sm 2 a sm 2-
= 161.79 + 15.84
= 177.63"
d, = p 2 a
= (177.63) (.31417 radians)
= 55.81''
Hounch section (A-8)
FIGURE 24
d r
n ( I - c o s 2 a )
tan 2a sin 2-
m = u - n
= 25" - 138.04"
- -
- 113.04"
properties of haunch section (A-BJ
Use reference axis (y-y) through centerline of web
plate.
Total
Find forces applied at apex ( C) of wedge section
(ABC) :
transverse force at C
Ptf = Pt cos a - P, sin a
= (150) (.98769) - (100) (.15643)
= 132.5 kips
axial force at C
Pa' = P, cos a + Pt sin a
= (100)(.98769) + (150)(.15643)
= 123.5 kips
moment about C
These forces result in the following stresses on the
haunch section (A-B) o the wedge (see Figure 26):
FIGURE 26
shear stresses in section (A-B)
M '
v = -
P
- ( 14,456)
- (177.63)
= 81.35 kips
V Q - V[Atyr + Awywl
7 = -- -
1 tw I tw
-
(81.35) (7.5 x 28.975 + 14.3 x 14.3)
- .- -
(19,686) (35)
= 1800 psi
moment applied to section (A-B)
M = M' - Ptr p
= (114,456) - (132.5) (177.6)
- - -9082 in.-kips
nonnal stress on inner flange
-
(123.5) (-9082) (26.46)
- - - +
(44.53) ( 19,686)
-
- - 15,000 psi
normal stress on outer flung?
.- -
(123.5) (-9082) (29.35)
- -
(44.53) (19,686) --
= -+ 10,300 psi
-
As an alternate method Clzeck Haunch Section for
Bending Stress Using Conventional Struigllt Section
(A-B)
(See Figure 27.)
v = 3(
U =
-
Here:
v = r sin ( 2 a )
= ( 100) ( ,30402)
= 30.902"
FIGURE 27
c, = 28.872"
c, = 26.008"
moment applied to section
M = (150) (55.902) = 8385.3 in.-kips
d, = d +r ( 1 - cos 2 a )
=: (50) --I- (100) (.O488)
= 54.88"
properties of hnrrnch section (A-B)
o = - 13,800
o' = 15,280
Use reference asis ( y- y) through cmtcrlirre of web.
tensile bending nnrl axial stress in out w flange
-+ 10,550 psi, tension
I
FiGURE 28
compressii;e bending and uxiol stress normal to section
Plate
in inner flange
M = A- y
- - 13,800 psi, corriprcssion
I, z Mey A
y
(a) Bending stresses in haunch
using curved wedge sections,
bored on Olander method
stress nom~nl t o axis of czmed flange
LT
u' =
cos' 2 a
-.
13,800
-
(.95106)?
= 15,260 psi, compression ~
(b) Bending stresses in haunch
using conventional straight
sections
FIGURE 29
STEP 4: Summary
Fignre 19 summarizes the stresscs at several sections of
the haunch for botlr the \vetlge mt:tliod and the conven-
tional method using straight sections.
Tho \vedga inetliod gives results that check close
with experirriental results, although it does require
more time. The conventional rnctliod nsing straight
sections in which the stress oil the inward c~inved flange
is increased to acconnt for the sloping flange is easier.
No\vever, rrotc that it does give lriglier values for the
steeper S I O ~ R .
1. INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC DESIGN
Thc allowabli. stress used on steel structnres in hendiug
is .GO rr,. a percantage of the steel's yield strength
(AISC Scc 1.5.1.4). A steel structure desigued on this
basis may carry an overload as great as 1.67 times the
designed load before the most stressrd fiber reaches the
yield point. Katurally, this does not represent the maxi-
mum lond-carrying capacity of the structure, nor does
it indicate. the reserve strength still in the structure.
Plastic design does not make use of the conven-
tional allowable stresses, but rather thc calculated ulti-
mate load-carrying capacity of the structure.
With this method, the given load is increased by
1.70 times the given live and dead load for simple and
continuous beams, 1.83 times the given live and dead
load for continuous frames, and 1.40 times these loads
when acting in conjunction with 1.40 times any specified
wind or earthquake forces. Then the members are de-
signed to ccary this load at their ultimate or plastic
strength. Some yielding must take place before this
ultimate load L reached; however, under normal work-
ing loads, yielding will seldom occur.
For the past 25 years, a considerable amount of
research, both in Europe aud the United States, has
been devoted to the ultimate load-carrying capacity of
steel structures.
For about 15 years, extensive work on fiill-scale
structures has beerr going on at Lehigh University under
the joint sponsorship of the Structural Committee of
the Welding Research Council and the American Insti-
tute of Steel Construction. Much has been learned as
a result of this work.
ojor Conclusions
The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a beam section
is much greater than the load at yield point. For many
years, it has been known that a beam stressed at its
outer fibers to thc yield point still had a considerable
amount of reserve strength before final rupture or col-
lapse. Consider Figure 1.
In this graph for A36 steel, the vertical axis is the
applied moment ( M) , the horizontal axis is the result-
ing angle of rotation (+). Within the elastic limit ( B) ,
thew is a strzrigllt-line relationship. It is assu~ncd that
the I~ending stresses arc zero along the ntwtral axis of
the bram and incrcase linearly until thry are maximum
at the outrr fihcrs. This is illustrated at the top of the
figure. At poiirt ( A) , the maximum outer fiber bending
stress has reached 23,000 psi. .4t point ( B) , this stress
has reached the yield point, or 36,000 psi, and yielding
at the outer fiber starts to take place. In couventional
design, this point is assuined to be the ultimatc load on
the member; however, this mrve shows there is still
son~e more vcserve strength left in the beam. As the
beam is still further loaded, as at ( C) , the outer fibers
are not stressed higher, but thc fibers down inside the
beam start to load to the yield point, as in ( D) . At this
point, tlie beam becomes a plastic hinge; in other words,
it will undergo a considerable amount of angle change
with very little further increase in load.
M, is the moment yield point ( B) , and M, is the
4 36 Sf eei
8
---
?L $6 iangla of rotation)
FIGURE 1
no
load
!st plastic
Mr * hrnga formed
0
a t center
r-+-l
becomes arch
hi nge
plaastic
hinge
hinge
FIGURE 2
plastic moment which causes the beam at point ( D)
to act as a plastic hinge. For a rectangular cross-section,
the plastic moment (M,,) is 1.5 times the moment at
yield point (M,). For the standard rolled WF sections,
this plastic moment (M,,) is usually taken as 1.12 times
the moment at yicld point (M, ). The multiplier varies
for other sectional configurations.
Redistribution of moments causes other plastic
hinges to form. In Figure 2, a rigid frame with pinned
ends is loaded with 21 concentrated load at midspan.
The frame w-ith no load is shown in ( a) . The frame is
loaded in ( b ) so that its maximum bending stress is
22,000 psi, the albwnble. Notict: from the bending
diagram that the moment at n~idspan is grratcr than
thc momcnts at the ends or knees of the frame. The
three marks at midspan show the moment M where
u = 22,000 psi, or allou-able; My where u = 36,000 psi,
or yield point; and M,, at plastic hinge. Notice at the
left knee how much more the moment can be increased
before a plastic hinge is formed.
In ( c ) the load has hem increased until a plastic
hinge has becn formed at midspan. The knees of the
frame i n this example have only reached about half of
this value. Even though, with conventional thinking,
this heam has scrvcd its us(~fnlness, it still will not fail
hecnusc the txvo krwcs an- still intact and the frame
now 1 ) ~ ~ ) me s a thrt-r-hinged arch, the other two hinges
bcing the original pinrrcd rnds.
Further loadirig of the frame may he continued,
as in ( d) , with the kners loading up ~rntil they become
plastic hingcs, as in ( e) . Orlly when this point is
rc;ichrd would the whole frarnc fail. This condition is
rt.fcrrd to as mcchaiiism; that is, the structure would
dcforni app~~~$al : l y with only the slightest increase
in load.
This entire hin~c, adion takrs place in u small
portion of the uoai1ol)L: clnngution of the membcr. In
the lo\\-er portion of Figure 3 is a stress-strain curve
showing the amouut of movement which may be used
in the plastic range. This may seem large, but it is a
very small portion of the u h d e cnrvt., as shown in the
upper portion of tha figure, which is carried out to 25%
dong t ' lon.
The working load is nzultiplicd by a factor of
safety (1.85) to give thr? ultimate load. The dcsign of
the structurc is bused on this ultimate load. In order
to establish a proper factor of safety to use in connection
with thr ultimate, load, as found in the plastic method
of design, it worrld bc wdl to consider the loading of
a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
applied at its midpoint. This is shown in Figure 4. The
moment diagrams for this beam are shown for the three
loads: the inomcnt M causing a bending stress of 22,000
psi; thc moment My causing 36,000 psi or yield point;
and the moment M, causing a plastic hinge.
Here, for A36 stcel:
Allowable hending stress = 22,000 psi
Yield stress = 36,000 psi = 67% above @
Plastic hinge occurs 12% above @
*)
2 , k---Plastic Ranye-- - - 3
2 1.30 I t i
I ZC G . I
I , 1 I I
t :I ,
2; o.,.,o-a P i b rio-2 0 - zo./oQ
Strai n E /"/in
FIGURE 3
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-3
Momant Di agram
FIGURE 4
Hence:
@
( . 6 7 ) ( 1 . 2 ) = 1.88 of @
Thus. the true load factor of safct\, of thn simide
beam is 1.88.
-.
In convei~tional design, it is assumed that thc ulti-
mate load is the value which causes the l xam to he
stressed to its yield point at the point of maximum
stress. This would bc represented in the figure by the
moment at @.
In conventional design, if the allowable bending
stress is 22;000 psi and thr yicld point of the (A3G)
steel is assumed to bc 36,000 psi, the designer is actu-
ally using a factor of safety of 1.67.
l3y means of plastic design, the ultimate load is
approximately 12% higher (i n the case of a WF beam)
than the load which causes the yield point to be reached.
Therefore, the factor of safrty for plastic design on the
same basis would be (1.67) (1.12) = 1.88.
Example
m
To illustrate plastic design, a hcam will be designed
using thrcc difftarent mcthods: ( a ) simple beam, ( b)
elastic dcsign, rigid frame, and ( c ) plastic design, rigid
frame Thc bcarn will have a span of 80' and carry a
conctmtratd load of 55 kips at midspan. For simplicity
the dwd load \vill hr rit$ectcd.
( a ) The siml~ly sripportcd beam is shown in Figure
5 with its monicnt diagmm. The mnxirnum momcnt
for~nula is found in any beam table. From this, the
reqnired srction modulns ( S) is found to bc 600.0 in.3,
using an a1lownl)le load of 22.000 psi in bendi ~~g. This
beam may be made of a 36" WF br a n which woighs
182 Ibs/ft.
l
Simpla Beam
moment diagram
FIGURE 5
= GOO in."
So, use 36" WF 18% beam with S = 621 in."
( b ) The elastic design, rigid frame is shown in
Figrire 6. Its span is 80' end its height is 20'. Tllcre are
several ways to s o h for the bending moments on this
frame.
FIGURE 6
In this exn~nplc thc momrnt at midspan would be-
--
(,iS.O00) (SO x 12)
-
7 (22,OW)
= 343 in.:'
So, use a 30" WF 124# beam with S = 354.6 in.3
The redundant or unknown horizontal force at the
pinned end of the frame is first found. Then, froin this,
the moment diagram is drawn and the maximum
moment found. The required section ~nodulus ( S) of
the frame is determined from this maximum moment.
This is foiind to be 343 in." wliich is 55% of that re-
quired for the single beam. This hfam could be made
of a 30" WF beam having a weight of 124 lhs/ft.
( c ) The plastic design, rigid framc is shown in
Figure 7. With this method, the possible plastic hinges
are found which could caust: a mcchanis~n or the con-
dition whcrrby the strocti~re beyond a certain stress
point wonld deform appreciably with only the slightest
increase in load. These points of plastic hinge, in this
example, are at the midpoint and the two ttiids, and
are assigned the \.due of M,,. An expression is needed
from which this value hl, can be found.
Plastic dasign PL
/-M= 7
FIGURE 7
Here:
= 1017.5 ft-kips
So, use a 27" WF 114# beam, with plastic moment
(M,) of 1029 ft-kips. (See AISC Manual of Steel Con-
struction, Plastic Section Modulus Table.)
In this case, it is noticrd that the altitude of the
overall triangle in the moment diagram, which is M,,
plus M,,, is also thc same as that of the moment diagram
of a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
at its midspan, Figure 5. This can be fount1 in any
P L
beam table. Hence, M, plus M, is set equal to -
4 .
using for P the ultimate load which is the working
load times 1.85. This works out to M,, = 1017.5 ft-kips
as the ultiinnte load plastic momcut, at centrriine and
at the two beam cnds.
* * *
Summary of Advantages
As a summary, here are some of the advantages of
plastic desibm:
1. More accurately indicates the true carrying
capacity of the structure.
2. Reqnires less steel than conventional simple
beam constri~rtion and, in most cases, results in a
saving over tlie use of conventional elastic design of
rigid frames.
3. Requires lvss design time tlian does elastic
design of rigid framing.
4. Result of years of research and testing of full-
scale structures.
5. Has the backing of the American Institute of
Steel Construction.
2. DESI GN REQUI REMENTS OF T H E ME MB E R
Loads (AISC Src. 2.1)
The applied loads shall be increased by the follow-
ing factor:
1.70 livc and dcad loads on simple and continuous
beams
1.85 live and dead loads on continuous frames
1.40 loads acting in conjunction with 1.40 times
any wind and earthqualie forces
Columns (AISC Sec. 2.3)
Columns in continnous frames where side-sway is
not prevented shall he proportioned so that:
I I
(AISC formula 20)
where:
I, = unbr;~ced lmgtli of column in the plane
nornral to tliat of tlie ~nntin11011s frame
r = radins of gyration of coluinn about an axis
nor ~nd to the p1;ine of the continuous frame
Stte the nomograph, Fignro 8, lor convenience in
reading thc limiting value of L/r directly from the
vnl~scs of P and P,.
The AISC fominlas ( 21) , (221, and (23) give tlie
effective moment (M, , ), which a giviw sllape is capable
of resisting in terms of its full plastic moment (M,,)
when it snpports an axial force (1') in addition to its
moment. See Table 1.
The maximum axial load (1') shall not csveed .60
P, or .60 u, A,, where A, = cross-sectional area of the
column.
FIGURE 8-Limiting Slenderness Ratio of Columns in Continuous Fromes (Plastic Design), Sideswoy Permitted
LIMIT OF( %) FOR
COLUMNS IN CONTINUOUS
FRAMES WHERE JIDE SWff Y
15 NOT PREVENTED
EXAMPLE :
P = 1000 lC
Py = 4000'
READ jk = 35
TABLE 1-Allowable End Moments Relative To
Full Plastic Moment of Axially-Loaded Members
case?
when P/Py 5 0.15
pz-=-q
when P/P, > 0.15
AISC i ormul a
0
L
when - < 60 and
- < .I5 t hen
Notes: See Tcbler 2-33. 3-33. 2-36 ond 1-36 for vol vei o i B, G, K ond J
TABLE 2-33 (AISC Table 4-33)
TABLE 3-33 (AISC Table 5-33)
FOX sa XSI SrEci rl r" rirLo miai srrxr
TABLE 2-36 (AISC Table 4-36) TABLE 3-36 (AISC Table 5-36)
run 36 rsi mi.<,P,lo riais ixrxxr nFi , .
. A, . Dl. dl . .M.
M,
.M . .$I. ill. M.
-
l ,
.' ,
11
(3
44
6.3
16
4:
i n
43
50
61
62
Sii
54
66
!>C
17
i x
10
611
6 ,
62
Ci
61
Ui
F*,
67
ti*
69
70
71
72
73
71
75
76
77
78
79
80
-
-
X
i.0:iB
1 019
1 070
1 ""I:
1 106
1 122
l i 4l i
1 138
i 176
1 is:>
i ('13
1 132
1 211
1 271
1 290
1 310
1 310
1 :XI
l 371
1 892
1 418
1 416
I ( 56
l '7"
i 601
1 623
1 b46
i s 7 0
1 143
1 (117
i 64,
1 6,;s
1 591
i.716
1. 742
1.mw
1 "94
1 S21
1 848
1 R76
-
91
92
Y:,
94
95
96
Y i
9"
'9
100
i n*
102
103
104
10s
106
107
108
ice
t i 0
i l l
,I2
i i i
i l l
Lii
118
$17
i i 6
i i 9
i zi i
-
If L/r > 120, the ratio of axial load ( P) to plastic
load (P,) shall be-
I (AISC formula 24) 1 Assuming depth of web = 9 5 d (depth of mem-
hr r ) , the shear on web section at ultimate load is-
V" = t,(.95 d ) m,
Shear (AISC Sec. 2.4)
Webs of columns, beams, and girders not rein-
forced by a web doubler plate or diagonal stiffeners
shall be so proportioned that:
inimum Width-to-Thickness Rufios (AISC Scc. 2.6)
When subjected to cornpression involving plastic
hinge rotation under ultimate loading, section clcments
shall be so proportioned that:
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
and when beam or g~r dr r is s~~hj ect ed to axial force
( P ) and plastic bending moment (P, ) at ultimate load,
See nomograph, Figure 11, for convenient direct
reading of d,,/t,\, ratio from values of P and P,.
Lateral Bracing (AISC Sec. 2.8)
Plastic hinge locations associated with all but the
last failure mrchanism shall be adequately braced to
resist lateral and torsiold displacement.
Laterally unsupported distance ( L ) from such
braced hinged locations to the nmrest adjacent point
on the frame similarly braced shall b~-
(AISC formula 26)
but nerd not be 1t . s than
1 -
where:
r, = radius of gyration of meniher about its weak
axis
M = the lesser of the moments at the ends of the
rrnbraced segment
M
-- - - the end momcnt ratio, positive when the
segment is brnt in single curvature and nega-
tive when bcnt in double curvature
In the usual square frame. plastic hinges would
ultimately form at maximum negative moments at the
coiners, and at thc maximum positive moment near the
center of the span. However, a tapered haunch may
develop a plastic liingc at the comer and also at the
point wliere tlie Iraunch connects to the straight portions
of the rafter or colunm because of the reduced depth
of the momber. These also become points where lateral
bracing must he provided.
3. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF WELDED
CONNECTIONS
Coilr~ections are an important part of any steel structure
desihpcd according to plastic &:sign concepts. The
connection must allow the members to reach their full
plastic moments with sufficient strength, adeqrratc ro-
tational ability, and proper stiffness. Thcy must be
capable of resisting momcnts, shear forces, and axial
loads to which t b(~y would he sul~jwted by the ultimate
loading. Stiffcncrs may be rcquiretl to preserve the
flange continuity of intcrrupted mmnhcrs at their
junction with othcr mm1hrrs in :I continuous frame.
A basic reqiiiremtwt is that the web of the re-
sulting cor~nectioo mirst provide adtynate resistance
against blickling from ( a ) Shear-the diagonal com-
pressive force resulting fl-om shear forces applied to
the u ~ b from thc colrr~ccting flangt,~, which in turn are
stressed by the end moment of the member, and ( b )
Thrust-any conceiitratrd compressive force applied at
the rdge of the web from a11 intersecting flange of a
member, this force rcsl~lting from the end moment of
that member. See Figure 12.
In addition to mveting the above requirements, the
connection should be so designed that it may be
economically fabricated and w~hl cd.
Groove welds and fillet welds shall be proportioned
Welded Connections (or Plastic Design / 5.12-9
( 0 ) Web resisting shear
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-1 1
to rrsist thc forces produced at ultimate load, using an
increase of 1.67 ovcr tiic standard a1low:lblcs (AISC
Sec. 2.7).
Followiiig p;~g~:s cover first t hr (itssign of
simple two-way r(x:tangillar corr1t.r conn(~ctions, tap-
ered lrarrr~clti:s, and cnrvtd I~aurrcht~s. Kext, tlrr design
of beam-to-colrirnn <,mtncctions, wI~i,ther tlirce-way or
four-way, is dcdt with.
r\nalysis mcl dcsign oi a particirl;~r conntsction may
not always br as simple as those ill~islrat(d 011 tlicsc
pages. Figure 13 slrows some other typical welded
connections.
4. STRAIGHT CORNER C
The forces in the flanges of' both rnornbcrs at the con-
nection resulting from the moment (hl , ) are trans-
ferred into the contirction .iwh as shc:tr ( V) .
Some of the vertical shear in thc hoam (V,) :md
the horizontal shear in the column (V,) will also be
transferred into the cotincction web. IIowr\er, in most
cases these values are small compared to those result-
ing from the applied moment. Also, in a simple comer
connection, these are of opposite sign and tend to re-
duce the actual shear valiio in the connection.
111this analysis, only the shear resulting from the
applied rnomcnt is considered in the web of the con-
nection.
Diagonal
compression
Fc = v
connecilon
FIGURE 14
The miitimiirn wi,h thickness rtqriir-1.d to assuro
that the web of thc mniitr~i~liorr clots not huckle from
the shear forces set "1' 1)) llw rnrimcltt applied to thc
corinection ( M, , ) , inay hi. fo~irrd froin the following:
unit shear force applied t o mn~rer:fion n:eh
FIGURE 15
resulting shear stress in connection web
The values for the shear stress at yield (7, ) may
be found by using the Mises criterion for yielding-
uCr = J u? - u, my + uY2 + 3 rri2
In this application of pure shear, u, and u, = 0
and setting the critic;rl value (u,,) equal to yield ( u, ) ,
we obtain-
Hence,
The nornograph, Figure 16, will facilitate finding
this reqnired wcb thickness.
In ihc above:
M,, =: phstii. rnontc.nt at connection, in-lbs
d ,, . . , .I t ptli of lwam, in.
d,. ..: d<q)tIi of c~~lt~irrri, in.-llx
w ;rctii:rl \ye11 tllickness in coirii<vtiorr arm, in.
w, = rcijtiircd web thicktress in connection area, in.
uF = yic,lcl str<.nglh or s t d , psi
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-13
AISC uses an effective depth of the heam and
column as 9.5% of their actual drpths to allow for the
presence of plastic strain in thr flanges. due to con-
current bending. .Applying this reduction to both the
depth of the beam ( I ) and the col~imn (d, ), and
also expressing the applic:d plastic moment ( M, ) in ft-
Ibs rather than in.-lbs, this formula hccomes:
Here M,, = plastic moment, f t : h
For most wide flange ( WF) stxctions, the web
thickness ( w) will he less than the required value
(w,) above, and some form of stiffening will be re-
quired.
Web Doubler Plate
A web doubler plate, or a pair, may be used to bring
the total web thickness up to the minimum (w, ) ob-
tained above.
Welds should be arranged at the edges of doubler
plates so as to transfer the shear forces directly to the
boundary stiffeners and flanges.
11_Ji
plate
FIGURE 17
Diogonol Stiffeners
A sy~lin~ctl-icd pair of diagonal stiffeners may be addcd
to this comcction to pirwmt the. wr,h imm hi~ckling.
These stiffeners rr.sist cnoogh of the flangc forw ( F)
that the l-esdtirrg shcar ( ) xl~p1ird to this wrh is
rechlccd sufficiently to prevcnt hnckling.
Stiffen~rs having a thickr~ess cqod to that of the
rolled section flange of the heam or column nonually
will be adequate, although this thickness will he greater
than required. Thc minimum thickness of ilks stifrcner
may be f o ~ md frorn the following:
Thn horizontal flange iorce ( of the hearn is
resisted by the combined effect of tlla web shear ( V)
and thc horizontal component of the mrnpressive force
( P) in the stiffener.
where
and since
1 M w d
& = - [ cos e
--L dl, u,. - -&I I . . . . ( 12)
where
e = angle of diagonal stiffener with horizon,
FIGURE 18
A. 7.: area of a pair of diagonal stifhers,
A, = b, t,
In t h~: usnal detailing of the corlrrtxtion, the re-
qtiirtvl wcb thickness (u,,) is first fonntl. The actual
wab tlrirknrss ( w) of course is known, therefore it
would he simpler to change this fotmula into the follow-
ing so that the reqriircd area of thc tiiagonal stiffener
may be found from these two values (w,) and ( w) :
From Formula 10,
and substituting this into Formula 12,
1 M,
A, = --
.. -
cos B [[dl o, fl
and since
d,
cos B =
d,
or could use
t, = t*
also in all cases
For full strength, stiffeners should be welded across
their ends wit11 either fillet welds or groove welds, and
to the connection web with continuous fillet welds.
To design a 90" connection for a 21" M7F 62# roof
girder to a 14" WF 8411; column. Use A36 steel and
E70 welds. Load from girder: M, ultimatc plastic
moment = 432 ft-kips.
14" W 84#
column
Column Girder
14" WF841f 21" WF62#
dr -- 14.18'' 1 di1 = 20.99..
FIGURE 19
The required web reinforcement is determined as
follows:
-
-
c ( 4 3 2 ft-kips x 12)
> ( i.
.- 20.99 ) (14.18") (36 ksi) 2 0.837"
web furnished by the 14" WF 84# col~l~nm = 0.451"
--
effective web to be furnished by stiffeners 2 0.386"
This reinforcement may be provided by one of two
possible types of stiffcners as noted below.
( a ) Web Doubler Pl at e
The additional web plate must be suflicient to develop
the required web thickness. The welds should be ar-
ranged at the edges so as to transmit the shear forces
directly to the boundary stiffeners and Ranges. Plate
must be ,386" thick, or use a 5<n" thick 13late.
'- Web Plate Doubler
FIGURE 20
elded Connections for Plastic Design
/
---l-T
21" W 6 2 2 432 X 12
F =
14.18
=441k 1
I I
stiffeners 4" X '!4/ia"
1 20.99"
\ I
L - - - - - - - Y
FIGURE 21
fbj Diagonol Stiffener
The diagonal stiffener will resist the diagonal com-
ponent of the flange load as a compression strut. The
flange force to be carrind by the stiffener is the portion
that exceeds the amount carried by thc web. Assuming
the bending moment to be carried entirely by the
flanges, the compressive force in the diagonal stiffener
is compnted as in Fignre 21.
Multiply this diagonal compressive force of 441
kips by the ratio of the additional thickness needed
to that already in the web:
441 (g) = 204 kips h r a on diagonal stiffener
- - 204 kips
36 ksi
= 5.65 in.%eeded in the stiffener
or use a pair of %" x 4" stiffeners, As = 6.0 > 5.65 OK
Now solve this portion of the problem by using
Formula 3:
db
8 = tan-' -
dc
= tan-' 1.48
and
cos 55.03" = ,560
= 5.65 in.%eedcd in the stiffener
If b. = 8", thcn
= ,707" or use 3/4"
Or use two plates, 3/4" x 4", for the diagonal stiff-
eners. Check their width-to-thickness ratio:
Welds for Stiffener
Only nominal fillct welding is required between stitf-
ener and connection web to rcsist buckling. These
welds are rised simply to hold thc stiffeners in position.
Welding at terminations of the stiffener should be
sufficient to transfer forces.
To dt:velop the full capacity of the stiffener, it
may be butt welded to the comers, or full-strength
fillet welds niay be used.
Thp required leg size of fillet weld to match the
ultimate capacity of the stiffener would be-
EGO Welds & A7, A373 Plate
2(9600 w j 1.67 = t, 33,000
o = 1.03 t,
E70 We1d.s & An6 Plate
Hence, use %" leg fillet welds acmss the cnds of
the stiffener.
It may bc simplcr to make the cross-sectional area
of these diagonal stifIenrrs equal to that of the flange
of the member whose web they reinforce.
5. HAUNCHED CONNECTIONS
Haunched connections, Figure 23, are sometimes used
in order to nlore nearly match the moment requirements
of a frame. This produccs a deecpr section in the
region of maximum momcnt, extending back until the
moment is rcduced to a value which the rolled section
is capable of carrying. In this manlier a smaller rolled
section may be used for the remainder of the frame.
This has been a rather standard practice in the con-
ventional elastic rigid frame.
Haunched knecs may exhibit poor rotational ability
if the knee buckles laterally before the desired design
conditions have b'en reached.
The haunch connection should be proportioned
with si~fficient strength and buckling resistance so that
a plastic hinge may be formed at the end of the
haunch where it joins the rolled member.
I
FIGURE 23
Wel ded Connect i ons for Pl asti c Desi gn / 5.12-17
Lehigh University's extensive research in plastic design included the testlng to
destruction of full-scale structures such as this 40' gabled frome
Plastic design of this 8-acre rubber plant simplified mathematical analysis of the
structure ond moment distribution. Two results: a uniform factor of safety and a
saving of 140 tons of structural steel.
FI GURE 24
Lower flange
of beam
FI GURE 25
(See Figures 24 ;md 25, facing page)
Thickness of Top Flange and Web of Haunch
flangc'sthiicknms. Silrcl, this is the tc~rrsion flange, it will
be same or thiinrer than the lower (co~npression) flange.
The thickness of the top flange nrrd the web of the It can he siionii that the pl;~stic swtion mo~iolos [ Z)
haunch slmild be> at least equal to the tl~ickness of the of an 1. section is:
rolled beam to which it connects.
tension
Thickness of Lower Flange of Haunch
The lower flangc of the haunch must be increased in
thickness so that when it is stressed to the yield point
(u, ), its horizontal component will be equal to the
force in the lowcr beam flange stressed to yield.
The force in the sloping lowcr flange of the haunch
at the plastic moment (M,,) is-
Tc = u, hh ti,
The component of this force (T, ) in line with and
against the force in the beam Aange is-
T = T, cos p
= u, b,, t,, cos p
and this must match the force ( T) in the lower Aange
of the rolled beam, or:
T = u, bl, ti, cos p must equal T = u, bn tb
4ssuming the same flange width for the haunch as
the beam, i.e. h, = bbr gives-
Transverse Stiff cners
T, = T, sin p
or us b, t,, = cr, bl, ti, sin p
Assuming the same flange width for the stiffener
as the beam, i.e, h,, = b,,, gives-
AlSC suggests making the total area of these
stiffeners not less than % of the haunch flange area
(AISC Commenta~y p 37, item 4 )
Regui rd h u n c h Section
Section (1-1 j, in the region of high moment, should
be checked. The two flanges may vary in thickness, so
for simplicity and a conservative value use the upper
Stress distribution at
plastic moment (M,]
FIGURE 26
resisting plastic moment of section
dl, - 2 t d,, - 2 t
+ 2 I ( )(--i-)
since
This increased plastic section modulus may be ob-
tained by:
1. Increasing the dtyth (d, , ) and holding the Aange
area constant, or
2, Increasing the iia~ige thickness ( t ) and holding
the depth ( dl , ) constant.
By assuming that (d, , - t ) is equal to ( d, - 2 t ) ,
and solving for the expression (d,, - 2 t ) , it is found
from the above formula that:
Fmm this, the requi nd depth (d, , ) of the 1l:imich
may brt io~inrl for any vehie of pl:tstic s <, chn niodulus
( Z) .
Thc 1i;iiinch s~,ctiori miist h? :rhlc to dcvt~lop the
plastic inor~icilt at any lmint ;rloiig its imgth:
, z u J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (22)
or at any scctiou (x-x)-
Usuall\- just tlw two ends of thr: haunch must he
checked. This would l x scction (1-1) at ille haunch
point ( H) , and scctioli (2-2) ;it the connection to the
rolled beam. The latter finding will also dictnte the re-
quired section moriirlus of the straiglht beam, since its
highest moment will occur at section (9-2).
Heedlr~' points orit that. if the moment is assumed
to incrrnsr linerally Srorn the point of inAi:ction (0) to
the haunch point ( H) , and the distance ( 0 - R) from the
point of inflection to the end of the rolled beam is 3 d,
then the critical section will always be along (2-2) if
the angle P of the txpcr is greater than 12 ,; if this angle
is less than 12", then section (1-1) must also be checked.
Laterol Stability
Bracing should be placed at the extremities and the
common intersecting points of the compression flange.
-
*"Plastic Design of Steel Frames" Lynn S. Ueedle; John S.
Wiley & Sons, publishers.
The cornniwtary of the AISC specifications scts the
following lirnils for latvral I~racing.
The taper of' tli<, hau~jcli may br snch that the
resrilhig hei~ding strcss 21t plnstic Ionding, wheu corn-
p~i t ( d by using thc plastic inodiil~is ( %) , is approxi-
mately at yield (q) at Ilotll cnds @ & @. If this is the
caw, then Ii~nit i hr ur~l~r;rccd l ~~ri gt h (Li, ):
If thc bcntiing strcss :it orrc rnd is approsiinately
at yield (cry), using the pl;isiic modulus ( Z ) _ and at
the other end is I t s than yicld (my c: us ) when using
the secton ~nodulus S , limit the ~inhraced length
(LJ:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . *
(26)
but
If the bending stress colnputed on the basis of
section modulirs ( S ) is less than yield (us < IT,) at all
transverse sections of the haunch from @ to 0, then
check to sce that greatest co~nputed strrss:
Resisting shear
forces in web of
section ABCD
CD = -
dh
tan (a + yj
FIGURE 27
Welded Connections Cor Plostic Design / 5.12-21
I
F& = A', q
FIGURE 28
Diagonal Stiffeners
Tlra tapered liamch has an extra-large web in the
bend of the knee. This is subject to buckling, and
should he strengthmi,d by di:~gonal stiff(m.rs. The
required stiffener scction arca sho~ild be figtrrcd from
tbr compressive force on the web diagonal r ( d t i n g
fronr tllc larger of two forces: ( a ) the itmsilc forces
on the outer ilange of the I ~aumh at point @, and
( b) the compressive forces on the inner flange of the
haunch at point f &
-
( 1 ) Based on tensile forces at @
The comprcssive force in the diagonal stiffcrier is fouird
by taking thc sum of the horizontal components of
the Forces in tllc outer Aanges nlid setting them equal
to zero. Sce Figure 27.
+ At u, cos y -
n.,, dt,
cOS y - A, a; cos a = 0
or
cos y
A - 4
w,, ill, cos y
- t ( G ; ) - (n-tiirli <x -+ . ; )z;;-
\vhero:
At : area of top (temion) flange of haunch
A, =- total area of a pail- of diagonal stiffeners
(2) Based on compressive forces at A
0
The compressive force in the diagonal stiffener is
found in a similar mnnncr as before; the horizontal
components of the forces in tho inner flanges are set
in cqrlilihriurn. See Figure 28.
4- A, r, cos u 4- A,? us sin P2
- A,, us cos (PI + y ) = 0
A,, cos ( 6, 4- y ) - A,,? sin PL
4 --
- -- -
. E - . . . . (29)
If .4, = !I,, = A,.,, tlris hecomes-
(31 When outer (tensile) flanges form right ongfe
If the beam and colrirnn are at right mgles to each
other, y = 0. See Figme 29.
and , O = Pi = P2
a z 15"
A, r: A,, = .4e2
Thc modifird formulas above may also be used for
cor~venience in finding the stiffener requirement of
gablo frames, but will provide a more conservative
value.
Summary of Tapered Haunch
Wr 2 W L , ~ ~
t
th 2
- cos p
Based on load from ttwsion flange-
FIGURE 29
A, f i ~, - 0.82 \v,,d,
Rased on load from vomprcssion flange-
A, 2 JT A, (cos p - sin p )
also b, ,
-
t. =
17
Then the preceding two formulas reduce to the
following: b,
t, 2 ti, sin p = -
17
based on tensile forces in outer flanges
tt, b', 2 3/s tbhb
and shear reststance of web
WI, M
I A, 2 O A , - 0 . 8 2 w,, d , , ] . . . . . . . . . . . (31)
4
Zl, = b t [dl, - t ) + - (d,, - 2 t)" 2
rr,
based on comprcssivc forces in inner flange
Check laferal stability of compression flange
LA, 2 0 . 4 , (cos p -- sin / 3)]
also
( a ) ii both ends of haunch @ or @ are stressed to
(32) yield (c,) using Z
Here:
NNECTIONS
,8 = angle between tangents of given section and
beam flange
r = radius of curvature of inner flange
d, = depth of curved haunch at any section (x-x)
= d2 -1 '(1 - cos PA)
x = r sin p,
It is seen in F i p r e 331 that thc moment resdting
from ultimatr: loading gradn:dly incrrvxrs ont to the
corner of thc 1i:iurrch. IIowever, tlle dcpth of the ha~inch
and therefore its hi~nding stress also increases toward
tlie corner, so that the critical scction (x-x) witliin tho
h;nmih will occ~ir at some distancc ( x ) or some angle
(P. ) El-om section 2-2. For most curvod h;runclics, this
angle (p,) will he about 12".
Thickness of Top Flange and Web of Haunch
The thickness of the top fiatige arid of thc web of the
hatinch should be at lenst cijn;iI to t i me fmtiires of
the rolled beam to which it ronnrds. If bcniline stress
.,
\I;
at @, u? =- < c,, then the onter flange thickness
S
of tlie hnnncl~ ( t ) does not have to ( weed the bram
flange thickness (ti,) (AISC Commentary).
Thickness of Lower Flange ot Haunch
Tlic lower flange of tlie ht~uncli must br increased in
thickness so that when it is stirssed to yield (u,), its
component along the bcem axis is equal to the force
in the lower beam flange when stressed to yield.
FIGURE 32
5.12-24 / We l de d- Conne c t i on Desi gn
For any givcn depth (d,), the pkistic section moclu-
lus (Z, ) may be increased by increasing the flange
thickness ( t,,) .
Assuming the web thickucss aud ilange width of
tlie curved llaunch is at least equal to that of the beam,
the required thiclcness of the lower flaugc would be:
As in tlie tapcred haunch, the phstic st,ction motl~i-
lus ( 2 ) at m y given point ( X) is:
W
Z, = bl, ti, (d, -- t,) + -' (d, - 2 t,,)2
4
W
Z, = b,, ti, (d, - ti,) + " i d , - 2
4
The l I SC Cominentary (Sec. 2.7) recommends
that thc thickuess of this inner flange of the curved
halnich should be-
. ( 35)
where values Tor ( m) come from the graph, Figure 33.
. l
3 4 5 6 7
n = a/d
FIGURE 33
Here:
a = distance from point of inflection ( M = 0) of
the column to the point of plastic moment
(M, , ) in the haunch
d = depth of coh~mli section
In order to prevent local buckling of the curved
inner flange, limit the radius of curvature t o -
FIGURE 34
This is based on a '30" knee (outer flanges fonn a
right angle), which is the most conservative.
Thc radiiis of curvature may be increased above
this limit if additional poiuts of snpport are added to
decrease the critical arc length ( C) .
The unbraccd length between uoints of lateral
u
support must be held to-
where
C = r $
4 = radian measure
this lirr
.. . lit, the
tliidness of thc m w d iuucr ilauge nust he iucrc:xsed
hy-
or the final tlriikrcss will bc-
An ;iltern;it<. metliod wol~ld he to increase the
width of the iiilwr fl;tilgc ( hi , ) to a minimurn of C/6
-- -
* ASCli Commmt:iry on Plmtic Design in Steel, p. 116
Welded Connections for Plastic esign / 5.12-25
FIGURE 35
without decreasing the original Hange thickness (t, , ): A, u, = 2 A, u, sin (20.5" - y / 4 )
u
Diagonal Stiffeners
(1) Based on compressive forces at @
( 2) Based on tensile forces at @
An approximate value of the comprcsive force
. .
appliod to the diagonal stiEener as a rcsult of the
The compressive force in tile diagonal stiflener
compressive forces in the ciirvcd inner Ransc may be
is forrild taking tlIc llouizontal cornpo~ients of these
made by treating the curved hauncli as a tapercd
telisilc aarlSe forces, and settirig them equal to zero.
haunch. Sec Figure 35.
Sen Figure 36.
FIGURE 36
ws ds
cos - --
uy co$ y
tan( + y ) fl
- A, u, cos a: = 0
Resisting sheor
forces in web of
section ABCD
5.12-26 / Wel ded- Connect i on Design
Radial compressive
force exerted
Transverse tensile
> cos y
A A, - W, di,
I I
. . . (43)
COS a
where:
At = area of top (tension) flange of haunch
A. = total area of a pair of diagonal stiffeners
Radiol Support of Lower Flange
The radial components of force in the curved inner
flange tcnd to l xsh tlre flange in toward the web, and
to bend the flange as shown in Fignre 37(h). Because
of the slight yielding of the outer edge of the flange,
there is a non-uniform distribntion of ihc flange strcss
( r ) , Figure 37(a). This stress is maximum in line wit11
the web. There is also a tl.a~~sversc tensile stress across
the onter face of this flange, Figure 37( b) .
The unit radial form ( f , ) acting on the curved
inner flange from the axial coinprcssive force (F,)
within the flange, Figure 38, is-
F
f, = 2 (Ibs/cir inch)
r
Trcating a 1" slice of this flange supported by the
web of the haunch as a cantilever beam and uniformly
loaded with this unit radial force (f,), Figure 39:
FIGURE 37
stress due to bending
of flange
FIGURE 38
or unit load ( p) on section:
r, th
p = 7--
FIGURE 39
ness (h,/t,) of thp mrved inner flange to the following,
wlrichcver is thc sm;iller:
P~~ovicic s:ifimers : ~ t :ind midway bctween the two
points of talqpicy. Make the total cross-sectional area
of the pair of diagoiial stiffcncrs at their midpoint not
less than % of the inner curved flange area.
Summary of Curved Haunch Requirements
thicklness of outer flange ( t ) ) ti,
web of lraunch (w,,) 2 wb
tb
thickness of curved inner flange (i s) 2; - -
cos p
= (1 -t m) t
(based on tcnsile fiange)
. cos y
A, g
WI, di,
A, - --
cos " I
(based on compressive flange)
90 - y
2 2~~ sin (&-I and
. .
M , >
Therefor(. limit the ratio of flange width to thick-
Ii bending stress at @ u2 =- S < cr,, then
outer flange tliickni+ss ( t ) does not have to exceed
beam flang~: (t i >).
Othrnvist~, usc additional lateral support to decrease
arc length ( C) .
Asswr~e ci-itical section (x-S) at-
p, = 1 2 O
then
and
x -
M
z 2 - =.
C 5 6 b , wliere:
C = r +
+ = radian measure
Otherwisc, increase the thickness of the curved
flange to-
or increase the width of the curved inner flange to-
without decreasing the flange thickness.
. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTI ONS
(Mul ti pl e Span)
Web Resisting Shear
When the moments in two beams franring into an
intcrior coliimri iliiier by a larger amormt, this differ-
ence in mommt d l c; i ~~s c largc shear forces to act on
the conrrc,ction \veh. Tile \vvb must be cliccked to see
if it has sutficiiwt thickness; if not, it must be reinforcrd
with either a wi,h doublcr plate or diagonal stiffeners.
(See Figure 41.)
hori~omtul d~e ur applied on connection web
aloi~g top portion
= F, - PI - V,
shear resisted by connection web
along top portion
= w d, r y
where:
V, = horizontal he a r force in the column above
the connection, lbs
FIGURE 41
FIGURE 42
M, and M2 = moinrmts in bt::~ms (1) and ( 2 ) ,
in.-lbs.
d, - depth of coliiuin, in.
dl and d? = dcpth of beams ( I . ) and ( 2)
w = tliickness CIE connection w b , i n
If it is assumcd that:
1. tlrc column li(:igiit (11) has a point of inflectioi~
at mid-hlbight,
2. the d q ~ t h of the larger beam ( d2) is %r, of the
column bight ( I I ) , or less,
3, tlic yield strength of the stcel is u, = 33,000
psi, and
4, the unbalancrd morncnt ( h l ) is expressed in
fooi-kips,
tiris for~nula will rcdwe to t11:: folloiving:
The method of detcrininirig the value of M is
illustxatcd in Figrire 42,
eb Resisting Thrust
Stiffencis are qriitc ofi w required on members in line
with the coniixessiorr ilii~qes which act against them,
to ixeveni crippling of the web where the concentrated
coinpressivc force is al~plied.
Wliera a heam sripportsa column, or a column
slipports a beam, on just one fiange, the stiffeners on
its web net:d only est md inst bcyoncl its neutral axis.
' nie following formii1;is will indicate w1x:n stiilen-
ers are required, and also the oecesswy sim of t i me
stiffei~ors:
1. \Z't,l~ still(mws arc required adjacent to the beam
2. Wr.1, stificlri.rs ;ir(, rcqnirrd adjaccnt to the beam
co~npmssi o~~ ILiiig~ if-----
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 49)
where:
A,
= ..
FIGURE 43 * t 1 , + 5 K c
also
FIGURE 45
If horizontal flalige platc stiffeners are uscd, F i g ~ ~ r e
45, their dimensions are found I'rorn the following:
where :
A, = l l b X ti,
AI - \, I (ti, -+- 5 Kc)
t > .
s
b.
w,. = reqiiircd tltickness of connection wch
. . . . . . . . . . . .
(50)
( Sr r Swtion 5.7 on ( ht i i l uor ~s Coi~ncciions for
fut-tlrrr cxpl;~tintion )
If vertical plate stiiieners are used, Figure -46: they
s l i dr l he proportioned to carry tlic excess of beam
flaiigc force ovcr that wllich the column web is able
to can-y. It is assti~lied the beam iiange estends alniost
thc fnli width of the co111mn Ranges, and that the stif-
frncrs arc only I r d i as effrctive, since they lie at the
(Inter edge of tlic flange.
FIGURE 46
(See S<,ction 5.7 on Continrious Coiinections for
hrtlicr exp1:ui:rtion.)
The niimngi-apli, Figrirt: 47, inn) bc riscd to find
the dist:riice ( t , , -4- 5 K,) ovcr whicli t he corrw~itr:~ted
foi-c:e f nm tlic beait~ fiairg~ sp~-c.:tds nut into tllc c ol ~~mn
web, In tllc case of ;I hi l t -ui , colntnn, use the flangc
iliickncss (t , . ) and find the distance (t , + 5 t,) from
thc ~iomogrnpli.
'I'his value of (t , , - 1 5 K,) or (t,, - 5 t,.) can then
be used in fitiding [he required wc11 tliickncss (w, )
from the nomogr;ipli, Figure 46.
Welded Connections for Plastic es%n / 5.12-31
FIGURE 4GThickness of Connection Web To Resist Thrust of Compression Flange.
If COLUMN FLANGE THICKNEJS
z.7
EXCEEDS THIS VALUE OF (tc )-
L?6 STIFFENERS ARE NOT REQUIRED
2,5 OPPOSITE TENSION BEAM FL4NGE
IF WEB THICKNESS OF COLUMN ( wc )
EXCEEDS THIS REQUIRED YALUE( +) -
STIFFENERS ARE NOT REQUIRED 7
OPPOSITE COMPRESSION BEAM FLANGE wr
I
.
.
<
.'
.
,
,
.
14" W34 *BEAM TO8'' W35* COLUMN
Af = 6.75 x.453 = 3.058 I Nz
HENCE NEED STIFFENERRS TENSON FLANGE
bb 45%) = 4.8 (FROM PREVIOUS NOMOGRAPH)
I
READ wr = .64 ACTUAL /5 ,315 "
HENCE NEED STIFFENERS COMPRESSION FLANGE
Is r<.inforum~r,i?i nwcssnrv at this interior connection?
h/fornet~ts at iiltiliiat<> load arc, sllovr-n t,clo\v. A36 steel
-
FIGURE 49
beam dimcrwioru
d, = 21.13"
b
b - 8.27"
Wb = ,430''
tb = ,685"
column clirnensioru
d, = 13.81"
w, = ,339"
b, = 8.031"
Kc : = 1X6"
diagonal of cairncr.tioil web
dB == m
--
= a - 1 3 ' T- 13.812
= 23.18"
The necessary web thickness will be determined by the
AISC requirements for webs irr the connection region,
The algebraic sums of thc clockwise and counter-clock-
wise moments on opposite sides of the coinlcction are:
ed Connections for Plastic Design /
M r-:- 460 ft-kips - 250 ft-kips
:= 210 ft-kips
and
M I - 0 l i p s + - 50 ft-kips
= 210 ft-kips
required thickness of conncction u:eb
f i ( 2 1 0 it-kips x 12)
- ~ ~ ~.
- (21.13) (i3.81 j(36 ksi ).
= ,416"
onclusions (Fig. 50)
( a ) This req~lil-cd ne b thickness would be satisfied if
the beam were ;illowed to lun through the column.
This would give :i web thickness of ,430". OK
( b ) If tlw column were to run continuons through
the beam, as illustrated above, then a l/4" doubler plate
would be required in this conncction area to make up
the difference in thickness.
( c ) Another choice v.ould be to use a pair of
diagonal stiffeners having thc following cross-sectional
a r w
Or use a pair of 3" by 36'' stifhers, the area of
which checks out as-
A, = %" ( 2 x 3" + ,339")
= 2.38 in." 1.03 iu." OK
-
.41so, thc required thickness is-
In adrtitiou to this, the web of the column must be
checked against buckling from the conceutrated com-
pressive forces applied by the beam flanges.
If the web thickness exceeds the following value,
stiffeners are not needed opposite beam compression
flange :
(a) Run beam through column (b) A Y4" doubler plate
Add plate stiffeners across beam,
(dl A pair of 4" x 1Y2" horizontal
in line with column flanges to
flange plate stiffeners
transfer column load
(c)
A pair of 3" x 3/8" diagonal stiffeners
(e) A pair of Tee vertical stiffeners
(d) A pair of 4" x Y2" horizontal cut from 21" WF 1 1 2 g or 5/8" plote
flange plate stiffeners
Tee section also provides the
necessary additional web material f ol
this connection.
FIGURE 50
Since w, = .339", some additional stiffening is required.
There are two solutions.
( d ) Horizontal flange plufr stiffeners, the required
thickness of which is found from the following formula:
but the following is called for-
IIencc, use a pair of 4" x K" horizontal plate stiffeners.
( e ) Vertical stiffeners, the required thickness of
which is found from the following formula:
and this checks against the following requirement-
This T section ro111d be name cut from a 12" WF
112# section, which has a flange thickness of ,865"
( wt need ,517") and a flange width of 13.00" (we
need at least 13.635"). Othemdse, it could be fabri-
cated from %" thick plate welded together.
Summary
There are four possible methods of making this con-
nection, Figure 50. E;rch uses a combination of the
preceding solutions to stiifm the connection weh so it
may safely transmit thr s l ~ r ~ ~ r forces rcsnlting from the
unbalarrced monicnt as well as to prevent buckling from
the concentrated comprt:ssive forces applied by the
beam.
/ Welded-Connection Design
Shop-fabricated Vierendeel trusses lowered steel requirements and
reduced time for erection of Hamburgers clothing store in Baltimore.
Here a weldor is connecting a corner bracket between web member
and bottom chord of the truss, using low-hydrogen electrode for
root passes.
1. ADVANTAGES OF VlERENDEEL TRUSSES
A Vicrendeel truss is in effect a rigid frame. It differs
from the simple truss (Sect. 5.9), but it also differs in
some respects from the usual rigid frame (Sect. 5.11).
Although the Vierendeel truss has been used
widely in European bridge design, the relatively high
cost of riveted construction precluded its early popu-
larity in this country. Modem welding processes have
changed the economics and several structures using
the welded Vierendeel truss have been built here in
recent years.
Currently the major field for welded Vierendeel
trusses is in building design; Figure 1. For example,
they have been used as roof supports to carry the extra
load of a superstructure, as exterior floor-high members
for rigid support of heavy masonry walls, and in exterior
wall grid systems for aesthetic value as well as con-
struction advantages.
In exterior use, the large panel areas provide ade-
quate window area to be 6lled in by glass or translu-
cent materials; chord and web members arc sometimes
faced with masonry. When used as interior members,
the web openings permit savings in space since piping,
conduits, and duds may be fed through them.
Some Vierendeel trusses are fabricated from wide-
fiange beams, as shown at the top in Figure 2. Here
the top and bottom chord members, as well as the
verticals, are standard rolled beams. Additional plates
are used to join these members.
At the center in Figure 2, the vertical rolled sec-
tions are extended ail the way to the top and bottom
members. A triangular gusset section or bracket is in-
sected on each side of the connection. These gussets
are flame cut from standard rolled sections, usually
having the same flange width as the other members.
This is a simpler method and therefore is widely used.
However, it does not result in as smooth stress distribu-
tion at points of high bending moment as does a design
with crwed comers.
Another method of achieving these curved comers
is illustrated at the bottom in Figure 2. Here the truss is
Aame cut from flat plate with flanges welded to it
around the web openings and across top and bottom
edges. Also see Open-Web Expanded Beams, Sec-
tion 4.7.
FIGURE 2
2. BASI C CONNECTI ON REQUI REMENTS
In the usual rigid-frame design certain assumptions are
made: the beams and columns deflect, and the connec-
tions rotate; but within the connection itself, there is no
appreciable movement. Of course the connection does
undergo some movement (not to be confused with
rotation). However, the distances over which this move-
ment takes place are small mmpared with the lengths
of the beams and ~wlurnns. Consequently the movement
within the joint has little effect on the h a 1 moment
distribution in the frame.
The Vierendeel truss on the other hand is more
compact; for example, the lengths of the vertical mem-
bers often are relatively shorter. See Figure 3. The
more massive ~~nnect i ons thus occupy a larger portion
of this frame than most others. Any angular movement
of vertical members due to yielding within the connec-
tion itself will greatly increase the moments in horizon-
tal members. There is no method of computing or pre-
dicting how much the connection will yield; therefore,
every effort must be made to provide a connection at
least as rigid as the adjoining members.
It might be thought that the simple square type of
connection would naturally be as rigid as the members,
since it is a continuation of the same section. In many
cases this is true. However, it might be well to remem-
ber that stress causes strain, and the accumulation of
strain over a distance resulb in appreciable movement
of some kind: deflection, angular movement, etc. The
sharp comer of this connection increases the stress in
this area by several times. This stress concentration
results in a higher strain 2nd therefore greater move-
ment in this small area. Since only flange stiffeners are
added to this square-comered connection, it is difficult
to exceed the stiffness of the member. In most cases, it
will just equal the member, and in some cases it will
be less.
3. PLASTI C DAT A HAS APPLI CATI ON
There is little test data on the connections used in the
Vierelldeel truss. However, data available on the plastic
design of comer connections or knees will be helpful.
FIG. 3-In this building addition, use of
Vierendeel trusses will provide a column-
free orea of about 30' x 60' for large
trucks and trailers to load and unload
communicotions equipment.
elded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.13-3
FIGURE 4
1
,0002 ,0004 .0006 ,0008 ,0010 ,0012 .0014 ,0016 .C
Unit angular rotation (4); rodions/in.
Figure 4 shows moment-rotation curves of various
comer connections.* The vertical axis is the applied
moment; the horizontal axis is the resulting rotation of
the connection. The vertical height of the curve repre-
sents the maximum or ultimate strength moment of the
connection. The slope of the straight portion of the
cuwe represents the stiffness of the connection, with
the more nearly vertical curves representing the stiffer
connections. The right-hand extremity of the curve rep-
resents the rotational capacity of the connection.
In plastic design, it is necessary that the connection
-
*Figure 1 adapted from "Connections for Welded Continuous
Portal Frames", Beedle, Topractsoglou and Johnston; AWS Jour-
nal; Part I July 1951, Part I1 August 1951, and Part 111
November 1952.
havc high rotational capacity in addition to exceeding
the moment capacity of the member. In Vierendeel
trusses, it is more important that the connection have
a stiffness equal to or exceeding that of the member,
and a high moment capacity in order to safely carry
accidental overloads. Here the extra rotational capacity
would not be as important because it is an elastic design
rather than a plastic design.
In Figure 4 notice that the square-comer conoec-
tion is the most flexible. It falls slightly short of the
beam itself, but does have the greatest rotational capac-
ity. The comer with the bracket has greater stiffness
and higher moment capacity, hut less rotational capac-
ity. Tapered haunch knees, not shown here, were found
FIGURE 4
to behave similarly. The curved knees are the most
rigid, have the highest moment capacity, and have a
rotational capacity somewhere in between the simple
square corner and the haunched knee. As the radius of
curvature of this inner flange is increased, the stiffness
and moment capacity increase slightly, with slightly
lower rotational capacity.
UARE CONNECTIONS
When the flanges of one member intersect the flange
of another, stiffeners should be added in line with the
intersecting flanges. The stiffeners transfer the forces
of the flange back into the web of the other membcr.
See Figure 5. These flange forces are distributed as
shear into the web along the full web depth. This will
prevent the web from buckling due to the concentrated
Bange forces.
The unbalanced moment about a connection will
cause shear forces around the periphery of the conneo
tion web. Fignre 6. The vertical shear force and the
horizontal shear force will result in a diagonal compres-
sive force applied to the mmection web. Unless the
web has sufficient thickness or iri re~nforced, it may
buckle. According to plastic design (and this may be
used in elastic desi p) , the required thickness of the
joint web must be -
and:
FIGURE 6
Connections for Vi erendeel Trusses / 5.13-5
FIGURE 7
t, = thickness of connection web, inches
f, = unit shear force, lbs/Iinear inch = T t,
dh = depth of horizontal member, inches
d, = depth of vertical nmnber, inches
FIG. 8 Methods of obtaining
web thickness to meet require-
ment of Formula #2.
M = algebraic sum of clockwise and counterclock-
wise moments applied by members framing
to opposite sides of the joint web boundary at
ultimate load, inch-pounds
For a panel subjected to shear forces and having a
ratio of width to thickness up to about 70 (the connec-
tion webs will almost always be within this value), the
critical shear stress equals the yield shear stress
(Tp), or-
?;r = 7,.
and
Web
doubler
plate
(a)
Web of connection reinforced with web doubling plate
Diagonal
stiffener
(b)
Web of conneaion reinforced with diagonal stiffeners
(c)
Web of connection reinforced with longitudinal stiffeners
If the thickness of the connection web should be
less than this required value, AISC in their work on
Plastic Design (which may also be used in Elastic De-
sign) recommends adding either ( a ) a doubler plate
to the web to get this required thickness, see Figure 8,
or ( b ) a pair of diagonal stiffeners to carry this diagonal
compression, the area of these stiffeners to be sufficient
for just the additional requirements.
It seems reasonable that ( c ) a pair of longitudinal
stiffeners extending through the connection area would
be sufficient to resist this web shear. These stiffeners
would be flat plates standing vertically h&ween flanges
of the chord member and welded to the flanges near
their outer edges.
5. CURVED-KNEE CONNECTIONS
Tensile stress (urn,.,) in the inner flange of a curved
knee tends to pull the flange away from the web, and
to bend the curved flange as shown at the lower right
of Figure 9. Because of the slight yielding of the flange's
outer edge, there is a non-uniform distribution of flange
stress ( u ) . This stress is maximum in line with the web.
In addition there is a transverse tensile bending
stress ( u, ) in the curved flange. If this value is too
high, stiffeners should be welded between this flange
and the web. These keep the flange from bending and
pulling away from the web. These stiffeners usually
need not extend all the way between flanges, but may
be a series of short triangular plates connecting with
the curved flange.
In the following formulas, the values of factors o:
and p come from the graph, Figure lo.*
longitudinal tensile stress i n flange
. . . . . . . . . "". . " '""
(3)
transuerse tensile bending stress in fhnge
.........................
M
radial force
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 5)
The radial force (f,) acts transverse to the me t
welds connecting the flange and the web.
*From "Design of Rigid Frame Knees", by F. Bleicb, AISC.
Rad~oi t ensk force (f,j
FIGURE 9
elded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.1
FIGURE 10
Values
Valuer
ARY OF REQUIREMENTS
Here is a summary of the general requirements for
these Vierendeel truss connections:
1. The bottom chord is in tension and the connec-
tions here must provide continuity of the member for
this tensile force; the top chord is in compression and
the connections here must provide continuity of the
member for this compressive force. For these reasons,
the inside flanges of the horizontal chords should be
made continuous throughout the connection.
2. There may be some axial tension or compression
in the vertical member, but this is usually of a smaller
magnitnde.
3. Large moments are applied by the horizontal
and vertical legs to each connection.
4. A pair of connections, one above the other, tend
to he restrained from rotation by the vertical member
which connects them. The rotation of these connections
due to deflection of horizontal and vertical members is
taken into consideration when the truss is designed.
However, yielding within the connection itself is not
considered in the design and this could alter the mo-
ment distribution of the truss, therefore it is important
tlrat the connection have equal or greater s@ness than
the members connecting to it.
5. The web of the connection must be stiffened
against buckling due to the high shear stress resulting
from the unbalanced moment of the two horizontal
members connecting at the joint. This difference in
moment is equal to the moment applied by the vertical
member also connected there. This web must either
have sufficient thickness or be reinforced with a doubler
plate or some type of stiffeners.
6. Flange stiffeners should be used whenever there
is an abrupt change in direction or curvature of the
flange.
Vierendeel trusses in this addition to
the New England Life Insurance CO.
home office building permined orchi-
teci to match window openings in orig-
inal buildings, yet accomplish signifi-
cant savings in steel ond in floor
spoce. Design also provided stiffer
constructi on, reducing danger of
cracked masonry.
Use of Vierendeel trusses here provided a column-free
area of about 30' x MY for lorge trucks ond trailers
to load and unload communications equipment.
1. METHODS OF A
There is no single best method to analyze statically
indi~tcrminatc stni~.tiircs. l'lirre arc- many mcthods, and
muny comhirintions and adaptations of these methods.
One mc~tliod map hr siinpli~ and (pick, h i t can only be
used to a lirnitcd cxtt:rrt. :'mother mcthod may have
wide applicatioir, h t I>(: so lai~orious that it is not
used inuch.
Most tcxts on stritically indctcnniriate structures
start ont witli the various m(*tliotls of dctcrmi~iing de-
flections of thr s t r i ~ct ~~r c. Thcy them corrsider the
analysis of thesr strnctnrixs. Thc nicthoc1s of finding
deffoctions arc siniple tools which may he usad in tho
analysis of ihc strr~ctni-c.
1Prvrc arc nctunlly ahout five basic, mrll uscd
methods for the :tn:ilysis of sieticnlly inclrtrrnrinate
structures tmcorrnt~nd in rigid frame designing:
I. Least Work Mt:thod
2. Central Mctliod
3. SIopv I>~.flrction hlctliod
4. hlo~nent and Shcar Ilistribution Mrthod
5. Column Analogy hlcthod
All of these mrthods. when applied to continuous
beams and frames, give the resulting bending me-
ments at various points along tlw structure. In order
to proct:cd this far to get the n,sulting niornents 011
thc stnictorc, it is first ncwssary to assum? thc moments
of inertia of the rn~mhcrs. This is 11sually a good guess
or appn~xiinatioir, Tlren, from t h<w resr~lting bcnding
mornmts, the rncmt>er is built up. If the find reqiiirctl
mo~nci ~t of i r~crt i ; ~ is more than that which u-as started
with, thc work mlrst be repcatcd; or adjusted, using
this niwcr v:llne. I11 sonrc tnetlmds orily the ratios of
the mrious rnorncrits of incrtia rrctd he wed.
ethod of Least Work
The nictlrocl of least work dqmi ds on tlrc follow-ing.
It is coi~sidcrcd that a strncti~rr. will deform under
the nppliattion of n lo:ld, i r i such a inanncr that the
intrrri:d \\-ork of drforin;itii~n will hi. held to a minimum.
This inethod may be oiitlini~l as follows:
1. Cut tile strutiuro so that it hcconrc~s statically
det~mniiiatr.
2. 1' 11~ uuknown monic~lts or forces become the
reduridar~ts or unknown qnantities.
3. Set up an equation for the internal work of the
stri~ct~rre in tt,rms of these r edi dant s.
4. A derivative of this is then set tyn:rl to zcro, and
this will give thr minimum vdue of this redundant
forct,.
General Method
The gmrral mcthud consists of the following:
1. Cut the stniehire at the reduildnnt or urrlmown
forcr.
2. Di:ter~nine the oprning of this gap caused by
tho givm h a d (while cut ). Several methods may be
usad to find this dr&ction.
3. Apply a rcdondat~t forw to close this gap.
4 Fmm t h~. given 1 1 d s md this redundant force,
makc np a momc.nt diagr;m and design thc sirncture
from this.
For more t hm one rt&uidant force, cut a11 mem-
bers at thew rednndar~t forccs arid close the gaps
simulii~nrously.
To usr the general method, the designer must be
able to find d14Irctions in Step 2. Sorne of the methods
for finding deflections are as follows:
( a ) Rcd Work
( b ) Castigliano's Theorem
( c) Virtual Work
( d ) Arca Moment
( c ) Conjugat~t Dearn
( f ) ilngle Wc,ights
( g ) Willot-Mohr Diagram
Scvcral of these int~thods an. described in Section
2.5 or) Dt.i3rction by liendir~g and will not he discussed
h ~ w .
Slope Deflecfion Method
In the general mcthod jnst outlined; the redundant or
i~nknoa-n forccs : i d moments are fonnd. In a similar
rnimnor, it is possiblr to solve for thc onknown joint
rot;ltions and dcflrctions. As soon as these are found,
tho end moments may he dctrnnintd and these corn-
h i n d mith the original niomcnts from the applied load.
oment and Shear Distribution Method
The moment distrihntiorr or 1I:irdy Cross method con-
sists of lrolding thc joints in a frame fxed so that they
cannot rot:ite. Tlrr: md moments of cach loaded mem-
bcr are forind f ~ mn standard hram diagrams in hand-
books. Thcn, onc ;it a timc, a joint is rcltvscd, allowed
(a) Actual Frame (b) Elastic area of anal o~aur column
FIGURE 1
to rotate, and the11 fixed again. This relcase causes a
new distribution of the moment about this point, and
somc of this change is carried over into the next
joint. This proccdmc is followed for each joint in the
entire frame, and then the whole process is repeated
over all the joints as often as required rmtil these cor-
rections become very small.
This method is outlined as follows:
I. Fix the joints from rotation and find the mo-
ments, trcating the member as a simple structure.
2. Remove thr joint restraints one at a time, and
balance moments about the joint. This unbalanced
moment is then distributed about the joint.
3. Some of this distributed moment is then canied
over into the other end of the member.
4. This is repeated until the unbalanced moments
become very small. The final moments are then used
to design the structure.
Column Analogy Met hod
The outline or over-all shape of the given frame is con-
sidered as a column cross-section, called an elastic area.
Thc length of each portion of this elastic area is equal
to the actual length of the corresponding member of
the frame. The width of each portion of this elastic
area is equal to the 1/EI of the corresponding member
of the frame.
The properties of this elastic area are determined:
area, center of gravity or elastic center, and moments
of inertia about the two axcs (x-x and y-y).
The statically indeterminate frame must be cut,
usually at one of the supports, so that it becomes
statically determinate. Under this condition, the mo-
ment diagram caused by the applied loads is con-
structed and then treated as a load (M/ EI) applied
to the elastic area of the analogous column.
Just as an eccentrically loaded column has an
axial compressive strcss and bending stresses about
the two axes (x-x and y-y), so the analogous column
has "stresses" at any point equal to the axial com-
pressive "stress" and the two bending "stresses". These
resulting "stfesscs" of the analogous column are the
corrective moments which must be added to the
statically determinate moments of the "cut" frame in
order to bring the frame back to its original shape
and condition before it was "cut".
This is outlined as follows:
1. Determine properties of the elastic area: area,
center of gravity or elastic center, and moments of
inertia about the two axcs (x-x and y-y).
2. Cut the frame to make it statically determinatc.
Use moment diagram from applied loads as a load
( M/ EI ) on thc clastic arca of the analogous column.
3. Determine axial "stress" and the two bending
"stresses" of the analogous column. These become cor-
rective moments which must bc added to the statically
deternminatc moment of Step 2 to give the final mo-
ments of the statically indeterminate frame.
4. From these moments, find the redundant forces
at the cut portion of the frame.
2. COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD
The outline of the givol frame is considered to be a
column cross-section, called an elastic area; Figure 1.
The length of each member in the elastic area
is considered cqual to the actual length of the cor-
responding member of the actual frame.
The width of each member in the elastic area is
equal to 1/EI of the corresponding member of the
frame.
It is seen by Figure 1 that for a pinned-end frame
the moment of inertia of the flexible pin is zero. Hence
the width of the elastic area at this point is
and the elastic area at this pinned end would equal m.
For a fixed end, the moment of inertia at this
rigid support is assumed to be m. The resulting width
oE the elastic area at this point is-
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-3
and thc v1:rstic : Ira at this fixed end would he zero.
The, ('1astic area, with its dinwnsions riow known
I,mgth : L
111,ight =: 11
is now t r c~~t cd Iikc any other cross-stxction, and its
propertics d~~termirird.
h this cx;r~nrile of i i i ~ ~ ~ i i d encis: I
Area
( 2 coluinns) (beam) (pinned ends)
Elastic Center
The elastic center is fo~i nd as though it were the center
of gravity of the elastic area.
axis x-x
Taking moments aliout the base line, it is seen
that the. i,l;~stic axis s-x of the c1:rstic area must pass
through the frame basc since, in the nrialogoos column,
thc. pi nod ends haw irifi~ritc ( x ) mea.
This may be proved by mathcmatically deter-
mining tiit, elastic cmtcr of gravity:
axis y-y
By ohscr~viiorr, i t is sccn that thc y-y axis wo~rld
pass thmugh the wnter of this elastic art:;^ h~.causc of
section symmetry.
oment of inertia
I,, = 2 ( -b (- I<: I[ ) 1. 19 + 2 (i) 0
( 2 coluinns) (beams) (pinned ends)
Since the infinite ekistic arcn at t hr pin lics along
the clnstic axis x-x, it will hnvc no effwt upon I,.,.
I p~> = V-, since there is ;in i nhi t c elirstic sea at
ill<, t\vo pitintd ends isrid thcst. lir :ri the, extreme ends
of 1111, svction ;~lrout axis x-x.
Apply Load to Elastic dreo
Tl ~c statimlly intlct~~miirrate frarrrr, I'igl~re 2( a) , lnlrst
ha w sonic portiorr cut, r~srially ;it orrc of the stipports,
so t11;1t i t tiwornr:s st;itifi~lIy dt,tr:rrnin;rtc, Figrrl-c 2( 1) ) .
ITiliicr this eoirditiori, the. f,r,~iding momcnt diagram
c ; i r ~ s ~ ~ t by I npi11ii.d 1o:irls is coristruct~~d, i;igur<,
2j c) . 'I'his is tlwn tr(.nttd ;rs ;I 1o:rd (hl , j CT) applied
to t ht ixl;~stie arm of ilrc :rnaIogous column, Figur(.
3( a) .
J I I S ~ ;is an ccc~mlric;rlly loaded iollnnn has an axial
load mri tilting mom~iils ( kt , = I-' y, and M, = P x),
[ o) Statically indeterminate frame
(b) One support rut t o make
frame i toti cal l y determinate
li) Moment clioijrom for the
stoticnlly delertninote frome
FIGURE 2
M
(a) Analogous column loaded with
-
E l
(b) Actual column with eccentric lood (P)
FIGURE 3
so the analogons column has an axial load and tilting
moments. Consider the moment diagram dividcd by
EI as the load about the two axes (x-x and y-y)
through thc elastic center:
axial loud on anologous column
-
P a b
- -. -.
2 E IL
moment about axis x-x on analogous column
-
P a b h
- --
2 E I,,
moment about axis y-y on unalogous column
-
P a b
-
( b - a ) (4b + 4a - 3L)
12 E I, L
Just as the eccentrically loaded column has stresses
at any point equal to the axial compressive stress plus
the two bending stresses-
u = ua (axial) t IT, (bending,.,) i o;. (bending,.,)
so thc analogons column has "stresses" at any point
equal to thr axial "stress" (ma) plus the two bcnding
"strcsscs" (us & u,). Thrse are the correspouding cor-
rective momonts (M,, M,, & M,.) which must be ap-
p l i d to the statically determinate moments of the
"cut" franic in Figurc 2( b) lo bring thc frame back to
its original shape and condition, Figure 2( a) .
= 0 (See Figure 4. )
Design of Rigid Frames /
Y
FIG. 4 No corrective moment to be added here.
FIG. 6 No corrective moment to be added here.
when c, = 0
M, = 0 (See Figure 5.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 3 )
Since I,., = oo
M, = 0 (See Figure 6.)
Thc final moincnt on thc frame will be as given
in Figure 7.
FIG. 5 Corrective moment to be added here.
FIGURE 7
- 48' ________PI
FIGURE 8
I - 48' -------q
I Y
FIGURE 9
Find the moments ( M) and the other rt!dunttant forces
(I3 and V) of the following frame, having fixed ends,
by mcans of the Column Analogy hlethod; Figure 8.
This frame must he transformed into the analogous
column, and the properties of this eq~iivalcnt elastic
area determined; Figure 9.
Member
Calumnr
Rafters +5.0 +260 433
Total + 147.5 2856
= $ 2.2' measured from reference
axis (x'-x' )
Use a reference axis (x'-x') through the top of
= 2856 - 325
the column. = 2531 i n 4
FIGURE 10
distance from elastic center (x-x) to outer fiber
(bottom) c, = -15 - 2.2 = -17.2'
(t op) c, = +I0 - 2.2 = + 7.8'
axis y-y of 'Iristic centcr (Sce Figure 11.)
H" observation it is seen that this passes through
thc cmtwlinc of the frame:
I , ~, - 2(7. 5)(24)' + 2(26)(1Z2) + 2(1248)
( 2 cohlmns) ( 2 rafters)
= 18.624 i n4
- -
Moment of inertis
of raf t er about its
- l o' own center of gravity
distance from elastic ccntrr (y-y) to outer fiber
(right side) c, = +24
(left side) c, = -24
Cutti ng Frame So I t Becomes Statically
Determinate
Thc frame is now crlt so that it becomes st:itically
determinate. The resulti~rg moment diagram, divided
hy the real momt,nt of irwrtia ( I ) , is trratcd 3s a load
upon thc nnalogous coh~rrrri or elastic nrca. (We don't
divide by E here bcc;ruse E is constant; for stecl, E =
30 x 10") This may be done in several ways, princi-
pally:
FIGURE 11
A. Cut thc right fixed end support at @. The My., = (-450,000)(-9.7) + (--390,000) (--.53)
portion of the rafter to the left of the applied load
= + 4,571,700
becomes a statically determinate cantilever beam.
B. Release the ends of the rafters at @ and 0.
My., = ( -- 450,000) ( -- 24) - (-390,000) (-20)
This becomes a statically determinate simply sup-
ported haunched beam.
= i 18,600,000
Method A: Cut the frame at @. With the load correction moment at @
applied at 0, the raftcr cantilevers out from @. The
end moment at @, M = -60,000 ft-lbs, is also applied
to the left column 0-0. (Sec Figure 15.) c -
P M7 . x c ! F Mr., c,
-- - - . I . " -
+- -
the three loads on elastic area
.4 LX 1.w
-
- -840,000 - - - 67,570 ft-lbs
W TO DETERMINE C RRECTIVE MOMENTS
(Diagrams Apply to Option A)
The moment diagram divided by the moment of inertia These loads, in turn, result in 3 types of resisting
of the statically doterminant frame is considered to he " stresses":
the load on the elastic area of the analogous column.
P M... c7
cx =
M,., c,
( E is constant.)
O" = a
o r = -----
LX 1Y.Y
The resultant "stress" at any point of the elastic
area may he found from the conventional stress in an
eccentrically-loaded column:
P
= - ; MF. 7 CY Mx-x cx
a 1,- $7
These "stresses" are the correcting moments, which
must be applied to the original moments of the statically
determinate frame to produce the final moments of
the statically indeterminate frame.
FIGURE 12
This total load on the clastic area may be broken
down into 3 loads:
X
a. Axial load, P
b. Moment, M, ., about axis x-x
c. Moment, M,.,, about axis y-y
FIG. 14 Correcting moments
FIGURE 15
final moment = original moment - correction moment corrcciion moment at @
MI = - 60,000 $- 67,620 . =: + 7.8'
P . M c M, , c,
= --1- 7570 ft-lbs
- - + -'"L + - ~.
- A Lx L,
-
-840,000 (+4,571,700) (4-7.8)
- - . + ~ . . . . -.
correction moment at @
67 2531
(+18,600,000) ( 0)
c = - 2.2'
+ .. ..
P My., r,
18,624
-
+ ?.E~~ (2 +. cx - 24,
- A 1 , ~ ~
L I- = + 1550 ft-lbs
.- - ---840,000 ( +4,571,700) (-2.2)
+
final moment
-
67 2,531P-.-
Mh = - 1550 ft-lbs
( 4-18,800,000) ( -24)
+ -. .- . ---
18,624 correction moment at @
-
- - 40,480 ft-lbs
c, = - 2.2'
P Ms., c, h, I , , c,
-
- 4.. 1~ .
- A :
final moment - original moment - corrtvtion moment I,~, I,%y
= + 7460 ft-lbs
( + 18,600 000) (,!?A)
+ - 7 8 , 6 2 4
= - 19,640 ft-lbs
I' +
+ hl, ,. c,
A I x ~ , 1, ,
c - - 1
- r- 3.8'
final moment
c, 7- - 1.7'
ME = -- 7460 ft-lbs
+ 19,460' '
FIGURE 16
final momcnt .MI
H = ..
M6 = + 19,640 ft-lbs
h
-.
7570 ft-lhs
The final moments of the statically indeterminate 4.191 -- ~~ -
frame are di;rgramn~ed in Fignre 16.
= 1806 lbs
Horizontal Redundant Force
To find the horizontal rednndant force ( H) at the
base of the column, first find the point of inflection (zero
moment) in thc column. Then find the horizontal force
required at this point to equal the end moment at the
base of the column.
FIGURE 17
Vertical Rmciion
To find the vertical reaction ( V) at the base of the
column, take the inomcnts about the base of the oppo-
site column and set them equal to zero. (See Figure 18.)
Method 8: Relcase ends of the rafters at @ and
@, so that the rafter hecomes simply snpportcd and
statically indeterminate. (See Figure 19.)
the three loads on elastic area
Design of Rigid Frclmes / 6.1-1 1
FIGURE 18
M,., = ( j-292,500) (+1.13) + (97,500) (-k4.47)
final moment r original moment - correction moment
+ (390,000) (+5.3) + (300,000) (+4.47)
MI = 0 + 7600
= + 4,576,650
= + 7600 ft-lbs
M,., = (+292,%0) (-16) (97,500) (-8)
+ (390,000)(-6) + (390,000)(+6)
-
c, = - 2.2'
- - 4,680,000
-
P
-.
M,.,c, M ,., c,
- * + -
Ix.x + 7,;
c, = - 17.2' .-
67 2531
+1,170,000 (+4.576,650) (-2.2)
- - - L - '
P M, ~, c M,~, c,
- - + --2 + - -
- A
(-4,680,000) ( -24)
L X 17-s + -
... ~-
18,624
-
+1,170,000 (+4,576,650) ( --17.2)
--
+
~~~~-~~~
m 2531
= + 19,520 ft-lbs
(-4 680 000) (-24)
+ --'---!... ;, --
18,621
final moment
-
- - 7600 ft-lbs MI. = - 19,520 ft-lbs
FIGURE 19
c, = + 2.8'
P M,., c,
=- +-
A Is.x
( ---4,680,000) (-12)
+ - -
18,624
= + 25,540 ft-lbs
final moment
Ma = + 45,000 - 25,540
= + 19,4% ft-lbs
corrcction moment at @
c, = + 7.8'
P M,~, c, . M,., c,
---+:
- A
+-
LX 17.y
final moment
Mg = + 30,000 - 31,560
= - 1560 ft-lbs
c, = - 2.2'
P + M;" CY + My-,, ~2
- - c, = 24'
- A x-I 17.1
= i 7450 ft-lbs
final moment
Mg = - 7450 ft-lbs
c, = - 17.2'
P M c M,., c,
- - + 2>xA + -:.~
- A Ix.x Ir.y
-
67
+1,170,000 (+4,576,630) (-17.2)
-
+ 2531
(-4,680.000) (+N)
+
- -
SS,6%
- - - 19,670 ft-lbs
final moment
Me = 0 + 19,670
= + 19,670 ft-lhs
Alternate Method
It is possible to work this problem in a slightly differ-
ent manner. As heforc-
1. Determine the properties of the elastic area.
2. Cut the frame to make it statically determinate,
as before.
3. Dividing the moment diagram of this cut frame
by the moment of inertia of the corresponcling mem-
bers of the frame, treat it as the load on the elastic
area. ( E is constant.)
4. Find the resulting three parts of this load on
the elastic area; that is,
a. Load, P
b. Moment, M,.,
c. Moment, My.,
Then find the three corrective actioi~s-fixed end
moment (MI, ), liorizontal force ( A) , and vertical force
(V)-which must bc applied at the base of the frame
to bring it back to the original shape and condition of
the statically indeterminate frame. Find these from the
following formulas:
Figure 20 shows their application to solution of
the immediate problems.
The resulting moments ahout the frame for each
of these mrrective actioxs are dctermincd and placed
for cnnvenicnce in tahlr form. This facilitates totaling
then1 to produce the final moments at any point of the
statically indeterminate framc. See Figure 21.
3. FIXED END MOMENTS, STIFFNESS
FACTORS, AND CARRY-OVER FACT0
When some type of moment distribution is used for the
analysis of continuous frames, it is necessary t o know
the following:
I. Fixed end moments (Mi,) of the beam.
2. Stiffness factor ( K) for each end of the beam
so the distribution factors may be determined.
3. Carry-over factor ( C) of a moment from one
end of the beam to the other end.
These items may he found from already-developed
charts, or by use of the column analogy method which
/
" + - - - -
X -
compression
H =
1806
M, =t i cl =[ - 1806) [ - 17. 2) =+31, 062' t i M = -
i..A~
M, = Vc, :
FIGURE 20
is applicable to any type of beam, Figure 22.
The cover-plated beam is representative of any
beam in which there is an abrupt change of scction . . .
and of mome,nt of inertia. The other two common con-
ditions in which there is an abrupt change of scction
are 1) where plate of heavier thickness is used for
the flanges for a short distance nt the ends of the
beam, and 2) where short lengths of smaller beams are
used below the regular beams to reinforce them at and
near the points of support.
FIGURE 21
Constants to Help Cwlculwte Finwf Moments
0
0
M,
Charts have been developed by which the designer
can readily find constants to use in determining stiff-
ness factors, carry-over factors, and fixed-end moments
for beams.
Sources include:
I. Bull. 176, R. .4. Caughy and R. S. Cebula; Iowa
Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College,
.4mes, Iowa. 36 charts for beams with cover platcs at
ends.
0
0
~
0
0
~~~
Prismatic
-
@
0
~ ----
0
-60.000
P
Mrr = - +12,537 1-12.537 +12,537
A
0
-60.000
..~
M, = - 7458' 8
+12,537 +12.537
Topered beam
i 12. 537
~- --
+ 3,974 i +31.062
-23.969 ' 23,969
~ , g f i ~
. -- ..
-
-
H a y
-
-
Cover plated beam
@=+ /
\
+31.062 .+ 3,974
-~ .. .
FIGURE 22
Hounched beom
M3 = + 19,465'*
- 5.057 / -14,008
-~
V . x
- . +---. . .
Total + 7,SM -19,520 +19,465 1 - 1,551
123,969 + 2 3 , 9 6 9 - 1 1 . ~ 4 - ~ - - ~ 1
Design of Ri gi d Frames / 6.1-15
2. "hloment l)istrih~rtion," J. M. r I ; D.
Van Nostrnnd Co.. 378 pages; 29 clixts for braox \vith
covcr plates at ends; -12 chal-ts lor tapwcd hmrns.
4. FI NDI NG FI XED END MOMENTS BY
COLUMN ANALOGY
Roftving hack to Topic 2, Thc Coliiml~ Analogy
h4ethod. the outlinc of tlie hem1 is ronsidercd to be
the cross-section of ;I colmnn ( or elastic zrrcn). See
I'igurc 23.
k-
--
Real beam
"
Y Elostic area
FIGURE 23
The length of the clastic area is equal to the length
of the veal beam, and the ~ i d t h at any point of the
elastic awa is equal to tht: l / EI of the r r d beam at the
corresponding point. Since \vex arc: draling with steel,
the modulus of elasticity ( I ? ) is constant and will drop
out of tlrc calculations. As the depth and moment of
inertia of the real beam increases, the i.lastic area
decreases.
Thc following dcs~gn procedure may then he
followc d.
1. Detcmmi~re the propcrtics of thc clastic area:
a. Area of the cl;~stic arm ( A)
h. Iacation of axis y-y through the elastic
center of thc elastic ;area.
c. Distanct. iron1 the elastic center ( y- 1- ) to
the outer fiber-s of thc cltistic nrca ( c. , ) tmd ( c, , ) .
d. Momcnt of inertia of the elastic area (I,.,).
2. Kelexse both ends @ and @ of the fixtdcnd
beam and draw the moment diagram of this "simply-
supportcd" hcam. Use this moment diagram, divided
by El, as thc load upon tht: elastic area (analogous
column).
3. The rtwiltirig "strcssts" at thc ends @ :rnd @
I~i,comc thc correction momrnts which n111st he added
ti? ilia mommt of the "simply-s~rppol-[rd" hemr to trans-
form it back to the original fixed-wd, statically inde-
terminate bcarn. Sinw i n this case \VI. started or ~t with
zcro cnd mnm~nt s for thc "si1nply-srrplx1rt~~d" hcam,
these corri.ction ~iioinrwts tbcr~ 1)rcornc thc fixed md
moments of t l ~e final I-igid hram:
M,,, at c.nd @
hir,, at cnd @
Stiffness Factor by Column Analogy
The stiffness factor ( K ) is a measurt? of tlw resistance
of the mrmbrr against t ~ l d rotation. i t map be defined
as the moment necrassary to produce a irnit end rota-
tion at the same end, wl~ile the opposite end is held
fixed:
K* = MA
Carry-Over Factor by Column Analogy
For any applied moment ( MA) at A , the resulting
moment ( M A ) at the other rnd 8 is determined.
The carry-over factor is the ratio of thcse two moments:
MAIJ
C* = - --
MA
In both of these two c;lscs, Stifl'ness Factor and
Carry-Over Factor, the fixed-end beam is rr.leased at
one end @ :md rotatrd througli a unit angle chango
( 4) . The restilting end moments ( MA) at @ and
(M,,,*) at @ are found.
FIGURE 24
This unit ;iilqIc rotation is appl i ~d as a single load
at thc nutcr edgy of the clastic :rrm (analogous col-
umn), just as ;in <vwntri<. load might he applied to a
real column. S w Tahle 1.
For a unifi~rrnly 1o:ldcd; simply supporiod h a m,
the hcnding niommt 11as tlic shiipe of a parabola. It
will he helpful to know t l i ~ , loads ( t ' ) and clistxnces
( e ) at the center of gravity of these areas. See Table 2.
5. COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD APPLIED TO
BEAMS HAVI NG ABRUPT CHANGE OF
SECTiON
The Columtr Analogy Method will now bc uscd to find
the Iixcd end moments, stiffness factor, and thc carry-
over factors for a fixed-end beam with cover plates at
one end, supporting a uniform load (us). The technique
would bc applicd similarly to any beam having abrupt
change of section.
Figure 25 diagrams the rcal loaded beam, at top,
and the elastic area of an analogous column, below. On
this dastic area,
TABLE l-Column Ana
Load of the
"ni l mgl e i honge = 1
- x
@
elortic aieo jonalogous
Unit mgI e chonge i!oodl ploced at A
0
M, . , = I c*
at @
y: Unit Angle Rotation
Load F placed ot A
M, . , = F a*
0
ot @
F M,-, ca
-
F c Z
F + * "* = -- + - --
A 3-7 A 17.7
tood F placed at @
M, , = F ca
Ot @
length = actual length of beam
STEP 1: Dcterrnnre Properties of thi5 El a\ t r ~ Area
area
elastic center (y-yj
Take momwts about @
moment of inertia jl, ~, j
STEP 2: Iktermine the Fixed End Moments
the bcain are releascd so
snpported. This moment
diagram now becon~es the load on the elastic area,
Figure 26.
TABLE 2-Loads and Their Eccentricity
Load (Pal or (Pi1 o f portion of marner! diagram
Distance t o cq of thi s load
L = a + b
w = uni t uni f or m laud (Ibr/in.!
Distance to CG of this ood
8
w = uni t uni f or m load lIbi/in.!
Moment d i a g m
M, = = (L - x)
2
Load di agmm jM,/l,)
on elortic ai m
FI GURE 26
"uxiuP' load (P)
P = P, + PI,
fixed end moments
This load ( P) and (M,..,,) on the elastic arca causes
"stresses" similar to those on an eccentrically loaded
column. These "stresses" become the correction mo-
ments, or in this case the end moments of the fixed-
end beam.
STEP 3: Determine Stiffness and Cnrry-Over Factors
A load of a unit angle change (+) is applicd to the
elastic area at the outer edge , and the resulting
found.
end moments (MA) at @ (Mar, ) at @ are
Now the load of a unit angle change ( 4 ) ) is a
plied to the elastic area at the other outer edge
and thc resulting end moment (M, *) at n is found.
Notice that the end mommt (Mu, ) at A is equal
MY.? = 1 ci3
8
to (M~L,,) at @ which is already found.
at @
1 . 1 cn2
Mn -- -- * --
A L - Y
From thcse three values ( MA) , (MAB) and (M"),
the iollowing may he found:
stiffness juctor at
K, = M,
8
stiffness factor at @
K, = M,
curry-over fuct o~, @ to @
M,., = 1 c*
FI GURE 27
TABLE 3-Design Summary: Beam Cover Plated
At One End
C,, Cu, e , + eb are
conridered t o be I + )
Fixed End Mamentr
End Momentz Resulting from Treating Angul or Ratotion or o Load
Stiffness Foctoir
Carryover Foctois
6. COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD APPLIED
TO BEAMS HAVI NG GRADUALLY
VARYING SECTION
Summary
The lollowing method may hc rised to find the fixed
cxnll.,ple of tilt: uIlifor,ll~y.~o~I~jc~C~, fixt.&e,l(i ljeam
end monicnts. stiffncss riictors, and carry-over factors
Lvith l,latc.s at one t , l , d , l l ny sl snri l , ar~ed as of 1j c~a1n~\ r. hi cIi 11avt~ constantly varying moments of
in T a l k 3.
incrtin, s~iclr 21s 1~11nchr d ;ind taprred bmnts, Figurt:
""
21.
Modified Exar nph
A hcanr tvbich tapws along a straight line ( i n
Althonglr the woi-k is not shown, the s:nnc3 fixcxl-cnd otlwr woi-(Is. its clvpth i nwxs<, s 1inr;rrly don:: t l ~ :
t mnn n.it11 coucr pl;ttcs at both r d s , uniformly loatled, letigth of tlw brarn; se? Fig. 25, t op) will liavc a
may bc sommarizcd as in Table 1. (Sce lrcrt page)
~nomcnt of iiwrtia ( I ) ulrich docs not increase linearly
TABLE 4--Design Summary: Beam Cover Ploted
At Both Ends
iiiiiiiiii
M,, at A 6 L I 2 3 a 1 M,,o~B
End Moment. Resulting from Treoting Angulor Rotation an o Load
Stiffness Factors
Carry-Over Factors
but will have a slight curve (see Fig. 28, center, solid area of elastic area
line). This curve approaches a straight line as the
a
beam becomes less tapered. x -
1,
A - log
Although a slight error will be introduced, it will
I" - IA I*
greatly simplify the analysis if we assume this moment
z -
b 10
A - log -
of inertia distribution to be a straight (dotted) linc.
Ic - In In
However, this slight error may be reduced by break-
ing the beam into two parts (see Fig. 28, bottom) and
moment of elnstic area *, about axis A-A
assumii~g a stsaight line variation of the moment of
M*./ = ( ) (
- - -
a
inertia between the thrce points @, @, and 0.
/&A D -
This is represented by the dashed line in Figure 28,
center.
moment of ehstic area A, about axis B-B
I, - I~ - I,% log, -
STEP I : Determine Properties of the Elastic Area
/B-B
Design of Rigid Fromes / 6.1-21
FIGURE 28
distance from C.G. of elastic area A, to axis A-A
MaJ
distance from C.G, of elastic area A, to axis B-B
Ma./
monzent of elastic urea A, about axis A-A
total moment of ekstic area about axis A-A
MA.* MAz / -4- MA^/
/*-A / A- A
elastic center ( y- y)
moment of inertia of elastic urea A, about axis A-A
moment of incrtda of elastic area A, ubout axis B-B
Since thrsc moments of inertia can't be added, not
being taken about tho same axis, it will be necessary
to shift axis 13-Ii and axis A-A to the elastic center y-y.
If axis A-A is always taken at thc shallow end of the
tapered beam, negative sigrrs will be avoided in the
calculations.
6.1-22 / Mircelloneous Structure Design
momcnt of inertia of clustic area A, ubout axis y-y
Using the parallel axis theorem:
I = I -I- A, c,"
/A.A /x.x
Tax/ = IAJ - A, Q~
. .
/ x-x /A-A
Now we wish moments of inertia of A, about the elastic
axis y-y, and again using parallel axis iheorem-
I*J = TAX/ -f AX(CA -
/Y-Y Ix.=
or I&/ = IAx/ - A, cX2 + AI(cb - c,)"
/m /A-A
a n d L J =I *=/ + A , c ~ ( c A - ~ ~ , )
/F.F / &A
moment of inertia of elastic area A, about axis y-y
in same manner-
total moment of inertia of elastic area
IF.7 = 1AX/ 4- IAS/
/w /w
STEP 2: Determine the Fixcd End Moments
The moment diagram from the applied load on the
real beam is divided by the moment of inertia ( I ) of
the real beam, and becomes the load ( M/ I ) on the
elastic area which is treated as a column.
The axial load ( P) applied to the elastic area is
equal to the total M/I. This axial load applied at some
distance from the elastic center of the elastic area
causes a moment ( M) on tht! elastic area.
' Both of these loads cause "stresses" on the elastic
area.
Tlrc following applies if the designer can assume
a-unifonn load ( w) :
axial loud (P) applied to elustic area
and,
P = P, + P.
women (A{) applied to elastic area about its elastic
crnlcr
where:
and the total moment-
STEP 3: Determine Stiffness and Carry-Over Factors
1 c Z
MA = - - +-
A I,,
stifness factor at @
Ka = MA
Kc = M,
carry-ooer factor, @ to @
Mac
Cao = - -
MA
carry-ouer factor, @ to @
MAC
Cca = - --
Mc
Elastic oiea
FIGURE 29
For the uniformly-loaded lmrm shown at top in Figure
30, having fixed crids, find the fixod end moments, stiff-
ness factor, and carry-over f:ictors.
At center in Figtire 30, the solid cmve is the
actual moment of inertia ( I ) as it varics along the
length of the henm. The dashed Iine is the assumed
straight-line variation in moment of inertia along the
two halves of the tapered beam.
The following properties arc established:
Then procecd first to find formula elements made
up of these properties:
log, n = 2.3026 loglo n
I, (2540) -
log, - = log, - - - - log, 3.9276
IA (fi467)
Ic (5930)
log, - = log, - -- = log,, 2.3346
11, (2530 )
STEP 7: Determine Properties of tlrf Elastic .4rea
area of elastic urea
b
A, _
~~~~ ~ log, -~ 11.
( L - 11%) 11,
L i - 1 = 200" - 4
Topered beam
Moment of inertia
1
1
1 c, = 134.30" -
Elastic orea
0
FIGURE 30
I../ -- ( "
)< ( ( I . - ( 1 - 3 113)
11, ,> ( I < - I n) 2
6.1-26 / Miscelloneous Structure Design
(IH - IA)
( 2 12
- 7 In IA + 11 I*") - la" loge-
1, "I
+ [ a( 2 L - 3 a ) - c A( L -- 2 a ) ]
STEP 2: Determine tlic Fixed End Moments
at @
P
M,, = - 4-
Mr., %
A 17.F
STEP 3: Determine Stilfness and Carry-Over Factors
stifncss factor at @
KA = MA = 25.67
-
Design o# Rigid Frames /
FIGURE 31
Kc = Mo = 74.59
--
carry-ouer factor, @ to @
MAC
Cat = -
MA
- - - -. (- ~~~ 21.18)
(25.67)
= ,825
-- -
carry-over jactor, @ to @
MAC
Cca = -
hi,.
- - - (-21.18) .. ~.
(74.59)
= ,284
-
Problem 3
a
For the hannchod hcam at top in Figure 31, having
6xcd ends, find thv fixed end inorncnts (rmiformly
loaded). stifrntxs factors. and carry-over factors. Dn:ak
h r n into sections :md me ~irinrri?al intcgralion.
Thc elastic ; i r a could bc di vi dd into rectangular
aroas, as ;it ccnicr in Figr~re 31, iinil the resirlting
propcrtirs of ~l l c rlastic area found in this mmncr.
Of courst~ s o m~ tmor will lx, introdirccd 1xr:c;mse these
rectang~~lnr arras do not qriitf cqr~iil the actual curve
of the clastic a]-ea. I-Iowt:vr~r, as thc ~lnrnhrr of divi-
sions is incrcastd, this error will dccreasc.
\Vithoi~t any ;rdditional \wrk, the following mcthod
~vill morc r~rarly fit the outline of ihc elastic area and
will r ( ~u l t in lcss error. See iowor dingr:~m, Figure
,31. The ( r i r vd portion n.ithin thc clastic ar w is dividcd
into irimgrrlar areas. It is noticed that a pair of tri-
angular areas share the same altitude and since the
division in lmgth ( s ) is the same, they will have t l ~e
samo area. Therefon:, the cmtcr of gravity of the
two triangles lies along their common altitude. (This
graphical method is applicable to any beam with a
non-uniform change in moment of ineltia along its
length).
STEP 1: Determine the Properties of the Elastic Area
elastic center
moi nmt of inertia
urc,a ( A) of section @of MJ1, diagram
w a'
A = - ( a + 3 b )
12
ccnfcr of gravity of section @
= 4644
Momenf[Mjhgram
of uniform load
- x = 73h'"
1 = 775.46 8 I
I ' !
I
Y
I = 1824.71
I
1 = 142062
Elastic center 1 = 1071.54
1 = 882.33 Moment of inertia
FIGURE 32
KA = MA = 17.12
other propertics of M, / I , rliagrun~
.~~~~ ~. ..
These ;we shor n in the table above.
stiffness fucior nt @
STEP 2: Determine the Fixed End Moments
KO = MO =~ 26.35
~.
7. READY-TO-USE DESIGN CONSTANTS
'he follo\ving 36 charts-appearing on the following
pages-giw the fi.~ctf cnd rnomcnls, sliifiirw facirirs,
and car r y~vcr factors for h a ms wit11 almipt &t nges
in nromt.nt of inrrtia ;it111 may hc med for bmnrs with
covrr plates. T h ~ y wwc drut4opi.d hy R. A. Canghy,
Profrssor of Civil Enginei.ring, Iowa State Collcgc, mcl
Ricl1:rrd S. (:cl~l;r. flc:rcI, Engi~~ccring I>t*p:irtmimt, St.
M;lrtiii's (X,llrgc~, 7Iicst. charts appmrtil in Dull. 176 of
tlse Iowa Enginwring Kxprrirnent Station.
11.000
io.000
9.000
or KBA
terms
EI,
L 7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
ID 1.4 1.8 2.2
Chad 1. Stiffnerr factors ot either end of ryrnmetr~col beom
Ken
in terms
Chorf 3. Sti fi nel l foitot3 large end of vnrymmclricol bcom.
KAE
in terms
Chart 2. Stiffnerr foctorr ot small end o f unrymmehicol beom.
Chart 4. Coi ry-over failors for rymmetiicol beam from either end to the
other.
Chart 5. Carry-over faclorr for unrymmctiical beam from ma l l end to l arge
end.
Mm
in terms
of PL
Chort 6. Carry-over foctarr for u n y mr t r i c o l br om from i h g e end to rmall
end.
Chort 7. Fi red-end moments of l ef t end of rymmebical beam far concentrated Chart 8. Fixed-end rnomenfr l ef t endof rymmetricoi beom for concentrated
l ood ot . l point. l oad of . 2 point.
Mns
in terms
of PL
Choit 9. Fired-end moment$atleftendof rymmetiicol beom forconcentrated Chart 10. Fixed-end moment, at left end of rymmetiicol beom for conceo-
load ot . 3 point.
troted b o d at 4 point.
MAB
i n terms
of PL
Choit 11. Fixed-end moments ot lefl end of ,yrnmetrical beom for concen- Chart 12. Fixed end moments a1 left end of symmetricol beam for roncen-
t r ded b o d at .5 point. trmted loed ot .6 point.
MA,
in terms
of PL
Chort 13. Fixed-end moment* at left end of rymmetricol beam for ioncen
trated lond at .7 point.
Churl 14. Fi xed-end moment? 0 1 lei1 end of rymmrtri<ol beam for conien-
troted l ood at 8 poinf.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chort 15. Fixed-end moments at left end of synmctriiol bcvm for c o n m-
Chart 16. Fi red-end moments at lorge end of unsymmetrical beom for con-
l i ol cd lood of .9 poini.
centrated i ood a t .I point.
Me,
in terms
Of PL
Chorf 17. Fi x e d~i nd momc8its at 1orgc end of unrymmi~ir8iui for mn-
Chart 18. Fixed-<end moments of i ol ge end of uniymm,,lricul baom for con-
i enci ufrd l oad 01 . 2 point.
centiol?d l oad "! .3 point.
M. ,
in terms
of PL
Chart 19. F;red.end moments at large end of un~ymmefrical beom for con-
Chorf 20. Fixed-end moments ot l arge end of unlymmetricol beam for con-
centrated l oad of .4 point.
centrated l oad ot 5 point.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chart 21. Fixed-end momentr ot l orge end of vnrymmetriial beom for con-
centrated l oad at .6 paint.
Chart 22. Fixed-end.momenfs at lorge end of vnrymmeti i i i l i beom for ion.
centrated i ood of .7 point.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chart 23. Fi xed-end moments at l ar ge end of unrymmetri ~ol beom for ion-
Chart 24. Fixed.end moments at l arge end of unrymmetricoi bcom for con.
centrated l oad at .8 paint.
centrated l oad at 9 point.
MA,
in terms
of PL
Mm
in terms
of PL
Chart 25. Fixed.end momentr a, ~ m ~ i l end of vniymmetriioi beom for con-
Chart 26. Fi red-eod moments at rmall end of uo5ymrnclricoi beam for ion-
centrated l oad 0 1 . I point.
centrated l oad a1 . 2 point.
Chart 27. Fixed.end momenfr ol r m d end of ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e t r i c o i beom for con-
rentroted l oad at . 3 pamf.
Chort 29. Fixed-end moment3 at mo l l end of vnrymmetiicol beam for con-
~ent r ot ed l oad of .5 point.
M, .
in terms
of PL
C h d 28. Fixed-end momenfr af small end of ~nr ~mmet r i c al beam for con-
reot mt ed l oad at .4 point.
Chart 30. Fixed-end moments ot rmail end of unrymmetriial beam for con-
centrated l ood of .6 point.
iscelloneour Structure Design
Chort 31. Fixed-end moments of small end of vnrytnmetrical beom for can-
centraled l oad af 7 point.
Chort 33. Fixed-end moments of mo l l end of unrymmetiical beam for con-
centroted good ot .9 point.
Choi l 35. Fi red-end moments at either end of ry!nmetricol.bcam for uniform
Chorl 32. Fixed-end moments ot small end of un~yrnmetiical beom for con-
centrofed l oad of .B point.
Me*
in terms
of wLP
Choi t 34. Fired.end moment3 ol l arge end of unrymmetriiai beam for
"niform load.
M,.
in terms
of wLP
Chort 36, Ftncd.end moments a l i mol l end of ~ ~ ~ y r n ~ e t r i c o i beam for
load. uniform load.
SECT I ON 6 . 2
1. BAR JOI STS
Several available types of bar joists of patented design
are fabricated by welding. Where design permits, it is
usually more economical to use these standard bar
joists than to fabricate special joists. However, to meet
special design requirements lmr joists can be quickly
and easily fabricated. In some cases, this may be done
on the construction site.
Figure 1 shouzs the framework of a factory building.
Joists are spaced between beams and support the mctal
roof deck. The deck is plug welded to the joists by
welding at intervals through the 20-ga metal.
Arc welding also provides an efficient means for
securing bar joists to their supporting members. A short
tack weld on each side of the hearing plate at the ends
of the bar joist permanently joins the joist to the framc-
work. Figure 2 shows bar joists arc welded in place.
Thus, use of arc welding stiffens the entire st ruchm by
actually tying in the framework.
2. ST ANDARD SPECI FI CATI ONS
The Steel Joist Institute, and the American Institute of
Steel Construction have set up standard specifications
for the design of Open Web Steel Joists (High Strength
Longspan or LH-Series). The following requirements
are adapted from these (1962) specifications:
Al l owabl e Stresses for Wel ds
E70XX manual clectrodcs or equivalent weld metal
shall bt. used; EGOXX electrodes or equivalent weld
FIG. 1 Metal roof deck is plug
welded to the open-web bar
ioists below.
FIG. 2 Open-web bar joists are welded to beams
and girders which support them. This stiffens the
entire structure.
metal may be used on steels having a specified yield
point of 36,000 psi.
f llet welds
groove welds
-.
E6OXX
E7OXX
Tension or compression, same as connecting ma-
terial.
S h e w ot Thr od
of Weld Mst d
r = 13,600 psi
r r 15,800 psi
Unit Force
f = 9.600 O
f = 11,200 w
6.2-2 / Mi scel l aneous Structure Desi gn
Allowable Stresses f ar Member s
The allowable stresses shall be based on yield
strengths from 36,000 to 50,000 psi.
tension
= 0.60 u,
compression
If L/r S C,
where:
L - length of membcr or component, center to
center of panel point
r = least radius of gyration of member or com-
ponent
L/r of web members may be taken as % ( L/ r r )
or I./r,, whichever is larger; r, is in the plane of the
joist, and r, is 11orma1 to it.
bending
for chords and web members
= 0.60 a,
for bearing plates
= 0.75 u7
Maximum Slem!erncss (L/r) Ratios
Top chord intcrior panels
Top chord end panels
Other cotnpression members
Tension members
Ot her Requi rement s for Member s
The bottom chord is dcsigned for tension.
The top chord is designed as a continuous mrmber
subject to axial compression stresses (aa) and bending
stresses (u,,). The sum of the two (aa + UII) S 0.60
a, at the panel point.
The quality
0-a Cm c h
( - o;,
1-- ") ul, 2 1.0 at mid-panel
ufc -
where:
C,, - I - 0.3 u,/u', for end panels
C, -- 1 - 0.4 aa/af, for interior panels
u, = calculated axial unit compressive stress
u,, = calculated bending unit compressive stress at
joint under consideration
FIG. 3 In the fabrication of these
bar joists, semi-automatic welding
with self-shielding cored electrode
substantially i ncr eased the arc
speed over previous practice.
Open-Web Bar Joists / 6.2-3
FIG. 4 Bar joist studs are quickly welded in
place by means of efficient portable stud weld-
ers. The studs shown are used to anchor cross-
bracing rods running from top chard of one
joint to bottom chord of onother, to increase
torsional resistance and prevent buckling.
o;, = allo~vable axial unit compressive stress based
npO" (I&) for the panel length, ccnter to ccnter of
panel points
oa = allou~able bending unit stress, 0.60 u,
-
ur+: == - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - p 13'"000 where ( L) is the full panel length,
(L/r,I2
center to center of panel points
r, = radins of gyration about the axis of bending
The radius of gyration of the top chord about
its vertical axis 5 L/170, where 1, is the spacing in
inches hetwcen lines of bridging.
Chard Size
No. 02 to No. 08 inci. I I '
No. 09 to No. 14 i d .
No. 15 to No. I9 incl. 1 1 : :
The top chord shall be considered to have lateral
support if it is propcrly attached to the floor or roof
deck at distances not to excced 36".
The vertical shear values to l ~ c osrd in thc dcsigr~
of web memhcrs shall he detemlincd from full uniform
loading, but shall not ba less than 25% of the rated end
reaction.
Chord and web mcmhrrs in compression, com-
posed of two componrnts stqmated one from another,
shall have fillers spaccd so that the L/r ratio for cach
componmt shall not cxcecd the I,/r ratio of the wholc
member; if in terision, the L/r ratio of cach component
shall not exceed 240. Fillei-s may be omitted in chords
having intr.rior pancl lengths not over 24" and in
webs of joists not over 28" in depth. In all of these
cases, tlrr: least radius of gyration ( r ) is used.
Connection Requirements
Connections shall 11c designed to carry the design
load, hnt not less than half of the dlow-able strength
of the rnernhvr. Butt welded joints shall he designed to
carry the fnll allo\vable strtmgth of the member.
Membcrs connt:cti~rg into a joint shall have their
ce~~t r r s of gravity mect at a point, othem-ise the bend-
ing strtwcs duc to cccnntricity shall be taken into ac-
conrlt. Eccentricity on either side of the ncutral axis
of the chord mcxnbers may be neglected if it docs not
t wwd the distance h~t wr ~en thc n~vt r al axis and liack
of the cliorcl. Whrn a single arrglc compn3ssion member
is attached to the outsidc of the stem of a Tee or double
angle chord, the wcentricity shall be taken into account.
High-strength steel reinforcing bars
for concrete column verticals in the
Washington Na t i o n a l Insurance
Bldg., Evanston, Ill., permitted re-
duction of column size and savings
in floor space.
Reinforcing bars i n concrete columns are field spliced. Simple positioning jig maintains
proper alignment during welding. These large size AlSl 4140 al l ay steel bars were
welded with low-hydrogen electrodes.
The American Welding Society has issued Bulletin
D 12.1-61 giving the Recommertded Practices for the
Welding of Reinforcing Steel, and these should be
followed. Table 1 of allowable stresses is adapted
from the AWS bulletin.
Reinforcing steel may be spliced by butt welding
two ends directly together, using either a single Vee
or double Vee groove joint with an included groove
angle of 45" to 60, or a single bevel or double bevel
groove joint with an included groove angle of 45".
These joints should have a root opening of Vat' and a
root face or land of Ys".
This butt welded joint may bc made with the aid
of an additional splice member, for example a plate
or aoglc connected with 1ongitudin:il flnre-bevcl welds,
see Figure I, or a sleeve conncctcd by transvcrse fillet
welds around the sleeve and bar, see Figure 2. The
FIGURE 1
splicc m(3mber shodd have a cross-sectional area equal
to tlla strength of the connected bar.
Reinforcing steel may also be spliced by a lap
joint, either lapped directly together or with an insert
plate between the two bars. When the two bars have
LE 1-Allowable Stresses for Joints in Reinforcing Rods
Bevel 8. Vee groove wei di
i n tension, compression, or
shear
4i ' l ohO'
v' -5
m-mtL[r=/yf
Doubie~vrs groove
Some os ol l owobl e f ar
base metal
Flare-Vce groove 8. floie-
bevel groove welds for
anv direction of farce
Sheoi on throat of wel d
7 = 6800 psi
Fillet welds for ony diiec-
tion of force
Sheoi on throof of wel d
(minimum throat)
= 13,600 psi
or force on wel d
f = 9600 o Ibs/l i ned in.
.3-2 / Miscellaneous Structure
FIGURE 2
the same diameter, the nominal size of a flare-Vee
groove weld is the radius of the bar. When the bars
are of unequal diameter, the nominal size of the weld
is the radius of the smaller bar. The nominal size of
the flare-bevel groove weld is the radius of the bar.
In all of these cases, the nominal size is the throat
on which the allowable shear stress of 681800 psi is
applied. The actual required throat of the finished
weld in a flare-Vee groove and flare-bevel goove weld
should be at least 3/i the nominal size of the weld, which
is the radius of the bar. The maximum gap between
the bar and the splice plate should not exceed Y4 the
diameter of the bar nor XB".
In general, it is easier to butt weld larger rein-
forcing bars together than to use a splice joint with
longitudinal ccnnecting welds. On smaller bars, it
might be easier to use the longih~dinally welded lap
joint, althongh the doubling up of the bars within the
connection region might take ttm much of the cross-
section of the concrete member.
Figwe 3 illustrates a good method to butt weld a
reinforcing bar lying in the horizontal position. A thin
backing strap, about %" thick, is tack welded to the
bottom of the joint as shown in ( a ) . After a portion
of the groove weld is made, this backing strap is red
hot and can easily be wrapped partially around the
bar with the weldor's slag hammer as welding pro-
gresses, see ( b ) and ( c) . This provides just enough
dam action to support the weld and yet does not inter-
fere with the welding. Finally, the ends of this strap
are tapped tight against the bar and the weld is eom-
pleted, see ( d) .
FIGURE 3
2. ROD MATERIAL AND WELDING
PROCEDURE
Reinforcing bars are rolled from new steel produced
in the open-hearth fnmace, acid bessemer converter,
electric furnace, or the basic oxygen process; or, they
are re-rolled from discarded railroad rails or car axles.
It is necessary to obtain a Mill Report on the
reinforcing bars to be welded; otherwise, they must be
analyzed before setting up the welding procedure.
See Table 2.
For manna1 welding, E6OXX and E7OXX elec-
trodes shonld be lu;cd, and prcferably be of the low-
hydrogen type. Coverings of the low-hydrogcn elec-
trodes must be thoroughly dry when used.
Any E6Oxx
or E70xn
el ectrode
TABLE 2-Recommended Welding Procedures for Reinforcing Rods
06 Various Analyses
Preheot not
required. If
below IOF,
t o IOO' F
C to .30
Mn t o .60
Noo low-hydrogen
E60 or E70xx
electroder-
Preheat t o 100F
law-hydrogen
E60xx or E70xx
ei edi oder
C 31 to 35
Mn to .90
Thermit or
pressure gor
welding
-- -.
l ow hydrogen
E6Oxx to E70xx
eiedroder-
Pmheat to 200F
Other procedure$
wb j e ~ t to
procedure
iiuolificotian
Low-hydrogen
E6Oxx or E7Oxx
eiedrodei-
Pieheot to 400F
1 reqvired. if
below 10-F.
I
oreheat to IOO'F 1
C .51 to .80
Mn t o 1.30
C .36 to .40
Mn to 1.30
+-
! Could also use
submerged-orc.
/ theirnit. or
C .41 to .SO
Mn t o 1.30
preSIUie g o i
welding
or approval oi
the Engineer
1. INCREASING PANEL RIGIDITY
The efficient use of materials is the &st essential to
lower cost designs. One way to achieve such efficiency
is t o use lighter-gage plate that is easily fabricated and
t o add stiffeners as necessary for the required rigidity.
Regardless of how flexible or rigid the stiffeners
are, they will increase the stiffness of the whole panel
by increasing the moment of inertia ( I ) of the member
pancl sections.
The usual method is to consider a section of the
panel having a width equal to the distance between
centers of the stiffeners.* In this manner, just one
stiffener will be included in the panel section. The
resulting moment of inertia ( I ) of the stiffener and
the section of the pancl may be found from the fol-
lowing formula:
FIGURE 2
where:
* r / = distance between stiffeners, in.
d = distance between center of gravity of panel
and that of stiffener, in.
A, = cross-sectional area of plate within distance
b, in.'
**A, = cross-sectional area of stiffener, in.'
t = thickness of panel, in.
** I. = moment of inertia of stiffener, in.+
*If therc i s any question about ihcdistnnce belwcon stiffeners
becoming toogreat, Section 2. 1% will provide some guidance.
**Data obtained from any stocl handbook
FIGURE 1
In figuring the maximum bending stress in this
built-up section, the following distances to the outer
fibers must be known.
l
- - h- %- - h ...... ( 3)
where:
c, = distance from ncutral axis of whole section to
outer fibcr of plate, in.
c. = distancc from neutral axis of whole section to
outer fiber of stiffener, in.
Tlic pand section may then be treated as a simply
supported beam and designed with sufficient moment
of inertia ( I ) to withstand whatever load is applied.
Use a 1" wide strip of this panel, and use uniform load
of ( w) lbs per linear inch; if entire width of panel ( b ) ,
use uniform pressure of ( p ) psi.
Fignrc 3 illustrates the technique of treating a
panel section as a beam under three different can&
tions. Formulas for finding maximum deflection, bend-
ing momrnt, and vertical shear are given, with p being
the pressure in psi against the panel.
6.4-2 / MiscelIaneous Structure Design
FIGURE 3-Properties of Ponel Section Treated as a Beam
(With reference to Figure 3)
If due to weight of liquid or granular material:
F
F - app/lcd force
N(50%
Condition A Condition B Condition C
where:
h = height of liquid or material, in.
13 = height of liquid or material, ft
s = specific gravity of liquid or material,
lbs/cu in.
d = density of liquid or material, lbs/cu. in
D = density of liquid or material, lbs/cu ft.
F I," K
. - - - .
384 E r ,,,, \ / 3
( 1- K2) .
The maxi~num stress in the outer fibers of either
the panel or the stiffener may be found by using the
corresponding value of e and the maximum moment
(M,.,) in the following formulas:
(10)
for the panel
. . . . . . . . .
( 5 )
I M,,, = 0.0642 p b ~ ~ 1 . . ( 8) Mma, = F L K (1 - K) I
(11)
Mm,, =
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
(12)
- 1 . . . . ( 6 )
for the stiffener
2. RESISTING TORSION
,
,
/
/
\ i /
-
Ihere is no twisting \ \
actioncn 45' diagonel \ \
member since shear
components cnncel out
\
\
Only diagonal t aos/ bn a n d
\ / ,'
rompressioo ar e formed, W
whi ch place member in bending;
member is very ri gi d.
FIGURE 4
ow to Stiffen a Panel /
Conventional cross stiffeners on a panel do not offer
any resistance t o twisting. Howerm, if these stiffeners
are placed at 45", they will greatly increase the tor-
sional resistance of a panel. There is no twisting action
on tlie 45" stiffeners because the two components from
the longitudinal and transverse shear stTesses are equal
and oppositc and, therefore, cancel out.
The leg size of the continuous fillet weld required to
join a stiffener to the panel may be found from the
following formula:
= " a (E70 welds)
11.200 I n
where:
o = li3g jize of contiriuous fillet weld, in
V = total shear on section at a given position
along the beam, lbs
a = area held by weld, in.%
y = distance between center of gravity of the
area and neutral axis of whole section, in.
-
.- c , - % t
I = moment of inertia of whole section,
n = ~iuinber of continuous welds joining the stif-
fener to the panel
If intennittent fillet welds arc to be used, calculate
the continuous fillet weld leg size expressed as a deci-
mal, and divide this by the actual leg size of intennit-
tent fillet weld used. W~ c n expressed as a percentage
this will give the amount of intermittent weld to be
used per unit length. For convenience, Table 1 has
various intennittent weld leogths and distance between
centers for a given percentage of mntinuous weld.
TABLE 1-Intermittent Welds
Percent of Length d Intermittent
Conti nuovr Weld. and Dirtanoe
Between Cent en
75%
3 - 5
57 4 - 7
50 2 - 4 ,
44
I
4 - 9
43
40
I
4 - 10
Weld fabrication of large panels, using proper stiffeners, provides required
strength and rigidity, while keeping weight to o minimum.
This is a broad classification, covering many types of
containers. However, principles and formulas relating
to their design are best discussed as a single group.
Some of these containers have flat surfaces; some have
curved surfaces; some have both. Some carry steam,
gasses, or pressurized 5uids that exert uniform pres-
sure in a11 directions; others carry bulk materials such
as grain, the weight of which exerts a varying hori-
zontal pressure against the side walls.
The first requisite of a container is that it be
tight. It must have sufficient strength to withstand the
internal pressure to which it is subjected. In arc-welded
constrnction, the joints are made as tight and strong
as the plates joined. In large tanks built up from a
number of plates or sheets, butt welds arc: customarily
specified.
Many containers must he designed and fabricated
according to the minimum requirements of certain
codes, for example ASME. Most containers have thin
shells in comparison to their diameters and come under
the classification of thin-wall shells.
Types of Containers
Flat and/or Curved Surfaces
~ p~
tanks drums chutes
vats bins stacks
hoppers silos pipe and piping systems
and many others
F THE CONTAIN
The surfaces of any container must withstand pressure
of some type, so it would be well to consider the
strength and stiffness of various shapes and forms of
plates under uniform pressure.
111analysis of a given container, the designer ex-
plodes it into its various elements and applies the
corresponding formulas.
Some containers are of box construction, made up
entirely of fiat surfaces. Other containers, many tanks
for example, consist of a cylinder closed at each m~ d
by a fiat plate.
Table 1 presents design formnlas applicable to
various flat plates subjected to internal pressure.
Determine the required plate thickness of the following
tank to hold water, Figure 1.
Since the varying pressure against side walls is
due to the weight of a liquid:
p = ,4336 H s
= .4336(6)(1)
= 2.6 psi
FIGURE 1
where:
1%- the maximum height of the liquid, in feet
s = the specific gravity of the liquid
It is nwessnry to consider only the longest side
plate, having the greatest span between supports:
120". The top edge is free, the other three are sup-
ported. This is recognized as condition 4D in Table 1.
Since the ratio of plate height to width is-
values are estimated from Table 1 to be-
p = .14 and y = ,030
Then the reqnired plate thickness is derived from
the maximum stress formula:
or, assuming an allowable stress of 20,ON psi-
P p b2
t2 = ---
a
- -
( J 4 ) (2.6)(120)2
20,000
= ,262
:. t = fziE
= .512", or use W' &.
Checking the detlection of this plate-
Since this deflection would be excessive, a stiffen-
ing bar must be added along the top edge of the tank
to form a rectangular frame, Figure 2.
Tank with Top Edge Stiffener
FIGURE 2
The modified tank now satisfies the condition 5A
on Table 1, because the critical plate is supported
on all fonr edges.
The ratio of plate height to width still being .6,
+slues are estimated from Table 1 to be-
p =: ,102 and y = ,0064
Since the same maximum stress formula applies-
= ,191
.'. t = l/-iT
= .437", or use &
Checking the deflection of this plate-
It might be advisable to go back to the Yz" plate
thickness, still using the top edge stiffener, in which
case the bending stress and deflection would be re-
duced to-
a,,, = 15,300 psi and A,,,, = .92"
There is another method of determining the bend-
ing stress and deflection. A description of this follows
immediately.
Considering Plate Section as a Beam
A narrow section of the tank's slde panel (width
m = 1") can be considcrcd as a beam, Figure 3,
using formulas taken from Reference Section 8.1 on
Beam Diagrams.
FIGURE 3
Tanks, Bins and Hoppers / 6.5-3
TABLE 1-Stress and Deflection, Flat Plates*
Subjected to lnternal Pressure fpl, psi
CIRCULAR PLATE
I I A) Edge. wpporled; uniform lood
At center:
1.24 p P
(rnax) O, = c, = - --
t=
,695 p r"
Am,= = - -
E t 3
(1s) Edger fixed; uni form lood
,1705 p r'
A,.. , -
E t'
At edge;
3 P P
(moxl c, = -
4 ti
,225 p P
0, = -
P
SQUARE PLATE
(3A) Edpsesupparted l and held down);
uniform lood
At center;
2870 p o2
(rnax) r. = - L---
P
,0443 p 04
A,.. =
E 13
ELLIPTICAL PLATE
(2A) Edger supported;
uniform load
At center:
,3125 12 - a) p b'
(max) O;, = -
t'
1.146 - .1 a) p b4
(appiox) Amrr -- E P
(28) Edges fixed; uniform I h d
At center:
v. = -
,075 p bP (10 a ' j-3)
P 13 + 2 a ' + 3 ad)
At edge:
1.5 p b' a '
(Spon 0 ) cr =
tZ 13 + 2 ila + 3 ad)
lmox)
(Span b l oa =
1.5 p b"
t' (3 + 2 a " 3 39
At center:
1 6 6 p a*
a. = - --
P
,0138 p
A,., = -
E t=
At midpoint of each edge;
308 p a'
(max) o. = +
P
*After Roark, "Formulas for Stress and Strnio". Table I continued on fol l owi ng page
Table 1 continued
k - b 4
RECTANGULAR PLATES
(48) Edger fixed; uniform load
--
At center;
At midpoint of iong edges;
p bZ 1.225 + ,382 a ' - ,320 a?
c.=-- (moxl oa = - .5 p ba- P p b'
P f (1 + ,623 a*) Or = ?
75 p bP
(,"OX) Sb = -
B p b'
or = - -
f
At midpoint of short edger:
P ( i + 1.61 a3)
.25 p bs
,1422 p bd Y p b4 u, = -------
Lax = -
E t ' E P U + zTT2ior =--
P
See the following rub-table3 for voluer of P ond Y:
q q ~ p q - - ~ ~ : i ; " . ~ 1.8 I
(4C) Ail edger supported; varying laad
Load incieoring uniformly from zero ot
one edge to a moximum of l p) psi
ot opposite edge
(tiiongulor load)
P p bP
am.. = -
P
Y p b4
Am.= = -
E t3
P
1.9
FOR EDGES FIXED
p r p >TiiF1 43% 1 ,4252 1
The foilowing values to Condition 4C.
I
2.0 j gc
Toble I continued on facing page
I
- -.
FOR EDGES SUPPORTED
,0251
--
,0138 ,0164 ,0188 ,0226
-
,0240
Since the maximum bending moment here is-
Tobie I continued
( 40) Top edge free, other three edges wpported; i(1ryiig load
-
Lood increasing uoiformly from zero at
top edge to o moximum of (p) psi at
bottom edge
(riiongular loodl
B P bY
v,,,*= =
P
Y P b4
Am.= =
E r
The following volver apply to Condition 4D;
M,,, = ,0642 p hZ m (with h expressed in inches)
. I i .16 2 0
. . .
,026 ,033 ,040
--
= 20,800 psi
instead of the 15,300 psi obtained by considering the
entire plate width; and-
.0625 p h4 m
A,,, = -
E I
1.5
2 8
instead of the .92" obtained by considering the entire
plate width.
This method of isolating a I" strip of the panel
and considering it as a beam will indicate greater
bending stress and deflection than actually exists. The
reason is that the stiffening effect of the surrounding
panel has been neglected for simplicity.
The previous method of considering the entire
panel is recommended for its accuracy and for a more
efficient design wherever it can be applied.
2.0
.32
2.5
.35
,064
Adding Another Stiffener
~ r . 0 5 8
When a panel is divided into two parts by a large
stiffener, it becomes a continuous panel, triangularly
loaded with a rather high negative moment at the
stiffener which ads as a support. There is no simple
formula for this; therefore the method of mnsidering
a I" strip will be used, and of course will result in a
slightly greater stress value than actually exists.
The plate thickness in the tank being considered
can be reduced by adding such a stiffener
around the middle of the tank, Figure 4.
3.0
.36
,067
FIGURE 4
The first step is to locate the stiffener at the
height which will produce the minimum bending mo-
ment in the panel, both above and below the stiffener.
3.5
.37
' ,069
4.0
.37
,070
(Again use formulas from Reference Section 8.1 on Trying %," @
Beam Diagrams. ) This dimension ( a ) , the distance be-
tween the two stiffeners, is- h.1 M 6
urn** = --
-
-
-
S t2
a = 5 7 h = .57(72) = 41"
Then, at tbc middle stiffener-
M,,, = ,0147 p h%
= 12,200 psi OK
ontainer Sur A Figure of
4. STRESSES IN SHELL
The various container shapes illustrated in Table 2 are
formed by a figure of revolution.
In any of these containers, the internal pressure
( p ) along with the weight of the gas, liquid or other
media within the container produces three types of
tensile stresses in the container's shell. These are:
1. u,, =. tensile stress in the direction of a
TABLE ?-Container Surfaces Formed
By A Figure of Revolution
THIN WALL COA
:ONT+?INER SMPE IUNIT NALL SEM(EN7
CYLINDER 1
SPHERE 1 Urn.
meridian. ( A meridian is the curve formed by the
intersection of the shell and a plane through the
longitudinal axis of the container.) This stress is
referred to as longitudinal stress.
2. cr,,,, = tensile stress in the direction of a tan-
gent to a circumference. (A circumference is the curve
formed by thc intersection of the shell and a plane
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the container.)
This stress is referred to as tangential or circumferential
stress but is commonly called the hoop stress.
3. urn = tensile stress in the radial direction.
For containers having relatively thin shells (gen-
erally considered as less than 10% of the mean radius)
and no abrupt change in thickness or curvature, the
radial tensile stress (u,.,) and any bending stress may
be neglected.
TABLE 3-Stresses in Thick-Wall Cylinders
Uniform internal
radial pressure only
-
smg = 0
ccp = ( % . + . i ! : re2 - iss
(mox ot inner iuifoce)
a,. = P
(man at inner ruifoce)
Uniform internal
prersvre in all
r i z
= P (m)
r.p + i t P
(rnox ot inner rvdocei
al p = P
(mox ot inner rudoce)
The biaxial tensile stresses u p ) and u p ) in
thin-u,all containt~rs can be calcillated with the basic
formulas ~hown in Tahlri 2. where:
t, = thickness of shell, in.
r, = mean radi~ls of a circumference of the shell,
in.
r, = mean radius of the meridian of the shell, in.
p = internal pressure, psi
In thin-walled containers, the hoop stress is assumed
to be uniformly distributed across the shell thickncss
without serious error occurring in strcss calculations.
However, in a thick-walled container grnerated by n
figme of revolution thc decreasing variance of hoop
stress from the inner surface to ihc ontcr surface of the
sbell wall must be considered.
Table 3 presents formulas for calculating the
stresses in two eommon thick-\vaIIcd cylinders. In the
first condition, the internal prcssurc parallel to the
sbuctural (Iongitudinnl) axis is balanced by the ex-
ternal forcc against the moving piston and hy the re-
sistance of the cylinder's support, and the resultant
longitudinal stress (c,,,,) is zero. In tha second con-
dition, there is a longitudinal stress (u,,).
and spherical shells, where:
Any prrssure container of any importance undoubtedly
p = internal pressure, psi
must conform to the minimum requkements of the us = allowable stress (Scc ASME Sec. 8, par USC-
ASME, so it would be well to use ASME Section 8
23 )
"Unfired Pressure Vessels" as a guide. In general this
E = joint efficiency (See ASME See. 8, par UW-
covers containers for pressures exceeding 15 psi up to
a maximum of 3,000 psi, and having a diameter ex-
12)
ceeding 6". Table 5 presents the formulas for calculating the
~ ~ b l ~ 4 presents the formulas for calculating the
minimum required thickness of various types of heads.
minimum required wall thickness of cylindrical shells Turn to next page for Table 5.
TABLE 4--Wall Thickness of Shells
Subjected to Internal Pressure (p), psi
IASME-8: Unfired Pressure Vessels)
I
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS IUG-27c and UA-I) SPHERICAL SHELLS IUG-27d and UA-31
Thin shell - when t. <- 'h rz ond p < ,385 a. E Thin shell - when t, < ,356 i t end p < ,665 a, E
!
--
I
Thick shell - when t, > '12 rl and p > ,385 E
1
tn =
P i 1 .
21a. E - .I p)
Th~ck shell - when t- > ,356 r i and p > ,665 o, E
--
t# = r , i f i - I )
iscellaneous Structure
TABLE 5-Thickness of Formed Heads
Subjected to Internal Pressure (pi on Concove Side
(ASME-8: Unfired Pressure Vessels)
ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD
fUG-32d and UA-41)
Standard head - where h = di / 4 Head of other propartianr
~~ ..~
(h = mi nor oxir: inside depth of p dl K
tn =
head minus skiiti 21** E .i d
where:
P d,
tn =
21s. E - .I p
TORISPHERICAL HEAD
iUG-32e and UA-4dj
Standard head - where r* = .06 r ,
. .
Head of other proportions
-- ~~
!ir = knuckle rodiur) = -P~LLM
-885 p r i
2( 0, E - .I p)
ta = where:
o, E -- .I p
HEMISPHERICAL HEAD Thin head - when ti, < ,356 Thick head -when tt, > ,356 i t
IUG-32f ond UA-3)
-
and p < ,665 o. E
-.
and p > .665 m. E
s -
ti, = r, ( V Y - I )
= -2--
wheie:
2(0, E - . i p)
2ia, E + p)
y = ----
2 o . E - p
FLAT HEAD (UG-34)
integrol heod
' yi groove wel d
t , = twice required
ihicknerr of rpheiicol
shell or 1.25 t. and
not greater than tn
t,, = d, g-
c r 25
bolted
1. BASIC FORCES AND STRESSES
Designing hangers or brackets for snppotting a shell
such as a pipe, tank or pressure vessel requires con-
sideration of two important factors:
1. The additional stress of the support forces
when combined with the working stress of the shell
must not increase the stress in the shell above the
allowable limit.
2. The support should not restrain the stressed
shell so it becomes too rigid to flex under normal
changes in working pressures or loads.
Many types of stresses are involved in any sup-
porting structure. The more common types are the
following:
1. The internal pressure of the gas or liquid in
the shell, along with its weight, cause tangential (uc,)
and longitudinal (e,,,) tensile stresses in the shell.
2. Any radial force (F1) aeting on a section of
the she11 causes bending stresses in the ring of the
shell (from the bending moment M,) as well as axial
tensile stresses (from the tensite force T), both of
which act tangentially to the circumference of the
shell.
3. The radial force (F1) causes radial shear
stresses in the shell, and the longitudinal force ( Fa)
causes longitudinal shear stresses, both adjacent to the
hanger. These stresses usually will be low.
After proper analysis of the forces involved, the
various stresses must be combined to determine the
maximum normal stress (G-,.x-teusile or compressive)
and maximum shear stress ( T, ~, ) . If the resulting
stresses arc excessive, a simple study of the individual
stresses will indicate what portion of the hanger is
under-designed and should be strengthened.
For example, the bending stresses may he exees-
sive, indicating that some type of stiffener ring should
he attached to the shell between supports to suh-
stantially increase the moment of inertia of the shell
section thereby decreasing the bending stress.
The following discussions identify and analyze
the &ect of various basic stresses and relate them to
material thickness and curvature.
2. STRESSES IN S ELL FROM INTERNAL
PRESSURE
As explained more fully in Section 6.5, internal pressure
in a shell produces two tensile stresses of importance.
1. e,,, = tcnsile stress in the direction of the
meridian. This is called the longitudinal stress.
2. uc, = tensile stress in the direction of the tan-
gent to the circumference. This stress is commonly
called the hoop stress, but is also referred to as the
tangential or circumferential stress.
The tensile stresses G-,, and ee, can be calculated
with the formulas presented in Table 2 of the pre-
ceding Section 6.5 and repeated here.
3. EFFECT OF U SUPPORT WELDED
TO SHELL
The force ( P) applied to the hanger (see Figure 1)
may be resolved into a radial component (F, ) and a
longitudinal component (F1) having the following
values:
where 0 is the angle between guy cable or support
attached to the shell and the horizontal.
FIGURE 1
If these components are applied at some eccen-
tricity ( a and b) , they will produce mommts applied
to the shell section by the hanger and having values:
Combining these values, observing proper signs,
will give the total moment acting on the shell from
the hanger:
A study of stress distribution in the shell can be
resolved into separate analyses of the radial and
moment force distributions. Before analyzing these
forces, however, the engineer should determine how
much shell beyond the hanger is cffective in resisting
these forces.
The shell with stiffeners can be compared lo a
curved beam with an extremely wide flange, Figure 1.
Von Kam~an" suggests that an effective width ( e) of
* "Analysis of Some Tliin-Walled Structures", Von Kalman,
ASME paper AER-55.1% Aer Eng, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1933.
RAD/AL FORCE (f-) DISTR/BUT/ON
F ; : f , ~ d t Z x J x f , x e
f, = ---
d r e
FIGURE 2
the flange on each side of the stiffening web is approxi-
mately-
where:
r, = radius of shell curvature, inches
t. = thickness of shell, inches
The value of "e" should be limited to a maximum of
The radial component ( F, ) of the force ( P) is
applied directly to the shell. It is reasonable to assume
that the radial forces applied to the additional shell
width ( e ) would decrease linearly to almost zero at its
outer limits. This assumed distribution of radial forces
(fa) due to the radial component (F1) is sketched in
Figure 2.
The value of f, is equivalent to the force (Ibs)
on a 1" wide ring of the shell.
The longitudinal component ( F2) of the force ( P)
because of its eccentricity ( a ) , and the radial compo-
nent (F,) because of its eccentricity ( b) , combine into
moment M, and apply radial forces to the shell having
a distribution similar to that of bending forces, i.e.
maximum at the outer fibers and zero along the neutral
axis. The assumed distribution of the radial forces (fb)
due to the action of the applied moment is indicated
in Figure 3.
RADIAL FORCE (fA) DI5TRIBU7IOFr
FIGURE 3
Design of Hangers and Supports / 6.6-3
The value of fl, is equivalent to the force (Ibs) on
a 1" wide ring of the shell.
The resulting radial forces applied on the shell
must hc added, being careful to watch the signs:
4. EFFECT OF ADDING STIFFENING RING
For additional stiffcning of the shell at the sup1>ort,
rings may be welded to the shell. 4 s before, the addi-
tional width of the shcll on each side of the ring
assumed to be effective in resisting the,se forces is-
with e not to exceed 12 t, on each side of the ring.
The total radial force ( F ) applied to this built-up
section is the radial force resulting from the longitu-
dinal force ( F?) , p h ~s any radial force ( ) applied
at this point of support:
FIGURE 5
where:
A = area of shell ring cross-section or built-up
section
S = section modulus of the same section
Part A: Four hmgers are used for guying a smoke
slack with its a& in the vertical position, Figure 6.
After determining the bending moment in this pi mp ~ . z s o i b a . 2 ~
built-up ring resdtiny from thc radial forces at the
TI. ,OW. 8. 60.
*, z * u. d .,om n . 4 wmm,
point of support, the nioment of inertia ( I ) of the
-
C d i t mr mi T ~ M ~ ~ ~ ~ # c ~ J /r S w a i ~
section is cdculated. The bending stresses are then
F#aw , #rzewe~ P#, $~we
r 2: w*
+ ti 'II . 6,ooo,,
fourrd and later combined with any other stresses. -
, . % ;weL;,...... d k
5. EFFECT OF THESE FORCES UPON A
SECTIONAL RING OF THE SHELL
Forces (f, ) normal to the shell sct up iangential
tensile forces ( T) and bending moments ( M, ) in the
ring of the shell, Figure 5.
Stresses u,., and u,., are added to r,, to give
u, = total tangential (or circumferential) stress in a
section of the critical shell ring.
The maximum shear stress is equal to '*L the dif-
ference of the two principal stresses (u) having the
greatest algebraic differcnce. See Section 2.11, Topic 2.
The following are typical examples that demon-
strate the use of these formulas for calct~lating the
stresses in a shell.
6 : P m Q ; Z 5 0 r . d 6 6 ' f i 7 / b
-
h'f, a i ; ~ b ~ : E ~ 2 i 7 + 0 ~ / l i . 4 %~ - i a
-
k i r i r t Jml f i mu ' e ' f h J,DE $6 Hmsn
e ; fi : x/94' ;xz,v.
-
7 2 --
Cni cmnn~s Rnam k c J mm TO Sxiii
f-
= $ = 10.4 '%m me a, mm !
-
f a :A ia,c,(d,,rC) :s .... ~.*Nc
I
J, '
- I
ZTAL RAOI ~L FDRCE
4 'f&+r,' , 0. 4t i S) . - 2. 9%' : *' B
-
-
FIGURE 6
\ , ,,./
6.64 / Miscellaneous Struceure Design
Determine the total radial force acting on the shell as
a result of the force ( P) applied to the hangers.
Part B: With tangential tensile force ( T) and
bending moment ( M, ) per 1" wide ring of this shell
resulting from radial forces ( f , ) applied to the four
hangers, cnlcnlate the tciisile (u,,,) and bcnding ( u , b )
stresses ;it the hangers.
FIGURE 7
--
FROM TABLE I I FROM PARi A
K 0300 i, f . 259 '%in xws
Concludon: Combining thesr stresses in the outer
fiber of the shell adjacent to the hanger shows our
analysis of the shear stress (T,,,) to be-
a,, 3,OOOps,
FIGURE 8
0,
a % + % : 6,000+r,5~4~d;.5~Q~w
THEN
8 5 4 4 0
?,hr = A-- = 4,Z7Zps,
2
4 STRESSU WIIMN REASON
I Problem 2 1
Part A: Four hangers are used t o support a verti-
cal 12" stimd pipe. Figure 9. Iletermirre the total radial
force acting on the shell as a rcsrdt of the force ( P )
applied to the hangers.
Part B: With tensile forco ( T) and bending mo-
ment (M, -) per I" wide ring of this shell resulting from
radial forces (f, ) applied at the four hangers, calcli-
Iatc the tc~rsilc (cr?,) and bending ( u ) stresses at
the hangers.
Since this bending stress in the ring of the shell
is excessive, it is necessary to stiffen the shell in this
region. To accomplish this, two '/4" x 2" ring stiffeners
are added as illustrated, Figure 10.
&> FIGURE 10
The effect of the bottom ring will be considerecl
since it will apply radial tensile forces to the built-up
ring and shel! section. Using tho method of finding
moment of inertia by adding arcas (Sect. 2. 2), the
properties of this section are as follows:
TABLE 2?
THEN MOHENT OF INERT/A ABOUT NEUTRAL ,4115 W f L 5f
M1 / 7052; Q.532.iii, 4
IN, z I x - ~ 3.282--
~- 1 0 5 7 --
AND NtUTRAL AX15 WILL Bf
M 1705
= C, : A : , = +: 6/ 3; n.
-
, 0 5 7 --
Design of Hangers and Supports /
The radial force ( F ) acting on thc ring section
and resiilting from the vertical force ( P ) is-
Porf @: Rwalculation of the tensile ( c r ) and
bending (cr,,,) stresses at the haligcrs yields the foliow-
ing results:
FROM J8BL E I T H ~ r / ? - ~ f
f$ = 0500
i- : 4 .?OO
T = k; F : osoa r /coo = j q ~ &
~-~
* j""' ?*OM r P a E 2 ) = ic*: i-Q. j,,
-
- . . . . .
The hoop stress of u,,, = 1,888 psi in the slieil will
he assumcil to bc reduced when considered to be acting
over the entire cross-section of the built-up ring st!ction:
Combining thcs(s s1rcsst.s in the outer fiht,r of the
lower ring, adjacent to the h:inger, we find the maxi-
mum shrar s t r t x ( T , ~ , , ~ ) to br-
'6
SIRE35 WIIHIIV REASON
DISIGN Oh:
FIGURE 12
-
FIG. 13-Typical Hangers and Supports
F l
Part A: What transverse or radial force (F, ) can
be applied to the web of this I section through the
gusset plate showm? See Figure 14. The resulting bend-
ing strcsses are to be kept down to a reasonable value,
such as u = 15,000 psi, since the I section is already
under applied load. The grlsset plate intersects the
web of the I section along a predetermined distance
of d = 10".
FIGURE 14
The analysis of this problem again stems from
Figures 1, 2 and 3 and related text. Here, the gusset
plate acts as a hanger.
Considering the web of the I section as a panel,
the section flanges act as stiffeners and give the entire
section a high moment of inertia about its x-x axis.
However, to be conservative assume the width of web
beyond the gusset that is effective in resisting the
bending moment on the web to have a maximum value
of 12 times the web thickness.
effectioe width of tceb
e = 12 1,
= 12 (294")
= 3.53"
moment on tceb clue to force on gusset
M = F, X 3"
tangential forces applied to web (see Fig. 2 )
total tangential forces applied to web
f = f, + f,
= ,074 Fl + ,078 F,
= ,152 F1 Ibs/in.
Consider a 1"-wide strip of the web:
F;L
section modulus of strip
tangcntinl force on strip
-
4( 15,000) (.0141)
-
(10.91)--~-
= 79.2 lbs/l'-wide strip
Hut:
. allowable tangential force on web
= 521 lbs
Design of Hangers and Supports /
Par t B: What transverse force ( Fi ) can be ap-
plied if it is concentric n,ith the center of gravity of
the connection? See Figure 15. There would be no
moment ( M) .
FI GURE 15
Here:
M = 0
hence:
-
-
FI
- -- -
(10) + ( 3. 53)
= ,074 F,
Consider a 1"-wide strip of tllc web. As before:
S = ,0144 in."
f = 79.2 lbs/l"-wide strip
Rut:
General For mul a
A gencral formula, if the transverse force ( F , ) is con-
centric with the center of gravity of the connection, is-
Assume:
F, =
6 L
e = 12 t-
Par t 6': What transverse force ( F, ) can be applied
if a stiffenrr is added to the web section to increase its
be~idiirg strength? See Figure 16.
FI GURE 16
The stiffened web will now have a much greater
moment of inertia in the direction of tangential force.
Although the gusset plate intersects the web of the I
for a distancc of 10", to be conservative only a portion
of this ( h 5 t, + 2,) can be considered as resisting
the moment on the web.
Following the analysis of a stiffened plate as given
in Section 6.6:
Here:
e = 3.53"
A, = 2.2216 in2 (arca of effective stiffened portion
of web)
I,, = .01601 in.4
A,
1.5 in."area of stiffener section)
I, = 1.125 in.4
d = 1.647" (distance, C.G. of stiifener to C.G. of
web)
.6-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
and since
FIGURE 17
moment of inertia of entire section
distance of N.A. to outer fiber
c , = h - c ,
and since
A. d
c, =
t
As + AD + 2
t A8 d
c - h - - -
. . a -
2 A, + A,
(1.5) (1.647)
= (3.294) - (.147) -
(1.5) + (2.216)
= 2.483"
section modulus of entire section resistant to force ( F I )
which is maximum at extreme fiber
I
S = -
cs
(3.570)
-
- (2.483)
= 7920 Ibs allowable tangential force on web
Alternate Location of Stiffener
The web stiffener could be placed on the back side
of the web (Fig. 18). However, additional brackets
might have to be used to safely transfer the transverse
force (F, ) back into the stiffener. Otherwise, both the
gusset plate and the stiffener might be overstressed
in a localized area where the two intersect (Fig. 19).
"...,u FIGURE 18
SECTI ON 7 . 1
With today's cooti~iui~lg progress in welding technology
and the rapid rxp;~rrsion of \vrldcd coustn~ction~ along
with thc ~lcvolopnlcnt of II(:W a i d better steels, the
mginrcr or nrchitwt hi s ;r multiplicity of choices for
a givcu p r o j ~ t . The followiiig information is dcsignrd
to aid him in sclcvting the proper stri~ctunil steel for
his needs. . . on the hasis of streugth and cost.
In Novcmbt.r of 1961, tlie Amcrican Institute of
Steel Coi~struction ;~cloptcd a nrw "Spwification for
the Design, E ~ b r i i i ~ ~ and 17rcctio1i of Structnral
Steel for n i l l i ~ ~ g s " . This Sprcification, which was
revisml in April 1063, inclvrdcs dcsign specifications
for six lirnerican Society for Tcsting Materials grades
of stcd wit11 specified rniriimum yizld points ranging
from 32,000 to 50.000 psi.
In addition to thc stcels sprcifically includcd in
the ilIS(: Spccificatiml, a nurnhiv of proprietary struc-
tural stccls arc I hring offrred by v;irioiis t cel
prochwrs. Tl ~r sc steels have specified minimnnr yield
poiuts rangir~g from 45,000 lo 100,000 psi.
As a rrsult, the rngincer or architect tod:~y is
f:icid with a problem hr r;ircly encountered 10 )!cars
hnforr.: the selection of t l ~c proper structiird steel that
is hwt s ~~i t c d to his rrcrils. Fiirthrrmorc. since weldrd
(.oostrirction is iilcrt~asiirgly h h g iiscd for d l t qws of
strr~ctures, tho rlrsigncr must b(, assured thnt thc v d d -
ing of thcse stwls is performed in a m;mncr which
will pro\,idc sound welcls ccono~nically.
ING THE STRUCTURAL STEELS
2. STEEL CLASSIFICATIONS
In the design of hoildings, bridges, and similar strue-
tures, the engincer or architcct is concerned primarily
with three groups of structural steels:
21. Carbon Steels
R. High-Strengtlr Lo~v Allow Steels
C. Ireat-Trcatrd Co~~strrictionnl Alloy Steels
The first h5.o of thest: categories inclnde the six
basic ASTM grades oi strncturid sted inclodcd in the
AlSC Specificntior~. The nrwlranical proprrties arid
chr~nistry limitations for tllese six ASTM grades are
shown in Tnhles I A arid 1H.
3. CARBON STEELS
ASTM Grades A7, A373, and A36
The carbon stiiels for tlie struct~iral field include ASTM
Cr:rrlt:s A7, A373, and A%. The prirrcipd strengthening
agents in these strels are carbon and manganese. Speci-
fied ruininirim yield points range fro111 32,000 psi lor
A373 to 36,000 for A36.
ASTM A7
The first ASTM sprcification for stcrl wscd in building
co~~stroction was proposcd in 1900, and was adopted
one year later as the "St;tndard Specification for Steel
Field welding of vertical member to bottom chord of
Vierendeel truss for 17-story Foundation House in
Toronto, Conado. Truss is built of high-strength, low-
alloy steel with 55,000 psi minimum yield strength.
7.1-1
7.1-2 / Joint Design and Production
for Buildings." When the ASTM adopted a numbering
system for its specification in 1914, "Standard Specifi-
cations for Steel for Rnildings" was designated as ASTM
A9. The designation "ASTM AT was given to "Stan-
dard Specifications for Steel for Bridges." In 1936 the
ASTM combined A7 and .49 into one specification,
ASTM A7, "Standard Specifications for Steel for Bridgrs
and Buildings."
This specification was written to provide an eco-
nomical as-rolled steel which would assure specific
minimum strength requiren~ents. The cnrrent version
requires minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi and
minimum yield point of 33,000 psi. There are no limita-
tions on chemistry except the sulphur and phosphorus
aximum maxima. The specification also inclndes a m
.'
tensile strength and minimum elongation reqnirements.
The most economical way to produce a steel of
this nature is through the use of carbon and man-
ganesc in varying amounts. Carbon may be found in
thcse steels in percentages ranging from a low of
approximately 0.10 per cent to a maximum of 033
per cent or in some cases, even higher. Manganese
is generally added to provide increased strength with
less carbon to avoid the liardcnahility effect of high
mrhon in the stcel. The manganese also improves hot
rolling charactvristics of the stecl during production.
ASTM A373
LVith the increased nse of \velding after World War
11, it became necessary to limit the carbon and man-
ganese in A7 steel to screen out "high side" heats that
sometimes prescnted welding problems.
In 1954, ASTM .4373, "Strnctur:il Steel for Wcld-
ing" was written. This specification limits the carbon
and manganese, in addition to the maxima for phos-
phorus and sulphur, to insure good welds using stand-
TABLE 1A-A Comparison of Steels for Construction
ASTM Carbon Steels
-
ASTM
Grade
-
A 7
Mi".
Yield
Point
Thickness
Chemical Req8
Tensile
Si rength
psi Other
-
-
ementr (Ladle) Pr
S
~~
Group A 13)
-.-+ ------1------------------- -
To I/>'' incl.
32.000
. . .
-. -
Over I"
Shope. 1
I---
Over lo Ii/2" id.
Over 4" to 8 ioc!.
To 3/4" id.
I over %,, to 11/2" incl.
. 2. .
[I)
Bored upon boric rteei maki ng pioceis.
(2)
When copper steel i i specified. the min
copper ir 0.20%.
!31 Gr ow A conni i r ei the fo!lowincl wide fl anqe beams
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-3
ard high speed welding proccd~ires. However, the
limits on carbon a i d mang:nirst :it that tiint: necessi-
tated a slight rediiction in t l r ~ stn~ngth of the stcel,
and thc minimirm yield point was placed at 32,000 psi.
The specification fnrthcr reqnircs that plates over one
inch tliick be producrd folly killed to insure ;i homog-
eneous steel in these heavier thieknesscs.
With the est:~blishment of A373 by the .4STM :IS
a stcel for \ vel dd construction, thr Bureau of Public
Roads designated this grndc to IF riscil for \wlded
bridges.
ASTM A36
By 1980 the mapor prodrm~rs of .47 stccl had begun
to realize the fruits of tlic rirotlernization and expan-
sion of their facilities aftcr the war. Through improve-
ments in quality control arrd through hctter heating
and rolling techniques, thcy could produce an .47
type steel to a higher strcngth lcvol \vhile maintaining
carbon and mangarlPsc \vithin the limitations dvsirable
for economical welding.
As a result of these improv(.mtmts, S T M A36
"Structural Stecl" was pi-opnscd, and was xdoptcd in
1960. This specification imposrd controls on carbon
and mangancsr to i~lsnre tw~nomical wtkling and
specified a mi ni ~n~t m yield point of 36.MW psi, n 10
per cent incrr~asr~ ol.el- A7. In 1962, A36 w s revised
to place further limitations on carbon and manganese
and was s~ihscqnerrtly xccpt ad by the Bureau of
Public Roads for \vt4dcd bridges.
In essence., the ncw A36 specifiration combines
all of the advantages of A373 in a stecl which has a
higher rnini~n~im yield point than A7, yet costs no
mort, thau A7 i l l shapes and costs only slightly morr
than A7 in platos.
4. HlGH-STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS
ASTM Grades A242, A440, and A441
??te high-str-mgth gri~i1c.s of stcrl, ASThl A%_", A440.
ai d r1411, Iin\.r minilnliin spi'cificd yidd points vitryirrg
fnmi 12,000 psi to 50,000 psi rltyrndirig on the thick-
ness of the matcrial.
ASTM A242
1)uring the 11)!30's, n rrlini1lr3r of stwl pr od~~v~xs began
offerirtg pr.oprit+ary grades of higlr-strength low dloy
steels containing, in addition to carbon mu1 man-
g;incse, such clernmts ;is \.an:idium. cbronrinm. copp<,r.
silicon, and nickel. These stecls were offcred with
spwifitd minimtini yidd poirtts from 12,000 psi to
50,000 psi. I r r additioir. I I XI ~? ilf thwe s t d s puovidid
grimtly improvrd corrosion rt.sist;tnce ovcr ASTM A7.
By 1941 it became. apparcrrt tliat a spccificntion
was ilrsirahle for thmc stwls, :ind in that year the
American Soviety lor Tt ~t i ng hlatcrials wrote .4242,
"High-Strmgth 1 . o ~ Alloy Strlrctiird Stccl", ASThl
A242 is primarily a strength specification with sprcifiid
miniinrrm yiitld points of:
50,000 psi for rnatcrial op to ;tnd including irwh
thick
36,000 psi for material over ".k inch thick to 1%
in<,lics tliick, i~~cliisive
12,000 psi for material ovcr I?& iriches thick to 4
inches thick, irrclusive.
The chrmical rtquirtmmts are p i t c liberal. An
attempt is made to insnre vconoiiiicnl wcliling of these
stecls hy limiting c;irhon :md iirnngaltcsc cinitent. I-lmv-
fwer: the prest.rlc? of other clernttrlts such ;rs sihxm,
copper, ~~Ilrmni~tin. phosplr~mls, ;ind r~ickel, which are
often added to provide iinlin>wd strc~iglh and cor-
rosion rcsista~lcc, rrxiy rr\iliiire a special ~vnlili~rg pro-
ci.durc for somc nf t ht w stwls.
In addition. tlic slxdication rcqri i r~. ~ that "these
stecls haw enh:in<rd cvrinsion resistmce qua1 to or
grmtrr than c;rrlir~n st i ~, i s with cqiper." C:irhon stwls
with vr~ppcr-or "coppw hi::tririg" strrls, as they are
freqtrmtly i l l - 1 twicc thr: atmospheric cor-
rosio~i r s i s t of A7 steel. There are, howevcr.
wrtitin prqxictnry grndcs of A2-$2 hwing ovcr four
times the atltri~spli~:ric r~~rrosion rcsistii~icc of A7 stecl.
(:oiiscqumtly, in ordering A142 stsvl, the pro-
i l i i ~ w must be consullt~l to insrire th:it the steel can
he crorromicolly u ~ l d c d ;md h;rs iinpn~vrd corrosion
rtzsistance if t l r ~se prnpcrtics arc desired.
ASTM A440
ASTM A441
A441 spccifics ihc same strength requirements as
,4242. The chcmical rt:ipiramc:nts limit carhon and
manganese to tile sane levels as A242, hut add 0.02
per cent minimum vant~dium to obtain thc desired
strength levels withont the ueerl for more crpensive
alloy :ddiiions. As in the case of A4-10, the Sprcification
limits the sulphnr ai d pl~osphorns, and requires that
the steel l x "copper bearing'' to improvc its corrosion
rt,sistance over that of A7.
5. HIGH-STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS
Proprietary Grades
P r o p r i r t ; ~ ~ grades of higli-strcngth low alloy stccls are
available which arc similar to the ASTM high-strcngth
grades hut differ in certain respects. These strels hirw
spt:cificd rninimwn yicid points r;uigii~g fi-om 45,000
1x9 to 65_000 psi. Altlroiigl~ tlicsc steels are widely
rtsed in manufacturing, they have only recently b e y n
TABLE 15-A Comparison of Steels for Construction
ASTM Nigh-Strength Steels
(I)
Groups I, i l . i l l are defi ned ci follows:
120 t o 190 i d
rNominoi depth ond naioinol wi dth of fionge
(2)
Bosrd on boiic ~ t ~ ~ i r n o k i ~ g pi or ea.
'3)
i h e rhoi ce or d use of alloying cismenti to produce the
reqllred riicneth or t o improve corraiiori rcrirtance,
or both, wi l l vary wi th the manu{aaurer.
to be uscd in the design of buildings and bridges.
The first of this grorlp of high-strcngth stcels was
commercially produced in 1958. At that tirnc it was
found that minor additions of coluinhium to plairl
carbon steel prodilced as-rollcd yield points up to
60,000 psi in the thinner ganges in a weldd>le grade
of steel. These "columbium steels'', as they were d e d ,
were produced to specific-d minimiim yield points of
45,000 psi, 50,000 psi; 55,000 psi, and 60,000 psi in
limited thicknesses.
In 1962 another group of high-strcrlgth low nlloy
steels was introdrlcrd commcrcinlly which catended
thrsc. high strtwgths to n bro;id range of thicknesscs
in plates and shapcs. Thcsc stet:ls r t ~ul t cd from the
discovery that thc addition of small amounts of
nitrogen combined with vanadinm in a rarbon-man-
ganese steel prodnced an increase in strength nmch
greater than M-odd bc expected froln the eAscts of
theso two rlernents individ~xally, while eliminating the
cleletcrious effects of adding nitrogon alone.
Similar high-strength stcels are now available from
several producers, in a wide range of shapes and
platcs with s p u d i d n~inimum yield points of 45,000,
50,000, 55,000, 60,000 and 65,000 psi. (Src Tahle 1C)
And the Burcan of Puhlic Roads, in cooperation with
the steel producers concerned, is cnmently ( Januav,
1'366) prcpri ng a specification lor thcse st i ds to :illour
their ust* in welded iiigh\v;ty bridges.
The proprict;iry grades ol high-strt31igtli stc2els :ire
prcsently (January 1966) limited in their 11sc in hi dd-
ing and bridge constnictinrl bcc;~usc of code and
specification n~qni rcm~~nt s. Thew sti~cls do not as yct
have an AS'TM desipntion. Rmxcxw, tb<:sc steels offcr
the arlvantage of prwiding higli strct~gill at ccononiic;il
prices in a variety of yi dd points arid they enable
designers to obtain thc strcngtli thry rleml without the
ni:ccssity of pa~rillg for considrrably morc strength than
rcqoircd. Fnrtllcrmon~. the c l ~t mi s t ~- ~ of these stt& is
i~oritrollcd I'm wononric;il w~.Idiilg. (:o~rs<.q~~(.iitl>-, eogi-
wers arc taking ~ n t of the ico~iornies to bc
gairird in thr use of thvsc steels ; i d 11;ivi. u s d tlicln on
;I great variety of st rri ct un~ including inany truildings
and several liridgcs.
6. HEAT-TREATED CONSTRUCTIONAL
ALLOY STEELS
Proprietary Grades
In 1953, thc first of the higtl-strength, hc; ~t treated,
constri~ctional alloy slccls was m;~rketrd. Thcsc ~ 1 :
low-carhon; qnrwchetl and tcrnpcrrd nlloy stc?cls with
specified minim~nn yield points ranging from W,WO
TABLE IC-A Comparison ot Steels tor Construction
Proprietary High-Strength Low Alloy Steels (1)
Mfr'r Min. . ... . - ..-
Ch e mi d Reqvirementr (Ladie) Per Cent
Grade Yi el d Tenriie
Cl orri - Poi nt Strength N C Mn P
ficotian Thickness psi psi Max. Max. Max. Max. Max. I Min. Min.
C"
Shapes
45 45,000 65,000 min.
Plates To i I/>" i d
- . . ~
To 3 , I . 131
- . - - . -
Over %- t o 1%" incQ ,015
To y8" incl. 13)
Shoper
55.000 70.000 min.
To %'' inci.
plates
Shoper
60
- - ...
60,000 75,000 min.
Pioter To 3/8" incl.
Shoper To 3h1' i d (3)
65 65,000
Plater To l/B" incl.
i
( I ! Chemistry of high-strength l ow oi l oy rtcel r varier wi l h producen. This Toble
ir bored on Bethlehem V Sloeis as of January, 1964.
(21 When copper rteei is specified, the minimum copper is 0.20~1,.
(31 For rhoper, ]he thickness shown indicater web thickoas.
to 100,000 psi. :mil iillim:itc strmgtlrs rnnging from
lO,5,000 to 19.5.000 psi, diqxmding ~i pon tliickncss.
Originally tlicsc steels u wc available ol ~l y in p1att.s
bwausc of ditfici~ltics cnrmmtered tlr~ring hmt trwting
in n i ~ t h i g tlie str:~iglrtricss of shapcs. 13). I961
m:my of these dilfieiiitics h;1d hcrr ovcrcornc, ;ind
tlicsr stnrls art, nmr. oifercd in certain strl~ctiiral shaprs.
I3ecause of the highor pricc of tilest: stcels, tlrcir
use in bnilding constricti~m has so far hccrr rnthcr
lirnited. Iiowcwr, thry have heen ~i scd to considcrahlc
advantage in scvi~;rl hrge i x ~ d g c h i l l in I-eccnt pears,
atid in other types of structures. The major nppl i ~ .a t' rons
7. BASIS FOR SELECTION
B. SELECTING THE RIGHT STRUCTURAL STEEL
With the ndoption by tlic AISC of design specifications
covering the use of six ASTM s t d s ( A7, A373, A36,
A440, A311; and .4%2), de:sigiiers are now able to
choose tlir particular stecl wliictr is best suited to tlic
job at hmd. Ilowever, hcforr dcsignc~s ran take ad-
vantage or tlrestx stecis, some irisight inisst be acqoirecl
as to wherc each um be iiscd to thc greatest advmtagr.
To i d the &!signer iir this selcction, we shdl
compzire thc fivc AS'I'M stct~ls rctmnmerrdcd {or wclded
constructior~ on tire ljasis of pricr, and iilso on what
we call "yield strciigtl-i pc,r dollar".
We s11;dl also prfw~i t gui&s to ;lid in rt,cognizing
those situations wlrcwin the use of liigli-strength steels
has proven to bc advantageoiis.
. COMPARISON BASED
Pricc is; of course, a factor in tha selection of a steel.
Table 24 (for shapcs) and Tabli! 213 (for plates) show
the comparative prices of the fi\.e AS?'M stnictural
steels and proprietary high strength, low alloy stecls.
Carbon Steels
In mu-bon steel shapes, A36 steci is the same pricc
as A7, has ;i 10 per ccnt higlier specified minimum yield
point, and can he \vcldcd \vitli higli spwd, low cost
procedures. Thc rn:isiini~m carbon content is only 0.26
per ccnt, h3i 3 has a lriglier ~naxirniim carbon content
(0.28 pcr cent ), :I Iiigli~i- pi ce, and a lower yield
strength than A36. In sl~apes, tlierefore. A3fi is by far
the best bargain of tho c:irbon st eei .
In plates, the adrantage of A36 is not quite as
pronounced as in sh:~pes. I~fowcver, becai i s~ of its
higher specified mi~~ilnrirri yield point, relative ease
of rieldi~rg, md the requirement that the steel be pro-
duced fully killed in thicknesses over ll/z inches thick,
A36 is the best biry for constrncti~m purposes.
High-Strength Steels
In tlic high stl-cngih steels, for material tlrichesses
1111 to 3;" i n~l ~i si vc, 1\;111 is the samc price as A410. For
thickness ovcr '?a" to "4'' iiichsiw, A441 is only slightly
more cxp~risiw t l i i i ~i A.l-10. Si~icc? A440 steel is not
gent~r:iII~- rtwoimi~mded for i:cononiical welding, M41
is I n r vf:rs;itilr ;in11 usdul stwl for constnirtio~r
pw,x>scs.
Tlic :il?Qgr:ides are sribstantially higher in cost
t1i:rn .4411. Co~iscq~icntly, it worrld be uneconomical
to list: rl%-lhunless improvcd corrosion rcsistance is
dcsircd If this pmpcrty is desired, it should be so
spccifitd; rnert, rcfrronce to tlw .424Z specification does
not assure improvcd corrosion rcsistance.
9. COMPARISON BASED ON YIELD
STRENGTH PER DOLLAR
I'ricc :ilolie does not always give :III accurate pictiirc
oi thi: possiblc cost advant;ige of one steel over anothcr,
partia~larly wliere :I differcncc in yicld point is in-
vol\:cd. Table 3.1 (for shapes) and Table 3R (for
pl:it~,s) cotnpnrc the fivc ASTM structural steels on the
basis of comparntivc yield point per dollar of cost, with
I
A36 stccl rrscd as the basis for comparison.
j
Altlro~iglr siich ;I cornparison gives a more accurate
picture than n cornp;irisoii of pricc ;llone, R coinliarison
of stcels on the basis of the strc~igtb-to-price ratio I
rni~st be made wit21 the foilovi~ing qualifications:
a. Strc.~igth-price valws :ire based on minimum
yield point. IVl~ert: f:a,tors other than yield point (such
as 1imit;ltions due to dellcction, buckling or latcrd
st;~hiIit!.) dcttwninc the :illtwahlc stress, strength-price
vahcs bascd on nrinimiirn yicld point arc not a valid
comparison.
ASTM
Carbon
Steels
ASTM
High-
Strength
Steel6
ProprietoP,
Hi gh-
Strength
Low
Ai l oy
Steels
18)
TABLE 2A-A Comporison of Prices of Steels (or Construction
Base Price Plus Grade Extra Only, October, 1963 ( 1 )
Strucfurol Shapes
(1) There figures are l or campornfi ve purposas only. 15) See Tobie i A. Note 3. f or dcfi n;ti an a i Group A.
and ore ~i ot to be used l or p wi n g purposes. Fig-
urer are based on BEihiehem Steel Company prices,
( 4) See Tablc IB. Note I. i ar defi mti on of G m p $ I,
October. 1963. li. and i l l .
Grade
(2) i ndi i ot es web thickness.
17: Based upon Bct hl chedi Moyri ri R A242 rtcel,
(3) The roti a of the price of t i w steel to the priri.
which her on d m~ r p h e r i c corrosion relistonce of el
of k36.
l eoi t 4 to 6 timer tho+ of pl ai n carbon rtcel.
Group and Thickness (21
(4) The yi el d rtrength of the slce! per unit price a1
the s ? d l dol l ar i pel- ton) cornpored to the yi el d
rt i ongt h per unit price far A36. (8) Boi cd an Bethlehem V Steels
Min.
Yield
Point
psi
$
Per
Tom
Di ffer-
ent i ol
Over A36
I ti".
: c r o - Yield
Strength
Price per Dol l ar
(3) ( 4)
TABLE 26-A Comparison of Prices of Steels for Construction
Base Price Plus Grade Extra Only, October, 1963 ( 11
Structural Plates
Grade 1 Thickness
ASTM
Carbon
Stcels
ASTM
Hi gh-
Strength
Steels
Pi opi i ei ory
Hi gh-
Strength
Low
Al l oy
Steels
15)
To 3/4" 1x1.
-- .
Over %,' t o I!/>'' incl.
.
~ . -
To %" i n d
Ovei %." t o i%" i nri .
.. - . . . .. ..
over 11/2" to 4 incl.
-~ . ..-.- ~ -~ ~-
Over %" t o %." incl.
~ ~
A373 Over %" to 1'. i d
. ~ ~~~ ~~~~- ~
over I" to i I/?'' incl.
. .
over I/," t o 4" inc!.
over il',,' 10 P incl.
~~-~p-~-~ ~~- ~ -
Over 4" t o 8" incl.
over 3,;," to IIIf' i n d
~ --
. -. ~ ~
Ovei 3,$- to 52-
45 L - - ilK
Yield
( 1) There fi gurer ore far compomti ve puipasea only, the $!eel l dol l or i per ton) cornpored t o the yi el d
and ore not to be used for pri ci ng pui porel . Fig. ~ t ~ ~ ~ q t h per unit price for A36 itccl i n the some
ures are bored on Bethlehem Steel Company prices, thickness.
October. 1963. (4) Bored upon Bethiehem's Moyari R A242 steel,
(2) The rati o of t he price of the steel t o the price which hoi on atmospheric corrosion resistonce of
of A36.
st least 4 t o 6 timer t hat of pl ai n carbon steel.
(3) The yi el d ~ t i e o g t h of the rteel per uni t price of (51 Bai cd on Bethlehem V Steels.
h. Strcngth-price valncs are hascd on equivalent
thicknesses of material. Use of a iiigh-strcngth stcel
\ d l i~sridly rcsult in n thinncr section than that re-
ql ~i red wit11 A36. Since tlre thinner nraterial may be
sold at a lowt:r unit price, actnal savings may there-
fore he greater than indicated by coinparativc strength-
price ratios. It is also truc that using highcr strength,
thinner sections d l ptmnit a rtduction in weld size
which offsets incrcasrd cost of prt4ieat or other spccial
welding procedures.
c. Strength-priix vahres art, based on material
costs arid do not inch& fn:ight. fahric;ition, or erection.
Carbon Steels
Based on price alone, ,436 was found to be the! Irest
l>u): in shapes R J I ~ a goor1 h y iir plates. I! we rri:ike
oiir comparison 011 the hasis o! strcngth-to-price ratio,
as in Tnhlts 3, A36 is foiind to bc ;I hcttcr vnlnr than
cithcr A7 or A373 in both slrapcs arrd plates.
Nigh-Strength Steels
\Vhere full advantnge can be t;ikt:ri of higher yield
point le~.cls, .4411 is ;! lrt'tter lm!: illan A36, exccpt for
Gronp 11% shapcs over ' i inch thick (\re11 thickncss)
:ind for Cronp HI* slraprx
I l l e A242 steels arc not rt~comrnorded for eco-
nomical design onlcss high corrosior~ resistance is a
rnajor rcquircmmt.
.-
' Hrfw to note 1 (in Tahie I B.
*Tho yield st rengt h of the rted per uni t price of the $:eel (dollarr per tan) cornpored to t he strength per u n t p,ict !or A36
( I ) Indicates web thickness. 3 See Table I B. Nole I . for deftnliion of Groups I , 1 1 , ond i l l
(2) See Tobie I A, Note 3, for definition of Group A. (4) h i e d a n aet hi shi m V Steels.
TABLE 3A-Comporotive Strength-to-Price Ratios
Comparative Yield Strength Per Dollar*
Structural Shapes
r Grade
Gram ond Thicknest (1) .80 .PO 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30
7.7-4 / Join* Desi gn a n d Producti on
= 81.000 Joules/linear in. of weld
Another condition can be observed by using con-
ditions ( a ) and ( b ) of Figure 7. Two butt joints were
made, one in the vertical position and the other in
the horizontel position, using a multiple-pass groove
weld. The same welding current ( i i 0 amps) was used
in both joints. The vertical joint used a vertical-up
weaving procedure, 3 passes at a speed of 3"/min.,
procedure ( a ) . The horizontal joint used a series of 6
stringer passes at a speed of 6"/min., procedure ( b) .
The faster welding of ( b) , G"/min., produces a nar-
rower isotherm. However, it required 6 passes rather
than 3 of procedure ( a) , and the net result is an
over-all cumulative shrinkage effect greater than that
for (a).
This helps to explain why a given weld made with
more passes will have slightly greater transverse shrink-
age than one made with fewer passes. The transverse
shrinkage can be reduced by using fewer passes. A
further reduction can also be achieved by using larger
electrodes.
In the weld on sheet metal, Figure 7 ( d) , it is
noticed that a greater portion of the adjacent base
metal is affected as compared to the weld itself. This,
combined with the fact that the thin sheet metal is less
rigid than the thick plate (its rigidity varies as its
thickness cubed), helps to explain why sheet metal
always presents more of a distortion problem.
FIG. 8 Transverse shrinkage vories directly
with omount of weld deposit.
5. TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
Transverse shrinkage becomes an important factor
where the net effect of individual weld shrinkage can
be cumulative.
The charts in Figure 8 throw some light on trans-
verse shrinkage. In the lower chart transverse shrink-
age, for a given plate thickness, is seen to vary directly
with the cross-sectional area of the weld. The large
included angles only help to illustrate this relationship
and do not represent common practice. The relative
effects of single and double V-joints are seen in the
upper chart. Both charts assume no unusual restraint
of the plates against transverse movement. Calculations
show that transverse shrinkage is about 10% of the
average width of the cross-section of the weld area.
= . lo x aver. width of weld
Where the submerged-arc process is involved, the
cross-section of the fused part of the joint is considered
rather than simply the area of the weld metal deposited.
Estimate the transverse shrinkage to be expected after
welding hvo 1" plates together if plates are free to
pull in.'Use a double-V groove weld, Figure 9.
FIG. 9 Transverse shrinkoge of this weld con
be closely estimated from computed crors-
sectional area of the weld.
area of weld
(%")(I") = ,125
2(%)(%")(.58") = .29
2(2/3)(1")($46'') = ,083
-
A, = ,498 in.2
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-1 1
stress and often preclrldc advantageous nse of high-
strength steels.
For instance, if we considcr an nnbraced colmnn
length of 11 feet and rompare the required column
size of A36 and A441 for loads of 100k, 4005 and
1600Vve find savings as given in Table A.
through the use of higli-strmgth steols, savings in
fabricating costs can be realized. A common oxample
is in the lower tier col~lmns of multi-story buildings.
Proprietary Grades
Whenever higll-strength steels can be used advantage-
ously, seriorls consideration should be given to one or
more of the proprietary steels, if these steels are ac-
ceptable under thc local codes. Propietary sterls often
provide in<:rcasod economies over -4441. For instance,
if we compare the same cohm~n loads and column
lmgth (11 feet) as in Table A, we find savings for
proprietary steels as given in Table B.
TABLE A
A
comparat i ve
Factors 1 -G - -
STN
T
Size
wt. Sovi ngdi t .
Cast Sovinyr/ft. -
Size
wt. Savi ngsl ft.
Cart Savi ngrl f t . *
-~ -
Si re
w. Savi ngr/ft.
Cart Sovings/ft. *
C.mp.,otive
(Kips) Factors
Size
Cost Sovingr/ft.*"
ASTM
A36
Size
400' wt. Sovi ngdf t .
Cost Snvingr/ft.**
-.
1
Sire
I_* I t . Sovi ngj b.
'
Cast Souingr/it.*-
' Soving of A411 ovei A36; ( + I indicates o saving (bared on prices
in effect Oct., 1963). There voiuer include base pi i r e ood yi ade extra
(shown i n Table 28) p!ur section and l ength extros.
Although there is a saving in weight using A431,
the cost saving is v:xiable and often nil. Because of
the heavy section required for the 1(30OVoad, A441
has a minimum specified yield point of only 42,000 psi.
Wei ght Savings
" Bored an Bethiehem Steei Cornpu,ny'i V50 and V55 Steels
**Savi ng of grade 50 or 55 ovei A36; If i indicates a saving h i e d
on prices i n cf f ei f Oct., 1963. These volues include bore price ond
gi ode ext i e (shown i n Table 281 pius section and length extras.
The judicious nse of high-strength strels will almost
always resnlt in an overall reduction in weight of the
structure. Wlienc\,or this weight rednction can be trans-
lated into savings in the cost of fnundations, supporting
stnictures, or in handling, transportation, or erection
costs, thcn the high-strength steels can and should bc
usod to advantage.
Although ihc minimum specified yield point of
4441 decreases as thickness increases. yield points for
the above proprietary stcels arc 50,000 and 55,000 psi
respectivcly for all available thickncses. As can be
seen in Tables .h and B, the effect on cost of maintain-
ing yicld point throughor~t a broad range of thick-
nesses is quite evident.
Savings I n Fabrication Costs
Whcnever the nrSd for built-up sections can be avoided
E MI LL TEST REPORT: A GUIDE TO WELDABlLlTY
the steel, the paramorrnt question is: "What is the
chemical composition and what are the mechanical
propertics of the stcel that I must work with?"
Many fabricators and engincers tend to rely on the
spt:cification of the strcl for the answer to this ijnestion.
Rut such practice has in many cases led to a welding
procrdure based on the worst combination of chemistry
(as f a as welding is concerned) that the specifjcation
11. SPECIFICATION VS ACTUAL CHEMISTRY
Tht: preceding rnntc~-ial on the dcvelopment of the cnn-
stsuction stecls and the sp~cifications and merits of
thcse stwls should be hclpful to the cngineer or archi-
tect who is scxrching for the most ccoiiomical design.
IIowrvcr, to the fabricator, who must determine
the procedure to use for fonning, bnrning or welding
will allow. This practice can result in a more costly
welding operation than is necessary.
A more realistic answer to the establishment of
welding procedure lies in the steel's "pei1igree"-the
mill test report. The mill test report is a certification of
the chemical composition and physical properties of
the steel in a specific shipment.
To cite an example, an investigation of the mill
test reports from a certain mill disclosed that the steel
supplied by that mill had a carbon and manganese
content considerably less than the maximum allowed
tinder the specification. In addition, 85 per cent of the
steel purchased from this mill was less than % inch
thick. The average chemistry for plates up to 3i4 inch
thick rolled on this mill compares with the allowable
specification chemistry as follows:
I I I
A36 / Soecification 1 0 25% mox 1 -
Mill Average .20 50%
- . . ! . .:. . _-
.224', mox. 1.25%
Mill Average . I 8
Although the above average figores are for a
particnlar mill, they indicate that the carlion and
manganese content is nsnally considerably less than
the maximnm of the specification and will be in a
range that will permit significant variations in welding
procedures.
12. MI LL PROCEDURE
When a mill receives an order for a particulru grade
of steel, prodiiction of that item is scheduled to be
rolled from a heat of stcel meeting the chemical re-
quirements of the gradr: ordered and which it is
expacted will provide the mech:mical properties re-
qnired in the finished product.
Each ingot pollred from imp heat of steel is
identified with the heat number, and this identity
is maintained throughout all subsequent rolling mill
operations.
Tha rolling of steel has a definite effect on the
rnt:chanical properties of the finished product. Con-
firming mechanical tcsts (tensile strength, yield point.
and per cent elongation) are, therefore, made after
the steel has been rolled to final section and cooled.
The mechanical properties of thc section and the
chemical composition of the heat are recorded on the
niill test report.
The mill test report is filed by the mill for its own
record and certified copies arc forwarded to the cus-
tomer, when requested, for his use. The report's dis-
closure of the particular mill order's chemistry is a
valnahlc guide to devclopmcnt of the most economical
and satisfactory welding procedure.
The chemistry of the steel in a structural steel
fabricator's shop can th11s he readily detcnnined from
the mill test report. Fnrtherrnorr, where necessary the
chemistry of thc steel can be anticipated to a reason-
able degree far in advance of shipment by referring
to previons mill test reports on similar products from
the same mill.
For greater economy of welding, the structural
stcel fabricator or erector can and should base his
welding procedure on the actual chemistry of the
steel he is welding, rather than ttpon the worst
nossible combination of chemistrv allowed under
the specification.
CHECKLIST FOR USE OF HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL
In structural steel design, A36 is generally the most b. When deflection limitations are uot a major
versatile and econnmical of the construction steels. factor in detcrminir~g scction.
However, there are occasions whcre the judicious use c. When deflections can be reduced through de-
of high-strength steels can result in overaIl cost and sign features srich as continuity or composite design.
weight savings, such as: d. When weight is important.
e. When fabricating costs can be reduced.
f . When architectural considerations limit the beam
Tension hlembcrs dimensions.
The high-strength steels can usually be used to
advantage in tension members except when the mem-
Co1umns And Compression Members
hers are relatively small in section or when holes (i.e.
a. When steel dead load is a major portion of
for bolts or rivets) sitbstantially reduce the net section
desim load.
of the member.
b. Whcn the slenderness ratio (L/ r) of the mem-
ber is small.
c. When weight is important.
Beams
d. When fabricating costs can be rednced.
a. When steel dead load is a major portion of e. When architectural considerations limit the
design load.
column dim6 ~ F I O ~ S . . '
S E C T I ON 7 . 2
1. INTRODUCTION
Ordinarily, a correctly desigrred joint :ind properly
made weld do not rt-quire special procedures to prc-
vent cracks during wdding or ill sci-vier. The need
for spcciai procdnrcs i11crcases, however, with hcavy
plate structural members ; ~nd is growing with the cx-
panding use of steds having grrater atnotmts of alloy-
ing elements in their clrtwistry.
This section first provides some insight into the
factors that promote weld cracking and maka s ~ g -
gestions for welding proceclurt~s to vorrect or prevcnt
a cracking prohlcrn. This section thcn . i d present a
comprchensivr discussion of wlim to rise prehrxting
to eliniinate or prt3vcnt crac1;ing. It will nlso prrsent
a new approach to establishing the prclieat and iilter-
pass temperatuw, based on the heat inpnt of the weld-
ing proccdrue, thr cri t i al cooling rat<. (dotermint:d by
the cheinistw of the steel), and the joint geometry,
Tandem-arc and other modern auto-
matic welding equipment have revolu-
tionized the shop fabrication of large
bridge girders, built-up columns, and
other special structurol members. The
welding of thick plotes, or of higher-
strength alloys, may require preheat-
ing or other measurer not needed
with the more common mild steels.
&lost stet~ls c;ni he co~nmercially arc wcldcd, with good
rcsr~lts-sonnd, strong \veltIcd joints. The "weldahility"
uf a metal rt4t.r~ to the rtllativc mse of producing a
sati~factnry~ crack-frm, sound joint. A steel is said
to be ideally .iv~Wable if the rct pi rt d \veld joint ~m
Iw niarle nithont difficnlty or ~xcessive cost.
Soroc stools are rnorc. suitcd to high-speed wclding
tli:lii othtxs. Analysis of the t:loctrodo corc \virr, is
acctrrntc~ly coi~trolled to prodwe good wrlits, but since
the plate mctal heconles part of the weld, control of
the plate analysis is nlso irnportant. Whcn higher cnr-
rents ;ire nsed to get I~igher welding spocds, mort: of
thr plate metal mixes with the wcld. If possihlr, wlect
an msily wdded steel that doesn't n>quirc expensive
t~li~ctmcl's or coinplicated welding procednres. 'Table
1 gives a rangr of carbon stt:rl analyscs for maximum
wrlcling speed.
The comrno~ily used mild steels Mi within the
9.2-2 / Joint
In order to evaluate the weldability of steels, a
limited kno\vledge of the basic arc welding process
is advisable.
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal
by establishing a metnllurgical bond between them.
Many different welding processes may be used to
produce bonding through the application of pres-
sure and/or through fnsion. Arc welding is a fusion
process. The bond between the mptals is produced
by reducing to a molten state the surfaces to be
joined and then allowing the metal to solidify.
When the molten metal solidifies, union is com-
pleted.
In the arc welding process, the intense heat re-
quired to reduce thr inetal to a liquid state is pro-
duced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between
the work to be wt~lded and a metal wire or rod
called the elcctrode. The arc, which produces a
Welding Machme AC or DC
Power Source and Controls
Electrode Holder 7
\Ground Cable
I
temperature of about 6500F at the tip of the
electrode, is formed by bringing the electrode close
to the metal to he joined. The tremendous heat at
the tip of the electrode melts filler metal and base
metal, thus liquifying them in a common pool
called ;I crater.* As the arens solidify, the metals
are joined into one solid homogeneous piece. By
moving the electrode along the scam or joint to
be welded, the surfaces to be joined are welded
together along their entire length.
The electric arc is the most widely used source
of energy for the intense heat required for fusion
*For soinc applications, filler metal is deposited by a con-
sumnbl c wel di ng electrode; for others, a "nonmnsumabl e"
elcctrode supplies the heat a n d s separate welding rod the
filler metal.
wclding. The arc is an electrical discharge or spark
sustziined in a gap in the electrical circuit. The re-
sistance of the air or gas in the gap to the passage of
thc current, transforms the electrical energy into
heat at extremely high temprmtures. Electrical
power consists of amperes and voltage. The amount
of energy available is the product of the amperes
and the voltage flowing through the circuit and is
meastired in watts and kilowatts. The energy used
is affected h y such variables as the constituents in
&ctrode coatings, the typc of current (-46 or DC),
the direction of cul-rent flow, and many others.
In all modern arc welding processes, the arc is
shielded to control the complex arc phenomenon
mid to improve the physical properties of the weld
deposit. This shielding is accomplished through
varions techniques: a chemical coating on the elec-
trode wire, inert gases, granular flux compoi~nds,
and metallic salts placed in thc core of the elec-
trode. Arc shielding varies with the type of arc
welding process used. In all cases, however, the
shielding is intended: 1) to protect the molten
metal from the air, oither with gas, vapor or slag;
2) to add alloying and fluxing ingredients; ,and 3)
to control the melting of the rod for more effective
use of the arc energy.
Gaseous Shield
The arc welding process requires ;I continuous
supply of electric cnrrent suflicient in amperage
:md voltage to maintain an wrc. 'l'his currcnt may be
either altcmating (AC) or dircct ( DC) , but it must
be provirlecl through a source which can be con-
trolled to satisfy the variables of the welding
11roces" :mmnerage and voltage.
eldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-3
prefei ~ed analysis listed. S111phur contrnt of thcse stcck
is usnally h1.low 0.035%, altbongh thr specification
limits pcrmit as inuch ;IS O.O.WjOa/,.
Continued progrcss is being made in rnrtallnrgical
control of steel, as \vi,ll as in the dwcloprnent of weld-
ing proccssm, electrodes and Anxes. This tends to
broaden the range of "\veldability" with respect to steel
:tnalysis.
The six basic ASTM-specificntion constniction
steels usually do not reqnirc spccial precautions or
special procedures.
However, u-hcn welding t ht tfiicktbr plates i r i oven
theso stcels the incr<iascd rigidity and restraint and
the drastic quench rlFect makes the me of thr propcr
proccdurc vitally import;rnt. In :rddition, thick plates
usually have higher carhon contmt.
We also have :In increasc iir the usc of higher
strength low alloy stocls and the heat trcatetl very high
yield strength steels. Tlresc steols have somr elernonis
in their chemistry that exceed the idcal analysis, Tnblc
1, for high spced n.cIdiiig.
Frequently pre-planned and proven wddiug PXO-
cedures are reqi i i r~d to assure the production of crack-
free welds when joining thickcr platos or the alloy
stccls. These proccdnres i~snally call for onr or :ill of
the following:
1. Proper bead shape and joint configuration.
2. Minimized penetration to pievent dilntion of tlie
weld metal with the alloy clemcnts in the plate.
3. Preheating, controlled intorpass trmparature and
sometimes cvrn controlled heat inpirt from thv
welding procrdurc to retard the cooling rate and
reduce shrinkage stresses.
3. BASE PROCEDURE ON ACTUAL ANALYSIS
Pnhlishcd standard production welding procedures
generally apply to normal wdding conditions and tlic,
more common, "prcfcrrcd analysis" mild steels.
Whim a steel's specification analysis falls outside
the preferred analysis, tlie user often adopts a special
welding procedure based on the cxtrerncs of the ma-
terial's chemical content "allowi~d" by the steel's spcci-
fication. IIowever, since the chemistry of a specific heat
of steel may run far bolom the top limit of thc "allon-
TABLE I-Preferred Analysis
Of Carbon Sfeel for Good
/ Normal 1 Steel Exceeding Any One of
Element t he Following Percenlogel
j % / wi l l ~ ~ ~ b ~ b l ~ Require Extra Core
nl~lrs". a spcrial p~-owdnrc rnay not he rqui red, or
may rcqniro only ;I slight changc from standard pro-
cdur cs and thcrchy luini~nize any incrt:asc in welding
cost.
For optimum vxnomy and qnality, under either
f;rvorablr: or ndv<mt: corrditions, the welding proccdurc
for joining any type of steel should he based on the
stcel's ncftrirl chemistry rather than thc marimurn alloy
co~~tt.lrt allomcd by the sprrification. This is hccause a
mill's avinlge production norinally rnns considi!rnhly
undi:r the m:~xinrum limits set by the spceificstion.
Usn;dly a Mill Test Kcport is availnhle which giws
the spci:ifi(. ;inalysis of any given heat of steel. Once
this information is o h i n c d , a \vciding proccdnrc can
be s1.t that will assure the production of crack-free
\scids at thc lo\vcst possible cost.
Manganese
Silicon
Sulphur
Phoi phorui
4. WELD QUALITY
The main ohjectivc of any w ~ i l h g proccdore is to join
the, pieccs as reqnirod with tlrc most cfficicnt weld pos-
sihlc ;ind at thc lcast possiblc cost. "As wqni r ed means
thrk wt.ld's size and q~lnlity niust he consistent with
the scr\ kc rtquirr~nents. Excessivr precautions to ob-
tain unncccsswy quality, heyond that ni:eded to meet
svrviw rquircmcnts, st:rvc no practical pnrposc and
can bc rxpensivc.
Hccanst it grcatly ii,crrs:ises cost withont any hcne-
fit, i~isprction should not rcqnt:st the correction of
slight nndi.rcot or minor rxliographic dcfech snch as
limited scattered porosity 2nd slag inclusions, unless
thorough s i ~ ~ d y shows sncli ddcets cannot be tolerated
because oi specific scruice reqoircments.
Mn
Si
S
P
elds Crack an
3 5 - 80 1 1.40
.30
,035 niox 050
030 man 040
5. WELD CRACKS
1. weld cracks occ~~rri ng during wclding,
A crack in 3 weld, howcver, is nwer minor and cannot 2. cracking in thc heat aficcted zone of the base
be condoned. Good design and proper welchng pro- metal.
ct?dure will prevent thcsc cracking problems: 3. welded joints failing in service.
Plote 1s liiter preheated,
and submerged arc weld
wfl l remelt tack weld
ond hardened zone in
ib/
FIGURE 1
Factors that Affece Wel d Cracking During Welding
1. Joint Resfruint that causes high stresses in the
weld.
2. Bead Shopc of the deposited weld. As the hot
weld cools, it tends to shrink. A convex bead has s~ffi -
cient material in the throat to satisfy the dcmancls of
the biaxial pull. However, a concave bead may rcsult
in high tensile stresses across the weld surface from
toc to toe. Thcse hr s s es frequently are high cnough
to rupture the surface of the weld causing a longitndinal
crack.
An excessively penetrated weld with its depth
greater than its width under conditions of high restraint
may carlsc internal cracks.
Both of thesc types of cracking arc greatly aggra-
vated by high sulphur or phosphorus content in the
base plate.
3. Carbon and Alloy Content of the base metal.
The higher the carbon and alloy content of the base
metal, the grrater the possible scdoction in ductility
of the weld metal through admixture. This contributes
appreciably to weld cracking.
4. Hydrogcn Picliup in the wcld deposit from the
electrode coating, moisture in the joint, and contamin-
ants on the surface of thc base metal.
5, Rapid Cooling Ratc which incrrases the effect
of items 3 and 4.
Factors fhot Affect Cracking in t he Heot-Affected
Zone
1. Nigh curbon or alloy content which increases
hardenability and loss of ductility in the hmt-affected
zone. (Underbead cracking does not occur in non-
hardenable steel.)
2. Hydrogen embrittlcnient of the fusion zone
through migration of hydrogen liberated from the
weld metal.
3. Rote of cooling which controls items 1 and 2.
Factors that Affect Welded Joints Failing in Service
Welds do not usually "crack in service but may
"break" because the weld was of insufficient size to
fulfill scrvice rtquircments. Two other factors would be:
1. Notch toughness," which would affect the
breaking of welds or plate when subjected to high
impact loading at i9xtrcmely low temperatures.
2. Fatigue cracking* due to a notch effect from
poor joint gcomctry. This occurs under servicc con-
ditions of nnusually severe stress reversals.
items t o Control
I. Bead Slzupe. Dcposit beads having proper bead
surface (i.e. slightly convex) and also having the
proper width-to-depth ratio. This is most critical in the
case of single pass weids or the root pass of a lnultiple
pass weld.
2. Joint Restraint. Design weldments and structure
to keep restraint problcms to a minimum.
3. Carbon and Alloy Content. Selcct the correct
grade and quality of steel for a given application,
througll familiarity with thc mill analysis and the cost
of welding. This will ensure balancing wcld cost and
steel price using that steel which will develop the
lowest possible overall cost. Further, this approach
\\.ill usually avoid use of inferior welding quality steels
that have excessively high percentages of those elements
t ht ~t always adversely affect weld quality-sulphur and
phosphorus.
Avoid excessive admixture. This can be accom-
plished through procedure changes which reduce pene-
tration (different clcctrodes, lower currents, changing
" N&w notch toiighncss nor fatigue cracking are discussed
herr. See Srction 2.1, "P~.opcrtics of Materials," Section 2.8,
"Desi~ming for Impact Loads, and Section 2.9, "Designing for
Fatigue Loads."
eldability and elding Procedure / 7.2-5
polarity, or improving joint design si ~ch as replacing
a sqllare edge butt weld with a bevel joint.)
4. Hydrogen Pi ckup. Select low-hydrogen welding
materials.
5. Ifeat Inpot. Control total heat input. This may
include preheat, weliiing heat, heating between weld
passes to conh.01 interpnss temperature and post heat-
ing to control cooling rate. Control of heat input lowers
the shrinkage stresses and retards the cooling rate
helping to prevent excessive hardening in the heat-
i~ffected zone, two primary causes of cracking.
6. TACK WELDS
The American Welding Society's Building Code and
Bridge Specifications both require any tack welds that
will be incorporated into the final joint, to be made
under the same qr~aliw requirements, including pre-
heat, as the final welds.
However, this docs not recognize the deep pene-
tration characteristics of some welding processes, for
esampfc, submerged-arc. i f the initial tack welds are
relatively small compared to the first submerged-arc
weld pass, they will be entirely remdted along with
the adjacent heat-affected area in the plate.
In this case, no preheat should be required for
small single pass tack welds i~nless the plates arc so
thick and restrained that the tack welds are breaking.
See Figure 1. If the tack welds are breaking, the
corrective measures previously listed relating to bead
shape and weld throat should he applied with prc-
heating called for as a last resort. I t is always a good
idea to usc low-hydrogen welding materials for tack
welding plates over 1 in. thick.
7. THI NNER PLATE
Welds that join thinncr plates rarely show a tendency
t o crack. The licirt input during wclding and lack of
mass of the thinner plate create a relatively slow
cooling ratc. This, pl i ~s thc rcduccd intcmal stresses
resnlting from a good weld throat to plate thickness
ratio and the fact that the thinner plate is less rigid
and can flex as the weld cools and shrinks, controls
the factors that induce cr:icking. Cracking is almost
never a factor on thinner platc rrnless un~~sual l y high
in carbon or alloy content.
. THI CK PLATES
In the steol mill, all sted p1att.s and rolled sections
1111dergo n ratller slow rate of cooling after being
rolled while red hot. The red hot thick sections, bccausc
of their greater mass, cool morc slowly than thin
sections. For a given carbon and alloy content, slower
cooling from the critical temperature r ( d t s in n slightly
lower strength.
For the nornld thickncsscs, the mill has no
difficulty in meeting the minimum yield strength re-
quired. However, in extremely thick mill sections, be-
cause of their slower cooling, the carbon or alloy
content might have to be increased slightly in order
to mcct the rcquired yield strength.
Since a weld cools faster on a thick plate than on
,
(b) Preset before welding
(c) Weld free to shrink; stress-free
FIGURE 2
a thinner plate, and silrce the thicker plate will prob-
ably have a slightly higher carbon or alloy content,
welds on thick plate (beca~rse of admixhuc and fast
cooling) will have higher strcngtlis but lower ductility
than those made on thinner plate. Special welding
procedures may be required for joining thick plate
(especially for the first or root pass), and preheating
may be necessary. The object is to decrease the weld's
rate of cooling so as to increase its ductility.
In addition to improving ductility, preheating
thick plates tends to lower the shrinkage stresses that
develop because of excessive restraint.
Because of its expense, preheating should he
selectively specified, however. For csample, fillet welds
joining a thin web to a thick flange plate may not
require as much preheat as does a butt weld joining
two highly restrained thick plates.
On thick plates with large welds, if there is metal-
to-metal contact prior to welding, thcre is no possibility
of plate movement. As the u&Is cool and contract,
all the shrinkage stress must be taken up in tlie \veld,
Figure 2( a) . In cases of severe rcstraint, this may cause
the weld to crack, especially in the first pass on either
side of the plate.
By allowing a small gap between the plates, the
plates cnn "movr in" slightly as the weld sluinks.
This reduces the tmrtsversc stresses in the weld. See
Figures 2.(b) axid 2( c) . I-leavy plates shoul~l always
have a minimum of %," gap between them, if possible
%G" .
This small gap can bc obtained by means of:
1. Insertion of spacers, made of soft steel wire
between the plates. The soft wire will flatten out as
the weld shrink. If coppcr ui re is used, care should
be taken that it does not mix with the weld metal.
2.. A deliberately rough flame-cut edge. The small
peaks of tlie cut edge keep thc plates apart, yet can
squash out as the weld shrinks.
Molten weld
FIGURE 3
3. Upsetting thc edge of the plnte with a heavy
center punch. This acts similar to the rough flame-cut
idge.
TIw platrs will nsually be tight together after
the w~ l d h;rs cooled.
The abovc discussion of metal-to-metal contact and
shrinkage stresses espt ~i al l y ;ipplies to fillet welds. .4
slight gap betwrcn platcs ui l l hclp assme crack-free
fillet welds.
B r d shape is anothw important factor that :affects
fillet wclti cracking. Frcczing of the molten weld,
Figure O ( H ) : due to the qumdl i ng cffect of the plates
commences along thr sides of the joint ( b ) where the
cold mass of the heavy plate instantly drams the heat
olrt of the molten wcld metal mid progrcsses uniformly
inward ( e ) until the u d d is complrtely solid ( d ) .
Kotice that the last matcrial to freeze lies in a plane
along the ccnterline of thc wcld.
To d l ester~ial appearances, the concave weld
( a ) in Figure 4 ivorlld seem to be larger than the
convex weld ( h) . Ho\vever, a check of the cross-
(a) Concove illet weld (b] Convex weid
FIGURE 4
eldability and elding Procedure / 7.2-7
section may show the concave \veld to have less pme-
tmtion and a smaller throat ( t ) than first thought;
therefore, the convex weld may actually he stronger
we n though it may haw lcss deposited metal (darker
cross-section);
Designers originally favored the concave fillet weld
because it seemed to offer a smootlrer path for the flow
of stress. However, experience has shown that single-
pass fillet welds of this shape have a greater tendency
to crack upon cooling, which unfortunately usually
outweighs the effect of improved stress distribution.
This is especially true with steels that require special
\\&ling procedures.
When a concave fillet \veld cools and sl~rinks, its
outer face is stressed in tension, Figure S( a) . If a
surface shrinkage <:rack should occur, it can usually he
avoided by changing to a convex fillet ( b ) . Here the
ce not in lension
(a) Concave weld (b) Convex fillet weld
FIGURE 5
weld can shrink, while cooling, without stressing the
outer face in tension and should not crack. For multiple-
pass fillet \velds, the convex head shape usually iipplies
only to tlre first pass.
For this reason, \vlren concave welds are desired
for special design considerations, such as stress flow,
they should he made in two or more passes-the first
slightly amvex, and the other passes built up to form
a concave fillet weld.
On heztvy plate, it is usr~ally thc first (or root) pass
of a groove weld that r r q~~i r es spccinl preca~~tions. This
is rspccially true of the root weld on the hack side of
a doubic Vet: joint hecansc of the atlded restraint from
the weld on the front side. The weld tends to shrink in
all dircctiol~s as it cools, hnt is restraincd by the plate.
Not only arc tensile shrinkage stresses set up within the
weld, but tlre wcld frequently mrdergocs plastic yield-
ing to accommoclatc this shritrkngc.
Some idea of tlrc possible locked-in stress and
plastic flow of the wcld may be sccn in Figure 6.
lmaginc the plate to bc cut near the joint, allowing the
weld to frccly slrrink (dotted lines). Tl1e11 pull thc
phtes hack to the origit~al rigid position thztt they
\t.onld norm:ill>- he in i l ~~ri nfi ; i d after w~,lding (solid
lincs). This ncct.ssitatt~s a stretching of the wdd.
FIGURE 6
In :~ctual practice all of this stretch or yielding
call occur only in the weld, since the plate cannot
move and tho weld has the loast thickness of the joint.
Most of this yielding takes place while the weld is hot
and has lower strength and ductility. If, at this time,
the intcrnal stress exceeds the physical properties of
the weld, a crack occurs which is rrsually down the
centerline of the weld.
The problem is enllanced by the fact that the
first (or root) head usually picks up additional carbon
or alloy by admixture with the base metal. The root
bead thus is less ductile than subsequent beads.
'4 concavc head surface in a groove weld creates
the sume tendency for surface cracking as described
for fillet welds, Figure 7. This tendency is further
incre;ised with lower ductility.
Wrong Right
Too concove Flat or slightly convex
FIGURE 7
Incrcasing thc throat dimtsnsion of the mot p:iss
will llrlp to prewnt cracking; nse clcctr.odc.s or pro-
ci ~l ~i r cs t h t d~:vclop a c~mvcs )wad slrapo. L.ow hydro-
gtw wclding m:~terinls are somctimcs nseful and finall"
prehmt can he slwcificd. Oln~ionsly prclrcating should
h(: zuhptcd as I hst rcsort sincc it will causc the
grcatest iocrc:asc in wcld cost.
The prohhm of crnterlinr cr;irking can wen
occnr in the succeeding p; i ssr~ of ;I m~~l t i pl r pass mcld
if tht, psscs ;Ire exccssivclv widc or concavc. Corrcc-
tivc measnrcs call for a i~rocedure that spccifies a
narr~rwcr slightly convex bead shape. making thc corn-
pl et ~d \veld two or moro heads widc, side by side;
Figure 8.
7.2-8 Joint Design and Production
Wrong Wrong Right
Too wde and concave Washed up too high Flat or slightly convex
FIGURE 8
[Also poor dog rernovol) and concove not qutte full width
(Also good slog removal]
10. ~NTERNAL CRACKS AND WELD WI DTH
TO DEPTH OF FUSlON RATIO
Where a cracking problem exists due to joint restraint,
material chemistry or both, the crack usually appears
at the weld's face. In some situations, however, an
internal crack can occur which won't reach the weld's
face. This type of crack usually stems from the mis-
use of a welding process that can achieve deep pene-
tration, or poor joint design.
The freezing action for butt and groove welds is
the same as that illustrated for fillet welds. Freezing
starts along the weld surface adjacent t o the cold base
metal, and finishes at the centerline of the weld. If,
however, thc weld depth of fusion is much greater than
width of the face, the weld's surface may freeze in
advance of its center. Now the skrinkage forces will
act on the still hot center or core of the head which
could cause a centerline crack along its length without
this crack extending to the weld's face, Figure 9( a) .
Internal cracks can also result with improper joint
design or preparation. Figure S( b) illustrates the
results of combining thick plate, a deep penetrating
wclding procrss, and a 45" included angle.
A small b md on the second pass side of the
double-V-groove weld, Figure S(c), and arc gouging
a groovc too deep for its width, led to the iviterlial crack
illustrat~d.
Internal cracks can also occur on fillet welds if
the depth of fusion is srrfficie~itly greater than the face
width of the bead, Figure 9( d) .
Although internal cracks are most serious since
they cannot be detected with visual inspection methods,
a few preventive measures can assure their elimination.
Limiting the penetration and tho volume of weld metal
deposited per pass tliror~gh speed and amperage con-
trol and using a joint design which sets reasonable
depth of fusion requircrnents are both steps in thc
right direction.
In all cases, irowever, the critical factor that helps
control internal cracks is the ratio of weld width to
depth. Experience shows that the weld width to depth
of fusion ratio can range from a minimum of 1 to 1
Width of M7cld = to
Depth of Fusion
coi i ei t I n~ol i ec,
Wr l d depth Weid wdt i Weld depth VJeld width
/ A K gnuge too narrow I"'"""' ""'k
FIGURE 9
eldobiiity and elding Procedure / 7.2-9
11. UNDERBEAD CRACKING
Underbead cracking is not a problem with the con-
trolled analysis low carbon steels. This problem if it
occurs is in the heat-affectcd zone of the base metal.
It can become a factor with thick plate as the carbon
or alloy contcnt of the steel increases. As an example,
this can occur with the heat treatable very high
strength, high carbon low alloy steels like 4140 or
6150. The construction alloy steels which have over
100,000 psi tensile strength and are heat treated before
welding, also can experience underbead cracking in
thick plates. When armour plate was used, underbead
cracking (toe cracks) was a problem. The point is that
the problem is only important on hardenable steels.
Low-hydrogen processes should be used to join
these materials since one cause of underbead crack-
ing is hydrogen embrittlement in the heat-affected
zone. Hydrogen in the welding arc, either from the
electrode coating or from wet or dirty plate siufaces,
will tend to be partially absorbed into the droplets
of weld metal being deposited and absorbed into the
molten metal beneath the arc.
As the welding arc progresses along the plate,
the deposited hot weld metal (which has now solidi-
fied) and the adjacent base metal heated by the weld
above thc transformation temperature are both aus-
tenitic at this elevated temperature, and have a high
solubility for hydrogen. Fortunately, a considerable
amount of hydrogen escapes through the weld's sur-
face into the air; however, a small amount may diffuse
back through the weld into the adjacent base metal.
(The rate of diffusion decreases with decreasing
temperature.)
by weld, hydrogen i s
roluble in this i egmn
-
men to < This rewon rernolns or
diffuse ony further ferrite; no solubility
for hydrogen
FIGURE 10
Beyond the boundary of the heat-affected zonc,
the hasr metal is in the form of ferrite, which has
practically no solubility for hydrogen. This ferrite
boundary becomes an imaginary fence, and the hy-
drogen tends to pile up here; going no farther. See
Figure 10.
tipon further cooling, the lieat-aifcctetl area tmns-
forms back to fcri-itc with almost no solubility for hy-
drogen. Any hydrogen present tends to separate out
bctuwn the crystal lattice and builds up prcssnre. This
pressure, when cornhined with shrinkage stresses and
any hardening cfft:ct of the steel's chemistry, may
cause tiny cracks. Since weld metal is usually of a
lower carbon than the hasc plate, this trouble occurs
mai ~~l y just beyond thc \veld along the austcnite-
fcrritc boundary and is c;~llecl "underbead cracking"
See Figure 11. Ii some of these cracks appear on the
FIGURE 1 1
plate surface adjacent to the weld, they are called "toe
cracks". Slower cooling by welding slower and pre-
heating allows hydrogen to escape and helps control
this problem.
The use of low-l~ydrogen welding materials elim-
inates the major source of hydrogen and usually
eliminates underbead cracking.
12. SUMMARY ON CRACKING
The first requirement of any welded joint is to be
crack-free. Cracking may occur in either the weld
metal or the heat-nffectcrl zone of thc base plates.
Most stock can be welded in the average plate,
tllickness without worrying abont weld cracking.
As plate thickness incl-cases, and as the carbon
and alloying content incrcasc, weld cracks and nnder-
head cracks may become prohlems and require special
precautions for their control.
This ncccssitates in order of importance: a ) good
welding procedure, especially in respect to bead shape,
control of admixtmc, h) reducing rigidity by intcn-
tional spacing of plates, c ) use of loiv-hydrogen weld-
ing materials, and d ) controlled cooling rate, including
welding cur-rent and travel speed, and if needed corn
trol of preheat and interpass temperature.
reheat and Ho
eat Temperature
HEN AND WHY TO PREHEAT
Preheating, while not always ncccssary, is wr d for one
of the following reasorrs:
1. To rcdttce shrirrkagc stresses in the wcld and
dj acent base metal; especially important in highly
restrained joints.
2. To provide n slower rate of cooling through the
critical tempcmturtz range ( a hwt 1800' F to 1330" F)
preventing excessi\.e i~;irtlcning and lowermi ductility
in hot11 wcld arrd heat-:~ffectd area of thc hasr plate.
3. To provide a slower rate of cooling through
the 100F r;rnge, allowing more t i n~c for any hydrogrn
that is prtxscnt to diHl~sc away from the weld and
adjacent plate to avoid r~ndcrhead crz~cki~lg.
1. To increase thc ;~lk)w;ible critical ratc of cooling
below \ahich there will he no underbead cracking.
Thus, with the mekling procedure held constant, a
highcr initial plate temperature increases the maximum
safe ratc of cooling while slo'iving down the actual
ratc of cooling. This tends to mnka tho hcnt input
from the welding proct:ss less critical.
Cottrcll and Hratlslrcet* show thc following critical
cooling rates (R,,) for ;I given steel at 572'F (3(WC)
using low-hydrogrm electrode in order to prevent under-
bcad cracking for various preheats to be:
5. To increase the notch toughness in the weld
Zorlc'.
6. To lower the transition temperature of the weld
a nd adjaccnt base metal.
Kormally, uot much pr t hxt is required to prevent
ur~dcrheacl cracking. This is held to a ~r~inimum when
low-hydrogen vddirtg materials arc uscd. Higher pre-
heat tcmpcratr~re might be required for some other
roiison. e.g. a highly restrained joint between very
thick platos, or a high alloy content.
Preheating makes other factors less critical, br ~t
since it invariably increase the cost of welding, it
cannot he indi~lgrd in ~tsrtrecess:~riIy.
14. AWS MI NI MUM REQUIREMENTS
Thc AWS has set t ~ p minimum preheat arid interpass
rrquircmcnts given in Table 2.
These minimum prrhrxat requircmcnts may need
to be adjusted, according to welding heat input, spc-
cific steel chemistry, the joint geometry, and other
factors.
TABLE 1-AWS Minimum Initial and Interpass Temperatures1,V(1966)
I Welding Pioceas
To %, lncl. none"
..
-.
Over I]/> to 2%. inc!. 225-F 150F
Thickness of
Thkkert Port at
P d n t of Welding
(inches)
' Weiding shall not be done when the ambi ent temperowre i s iower t han OFF.
'When the bare metal is betow tho t emperat ure listed for the welding proceri being used and
t he thickness of moteiiol being weided, it shall be preheated f ar both toik welding and welding
in such ma nne r that the i urf ocer of t he parts o n which weid mctol is being deposited are at
or above the mi ni mum tcrnperotuie for o distnnce cquoi to t he thickneii of the port
being weided, but not less thon 3 inches, both iotcioily a nd in advance of t he welding.
Preheat tcrnperoiure shall not exceed 400DF. (l nt ci pni i t emperat ure is not subject to a maxi mum
Shielded Metol-Arc Welding with
Shielded Metol-Arc Welding with Low-Hydrogen Electrodes
Other t h a n Low-Hydrogen Electrodes and Submerged Arc Welding
A36". A7' , A373' A36'. A7" A373', A441'
, A242' Weldable Grade
limit.)
"sing U O X X ar E70XX electiadei other thoii tho low-hydrogen types.
' Using E6OXX or E7OXX iow-hydrogon electrodes I EXX15, -16. -18. -281 or Grade SAW-I or SAW-2.
' Using only E70XX lawhydrogen rleitioder lE7015. 7016. E7018, E7028) or Grode SAW-2.
Wh e n the boi e metol temperatwe Is below 32F , preheat the bore metal to at leort 72F.
eldobility and elding Procedure / 7.2-1 1
15. HEAT I NPUT DURING I
One factor that \vould reducc preheat recluiremcnts 1
is tlic use of greater welding heat input; for example,
the welding heat input for vertical welding with weave
[i
x
passes at an arc speed of 3 in./min. is greater than that
5
- oo ing rote 'F/rec
of horizontal welding with stringer hcads at 6 in./min. + - Prah--. , -
I
- - -..curecl
The heat input ( J ) ~ for :I spedfic weldiug procedure
- - - - I-= - - _ 300" ~
can be detcrn~ined ~ ~ s i n g the formula:
E 1 0
Time ---+
J = -- "
(1) FIGURE 12
\vilere:
J : =: Heat input in Jodss/in. or watt-sec/in.
E = Arc voltage in volts
I = Welding current in amps
V = Arc speed in in./min
Since all of the welding heat input at thc arc does
not enter the plate, the following heat efficiencies arc
snggested for rise with this fonnula and subsequent
formulas, charts or nomogrnphs:
--
(3-809; manual welding
'30-10(1'2 submerged ;uc welding
Most preheat arid interp:iss te~llpcrature recom-
mendations are set np for manual welding where there
is ;I rr:lativcly low hi %~t input. For example, a current of
200 amps and a speed of 6 in.jmin. would produce a
welding heat input of so bout 48,000 joules/in. or watt-
sec.,'in., asslirning an efficicrrc). of 80 percent. Yct, it
might hc nccessauy to weld a 12-gmrge 3heet to this
plate in thc vertical drr\\-n positim with 180 arnps anrl
;I specd of 22 irr. jmin. This would rsduce the wclding
heat input to 9800 joul(~siin. If this werc a thick plate,
it \vould indicate thc need, wit11 this second pro-
ccdure, for n~or ~: prelhaat, althongh existing prcheat
t abl a do not r t mpi z c the cffect of diEcrctit welding
hcat inputs.
On the other I ~ ~ i n t i , somc do\i;ii\vard i~djustn~ent
in preheat from the \ di w list011 in the prclieat tables
should he ~nade for standard welding procetlures
which providc a mlich grcatrr welding h a t i ~~pi r t .
We are considering here a stable heat-flow- condition
after some welding has progresstd.
This does r ~ot consider the more severe cooling
conditions at thc moment wdrling commerrces. Un-
dorrht~dly, some initial hcat could bt: supplied to a
localized arra at thv start of tllc weld on thick plate.
Tho qncstion hecomcs Iiow much, if any, pre-
heat is nerded for thc rernaini~ig length of joint.
For esainplt:, i t is st;uidard practice today to use
submerged-an antom:~tic welding to build up columns
and girdcm from heavy plate. Onc method of fabri-
cation uses a single-arc, submerged-are automatic weld
at 850 amps and a speed of 20 in./min. (for a %'' fillet
weld), wit11 the ginicr positioned for flat welding. This
would provide a heat input of 86,000 joules/in. An
alternate metbod positions the girder with its web
vertical so t l ~at both welds are made si~nultaneously in
the hrxizontal position, and uses two sets of tandcm
arcs (each set with two wclding heads); the heat input
from e:icb arc would he 73,600 joules/in.-a total of
147,000 joules/in. of weld for ezreh fillet. Because of the
resdtirig lower cooling rato, less preheat should be
required once the weld has been started. This may be
a considerable advantage for the comfort of welding
-
operators, especially when welding inside 1,lrge box
girders.
16. COOLING RATE
When a \veld is made, thc weld and adjacent plate
cool very rapidly. Thc rate of cooling depends first
on the combination of initial plate temperature (To)
(int,luding cffccts of preheat or interpass temperature)
and the welding licat input ( J ) , and secondly, on the
plate's capacity to absorb this heat in terms of plate
thickness and joint geometry.
Fignro 12 ilh~strntcs the temperatrires in the heat-
:dFectcd zone of the plate as the welding arc passes
by. Under a givm set of coriditions, the cooling rate
will vary as ropres<.~ltcd by the changing slopes of
both curves.
For a particnlar cheinistry: at a given tempcratrire
level ( T, j thir-e is a critical cooling rate (R,,) whicli
shoold not bc cscreded i n order to avoid u~~dcrbead
cracking. This temperature level is in the range of
J00"l' to 750F. American investigators tend t o use a
higher value sucli as 750", while English and Canadian
invcstigators favor a lower value such as 300C, or
572F. In this discussion, wc have placcd this tempera-
ture levt4 (Ti) at 572F.
. ,
Ihe iiivestig:ition of cooling rates has been based
largely on two rxtreme conditions, which have been
d t d o p c d rnatheniaticaily.* These are:
I. The thin platc, in which the combination of
heat inpnt, preheat and intorpass temperature. For a
given heat input, the cooling rntr indicated by the
"thick platc" formula is tlw maxiinurn (R,,,) that can
occur rcgardiess of the plate thicl\-ness.
At any given plate thickness the lower cooling
ratc value is the more nearly correct. Using the two
curves of Figure 15 as a limit and a guide, a new
curve (solid line) lhns hcen dr;iwn in Figure 16.
Piote thickness (tj --+
FIGURE 16
Notice, Figure 16, that the upper half of the
variable part of this cnrvc is almost a perfect reversal
of the lowcr half, and the lower half belongs to the
curve for the "thin plate". Thereforc, the curved por-
tions will be expressed mathematically as-
lower portion
upper portion
If a welding proccdwe for a given plate thickness
lies in the lower portion of the cnwc, it is easy t o solvc
directly for the r eqni n~l preheat ( To) using formula
( 4 ) ; howcver, this wu l d be very difficult for thc
upper portion using formula ( 5) .
Thc chart is further limited in use since it only
covers n single valuo of prchcat and heat input. There-
fore, to expi xl the application of this approacl~, wc
will put both formnlas ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) into morc usable
non-dimension formnlas (6) and ( 7) . This calls for
inclnsion of the maximum cffcctive plate thickness
(t,,:,), and the corresponding maximum effective prc-
heat (T,)/,,,) for this thickness.
l o wr portion
t = actual thickness of the plate, in.
tm = maximiim effective plate for given values of
(1) and ( R)
TI = clcvatcd tcmpeiaturc at which cooling rate
is c.on\idercd (572F)
T, -- prehcat tcmperatnrc for given values of ( J ) ,
( R) , and ( t ) , "F
To/,,, = maxunum effrctivc preheat temperature for
a given value of ( J ) and (R), "F
Formulas (6) and ( 7) produccd the curve shown
in Fignrc 17. This can he nsed to determine To the
rcquired prt:hcat ternprrature.
17. BI-THERMAL VS. TRI-THERMAL HEAT
FLO
This work is based upon bi-thermal hcat flow wherc
thc heat bas two avenues for escnpc; for example, a
(:onvcntional butt joil~t consisti~~g of two plates, Figure
18(a).
Tri-thermal heat iiow lias three avcmm for escape,
;iri oxamplc is ;i tee joint made of three plates, Figure
18(h).
Mjhcrt, tri-thermal heat WOW condition exists, the
abovr work should hc modified either hy:
1. Using ?! 3 of the actnal hcat input ( J ) , or
2. Adjusting the plato thickness ( I ) to allow for
the extra plate by using '/i of the sum of three
thicknesses.
73-14 / Joint Design and Production
1.0
.9
.8
.7
T' -- - T d i , ,b
Tb - To
Upper portion of curve
.5
i
4
.3
.2
1
I .2 3 4 5 6 7 .8 .9 1.0 i i 1.2
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 18
. CARBON EQUIVALENT
As a resrilt of rccent experiments and studies, it is
possihlc to simplify the relationship of all chemical
rlrments in a stocl to the occurrenct: of nnderhead
cmcking. l'hc simplification is cxprtwed in a single
formnla krro\~n as thc cart)on tyliivaleilt. This forn~ula
expresses the inifuenrc of each elemant rrlativc to that
of carbon.
Invrstigators* have shown ;I definite relationship
in the percent of nndcrhcad cmcking to the carbon
equivalent. Figure 19 sllows a 1" thick test plate on
which a single bead was deposited nsing Ya" E6010
electrode at 100 amps, 25 v, reversed polarity, at 10
in./min. The chart, Figure 20, shows the percentage
of uirderbcad cracking for diffcrent equivalents
that occurred with this test. A deposit made with low-
hydrogen E6015 electrodes on ;+ specilnen of this
thickness did not have undcrhaad cracks. The AWS
E6015 rlrctrodt~ is comp;irable to today's E7018. The
results were plotted, Figure 20, to give curves for
three different preheat temperatures (T<>).
K. Wintertorl* has listrd I4 diftcrcrt carbon
eqoivaltmt formulas and recommended the following:
" Stout and Doty, "\Veldability of Sttds", Welding Rcsearcl,
Council, 1953, p 150; WilIi;ims, Roach, hfartin and Voldiich,
"Wcldnbility of Carllon-hlarignnese Stcels", WELDING JOUR-
NAL, July 1919, p. 311-s.
This forinula is applicable to the low-carbon low-
alloy stcels for constniction and machinery manu-
facturing.
19. COOLlNG RATE AND CARBON
EQUIVALENT
Altho~rgh not too well defined, for :I given analysis
of s t r d there is a lnaxirn~rrn rate at which the vidd
and adjacent plate may Be cool ~d without undcrbead
cracking occurring.
"; .K. \Viiitrrton, "Wcliiahility I'rctlictiorr fmni Steel Cornpo-
sitior ti, 4 i Hw-AKcclrd Zcnr Cracking", TVI'XDINC
FIGURE 19
Weidability and lding Procedure / 7.2-15
The higher the carbon equivalent, the lower will c;~rbon r~!~inivalt.nt-criticnl cooling mtc cnn.i, sliowrr
be this critical (allowable) cooling rate. Thus, the in Fignrc 21 has l x ~ n PI-odnccd to usv :IS ;i gnide in
highcr tlic steel's carbon equivalent, t h more in>-
casc thl, CTS test on the particolar steel is not inad(,.
portant becomes the nse of lowhydrogen \velding and This cwvc may he c~npresscd by the fol i owi ~r~ forrnnla:
preheating.
Cottrcll zmd Bradstreet" kavc used a type of R , - - -16.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . ( I ] )
Roeve Restraint test, calltd tho CTS (Controlled
C,,, u. 3074
nesscs are tested - '/a, ?b, and 1". Each test requires
m
Thermal Severity) test. For any given steel, three thick-
is critical ctw,iing rate T, - 572eF,
The critical cooling rate (I:,,) (,an be tlntcrmincd
by a ) actual test of thc p;xrticnlar stacl to see what
cooling ratc nil1 not cause cracking, or h) using
100
forrnula (11) ilased upon Canadian inwstigations.
8
@ 80
-
2 "
0
60
0 a
%
Suggested relation between critic01 cooling rote (Rl ond
2 40 carbon equivalent [C,,) for l owhydrogen rl ectrodei
u
ol
?
: 20 c*,
R
4 0 Values from A 40 57.6
B .45 36.0
0
0
C 5 0 19.8
Carbon equivolent, Cm, = C + -M_"_+ Si
D 5 5 10.8
4 4 E .60 7.7
F 65 3.6
FIGURE 20
two fillet welds--one a bi-thermal weld (two avenues
,40
for heat to escape), the other a tri-thermal weld
(tbrce avenues for heat to escape). This gives a t ot d
of 6 different values for TSN (Thermal Severity Num-
ber), and for the given wdding heat input (about
32,000 joules/in.) produces 6 different cooling rates.
.30
I t is then observed at what cooling rate cracking 0 10 20 30 40
does or does not occur, and the subsequent welding Critical cooling rote [ R) . 'Fjiec
procedure is adjusted so this critical cooling rate will
FIGURE 21
not be exceeded.
Both of these men have produced tables in which
relative \veldability has been expressed along with
the critical cooling rate. More rcccntly, Bradstrrct**
has tied i n this relative weldability with carbon equiva-
lent. By working hack through this information, the
" C. L. bl. Cottmll, "Controlled Thelma1 Severity Cracking Test
Simulates Practical Welded Joints", WELDING JOURNAL.
Junr 1953, p. 257-s; Catticll and Bradstreet, "A Method for
Cal cul at i n~ the Effect of Prcheat on Wcldahilitv". BRITISH
WELDINE JOURNAL, July 1955, p 305; ~ot t r cl f and Bmd-
street, "Calculating Preheat Temperatures to Prevent Hard
Zone Cracking in Low Alloy Steels", BRITISH WELDING
JOURNAL, July 1955, p. 310.
20. FlNDlNG REQUlRED PREHEAT
, ,
( TI - Tdme).
b ) Determim: from l oni ~ul ; ~ (8) the value of
, . , , ... . ,
'" B. J. Hradstreet, "hlethods to Establisli Procedures for Weld-
d ) FI-o~n the chart, Figtire 17, using ( c) read the
ing Low Alloy Steels", EXGINEERlNG JOURNAL (Engineering
Institute oC Cmada) , November 1963.
value for
(y$)
I:) Knowing this value ( d ) and tlic value of
( T - T o from item (:I): determine the
reqnircd preheat temeprahire (To).
An easier and faster nlcthod for deteimining the
required preheat nses the nomograph, Figurc 22. This
non~ogmph is actr~ally two nornographs superimposed
uDnn each othcr. The first n o n ~o r r a ~h (snbs~xipt a )
- .
will provide a vslur for
~
The second nomograph (snbscript b ) will provide the
. . . - .
rcqr~ircd prchcar and interpass temperature (To).
A set of cight graphs, Figure 23, \rill also providr
this same infomintion.
I
Example I Using Chart (Fig. 17)
Given:
watt-sec
J = 2Q,000 Y
me11
find required preheat temperature (T, ):
a )
Determine Ti - To/,>, =
b) Determine tmr = 42457
t I"
c ) Determine rclativ~: thickness: = -, --
tm 2.26
= ,4429
d ) From chart, Figure 17, read relative preheat
temperature: T?. ...- T&E = ,73
T, - To
T - T o 289.6
e) Therefore: T, - T o - - --- =
.73 .73
= 396.7
572 - T, = 396.7
or T,, = 175.3 "F
1 Example I Using Nomograph (Fig. 22)
watt-see
(:;iveri: J = 20 000 ---- ~
mch
find preheat tcmpernture (T, , ):
watt-sec
(2a) J = 20,000 ---
lllell
(321) Read t,, = 2.26"
Use this number as a pivot point
(4a) t = 1. 0
2nd nomograph
(1) R = 25 "F/sec
watt-sec
(2b) J = 20,000 ----
inch
( 3b)
Red To/,,,, = 282 "17
Use this nnmbt~r as a pivot point
(4b)
% T1 - To/rm = 73% (from 1st nomograph)
TI - To
(5b)
Read T, = 175 "F
21. OTHER POI NTS OF CONSI DERATI ON
Test data has indicatod h a t thin plates result in
slightly higher coding rates than calculated. It is
believed this is because thin plates have a relatively
greater surface arm for heat loss per volume than
thick plates.
Normally, in the in\restigation of a groove weld,
the pass completing the joint is considered rather than
the root pass. This is hecausrz the face pass usually has
a slightly highcr cooling rate due to the larger cross-
section of the joint (assuming the same interpass
temperature).
There is some indication that fillet welds have
slightly higher cooling rates than the bead-on-plate
welds used in the investigative work. This is because
the 90" intersection of the two plates presents a larger
area of contact with the weld, therefore absorbing
hoat at a slightly greater rate. A groove weld similarly
\vould offer a larger area of plate contact with the weld
than a bead-on-plate weld.
SECTI ON 7. 3
1. FACTORS AFFECTING PROCEDURES
For every welding job there is one procedure which
will complete the joint at the lowest possible cost. The
accomplishment of this task requires a knowledge of
the factors affecting the type of weld to be performed.
The main factixs to be considered are:
1. Type of joint to be made, included angle, root
opening, and land (root face).
2. Type and size of electrode.
3. Type of cur r ent , pol ar i t y a nd amount
( amperes ) .
4. Arc length (arc voltage).
5 . Arc speed.
6. Position of weIds (flat, horizontal, vertical,
and overhead).
A large number of the above-mentioned factors
can he detcrnlinctl by actually welding a sample joint.
Such items as the type and size of electrode, polar-
ity, current, arc characteristics, and shop techniques
are best determined by the fabricator. The engineer
must realize that these problems are present and
should il~clude them in his consideration of the joint
designs.
Figure 1 indicates that the root opening ( R) is
the separation hrtwcen the mcmbers to be joined.
A root opening is used for electrode accessibility
to the base or root of tllc joint. The sn~allcr the angle
of the bevel, the larger the root opening mtist be to
get good fusion at the root.
If the root opening is too small, root fusion is
more difficult to ohtain and smaller electrodes must
he med, thus slowing down the welding process.
If the root opening is too large, wcld quality does
not suffer hut more weld metal is roqi~ired; this
increases weld cost and will tend to increase distortion.
Figwe 2 indicates how tbc root opcning must be
increasril as the bevel's included angle is decnrased.
Backrip strips are used on larger root openings. .4ll
three preparations arc ticceptahle; all are conchcive
to good welding procedure and good weld quality.
Selcction, therefore, is rlsually base11 on cost.
Root opening and joint preparation will directly
affect weld cost (pounds of metal nqui red). and
choice should bc made with this in mind. Joint prep-
aration includrss the work required on plate edges prior
to welding and inclndes beveling, providing a land, etc.
In Figure 3a if bevel and/or gap is too small, the
weld will bridge the gap leaving slag at the root.
Excessive hack gouging is then reqoircri.
Figure 3b shows how proper joint preparation and
\ ' ~ p o c e r " To Prevent Burn Through, This Will Re
Gouged Out Before Welding Second Side.
FIGURE 4
procedure will produce good root fusion and will
minimize back gauging.
In Figure 3c a large root openirig will result in
b u r d ~r o n g h . Spacer strip may be used, in w~hich case
the joint must be back gonged.
Backup strips are commonly used when all weld-
ing must be rio~ie from one side, or when thc root
opening is excrssive. Backup strips, shown in Figure
4a, b and c, are generally left in place and become an
integral part of the joint.
FIGURE 5
Spacer strips may be used <:specially in the case
of double-vee joints to prevent bum-through. The
spacer, Figure ?d, to prevent burn-through, will be
gonged out before welding the second side.
Backup Strips
Backup strip material should conforn~ to the base metal.
Feather edges of tlic plate arc recommended when
using a txickup strip.
Short intermittent tack u&ls should be used to
hold the hackr~p strip in place, and thesc should pre-
ferably be staggered to rcduce any initial restraint of
the joint. They should no? be directly opposite one
another, Figure 5.
Thc backup strip should be in intimate contact
with both plate edges to avoid trapped slag at the
root, Figure 6.
Wel d Reinforcement
On a bnt? joint, a nominal \veld rrinforcement (approui-
mately $',c," above fiush) is all that is rleccssary, Figure
7, left. Additional buildup, Figure 7, right, serves no
useful pnrpose, and will increase the weld cost.
Care shodd be takcn to h e p both the width and
the height of the reinforcement to a minimum.
Joint Design / 7.3-3
2. EDGE PREPARATION
Thc main p~~r pos c of a land, Figure 8, is to provide
an additional thickness of nirtal, as opposed to a
feather edge, in order to minimize any bum-through
tendency. A feather edge preparation is more prone to
bum-through than a joint with a land, especially if the
gap gets a little too largc. Figrxe 9.
A land is not as easily obtained as a feather edge.
h ft:atlier edge is generally a matter of one cut with
a torch, while a land will usually require two cuts or
possibly a torch cut p111s machining.
A land usually requires back gouging if a 100%
weld is required. A land is not recommended when
weldirrg into a backup strip, Figure 10, since a gas
pocket would he formed.
Plate edges are beveled to permit accessibility to
all parts of the joint and i ns ~~r c good fusion throughout
the entire weld cross-section, Accessibility can he
gained by compromising between maximum bevel and
~ni ~i i rn~rni root opening, Figure 11.
Degree of bevel may be dictated by the importance
of maintaining proper electrode angle in confined
quarters, Figr~rc 19. For tlic joint illustrated, the mini-
mum recommended bevel is 45".
FIGURE 6
?lqt,t
L w Reinforcement . - rRe~nforcement -
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
. .
F GURE 9
FIGURE 10
Not Recommended
\ /
, FIGURE 11
U and I versus Vee Preparations
J arid U preparations are excellent to work with
but economically they have little to offer because
preparation requires machining as opposed to simple
torch cutting. Also a J or U groove requires a land,
Figure 13, and thus back gouging.
Back Gouging
To consistently obtain complete fusion when welding
a plate, back gouging is required on virtually all joints
except "vees" with feather edge. This may be done by
any convenient means: grinding, chipping, or arc-air
gouging. The latter method is generally the most
economical and leaves an ideal contour for subsequent
beads.
Without back gouging, penetration is incomplete,
Figure 14. Proper back chipping should be deep
enough to expose sound weld metal, and the contour
should permit the electrode complete accessibility,
Figure 15.
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 14
Right-, Wrong -, Right?
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16A-Prequaiified A S Building Joints (Manual Welding)
Complete Penetration G~oove Welds-Par. 209
SINGLE
(Welded From Bot h S ~ d e s
Withouf Bockina Striol
SINGLE
(Welded From One Side
Usinq Backing Strip)
DOUBLE
(Welded From Both Sides
Without Spacer Bar)
DOUBLE
(WeMed FromBoth Sides
Using Spacer Bar1
--
~mi t ot l ons Far Jalnfs
o ! P / P8rnitf*d Weldin%-
45./',./ A, , PO,i,i."l
M.i% /
F4.l mnd Orerh.06 onll
20./',d TI " on6 0.erhs.d oni,
NOTE: The size of the fi l l et weld reinfoicing aioove ~ d d r i n Tec nod corner i oi nti rho11
t / 4 but r hai i be ?b' mox.
i. Gouge root before welding second side 'Par 505il
2. Use oi this weid l i mi t ed to bare metal thickness of 5%'' or l arger.
when laser pl ci e is bevelled, firs: weld mat p a s f hi i ride.
FIGURE 165-Prequalified AWS Building Joints (Manual Welding)
Parfiol Penetration Groove elds-Por. 2 10 t e ZG
8-P6 C-P 6
NOTE: I . Gouge root before wel di ng second side lPar 505i)
2. Use of this wel d preferabl y l i mi ted to base metal thicknosr of 5/r" or l arger
' When l ower pl at e is bevol l d. first wel d root pais thi s ri de.
3. TYPES OF JOINTS bevel, J, or U. Certain of these joints l ave been pre-
qualified by the Americm Welding Society (Am's)
The type of joint to he made depcnds on the design and are illustrated in two charts, Figure I6 for manual
condition and may be one of the following: groove, welding and in Figure 17 for submerged-arc automatic
fillet, plug or T joint. These joints may be made using welding.
various edge preparations, such as: square butt, Vee, The choice between two or more types of joint
Joint Design
FIGURE 17A-Prequalified AWS Building Joints
(Submerged-Arc Automatic Welding)
Complete Penetration Groove Welds-Par
SINGLE SlNGLE
(Wel ded From Bot h Sides (Wel ded From One Side
DOUBLE
(Wel ded From Both Sides)
Welds Mvrt 8e Centered on l oi n?
TC-US-S
NOTE: The size of the fi l l et weid rei ni orci ng groove welds in Tee and coiner joints i hoi l equal t!4 but 1ha1i be niax
1 G o q c roof before wel di ng second side l Poi 505i l
2. Use of t hi s weld preferabl y limited to bore nieioi thickness of SIR'' or l ai ger.
' When lower ,dote i s bevelled. i i rrt wcl d root poir this ride.
is not always dictated solely by the design function.
The choice often directly affects the cost of welding.
For example, Figure 18 illust~ates this influence.
The choice is to he made between 45" fillet welds or
some type of T groove joints.
( a ) For frill-strength wolds, the: leg of the fillet
u d d must be about 75% of the plate thickness.
(1)) Full strength map also he ohtaincd by double
beveling the edge of the plate 15" and spacing the
plate so the root opening is '/s" to allow for colnplete
penetration. The amount of weld metal compared to
the conventional fillet weld varies from 75% for a 1"
plate to 56% for a 4" plate. For plates up to about I'iz"
thickness, the extra cost of beveling the plate and the
probable need to use lower welding current in the
15" groove tend to offset the lower cost of weld metal
for this typo of joint. But for heavier plate the re-
duction in wcld metal is great entmgh to overcome any
extra preparation cost.
( c) Full strength may also be obtained by bevel-
FIGURE 175-Prequalified AWS Building Joints
8-P2-S Single
B-P3-S Double
Single -Vee Corner
C-PZ-S
(Submerged-Arc Automatic Welding)
Portia1 Penetration Groove Welds-Por. 212
Single Or DouMeBeve I
Comer
C-P4-S Single
C-P5-S Double
Tee
T-P4-s Single
T-PS-S Double
Single Oi- Double - U
Butt
6- P6- S Single
6-Py-s Double
Single - U Comer
Single Or Double - J
Corner
C-PB-S Single
c-P9-s Double
u inside j oi nt angle
i s 45'
Single Or Doubl ed
Tee
NOTES:
* Welded i n the f l ot position.
e It mot face i r less than 1/4", there should be at l eoi t one moouoi beod to pi cvent burnthrougtt
-
. Mi ni mum effective t hroot = \ l t i 6. where I is thickness of rhi nnei part.
* Plote thickness: single groove joint t 2 3/,,'; doubl e groove joint t Zli/:".
. Effective t hroat = t.,.
in2 the e d ~ e of the plate 60" so as to place some of is about I'h" dat e. The GO"
. .
the weld within tbc plate; a 60" fillet is thcn placed
on the outside. The mini~nnm depth of bevel and the
additiond leg of fillet are both equal to 29% of the
plate thickness. For all plate thicknesses, the amount
of weld met d is approsimately half that of the con-
ventional fillet. This joint has the additional advantage
that almost high uddi ng current may be used as in
the making of the fillet weld.
All of this is shown in thc graph, Figure 18. The
cross-over point in this chart between the conventiolial
fillet welds and the 35" full penetrated T groove joint
hevcl, partly pr ct r at ed
joint, wit11 60" fillets appcarstto he the lowcst in cost
above 1" in thicknesses. Tlic relative position of these
curves will vary according to thr wt,lding : ~nd cntiing
costs uscd.
It uwuld hc a good idea for each cornpanp to
make ;I similar cost stndy of tho welding in their shop
for gniilancr of their cngint,ers in qirickly selecting the
most cconomical weld. Natr~r:~lly thc variotis costs
(labor, \velding, cutting, handliug. asscmblp, etc.) will
vary with each company.
4. WELDlNG SYMBOLS
Tobie of Relative Cost
of Full Plate Strength Welds
I
I
v2 1 li% 2 21' 2 3
Plate thickness. In.
FIGURE 18
The symbols in the chart, Figure 19, denoting the
type of weld to be applied to a particular weldment
have been standardized and adoptcd by the American
Welding Society. Like any systematic plan of symbols,
thcse welding notations quickly indicate to the designer,
draftsman, production supervisor, and weldor alike, the
esact welding details established for each joint or con-
nection to satisfy all conditions of material strength and
service required, Adapting this system of symbols to
your engineering department will assure that the cor-
rect welding instructions are transmitted to all con-
cerned and prevent misinterpretation of instructions,
and resulting production cost increases.
Although at first it may appear that many different
symbols are involved, the system a symbols is broken
down into basic elements or fundamcntals. Any com-
bination of these elements can then be b d t up to
conform to any set of conditions governing a welded
joint.
Therefore, it is wise in the initial stages to limit
the use of symbols to just fillet welds and simple
groove welds and to detail any special welds on the
drawings. After the shop and draftsmen get uscd to
these simple symbols, then they can branch into the
ones that are more rarely used. Figure 20 shows the
practical application of these symbols to various typical
joints.
4 &-
t i c
,OD .".,. ".. ./De*s I)O"h,. 1.. n-b>* x ,.--". S'"*l< @G l % l / e c
FIG. 20-Typical Applications of AWS Draft
ing Symbols far Welds.
TYPES of
But!
Tee
Corner
La
Edge
5. TERMINOLOGY
Single
People who specify or are otherwise associated with
welding often use the terms "joint" and "weld" rather
loosely. For clarity in communication of instructions,
it is dcsirahle to keep in mind the basic difference in
meaning between these two terms. This is illustrated by
Figure 21.
The left-hand chart shows the five basic types of
joints: butt, tec, corner, lap, and edge. Each is clcfinrd
in a way that i s dcscriptivs of the relationship thc
plates being joined lrave to each other. Ncither the
FIGURE 21
gwnletry of the wcld itst4f nor iljc method of edge
nrerxcatior-I has anv in81ic11cc on the hisic deiinition
. A
of tllc joint. For instance, the tce joint could 1,s either
fillet weldcd or gnmve w<,ldcd.
The 1.ig1lt-liii11d clliirt shows the h s i c typcs of
\velds: fillet, stltiii~-c, brvcl-groow, V-groove, J-groove,
and U-groove,. Tlre tylx: of joi~it does riot afFcct ~vlult
we cdl tho I i l t l r o~t gl ~ thc silrglt: bevt+groove
weld is ill~rstr;itrtI ns a lxitt joilit. it may be iisrd in a
I)~itt, tee or conler joint.
Tlrt completr: dt~fiiiition oL a welded joint must
include (lescriptio~i of Imtlr the joint :ind tbe \vcId.
7.3-12 / Joint Design & Production
Efficient fobricotion of large curved roof
girders for the University of Vermont
gymnasium was assured by submerged-
arc welding, using semi-automatic guns
mounted on sel f - pr opel l ed trackless
tractors.
Here production of large box-section
bridge girders is speeded by submerged-
arc weiding and self-propelled trackless
trolley which follows the ioint with mini-
mum guidance.
SECTI ON 7. 4
1. WHEN TO CALCULATE
Overwelding is one of the major factors of welding
cost. Specifying the corrt:ct size of weld is the first
step in obtaining low-cost welding. This demands a
simple method to figure the proper amount of weld to
provide adeqi~ate strength for all typcs of connections.
In s t r engt h connect i ons, c!)ml>letr-p(>netrntjon
groove u d d s must be made all the way through the
plate. Since a groove weld, properly made, has equal
or better strength than the plate, there is no need for
calculating the stress in the wcld or attempting to
determine its size. However, the size of a partial-pme-
tration groove weld may sometimes be needed. When
welding alloy steels, it is necessary to match the weld-
metal strength to plate strength. This is primarily a
matter of proper electrode selection and of weldilig
procedures.
With fillet welds; it is possible to havt. too small
a weld or too large a weld; therefore, it is necessary
to determine the proper weld size.
Strength of Welds
Many engineers are not aware of the p a t reserve
strength that vidds have. Table I shows the recognized
strength of various weld metals (by electrode desig-
nation) and of various structural stecls.
Notice that the minimum yield strengths of the
ordinary EGOXX electrodes are over 50% higher than
the corresponding minimum yield strengths of the A7,
A373 and A36 structural steels for whicli they sllould
be used.
Since many EGOXX electrodes meet the speci6-
cations for E70XX classification, they have about 75%
higher yield strength than the steel.
Submerged-Arc Welds
AWS and AISC require that the bare electrode and
flux combination used for submerged-arc wclding shall
be selected to produce weld metal having the tensile
properties listed in Table 2, when deposited in a
multiple-pass weld.
2. FILLET WELD SIZE
The AWS has defined thc cffective throat area of a
fillet weld to be equal to the effective length of the
weld tintrs the effecti1.e throat. The effective throat is
defU1ed as tlre shortest 11ist:rnce from the root of thc
diagrammatic weld to the face.
According to AIf5 tlre leg s i x of a fillct weld
is rnrasnrtd by the 1;irgcst riglit trianglr which
c;rn be iriscrihrd within the wcld, Figure 1.
This drfinitioti would nllow nneqnal-legged fillct
welds, Figure 1 ( a ) . Aiiothcr AWS definition stipltlatss
the largest isoscde.; iiiscribrd right triangle and wor~ld
h i i t this to en eq11a1-legged fillet weld, Figure I ( b) .
Unequnl-legged filkt wel& are sometimes uscd to
get additioiinl throat arm; licnce strength, when t he
TABLE I-Minimum Strengths Required of
Weld Metals and Structural Steels
(AWS A5.1 & ASTM A2 3 3
(or-welded condition)
/ Mciteriol I Min. Yie:siS+rength / Min. Tend; Strength
1 6010 1 50.000 psi 1 62,000 psi
TABLE 2-Minimum Pvoperties Required
of Automatic Submerged-Arc Welds
rAWS & AISC) (as-welded; multiple-pass)
Gmde SAW-1
tenrile strength 62,000 to 80,000 psi
yield point, min. 45,000 psi
elongotion i n 2 inches, min. 25%
reduction in nrco. mi". 40%
I Grade SAW-2 I
tensile strength 70.000 to 90.000 psi
yieid point, min. 50.000 psi
elongotion in 2 inches. mi". 22 %
reduction in aieo, mi". 40%
Determining Wel d Size / 7.4-3
FIGURE 4
For an <:qua]-legged fillct weld, the throat is cqual
to ,707 times t l ~e leg size ( w) :
The allowable force on the fillet weld. I" long 15-
where:
f - allowable force on fillet u~el d, lbs per linear
inch
w = leg size of fillet weld, inches
r - allowable shear stress on throat of weld, psi
The AWS has set up several shear stress allow-
ablos for thc throat of the Mlet weld. These are shown
in Tables 6 and 7 for the Building and Bridge fields.
Mi ni mum Wel d Size
(AWS Bldg Art 212(a)l , AWS Bridge Par 217(h),
AISC 1.1'7.4)
In joints connected only by fillet welds, the mini-
mum leg size shall correspond to Table 3. This is
dctcrmined by the thickness of the thicker part joined,
but does not have to exceed the thickness of the
thinner part joined.
The American Welding Society recognizes that
LE 3-Minimum eld Sizes for Thi ck
Plates (AWS)
THICKNESS OF THICKER
I
MI NI MUM LEG SIZE
PLATE JOINED OF FILLET WELD
t W
to %" ind.
over fi" thru %"
over %" thrv 1%"
over 1%" thru 2'14'
over 2%'' thrv 61.
Minimum leg sire need not exceed thickness of t he thinner plate
over 6"
thick plates offer greater restraint. and produce a
faster cooling rate for the welds.
TaHe 3 is pretlicatd on the theory that the
reqnired minimnm weld size will provide sufficient
welding heat input into the plate to give the desired
slow rate of cooling.
This is not a complete answer to this problem;
for example, a plate thicker than 6" would require a
minimum weld size of W' , yet in actual practice this
would he made in several passes. Each pass would
bc equi\dent to about a 4: fillet, and have the heat
input of approximately a 5:o'' weld which may not be
snfficient unh~ss the plates are preheated.
A partial solution to this problem worlld be the
following: Since the first pass of the joint is the most
critical, it should be made M-ith low-hydrogen clectrodes
and a ratht-r slow travel speed. Resulting superior weld
physicals, weld contour, and maximum heat input pro-
vide :i good strong root bead.
1
Moximurn Effective Wel d Size
(AWS Bldg Art 212(a)2, AWS Bridge Par 217(c),
AISC 1.17.5)
Along thc <:dgc of material lcss than %" thick, the
maximum effective leg size of fillct weld shall be equal
to the plate thickness ( t ) :
FIGURE 5
Along the edges of material '/ar' or more in thick-
nt:ss, the maximum eff:fiective k g size of fillet weld shall
be ('qua1 to the plate thickness i t ) less ' / / l Gw. unless
noted on the drawing that the weld is to be built out
to full throat:
7. 44 / Joint Design and Production
Minimum Effective Length
(AN'S Bldg .4rt 212(a)4, AWS Bridge Par 217(d),
.41SC 1.17.6)
The minimum effective length (I,,) of a fillet weld
designed to transfcr a force shall he not lcss than 4
times its leg size or l'A2". Otherwise, the effective leg
size (a,.) of the fillet weld shall he considered not to
exceed % of the actual length (short of the crater unless
filled).
Effective
lenqtt, [ La)
FIGURE 7
If longittidinal fillrt welds are nsrd alone in end
connections of flat bar tension members:
FIGURE 8
(AWS Hldg Art 212(a)3, USC 1.17.6)
nnless additiorral melding prevents transverse bending
within the conncction.
-
*In addition, the affective length (L,) of an intennittent Iillct
weld shall not be less tlian 1W (AISC 1.17.7).
3. OTHER WELD RE
Minimum Overlap of Lap Joinfs
(AWS Bldg Art 212(h)l , MSC 1.17.8)
FIGURE 9
where t = thickness of thinner plate
Thickness of Plug or Slot Welds
(AWS Bldg Art 213, AWS Bridge Par 218, AISC
1.17.11)
FIGURE 10
1. If t @ 5 W"
then t , = t &
2. If t @ > %"
then t , 2 '/z t e z ' %"
Spacing and Size of Plug Welds
(AWS Bldg Art 213, :iWS 13ridge Par 218, AISC
1.17.11)
FIGURE 11
s 2 4 d
d 2 t* +
< 2% tw
Spacing and Sire of SIof
L s 10 t,
w 2 t * + X8" 5 2% t,
s , 2 4 w
ST, 2 2 L
r 2 t *
4. PARTIAL-PENETRATION GROOVE
Partial-penetmtion groove welds are allowed in the
building field. They have many applications; for ex-
ample, field splices of cohimns, br~ilt-up box sections
for trnss chords, etc.
For the V, J or U grooves made by manual welding,
and all joints made by snhmcrged-arc welding, it is
assirn~ctl the hottom of the joint can he rcached rasily.
So. thc effective throat of the weld ( t , ) is equal to the
;ictlinI throat of the prepared groove ( t ) . See Figure
13.
If a hevcl groove is tvclded manually, it is assumed
that the wcldor may not ( pi t r reach the bottom of the
groove. Thcrefore, AWS and AISC deduct 36" from the
pr cpr cd groove. IIere the effective throat ( t , ) will
q ~ a l the throat of the groove ( t ) minus %". See
Figure 13( a) .
(a) Single bevel joint (b) Single J joint
FIGURE 13
Tension applied parallcl to the weld's nsis, or com-
as the plate.
Tension applied transverse to the weld's axis, or
shear in any direct~on, has a reduced allowable stress,
e q d to that for the throat of a corresponding fillet
weld.
Jnst as fillet wolds have a minimnm size for thick
plates because of fast cooling and greater restraint, so
partial-penetration groove welds have a mininium cffec-
tive throat ( t , ) which should be used -
>
t, =
where:
t, = thickness of thinner plate
a. Primary welds transmit the entire load at the
particular point where they are located. If the weld
fails, the member fails. The weld must have the same
property as the member at this point. In brief, the
weld becomes the member at this point.
b. Secondary welds simply hold the parts to-
gether, thus forming the member. In most cases, the
forces on these welds are low.
c. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to
their axis. In the ,case of fillet welds, the throat is
stressed only in shear. For an cqnal-legged fillet, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the 45" throat.
d. Transverse welds have forces applied trans-
versely or at right angles to their axis. In the casc of
fillet welds, the throat is strcssed both in shear and
in tcl~sion or comprrwion. For an wpal-lcggcd fillet
weld, the m;iximum shear stress occurs on the 67'h"
throat, and the masin~um normal stress ocmrs on the
22%" throat.
7.4-6 / Jcint Design and Producticn
TABLE &Determining Force on Weld
I
t ensi on or
compres s i on
I
vert i cal V
shear 1 :
standard
desi gn
formula
Type of. Loadi ng
, I
1 ' - I I SECONDARY WELDS I
treati ng
the weld
as a line
stress f orce
IbaIinZ Iba/ i n
6. SIMPLE TENSILE, COMPRESSIVE OR SHEAR
LOADS ON WELDS
f PRIMARY WELDS
For a simple tensile, compressive or shear load, the
given load is divided by the length of the weld to
arrive at the applied unit force, lbs per linear inch of
weld. From this force, the proper leg size of fillet weld
or throat of groove weld may be found.
7. BENDING OR T ISTlNG LOADS ON
The problem here is to determine the properties of the
welded connection in order to check the stress in the
weld without first knowing its leg size. Some design
texts suggest assuming a certain weld-leg size and then
calculating the stress in the weld to see if it is over-
stressed or undcrstresscd. If the result is too far off,
then tlie weld-leg size is readjusted.
This has the following disadvantages:
1. Some decision must be made as to what t hoat
section is going to he used to detcrmine the property
of tlie weld. Usually some objection can be raised to
any throat section chosen.
2. The resulting stresses must be combined and,
for several types of loading, this can be rather corn-
plicated.
In contrast, the following is a simple niethod to
determine the correct amount of welding required
for adequate strength. This is a method in wliich
the weld is treated as a line, having no area, but a
definite length and outline. This method has the fol-
lowing advantages:
1. I t is not necessary to consider throat areas be-
cause only a line is considered.
2. Properties of the welded connection are easily
found from a table without knowing weld-leg size.
3. Forces are considered on a unit length of weld
instead of strcsses, thus eliminating the knotty prob-
lem of combining stresses.
4. I t is true that the strrss distribution within a
fillet weld is complex, due to eccentricity of the ap-
plied forcc, shape of the fillet, notch eifect of the root;
etc.; however, these same co~iditions exist in the actual
Ellet welds tested and have been recorded as a unit
force per nnit length of wcld.
8. DETERMINING FORCE ON
Visualize the welded connection as a single line, having
the same outline as the connection, but no cross-
sectional area. Notice, Figure 14, that the area (A,)
of the welded connection now becomes just the length
of the wcld.
Instead of trying to determine the strcss on the
weld (this cannot be done unless the weld size is
known), tlic problem becomcs a much simpler one of
determining the force on the weld.
FIG. 14 Treating weld as a line.
By inserting t l ~c property of the welded connec-
tion tmltecl as a line into the standard design form~ila
used for that particular type of load (see Table 4) ,
the force on the weld may he found in terms of ibs
per linear inch of wcld.
Example: Rending
.~ . . - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~
Standard dcsigi formula Same formula used for weld
(bending stress) I (treating weld as a line)
h4 Ibs
~~~~ -- ~~
- .-" strcss
M Ibs
f - force
in.- S , in. --
Normally the use of time standarcl dcsigu forrnulas
resnlts in a unit stress, psi; however, when the weld is
treated as a line, these formu1;is resdt in a force on
the weld, ibs pcr linear inch.
For secondary welds, the weld is not treated as
a line, hut standard design formulas are used to find
the forcc on tlie weld, lbs per linear inch.
In prol~lams involving bending or twisting loads
Table 5 is used to determine properties of the weld
treated as a line. I t contains the scction modillus (S,),
for bending, and polar momcrit of inertia (J, ), for
twisting, of some 13 typical welded connections with
the weld treated as a line.
For any given connection, two dimensions are
necded, width ( h ) and depth ( d) .
Section modulris (S,) is used for wrlds subject
to bending loads, arid polar moment of inertia (J,)
for twisting loads.
Section modnli (S,) from these formulas are for
maximum force at the top as well as the bottom portions
of the meliled connections. For the nnsyrnmetrical con-
nections sho\ ~n in this tabk:, maximum bending force
is at the bottom.
If there is more than one force applied to the
weld, thcse are found and eomhinod. .411 forces which
al-e combined (vectol-ially added) mmt occur at the
same position in thc welded joint.
Determining Wel d Size by Using Allowables
If there are three forces, c,ach : ~ t right angles to
each other, the resultant is tqual to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the three forces.
Weld size is obtained by dividing thc resulting force
on the weld fonnd above, by the ;~llowable strength
of the particrilar type of weld u x d (fillet or groove),
obtained from Tables 6 and 7 (steady loads) or Tables
8 and 9 (fatigue loads).
If therc are two forces at right angles to each
othcr, the resultant is equal to the square root of the
sum of the squares of thew two forces.
One important advantage to this method, in addi-
tion to its simplicity, is that no new formulas mnst
be wed, nothing new must be learned. Assume an
engineer has just designed a beam. For strength he
has used the standard forinnla rr = M/S. Substitnting
the load ow the beam ( M) and tlre property of the
beam ( S) into illis forn~iila, lie has found the bending
stress (u). Now, he substitutes the property of the
f, = \/ f ? -t fz2
Determining Wel d Size / 7.4-7
TABLE 5-Properties of Weld Treated as Line
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 3)
weld, treating i t as a linr (S, v), obtained from Table 5,
into the same formula. Using t l ~e same load ( h 4 ) ,
f = hl/S,%: he thns finds the force on the weld ( f )
per linear inch. The \veld size is then found by di-
viding tlie force on tlie \veld by the allowable force.
Applying System to Any Welded Connection
1. F i d the position on the \vcldcd connection
trhere thc combination of forces \ d l bc maximum.
There may h13 snore than one which should be con-
sidered.
2. Find the value of each of the forces on the
\velded connection at this point. ( a ) Use Table 4 for
the standard desigri formula to find the force on the
n-eld. ( b ) IJsr Table 5 to find the property of the
u d d treated as a line.
3. Combine (vcctorially) all of the forces on the
weld at this point.
4. Determine the required weld sizc by dividing
this resdt ar~t ivdt~e 1)y the alloivahlc force in Tables
6, 7, 8, or 9.
7.4-8 / Joint Design ond Production
LE LAl l owabl es for elds-Buildings
(AWS Bldg & AISC)
compi et r-
Penetration
Groove Welds
Por(ia1-
P~-netration
Groove Welds
Type of Wel d
Filict
Wol d
Steel Slrerr
Plug
tension transverse
t o axis of weld
or
rheor on
effective throat
Electrode
-
tension parai l el
to oxis of weld
or
cornpreliion on
effective thi oot
~~~~~ . -.
Allowable
I
~. . ~. ~ ..
shear on
effective
1 A7, A36. A373 / !:E60 or SAW-I 1
I
A441. A242*
60 Iow-hydrosen I c ., . _ 13.600
or SAW-I
i
/ A7, A36, A373 I E60 or SAW-I
I
~
I some or fP.
A7, A34. A373 E60 or SAW-I
. .... . . - . - ~ 4 ~ -- - -
E6O iaw-hydrogen
r = 13.600 psi
f 7 . : 9600 w i bl i n
E70 or SAW-2
7 -=: 15,800 psi
I
Same os far fillet weid
* wddnbl e A242
:I E70 or SAW-2 could be used. but would not increase allowable
and
TABLE 7--Allowables for Welds-Bridges
Slot
Type of Wel d
oms
I
Complete-
Penctioiion
Groove Welds
Fillet
Wel d?
E70 low-hydrogen
r = 14,700 psi
or SAW-2
rhoor on A36 5 I" thick t i 6 0 or SAW-I
effective
-~ . ~- 12,400 psi
oren A36 > 1 - thick $E60 lowhydrogcn
A441, 4242- or SAW-I
* weldoble A242
$ E70 or SAW-2 could be used, but would not incrcore allowable
Datermine the sizc of rrquircd fillrt weld for the
!)racket shown in Figure 15, to carry a load of 18,000
lbs.
u
FIGURE 15
Step I : FIND PROI'EI3TIES OF Wl<LD. 'I'REAT-
I I 4 A I (use Tuble 5) .
2 1 - ) b' ( b -+ d)'
J - . . .. - . ~. .
, -
12 ( 2 h + r l )
for A7, A373 and A36 Steels and Their Welds
2,000,000 600,000
cycler cycles
ease Met al @ < = 7500 d =
0
10,500
I n Teniton
psi
i 2 1 3 K i - 2; 3K
C"""..A"A
By Fillet
Wel ds 1
But not to exceed +w+ PI
I I
. . . ~ -- -- ~ ... .
Bore Mct ol
comprei i , on
1 0
Connect ed
7500
r = ~~ ~ . *
10,500
~
I 213
K P54 psi
By Fillet
: -- 213 K
Wel di
.-
eut t Wel d
In Tension
Butt Wel d
Cornpieiiion
~
Filie:
Welds
u =: Leg si ze
@ ,800'"
f =
K l b l n
' - 2
But Not to
Exceed
Adopt ed from AWS Bridge Specifications. K - ni n/ mux
P. = Al l owobl e uni t camproi i i ve s t i es for member.
Pr = Al l owobl e unit tensile r t r ci i for member.
Step 2: FIND THE VARIOUS FORCES ON WELD,
INSERTING PROPERTIES OF WELD FOUND
ABOVE (see Table 4) .
Point a is where combined forces are maxirnurn.
Twisting f&e is broken into horizontal and vertical
components by proper value of c - (see sketch).
tcisting (horizontal component)
Bare Metol
In Ten~i on
Connected
By Fillet
Welds
. . -. . - . .. .
Bare Metol
Compression
Connected
By Fillet
Welds
-. ..
Buff Wei d
In Tension
But t Wei d
Comprerrion
..
Butt Wei d
i n Shear
- ~- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . .
We t Welds
w = leg sir
fwirting (tiorticul component)
- ( 18,000)
- ( 20)
= 900 lbs/in.
(Continued on page 11)
for A441 Steel and i t s
2,000.000
cycler
600,000
cycler
0
19,000
* = .. ~~~
psi
I -- 7 R
~
0
24.000
* =
pri
i - R
100,000
cycler
0
@
13.000
= psi
I - I/, R
But Nol to
Exceed
PC psi
-
P, psi
.~
13,000 psi
Adapted from AWS Bridge Specificofion!
* i f SAW-1. use 8800
R = mi ni max load
Pt -- Allowable unit compreiiive i t rei r for mcnihei
P, = Aliowabie unit tensile sties$ far member.
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-1 1
Step 3: DETERMINE rlCTUA1. RESULTANT
FORCE ON WELD.
f r = J f,,,. + ( f , , -+- f n Y j 2
- - J (2' 40)' -+ (2650)?
= 3540 lbs/in.
Step 4: NOW FTNL) REQUIRED LEC SIZE OF
FILLET WELD CONNECTING THE BRCKET.
actual force
0 -- . .~. . .~ .
allowable forcc
- ,316 or use %ot' h
9. HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCES
Any wold joining the flange of a heam to its web is
stressed in horizontal shear (Fig. 16). Normally a
designer is acorstorncd to spt:cifying I certain size
fillot weld for a given plate thickness (l eg size about
% of the plate thickness) in ordcr for the \wid to have
full plate strength. IIowever, this particular joint be-
FIG. 16 These flonge-to-web welds ore stressed
in horizontol sheor and the forces on them can
be determined.
twtrrr the flangr and \ r ~ h is one eucrption to this rule.
In order to prc\.cnt web buckling, a lower allowable
shrnr stress is iisunlly ostxl; this rcsnlts in a thicker
wt.l~. The wel& ;ire in air :trca ncut to the flange \vlicrc
thew is no buckling 11n>blcrr1 nod, thcreforc, no reduc-
tion in allowable lo;~d is ilscd. From a design stand-
point, these welds may 1,c very small, their actual size
somctirnr.~ dcterinin(:rl by the ~niliirn~rm allowed he-
cause of the thic~krrrss of tlic flange plate, in ordar
to assnrc thc pnlpcr slow cooling rate of thc weld
on the heavier plate.
General Rules
Outsirle of simply lrolding thra flanges and web of 21
tmm togetiier. or to tr;mslnit any rrnusunlly high
forct. twtwrcn tho fange arid web at right angles to
Siwply supported
roncenrra:ed loud5
FIG. 17 Shear diogrom pictures
the omount ond l ocot i on of
[ . i - _L
7
welding required to transmit
horizontal shear forcer between n
flonge ond web. ---
.
the mcmber (for cx.iinl , l~euring supports, lifting
7.4-12 / Joi nt Desi gn a n d Producti on
lugs, etc. ), the real purpose of the weld between the
flange and web is to transmit the horizontal shear
forces, and the size of the weld is determined by the
value of these shear forces.
It will help in the analysis of a beam if it is
recognized that the shear diagram is also a pictnre
of the amount and location of the welding required
between the flange and web.
A study of Figure 17 will show that 1) loads ap-
plied transversely to members cause bending mo-
ments; 2 ) bending moments varying along the length
of the beam cause horizontal shear forces; and 3)
horizontal shear forces require welds to transmit these
forces between the flange and web of the beam.
Notice: 1) Shear forces occnr only when the
bending moment varies along the length. 2 ) It is quite
possible for portions of a beam to have little or no
shear-notice the middle portions of beams 1 and 2-
this is bemuse the bending moment is constant within
this area. 3) If there should be a difference in shear
along the length of the beam, the shear forces are
i~sually greatest at the ends of the beam (see beam
3). This is why stiffeners are sometimes welded con-
tinuously at their ends for a distance even though they
are welded intermittently the rest of their length. 4)
Fixed ends will shift the moment diagram so that the
maximum moment is less. What is taken off at the
middle of the beam is added to the ends. Even though
this does happen, the shear diagram remains un-
changed, so that the amount of welding between flange
FIG. 18 Shear diagram of frome indicates
where the amount of weldins is criticai.
and web will be the same regardless of end conditions
of the beam.
To apply these rules, consider the welded frame
in Figure 18. The moment diagram for this loaded
frame is shown on the left-hand side. The bending
moment is gradually changing throughout the vertical
portion of the frame. The shear diagram shows that this
results in a small amount of shear in the frame. Using
the horizontal shear formula (f = Vay/ln), this would
require a small amount of welding between the flange
and web. Intermittent welding would probably he
sufficient. However, at t he point where the crane
bending moment is applied, the moment diagram shows
a very fast rate of change. Since the shear valne is
equal to the rate of change in the bending moment, it
is very high and more welding is required at this
region.
Use continuous welding where loads or moments
are applied to a member, even though intermittent
welding may be wed throughout the rest of the fab-
ricated frame.
Finding Weld Size
The horizontal shear forces acting on the weld joining
a flange to web, Figures 19 and 20, may he found
from the following formula:
where:
f = force on weld, lbs/lin in.
V = total shear on section at a given position
along beam, lbs
a = area of flange held by weld, sq in.
y = distance between the center of gravity of
flange area and the neutral axis of whole
section, in.
I = moment of inertia of whole section, in.4
n = number of welds joining flange to web
load
FIG. 19 Locate weld at point of
minimum stress. Horirontoi shear
force is maximum along neutral
axis. Welds in top example must
carry maxi mum shear force;
there is no shear on welds in
bottom example.
FIG. 20 Examples of welds in
horizontal shear.
The leg size of the required fillet weld (continu-
ous) is found by dividing this actual unit force ( f )
by the allowable for the type of weld metal used.
If intermittent fillet welds are to be used divide
this weld size (continuous) by the actual size used
(intermittent). When t,xpressed as a percentage, this
will give the length of weld to he used per unit lcngth.
For convenience, Table 10 has various intermittent
weld lengths and distances between centers for given
percentages of continr~ous welds.
calculated leg size (continuous)
% - - . ..~ . . - . ..
actual leg size used (intermittent)
For the fabricated plate girder in Figure 21, determine
the proper mount of fillet welds to join flanges to the
web. Use E70 welds.
FIGURE 21
horizontal sl~car force on weld
where:
V = 189,000 lbs
I = 36,768 in.'
a = 27.5 in."
y = 24.375'
n = 2 welds
;rt:trial force
w _ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~
:illow~xhle force
This worild he the minim~tni leg size of :i conti nw
ocw. fillet w~ l d ; ho\vcvcr, ?"i' fillet welds are rccom-
mended hccmse of the thick 2%" flange plate (see
table). In this particnlar case, the leg size of the fillet
weld need not excctd the web thickness (t11innt:r
plate). Because of the greater strcngtl~ of the M" fillet,
intcrmitteut welds may be used but must not stress the
web above 14,500 psi. Therefore, the length of weld
must be increased to spread the load over a greater
lcngth of web.
Weld vs Plate
2 (11,200 w) I, 2 14.500 psi t x L
TABLE TO-Intermittent
Length and Spacing
Continuous Length of intermiftent welds ond
weld, % di3tmce between icnterr, in.
75 . . 3-4 . .
66 . . . . 4-6
= 1720 lbsjin
7.614 / Joint Design ond Production
For this reason the sizc of intermittt:nt fillet weld
we d in design calculritions or for determination of
Icngth must not excetd % of the web thickness, or here:
2h of MI' (web) =: ,333"
The percentage of eontinuonr weld length needed
for this intcrrnittent weld will be-
continuous leg size
% = ---_-
~nt erm~t t ent lag size
M" 1\ 4" - 8" (see Table 10)
'Q
I Problem 3 1
A fillet weld is required, using
that is, intcrmiltent welds having leg size of %" and
Icngth of 4", set on 12" renters. A ?W fillet wcld ~i s~ral l y
rtquires 2 passcs, nnlrss the work is positioned. A
2-pass weld rcqnirt:~ more inspection to maintain size
and weld quality. The shop would like to change this
to a %,," weld. This single-pass weld is casier to m:tke
and thcre is little chance of it being undersize.
This change could he made as follows:
The prewnt :k" is welded in lengths of 4" on
13" ccnters, or 33% of the length of the joint, reducing
the leg size down to 3/,6" h or of the previous
wcld. Tliis would require the percentage of length of
joint to be increased by the ratio 6 / 5 or 33% ( x)
= 40%.
Hence, use---
P - lop *
In other words, %" intermittent fillet welds, 4"
long on 13" centers, may be ~.cplaced with % welds,
4" long on 10" centers, same strength. This
change would pennit welding in one pass instead of
two passes, with a saving of approx. If%% in welding
time and cost.
Determinc the leg size of fillet weld for the base of a 30 lhs/sq f t or pressure of p = ,208 psi. Use A36 Steel
signal tower, Figure 22, assuming wind pressure of & E70 welds.
FIGURE 22
Step 1 : FIND PROPERTIES OF WELD, TREATING
IT AS A LINE.
-. (20.5)" (6%))"
-
~~
6
= 1386 in."
-
-
ri (6%)9
.-
-
8
- 114 in?
Total I, = 1500 in?
= 146 in.'
Step 2: FIND THE FORCE INVOLVED.
Moment acting on tower due to wind pressure:
bending stress in pipe (column)
M e
0- = --
I
=r 23,600 psi
--
Step 3: FIND FORCE ON FILLET WELD AT COL-
UMN BASE.
eld Size / 7.4-15
= 1370 lbs/linear in.
Step 4: NOW FIND REQUIRED LEG SIZE OF
FILLET WELD AT BASE.
actual force
0 =
allowable force
= ,123'' but use Xo" ~~
all -~ around, the mini-
mum fillet weld size for 1" base plate
To determine amount of fillet weld to attach masoniy
plate to beam, using E70 welds. The following con-
ditions exist:
FIGURE 23
properties of section
= -2.145" bclow axis x-x
Built-up member
IW WF 45#
1 8 x '/z"
T o m -
11
0
-
1-253.8
~-
Ir
248.6
-
A
13.24
--
9.00
. p- - . - . . . p. . -
22.24
-
502.4
d
.
0
-- 5.31
M
0
~
---47.79
- 47. 79
7. 416 / Joint Design and Production
horizontal shear force on weld
V a y
fh = ----
I n
-
(5000) (9.0) (3.415 )
- --- - .- -.
(399,T) ( 2 welds)
= 192.0 lbs/in., max. at ends
properties of zoeld, trrating it os a line
S , = b d
- *--
= (120)(8)
d = 8 '
P - i i
= 960 in."
k-- b = 120'
A , = 2 b
= 2(120)
bending force on weld
vertical slrear force on weld
~csultant force on t w l d
leg size of weld
= ,0207" if continuous
If using 3/,," internlittent weld, then
calcrilatrd continuous leg size
:= ~ ---- ~~p
actrial intermittent leg size iised
Hcnce, use
:4 ,;" V 2 - 8% on each side (25%)
DRIVE ROLL FOR CONVEYOR BELT
FIGURE 24
Determine sizc of required fillet weld for hub shown
in Figure 2.4. The l~earing load is 6300 1bs. Torque
transmitted is 150 HP at 100 RPM, or:
T =
63,030 x I-IP
RPM
Step I: FIND PROPERTIES OF iVI<I,D, TREATING
IT AS A LINE (use Table 5).
= 67.6 in.'
Step 2: FIND THE VARIOUS FORCES ON WELD,
INSERTING PROPERTIES OF WELD FOUND
ABOVE (use Table 4).
bending
twisting
Seep 3: DETERMINE ACTUAL RESULTANT
FORCE AND ALLOWABLE FORCE ON THE
WELD.
1 inch of fillat weld
f at hub
f? = \/ f b2 + ftB + fr2
-
- 4 (746)? + (1880)2 -+ (250)'
= 2040 lbs/in. (actual rcsultant force)
oi N = 2,000,000 cycles and use Table 8 formula. In
this case, assume a complete reversal of load; hence
K := min/max = -1 and:
5100
f = -
K
1 - -
2
-
5100
- I - + %
= 3400 lbs/in. (allowable force)
Step 4: NOW REQiTIRED LTX SIZE OF F1I.LET
WELD AROUND IIUR C4N BE FOUND.
= ,600" or use %" h
I Problem 7 /
Since this is fatigue loading, assume service life
FIGURE 25
A 3" X 4" angle for support of a pipe extends out
from the transverse intermediate stifFe,ners on a plate
girder, Figure 25. This must be field welded. It will be
difficult to weld in the overhead position along the
bottom edge of the angle as well as to make the ver-
tical weld along the end of the angle next to the girder
web because of poor accessibility. Check whether just
two fillet welds would be sufficient, assuming the
pipe's weight on the hanger is 300 lbs and a possible
horizontal force of approximately 200 ibs is applied to
the hanger during erection of the pipe.
properties of ael d trcatcd us a line
1. For twist about connection's center of gravity, due
to P,
( b +
- 6 b2 @
Jv =
12 ( b + d)
-
( 3 -t 4) 4 - 6( 3) 2( 4) 2
- --
12 ( 3 + 4)
= 18.3 in."
2. For bending about ( y- y) axis, due to P,
twisting force on weld
1. Horizontal
3. Vertical
t crtical shear
hending force on t ~ c l d (about y-yj, due to PI,
resz~ltont force on weld at hottom of connection
FIGURE 26
r-7
= .048" or x," h would he sufficient
10. MOW TO MEASURE SIZE OF FILLET
The size of a fillet weld is difficult to measure without
proper gages. Fillet shapes are concave, convex, or
flat. They may have equal or unequal legs. However,
the true fillet size is measured by finding the leg-
length of the largest isosceles right triangle ( a triangle
with a 90" corner and legs of equal length) which can
he inscribed within the weld cross-section, with the
legs in line with the original surface of the metal.
The gages shown in Figure 27 give quick, easy
FIG. 27 Convex fillets may be measured with
gage of type shown on right; in this case it
measures the leg size. Concave fillets are
measured with gage like the one on left; in
this case it meosures the weld throot.
measurement of fillet size. Two gage types are avail-
able: one for a convex fillet, another for a concave fillet.
See Section 7.10 for series of illustrations which dra-
matically show how poor gaging can seriously offset
the accuracy of engineered welds.
TABLE 11-Maximum Allowable Shear Stress and Shear Force
For Given Applied Normal Stress on Fillet
or Partial-Penetration Groove Weld
Max. oliowoble shear rtres
( 7) which may be opplied to
throot oi fillet weld or portid
penetration groove vel d
Max. dlowable sheor forcs
(f) which may be opplied to
fillet weld
- E60 welds E70 welds -.
L -
9,600 11,170
11. WELDS SUBJECT TO COMBINED STRESS
Although the (1963) AISC Specifications are silent
concerning combined stresses on welds, the prcviolls
specifications (See 12 b ) rcqnired that welds snbject
to shearing and externally applied tensile or compres-
sive forces slrall be so proportioned that the combined
unit stress shall not exceed the unit stress allowcd
for shear.
Very rarely does this have to be elreeked into. For
simply supported girders, the maximnm shear occr~rs
near the ends and in a region of relatively low bending
stress. For built-up tension or compression members,
the axial tensilc or compressive stresses nay be rela-
tively high, but thcoretic;illy there is no shear to he
transferred.
In the case of continuous girders, it might be well
to check into the effect of combined stress on the
connecting welds in the region of negative moment,
because this region of high shear transfer also has high
bending stresses.
Even in this case, there is some question as to
how much a snperimposed axial stress actually reduces
the shear-carrying capacity of the weld. Unfortrmately
there has been no testing of this. In general, it is felt
that the us(: of the following combincd stress analysis
is conservative and any reduction in the shear-carrying
capacity of the weld would not be as great as wor~ld
be indicated by the following formulas. See Figure 28.
In Figure 28:
7 = shear stress to be transferred along throat of
weld, psi
u = rrormal stress applied parallel to axis of weld,
psi
From the Mollr's circle of stress in Figure 28:
From these formulas for the resulting maximum
shcar stress and maximrim rrormal stress, the following
is tme:
For a given applied normal stress ( u ) , the great-
cst applicd shear stress on the throat of a partial-
pm~&ation groove weld or flllet weld (and holding
the rnaxirnu~m shmr strcss resulting from these com-
bined stresses within the allowable of T = 13,600 psi
for EGO welds, or 7 = 15,800 psi for E70 welds) is-
for 1:60 toelds or SAW-1
for E70 welds or SAW-2
This same forn~r~t a may be cxprcssed in terms of
allowable unit force (Ibs/lincar inch) for a fillet weld:
for EGO welds or SAW-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8a)
for E70 welds or SAW-2
For the same given applied normal stress (u),
the greatest applied shear stress ( 7 ) on the throat of a
groovt: weld or fillet weld (and holding the maxirnr~m
normal stress resulting from these combined stresses
within the allowable of u = .60 u,) is-
Formulas #7 and #8 are expressed in table form,
as in Table 11. The general relationship of these
formulas is illustrated by the graph, F i y r e 29.
Determining Weld Size / 7.4.21
Ruilt-up tension
Teniioti flange to
chord in t r us s
web of or
box glider
FIG. 28 Analysis of weld, using Mohrjs
of Stress,
7.4-22 / Joi nt Desi qn and Producti on
Applied noi mol stress ( 0 1 porai!el to weld, k i i
FIG. 29 Relationship of Formulas #8 and #9; see Table 11, page 19.
SECTI ON 7. 5
1. COST FACTORS
There are several methods which may be used to study
welding cost, and these depend on the need for such
a study. For example, is it needed t o estimate a new
job for bidding? Or, it is needed to compare one
procedure against another? Or, is the chief need one
of determining the amount of electrode to order?
A good methocl of cost estimating should give the
final cost quickly; yet indicate what portion of the
operation is more expensive, i.e. where the welding
dollar is really being spent.
The h a 1 cost includes at least these items: a )
labor and overhead for plate preparation, assembling,
welding, cleaning, and sometimes stress-relieving; b )
elcctrode, flux, and gas; and c) electric power.
Table I includes a number of useful formulas for
determining various cost components.
Unfortunately there is no one all-inclusive formula
By which all types of welding jobs may be studied.
The simplest type of cost estimation is a job that re-
quires a long, single-pass fillet or groove weld. Next
comes the long, multi-pass weld, where a different pro-
cedure may be used for each pass. In both examples,
it is sufficient to assume a reasonable operating factor
due to the downtime between electrodes consumed
and to apply this to the actual arc time. This downtime
is affected by the weldor, as well as the job. A more
complicated weld may require a handling time factor.
This handling time is affected more by the job, than
by the welding.
Three items which are difficult to tie down, yet
greatly affect the cost of a weld, are these:
1. The amount of filler weld metal required; this
varies with size of weld, size of root opening or fit up,
amount of reinforcement, included angle of groove, etc.
2. The operating factor used, i.e. the ratio of actual
arc time to the over-all welding time.
3. The amount of handling and cleaning time.
This section includes various tables and nomo-
graphs which are helpful in making true cost estimates.
No estimating system, however, is satisfactory without
the estimator applying his good judgment and per-
ception.
2. COST OF WELD METAL
The cost of welding is directly affected by the amount
of weld metal required. Very few people realize the
great increase in weld metal and cost that results from
a slight increase in weld size.
The cross-sectional area of a weld generally varies
as the square of the weld size. For example, making
a %," leg size fillet weld when a W' weld is desired,
increases the leg by 25% but the area is increased by
56%. The amount of reinforcement is diEcult to specify
and control; yet the range of its variance can substan-
tially affect the amount of weld metal required. A slight
increase in root opening increases the amount of weld
metal for the entire thickness and length of the weld.
The resulting percentage increase in weld metal is
usually surprising.
Computing Weld Weight
Designers or associated personnel frequently have to
compute the weight of weld metal required on a
particular job, as a matter of either cost estimating or
determining the amount of material to be ordered for
a particular job. Sometimes these computations must be
based on the size and configuration of the joint. The
normal procedure to follow in such a case is to com-
pute the cross-sectional area of the joint in square
inches and then convert this into pounds per linear foot
by multiplying by the factor 3.4. To simplify these
computations, Tahle 2 (weight in lhs/linear f t ) has
been developed; its use is illustrated in Problem 1.
Tables 3, 4, and 5 provide precalculated weights
for specific joints and read directly in lbs per foot
of joint. Tahle 6 is a similar table for AWS prequalified
joints. Tables for the direct reading of weld metal for
partial-penetration grwve or Met welds are included
in Section 3.6, "Fabrication of Built-up Columns."
For estimating the weight of manual electrode
required, ronghly add another 50% to this amount of
weld metal.
In order to arrive at the labor cost per foot of
joint, it is necessary to know the speed at which the
joint can he welded. This may be found in prepared
data on standard welding procedures, both for manual
welding as well as the submerged-arc process. For
special joints for which no information is available, the
deposition rate (Ibs/hr) may be determined from
tables and charts for given welding currents. The joint
speed is then funnd by dividing this deposition rate
by the amount of weld metal required (lbs/linear ft.).
TABLE 1-Useful elding Cos! Formulas
SPEED
I
TIME
I
JOINT SPEED
in
i t . 5 -
- - min 60
1 2 1
h r mi n ft i t / hr = m/mm 2 + l t l
S, S2 S3
~~ ~ ~~- ~
-.
-
7----
JOINT SPEED 1 ROD ME1 TED PER FOOT 1 ROD MELTED PER HOUR
i t 6OD
. - % -
I
lh rod mel& z~
ib rod melted 6000 M (OF)
hr J it wcid N L,*. S hr N L,.
1 -
ROD MILEAGE I ROD CONSIJMED PER F0O.I' 1 ROD CONSUMED I'EK HOUR
APPROXLhlnTE R1EI.T
OFF I UTE E( wc volt$ Ilwcldinp cur r ent ) lb rod m c E
-
1000 hr
APPROXIMATE COST OF
SUBMERGED ARC
_ - &
,00663 I ( Ft W) - 10 L
AUTObL4 TIC WELD i t S
WELD COST
I
per foot of tach pass
I pe r l b of deposit
LABOR OVERHEAD 5 L " L
I ft - s (OF)
MANUAL EI.ECTRODE
12lNIMW
f t N L S
AUTOMATIC $- 12 m W+RF) - J ( U ' )
WIRE & FLUX S Ez
GAS
L = l nbvr + overhead ($/hr)
W = wi r e o r rod cost (Clh)
N = number rods/100 l bs
F = flux cost (C/lb)
I = welding cur r ent (amperes)
G = gas cost ($/hr)
S : (in weld/min) = L-/T
R = rat i o of flux to wi r e
T = t i me t o mel t one rod (min)
D = (lb weld deposited/rnin)
L- = (in rod meltcd/rod)
M = (in rod melted/min) = I,..;/T
1.. = (in weld/rod)
C = (lb rod consumed/min) with st ub
J - (lb weid/it of jaint)
m = (Ib rod mclted/min) no st ub
OF = operating f act or
Wr = weight one rod with st ub (Ibs) = 10O/N
W, = weight of one st ub (lbs)
Ei = deposition efficiency lb weld d e p o s w _D
Ib rod melted m
E2 = overal l deposition efficiency a i d deposited D
= El Er
lb rod consumed
El - melting efficiency lb rod melted m . W, - W,
lb rod c o n s u m ~ i =
= ---- W,
elding Cost. / 7.5-3
eight of Weld Metal (Ibs/ft of Joint)
TABLE &Weight of Weld Met al ( I bdf t of Joint)
Estimating Welding Cost / 7.5-5
Reinforcement: 10%
FIG. 1-Weight of Weld Metal
(Ibs/ft of Joint)
Based on Procedures, Using Submerged-Arc Process
Wei ght of Wel d Met al
(lbs. p e r foot of j oi nt )
DC - Dct
Tr a v e l Speed
( i nches p e r mi nut e)
elding Cost / 7.5-7
I Problem 1 (
Computing the Weight of Weld Metal Rascd on Joint
Dosign
With Table 2, computiltions based on joint design
are easy. Essentially, it is a matter of dividing the
cross-section of the area to be filled with weld metal,
into standard geometric areas. The contributions of
the individual areas can be found in the chart. Totaling
these, gives the pounds of weld metal per foot re-
quired by the joint. For example, consider the follow-
ing joint design (Fig. 2 ) :
1 . , ...$
iK,'
A -. --
j/q rad:
FIGURE 2
This joint can be broken into component areas A,
B, C and D. Referring to Table 2, the contribution of
each 06 these component areas to the total weight of
weld metal required by the joint is simply picked off
the chart as follows (Fig. 3 ) :
Since t = Ys" and d = 1%''
read from Table 2:
,318 Ibs/ft
Since included angle is 14"
and d = 1" read from
Table 2:
,417 Ibsjft
Since t = %" and d = 1"
11
read from Table 2:
1.7 lbsjft
Since r = Y4"
read from Table 2:
,334 lbsjft
FIGURE 3
Adding these, the total weight becomes 2.77 lbs
of weld metal per foot of joint.
When the welding procedures for a particular job
are known, it is a simple matter to detennine the
weight of weld metal that will be deposited per foot
of joint through the use of the nomograph foq sub-
merged arc welding Figore 1. Simply line up a straight-
edge through the point on the left scale that represents
thc welding current being nsrd and the point on the
middle scale that represents the travel speed being
used. Where the straightedge intersects tbe right scale,
read the amount of weld metal per foot of joint.
There is one note of caution. Be sure to use the
proper side of the Welding Currcnt scale, depending
on the size of electrode used, and the correct side of
the Weight of Weld Metal scale, depending on the
polarity used.
As an example, the line drawn on the nomograph
represents the procedure which uses 590 amps on Ys"
electrode at a travel speed of 30 in./min. The resultant
weight of weld metal is .10 lbs per foot of joint if DC
positive polarity is used, or .13 lbs if DC negative
polarity is used.
I Problem 3 /
Adjusting Procedures to Provide the Required Amount
of Weld Metal
For some types of joints, there are no established
welding procedures. When such is the case, the normal
method is to find an established procedure for a similar
joint and alter it slightly to accommodate the desired
joint. The nomograph for submerged-arc welding,
Figure 1, can eliminate a lot of hit-and-miss approaches
to the selection of the proper procednre.
For example, consider the following suhmerged-
arc automatic joint (Fig. 4) :
FIGURE 4
/ Problem 2 1
Computiag the Weight of Wold h4etal Based on Weid-
ing Procedures
There are no established procedures for this joint.
Probably the closest is that for the following joint (Fig.
5):
FIGURE 5
Power: DC+
Amperes: 670
Volts: 29
Electrode Size: $h2"
Travel Speed: 16"/min.
3. OPERATING FACTOR
The selection of a proper operating factor (OF) is
difficult, and yet affects the final cost more than any
other single item. Even though some difficulty is en-
111 adjusting this procedure to the new joint, it is
reasonable to assume that the 670 amps would be
about right and, therefore, the simplest thing to do
would be to slow down the welding speed enough to
provide the amount of 611 required. To do this, first
determine the amount of weld metal required to fill
the new joint in the manner outlined in Problem I.
In this case, it is determined to be ,404 Ibs/ft of joint.
Then, nse the uomograph to determine the proper
speed setting as follows.
Locate 670 amps on the left-hand side of the
welding scale (for vG2" electrode) and ,404 lbs/ft on
the DC+ polarity side of the weld metal scale. Draw
a straight line between them. This intersects the travel
spced line at Y"/min, which is an estimate of the
s p e d which should be used to provide adequate fill
in the joint. With this much of the procedure Sxed, it
is a simple matter to adjust the voltage to provide the
desired bead shape.
countered in obtaining this value, it is necessary to
establish an approximately true value rather than to
simply ignore it or assume it to he 100%. Consider
the following:
.- ~.
METHOD A
1 -
METHODB
In other words, the operating factor does affect
the welding cost sufficiently to be considered.
.4 \vclrling snginecr is interested in replacing his
Since one might question the practice of assmn-
present E-6012 electrode on a ccrtnin job with the iron
ing the same operating factor for various electrodes
powder E-6024 elrctrodc. Thc following is his cost
and procedures, consider the followir:,: example. study:
~, ' , ol cct r ode A @ 20$/lb
uses i 4 it rodift of weld
speed is 18 in. /min
labor & overhead, $6.0U/hr
Total cost of weiding using
100$ operating factor:
11.7 C/ft
'/rMe1ectrode B (d 14$/lb
uses i: Ci rodift of weld
spced i s 16 in. /=in
labor & averhesd,$E.Oo/hr
Total cost of welding using
100% operating factor:
10. 9 $/it
This indicates that, with10070operatingfactor, electrode
B would have the least cost, and would save 6 . 6%.
... ~ ~,~~~~~ ~- - - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - ~~~--~--~~~ppp
Total cost of welding using Total cost of welding using
30% operating factor
-
1
307, operating factor
27.2 $/it 28.4 $iff
This indicates that, with 30?:operating factor, electrode
A would have the least cost and would save 4.1%;.
elding Cost / 7.5-9
E-6012 ELECTRODE
-
%" leg iillet . 30# rorl/R % a " leg fillet . 30'1 rorl/it
$116"E-6012 rod @
melt-off rate M
speed S = 9 in. /min speed S = 1 3 in. /min
length rod melted
time T = 2.06 min/rod time T = 1. 57 min/rod
Assume a 50% operating factor (OF)
and $6.00/hr labor and ovorhead (L)
labor cost / labor cost
or a saving in labor of 30. 7% by using the iron powder
electrode E-6024.
But this analysis reveals the following: The arc
time for the E-6012 electrode per rod is 2.06 minutes;
using a 50% operating factor, this represents a down-
time of 2.06 minutes per rod. This downtime between
electrodes includcs time to lift up the helmet, clean
the slag off the weld, insert a new- electrode into the
holder, etc. On the same basis the arc time for the
E-602.1 electrode would he 1.57 minutes per rod; and
using the same operating factor of SO%, this means a
downtime of only 1.57 minutes per rod.
It might appear at first that simply snbstituting
the E-602.1 electrode into the holdcr would dccrease
the downtime; i.e. the operator can lift np his helmet
faster, knock off the slag faster, pick up and insert
the next clrctrndr faster, etc. Of course this is not true.
A more accurate method wonld be to use a fixed
downtime, adjusting the operating factor accordingly.
Re-examine this cost study, using an average downtime
between electrodes of 2.06 minutes:
- ~~
E-6012 ELECTRODE E-6024 ELECTRODE
.. ~~~ . .~~ ... ~ . . ~ ~~~~-~~
t
.....
operating faclor = 50% operating factor =
1. 57
(1.57) ! (2.06)
labor cost ' labor cost
or a saving in labor cost of 21% by using the E-6024 electrode.
-~ . ~~~~. . ,~ ~ .-
lbs rod melted
Assume E = Ibs
consumed = 90%)
Total 26. 7 c 4.9 = 31. 6 $/R j Total 21. 2 + 5. 1 = 26.3 C/R
or a total saving In labor and rod cost of 16. 89 by using
the E-6024 electrode.
7.5-10 / Joint Design and Productton
Notice that the decreased arc time with the E-6024 study of the job, which we are trying to avoid.
results in a slightly lower operating factor, 43.5% in- The nomograph, Figure 6, map be ured to quickly
stead of 50% although the joint does cost less. read the labor and overhead cost per foot of weld.
One might further suggest using a downtime per
4. PER HOUR
electrode and a handling time per foot of weld. These
figures, if available, would give a more true picture .4s a matter of interest, consider the cost per hour for
of the welding cost, but it would mean making a time these two procedures:
E-6012 ELECTRODE E-6024 ELCC I'RODE
- -. - -- -- - .
rod consumed pe r hi- consumcd per h r
= 7.37 l hs/ hr 1 = 8. 49 l bs/ hr
--
r od cos t rod cost
7. 37 x 14.9 $/lh = $1. lO/hr 8. 49 x 16. 9 $/lb = $1. 44/hr
l abor cost = 6.00, l abor cost = 6.00
7
Total = $7 lO/hr 1 Total = $7. 44/hr
-.
It can be expected then that the cost per hour for
making the same size weld will increase slightly with
faster procedur's. Obviously the increase equals the
difference in cost of electrode consumed. Of course
the number of units turned out per hour is greater,
so the unit cost is less.
5. ESTIMATING ACTUAL WELDING TI ME
After the length and size of the various welds have
been determined, there are three ways to estimate the
a c t ~ ~ a l welding time:
1. Convert these values into weight of weld metal
per linear foot, and total for the entire job. Determine
the deposition rate from the given welding current,
and from this find the arc time. This method is espe-
cially useful when there is no standard welding data
for the particular joint.
2. If standard welding data is available in tables,
giving the arc travel speeds for various types and sizes
of welds, in terms of inches per minute, apply this to
the total lengths of each type and size of weld on the
job.
3. Time the actual weld or job.
Most welding procedures are based on good weld-
ing conditions. These assume a weldable steel, clean
smooth edge preparation, proper fit-up, proper position
of plates for welding, sufficient accessibility so the
welding operator can easily observe the weld and placc
the electrode in the proper position, and welds s&-
ciently long so the length of crater is not a factor in
determining weld strength. Under these standard con-
ditions, the weld should have acceptable appearance.
Failurc to provide these conditions requires a sub-
stantial reduction in welding current and immediately
increases cost.
It is impossible to put a qualitative value on these
factors, therefore the designer or 'ngineer must learn
to anticipate such problems and, by observation or con-
sulting with shop personnel or other engineers who have
actual welding experience, modify his estimate accord-
ingly.
FIG. 6-Welding Cost Estimator
(Does Not Include Cost of Filler Metal)
i a bor and
overhead
q h r .
J,P;o
0
0
/o Op ~r a t r ' n ~
factor
&+ Pr o b l e m : Find cost of ki" f i l l et weld
-. ~
-
a Labor a,nd over head - d5--oper h o u r
@ Owrat i ng factor - 50%
@ Sp,peed of j oi nt - 10 /riches per mi nute
@ Reod cost = 20d per foot
dot e; This cost f~gure docs not/i7c/ude elactrodz cos~,
Toduterniina thi s i/se 'Ibs of electrode r&redper f oot o
jmnt''from above ref crerms and mnultjpb by e/cct,+ode
sal/;ng prtce. Add t h i s t o t hat obt ai ned in sfep @
SECTI ON 7. 6
1. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF
CONNECTION
In the modification or repair of buildings, it may be
rrecessaly to weld to the existing steel framework.
When welding and riveting are combined on the
same strength joint, the riveted portion of the joint
may slip or yield slightly, thus throwing the entire
load eventually on the weld. Normally, on new con-
struction where welding and riveting are combined, the
joint would he figured on the basis of the weld takiug
the entire load. Since 1930, most of the old riveted
railroad trestles havc been reinforced by melding be-
canse of the newer and heavier locomotives.
Riveted connections can ba reinforced with plates.
with holrs to fit over the rivets. The plate is welded
to the existing connection with fillet welds all around its
edge, and is plug welded to the plate at each rivet hole.
This technique, however, rcquires a considerable
amount of out-of-position welding with small electrodes.
2. EFFECT OF ELDING HEAT ON
MEMBER'S STRENGTH
Frequently, a question arises as to the effect of welding
on the strength of an existing structure already under
a stress. Actually the strength of steel does uot drop off
upon heating, until a t emperat ~~re of about 650F is
reached. This is brought out in the table of allowable
strengths of matorials in the ASME Unfired Pressure
Vessels, Section 8. Here the same allowable is used
from minus 20F all the way up to 650F. The ASME
code body recognizes the fact that the strength of sterl
riscs slightly upon heating and docs not start to drop
off until a trmpcrnture of 600F or 700F is reached.
In wclding to an existing structure, the amount of
material actually l ~rat ed monrentarily above 700" umild
he a very s~nal l spot right at the wslding arc. Figure
1 shows the temperature rise in a plate while making
n ,7{i;" fillet weld in the vertical-up position. This in-
dicates that in wing a E6010 electrode, the
temperature on the hack side of the %'' thick plate
opposite the weld was held below 600F. Figure 2
shows the same wcld using a $$?" E6010 electrode.
Here the temperature on the back side of the 'h" thick
plate was held below 650F. Also see Figure 3.
The very tiny area of the member heated above
this temperaturr does not represent a sizable percent-
age of the entire cross-section of the stress carrying
member. This has been the opinion of rnany fabricators
and erectors u:ho have been welding 011 existing struc-
tmes for several years.
All welds will, however, shrink. This creates a
shrinkage force wlrich, if welds are not placed sym-
metrically about the mcmber, will result in some dis-
tortio~, of that member. This could occur in melding
to an misting member if most of the welding is donc
on one side. For rxample, if all of the welding is done
on the tmttom flangr of a beam, the unsymmetrical
welding will tend to distort the beam upward in the
Temperal ure back sade
of 3A" pl ote opposite weld
below 600" F
I
FIGURE 1
5/ 32 E6010
Verti cal up
140 amps - 25 volts
3' /2"/mi n.
i = 45,100 j oul edi n.
Temperature bock side ot
Y2" pplte opposite weld
below 650" F
FIGURE 2
Approximate distance of 65D'F isotherm from v d
I I 1 I I I
FIG. 3 A guide to establishing proper welding
procedures for minimum heat input.
opposite direction as the applicd load to the beam.
If the welding were done along the top flange only,
this would tend to distort the beam downward in the
same direction as the applied load. Therefore, it might
be wcll, in some cases, to temporarily shore up a
beam in order to reduce some or all of the beam load
while \velding.
3. AWS, AlSC AND AASI-10 SPECIFICATIONS
Section 7 of the present AWS Code for Welding in
Building Construction, and the SpeciGcations for
Welded Highway and Railway Bridges, cover the
strengthening and repairing of cxisting structures.
The engineer shall detenninr whether or not a
member is pennitted to carry live load stresses while
welding or ouygen-cutting is being perfonned on it,
taking into consideration the extent to which the mem-
ber's cross-section is heated as a result of the operation
being performed.
If material is added to a member cwrying a dead
load stress of GOOO psi, either for repaking corroded
parts or for strengthening, it is desirable to relieve the
member of dead load stresses, or to pre-stress the
material to be added. If neither is practical, the new
material to be added shall be proportioned for a unit
stress equal to the allowable unit stress in the original
member minus the dead load unit stress in the original
member.
( Problem 1 I
To reidorce an existing member to withstand an addi-
tional live load of 20,OM) Ibs. The existing section has a
cross-sectional area of 10.0 in.', with an allowable work-
ing stress of u = 18,000 psi. The original design loads-
dead ( DL) , live (L,L), and impact (1)-gave the fol-
lowing:
DL force 100,000 ibr + 10.0 in? = 10,000 psi
LL + i ioice 80,000 ibr i 10.0 in.* = 8,000 psi
- ..
DL + LL + I force 180.000 ibs 18.000 psi
ond 18,000 psi 18,000 psi OK
The member must now be increased in section for
an additional 20,000 lbs of live load (LL):
Aliowabie st r epi in oiiginoi member = 18.000 psi
Deod load sties in original member = 10.000 ps i
-.
To be wed in n e w steel to be added = 8,000 psi I
I
20,000 ibr
= 2.5 in2 = orea of new ircei to be added
8,000 ibr 1
Check this as follows:
I
DL force i00.000 l bi I iO.O in.' = iO.000 psi
LL + i force 100,OW ibs i 12.5 in.' = 8,000 psi
~ I
DL + LL + I 200.000 ibi 18.000 psi
and 18,000 psi 5 18,000 psi C K
- 10,000 pri
Q
18,000 psi
i 8000 pi,
0 0 i n . @ 10.000 psi = l ooK
12.5 in.' @ 8,000 psi = 100"
-
200'
FIGURE 4
Welding an Existing Structures / 7.6-3
In making alterations to structt~rcs, existing rivets
may be utilized for carvi ng stresses resulting fronr
dead loacls and welding shall he provided to carry all
additional stress, However, if the framing is shored
during repairs and the meniber to be reinforctd is
thus relieved of stress, the welding shall carry the
entire stress.
AISC Sec 1.15.10: Ri v~t s nnd Bolts in Combination
\i.ith Welds. In new work, rivets, bolts or high strongth
1)olts used in bearing type connections shall not be
considered as sharing the stress in combination with
welds. Welds. if nsrd, shall be provided to carry the
entire stress in the connection. High strength bolts
installed in accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.16.1
as friction-type connections prior to welding may ho
considered as sharing thr stress with the wrlds. In
making wrlded altc,rations to structures, existing rivets
and properly tightened high strength bolts may be
tltilked for carrying stresses rrsnlting from existing
dead loads, and the, welding natd be :tdeqltate only
to carry all additional stress.
AASHO Requirements
.4.4SfIO 1.127: The unit working stresses used in
determining the load-can-ying capacity of each member
of a structure shdl take into account the type of
material from which the nmnber is made. The unit
working stress assnmed for the inventory rating shall
not cscerd 0.3-15% of the yield point and for the
operating rating shall not exceed 0.82 of the yield
point.
Where infornration concerning the specification
under which the metal was supplied is not available,
it will be assumed that the yield point docs not rxcwd
30,000 psi for all bridgcs hnilt after 1005.
Rridgcs built previous to 1905 shall be checked to
see that thc matcrial is not of a fibrous nature. If it is
fihl-ous or of doiihtfnl character, the yield point will be
assumed to bc equal to that of wrought iron which
shall be taken ;IS 26,WO psi.
In the ahsencr of definite information, it shall be
assninctl that the yicld point of wrooght iron is 26,OOO
psi, and the unit working stress shall be taken as 14,000
psi.
4. GENERAL
Pml mxd repairs and mrthods shonld be considered
2nd approved by a qnalified enginrer. Welding on a
job of this type should be of the best quality and
adeq~tately inspected. An tl6010 type of electrode
would nomrnlly he recommended for this welding, if
it involves vertical and overhead positions or painted
or dirty material. Material should be cleaned as thor-
oughly as possible before wrlcliiig. If the nntcrial is
nnnsoally thick, a low-hydrogrn electrode should hc
nsed, and it would be wrll to check for any preheat
w11ic.h might be recornmcnded. See the following topic,
Temperature for Welding.
When making a rt:pair on a structnre it is ntLcessary
to know the type of steel it is made of. It may be
possible to get a mill rcport from the steel mill which
fornislied the stecl. Sornetirnes on wr y old structures
this information cannot be ohtained. If this is an irn-
portant structure, it wot~ld he a good idca to get test
drillings and have them analyzed.
An erperionced weldor will sometimes weld a
small piece of mild sterl to the structnre and then
knock it off with a hammer. If the weld cracks out of
the base metal, taking some of it with the weld, this
indicates that thc stecl is hardenable and the heat-
affected zone adjaccnt to the weld has bren hardened.
If the wdd itself cracks, this indicates higher carbon
or alloy in the steel which has been picked up in thc
molten weld and become hard during cooling. In both
cases, preheating imd low hydrogen electrodes should
be used. If the mild stecl bar bends down without the
\veld breaking, this indicates good weldable ductilc
steel.
All structural work for a rnaior addition to the
Jordan-Marsh Deportment Store in Boston wos
completed without interruption of business. The
concrete wall was penetrated and new steel
welded successfully to vintage steel under load
-without removal of the load.
There is little chance that the strnctwe to be re-
paired is made of wrought iron, which was used in
structmes prior to 1900. Wrought iron contains slag
rolled into it as tiny slag inclusions or laminations, and
is low in carbon. The slag pockets might bother the
welding operator a little; but this should he no real
problem. Some cngincers recommend that extra effort
he made to fuse or penetrate well into the wrought iron
surface, especially if the attached member is going to
pull at right angles to the wrought iron member; other-
wise, they reason, the snrface might pull out because of
the laminations directly below the snrface.
It is also possible for the sulphur content of
wrought iron to be excessive, and it should be checlced.
Keep in mind t t ~at any chemical analysis for sulphur
represents the average value in the drillings of steel
taken for analysis. I t is possible in u~onght iron to
have the sulphur segregated into small areas of high
concentrations. The lowhydrogen electrodes (EXX15,
EXX16 and EXXl8) should he used where sulphur
might be a problem.
The AISC published in 1853 a complete listing of
steel and wrought iron beams and columns that were
rolled between 1873 and 1952 in the United States.
5. TEMPERATURE FOR WELDING
The AWS Building and Bridge codes require that
welding shall not be done when the ambient tempera-
ture is lower than 0F. When the base metal temp-
erature is below 32"F, preheat the base metal to at
least 70F, and maintain this temperature during
welding.
Under both codes, no welding is to be done on
metal which is wet, exposed to ice, snow, or min, nor
when the weldors are exposed to inclement conditions,
including high wind. unless the work and the weldors
are properly protected.
In general, the AISC and AWS specifications on
minimum temperature for welding are a good guide
to follow. See Table 1. The following thoughts might
supplement them in producing better welds at thcsr
cold temperaturcs.
Welding on plates at cold temperatures results in
a very fast rate of cooling for the weld metal and nd-
jacent base metals. With thicker sections of mild steel,
A7, .4373_ and A36, this exceptionally fast rate of cool-
ing traps hydrogen in the weld metal. This reduces
ductility and impact strength of the weld and may
cause cracking, especially of the root bead or first
pass. This type of weld cracking has been shown to
occur almost entirely in the temperatwe range below
400F.
With a preheat or interpass temperature of 2W0F,
this cracking does not occur, even with the organic
type of mild steel electrodes. This is because the
higher temperature results in a slower cooling rate, and
inare time for this entrapped liydrogcn to escape.
Lowhydrogen eiectrodes greatly reduce the source
of hydrogen and, therefore, the cracking problem. This
weld metal has greater impact strength and a lower
transition temprrature. In gcncral, the use of low-
hydrogen electrodes will lower any preheat requirement
hy approximately 300pF.
The fastest cooling rate occurs with so-called "arc
strikes", when at the start of a weld the electrode is
scratched along the surface of the plate without any
metal being deposited. This can be damaging and
TABLE 1-Minimum Preheat and interpass Temperatures 1. "
Wel di ng Process
-- -. - --
Thickness of
Thickest Port at
Shielded Met oCAr ~ Wel di ng wi th
i n inches Other than Law-Hydrogen Eiectroder Submerged Arc Welding
.
ASTM A36'. A7I.". A373" ASTM A36". A7'.'. A373'. A4418
' Wel di ng i hol l not be done when the ambient tempeioture i s lower than 0F.
' When the bare mctol ir below the temperature listed for the weiding process bei ng used and the
thicknerr of material bei ng welded, it shall be pi cheoted for al i welding (including tack welding) in
such monnei tho? the suifocai of the parts on which weld metol is being deposited are at or obove the
speci f i d minimum temperature for o dir!ance equai t o the thickneir of the port bei ng welded, but not
l eu than 3 in., both l otei ol l y and i n advance of the welding.
Preheat temperature sholl not exceed 400F. llnterparr iemperoture ir not r ubj ed t o o maximum limit.!
Uring E6OXX or E70XX eiectiader other thon the low-hydrogen types.
See limltotionr on use of ASTM A7 rteei in Poi. 105(b).
' Using low-hydrogen e!ectrodcr (7015. E70i6, E7018, 7028) or Gi ode SAW-I or SAW-2.
' Uring onl y low-hydrogen eiectioder (E7015, 7016, E7018, E7028) or Gi ode SAW-2.
' When the bore metal temperature ii below 32-F. preheat the base metal t o ot ieart 70'1.
To %, i n d
Over % t o i inci.
Over i l/ t o 24/2. incl.
Over 2$
None'
150F
225F
300F
Noner
70F
lSOF
225'F
elding on Existing Stpuctrares / 7.6-5
should be avoided. Next to this in seriousness are very
short tack welds.
The following will illustrate the effect which weld
length has on cooling rate. The length of time to cool
from 1600F to ZWF when a single weld is placed
on a %'' plate is:
Length of Weld 9-
.
Time (Secondr) 300. 2000.
A weld 9" long made at a temperature of 70oF
has about the samc cooling rate as the samc weld 3"
long at a preheat of 300F. Welds of larger cross-
section have greater heat input per inch of weld. High
welding current and slow travel speeds slow down the
rate of cooling and decrease the cracking problen~.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in cold temperature
welding is the discomfost of the welding operator. It
becomes more awkward to move amund tlie weld be-
cawe of the extra clothing required. The welding lens
continually hecomes frosted or fogged from the breath
of the operator. The helmet must he removed and the
lens wiped.
ELDING OF INSERT PLATES
For thick plates, a donble V or U joint would reduce
the amount of weld metal and therefore transverse
shrinkage. The halanced weld would preclude any
angular distortion.
(a) Single Vee
(b) Double Vee
FIGURE 5
The use of round corners will tend to reduce any
notch effect at the mmers of the weliled insert.
Sometinics the plate to be insert& is prr-dished.
providing n little excess material in tlie plate to offset
the transverse shrinkage. However, longitudinal shrink-
age stresses will build up around the periphery of tha
plate, hccanse the edge welded lies in a flat plane and
therefore is more restrained.
The following sequence is usually used:
Weld side ( 1) complete. So far this should hc
rather unrestrained. A fcw tack welds on the opposite
side might crack; if so, they should he realigned and
rewelded. Weld side ( 2 ) completc. It might he argued
that this is free to shrink because the* opposite side ( 3)
is un\velded. However there is some restraint of f md
by the weld along side (1). Now side ( 3) directly
opposite side ( 2 ) is welded; this will start to lock-up
now. Then weld side ( 4) opposite side ( 1) . If either
\veld ( 3) or ( 4 ) should crack. it should be gonged out
to sound metal and rewelded. Finally, the four corners
( 5) are completed.
Another suggestion is to estimated the amount of
transverse shrinkage and to open up the joint initially
by this amount, by driving in sevaral harrlened steel
drift pins. The joint is thcn welded, full throat, lip to
these pins. The pins are then removed, and the joint
completed.
FIGURE 7
Figure 7 illustrates the geometrical method of
obtaining the weld area. This value is needed to dcter-
mine transverse shrinkage:
weld area
transverse shrinkage ( A ) = 10L%
thickness
:= 10%, average width of weld
awa of weld
( XG") (.62") = ,1162
'h (.62") (.30") = ,0930
M (. W)(. 30") = ,1350
Zl j (1.0") (.lo") = ,0667
-
,4109 in.2
(.411)
A = .I0
("I' ; " ~~~-
7.6-6 / Joint Design & Production
In production of large plate girders, flange i s commonly tack welded to the web. Then, with the
girder web held at a 45O angle, the web-to-flange weld can be efficiently made using a self-
propelled submerged-arc welding unit. This (/2" fillet is here being mode in two passes. Flange is
4" thick, web %". Improvements in equipment and technique are currently permitting many (/2"
fillets to be made in a single pass.
SECTI ON 7. 7
1. WELDING FACTORS THAT CAUSE
OVEMENT
In making a weld, the heating and cooling cycle always
causes shrinkage in both base metal and weld metal,
and shrinkage forces tend to cause a degree of distor-
tion. Designers and engineers must anticipate and
provide control of this shrinkage to achieve the full
economies of arc-weld& steel construction. Suggested
solutions for correction or elimination are based on
both theoretical analysis and the practical experience
of fabricating shops.
FIG. 1 Properties of a metal change at ele-
vated temperatures, complicating the analysis
of weld shrinkage. Graph i s for mild steel.
The enormous temperature differential in the arc
area, creates a non-uniform distribution of heat in the
part. As the temperature increa~cs, such properties as
yield strenbph decrease, the modulus of elasticity de-
creases, the coefficient of t h ma l expansion increases,
the thermal conductivity dccreasrs, and the specific
heat increases. See Figure 1. To anticipate the move-
ment of material from a straightforward analysis of
heat is difficult.
Restraint from external clamping, internal restraint
due to mass, and the stiffness of the stecl plate itsclf
also must be considered. All thesc factors have a defi-
nite influence on the degree of movement.
Finally it is necessary to consider the factor of
time as it affects the rapidly changing conditions. The
period of time during which a specific condition is
in effect controls the importance of that condition.
These variable conditions arc further influenced
by the welding process itself. Different welding pro-
cedures, type and size of electrode, welding current,
speed of travel, joint design, preheating and cooling
rates-all these bear significantly on the problem.
I t is obvious that distortion cannot be analyzed
FIG. 2 An unbalance of forces resulting from
shrinkoge of weld deposit tends to couse ongu-
lor distortion or bowing.
by viewing each one of these factors separately. A
solution based on correcting the combined effect is
the only practicable approach.
2. EVIDENCES AND CAUSE OF DISTORTION
When distortion occurs, it appears as a shortening of
the weld area. This generally can be cataloged as
longitudinal shrinkage and transverse shrinkage, Figurc
2. Further, if transverse shrinkage is not nniform
throughout the thickness of the weld, anpl ar distortion
\ d l result. When longitudinal shrinkage acts in a direc-
tion that is not along the neutral axis of the memhcr,
the result is bowing or cambering (also shown in
Fig. 2).
Distortion results when a condition of non-uniform
expansion and contraction is crcated. Distortion can
be anticipated by evaluating the following factors:
I . The weld along with some adjacent metal con-
tracts on cooling, producing a. shrinkage force, F.
2. The shrinkage force acts about the neutral axis
of a member. The distance between the center of
gravity of the weld area and this neutral axis represents
the moment arm, d.
3. The moment of inertia of the section, I, resists
this contraction. The I of a section also resists straight-
ening, should it be necessary.
3. THE INFLUENCE OF OVERWELDING
Overwelding increases the shrinkage force, F, and the
tendency to distort. Anything that reduces the amount
of welding such as decreasing the leg size, reducing
the weld length, or using intermittent welding tech-
niques, will minimize this condition. See Figure 3.
Overwelding can be caused inadvertently by a
chain of events. The designer may specify the next
larger weld sizc because of a lack of confidence in
welding. When the part reaches the shop floor, the
shop foreman, wishing to play it safe, marks the piece
up for the next weld size. The weldor, having just
FIG. 3 Excessive distortion i s frequently caused
by overwelding.
heen criticized for making u~idersize welds, makes
real surc that these welds are still larger. The resnlt-
a 94" fillet has become a K" weld. Thesc men usually
do not realize that weld metal increases as the square
of the leg size. The apparently harmless %" increase
in the leg size has increased thc amount of weld metal.
deposited, the weld shrinkage and the weld cost by
1 times.
4. CONTROL OF ELD SHRINKAGE
One t e~hni que wed to ~nritrol weld shrinkage involves
prehending the member or presrtting the joint before
welding. In this way the net &ect of weld shrinkage
pulls the member or connection back into proper aligr-
ment (Fig. 4).
Whenever possible, welding should be balanced
around the ne~~t r al axis of the member. This makes thc
moment arm, d, cqunl to zero. Evtw though a shrink-
age force, F, does exist, the slrrinl~age moment ( d X F )
becomes zero (Fig. J) .
Freqnently the nentral axis of the member is below
FIG. 4 Parts ore often present so that weld
shrinkage will pull them back into correct
alignment.
Cont rol of Shri nkage and Di storti on / 7.7-3
FIG. 5 Balancing welds or weld beads about
the neutral axis of the member, reduces ongu-
lor distortion to zero.
the center of gravity of the welds as shown in Figure
6. By making the welds with the submerged-arc auto-
matic welding process, the deep pelletration character-
istic of this process further lowers the center of gravity
of the weld deposit :md reduces the moment arm,
thereby reducing the shrinkage moment.
FIG. 6 Deep-penetrotion welding processes
and procedures piaces the weld closer to the
neutral axis, reducing moment arm and net
effect of rhrinkoge forces.
Adj acent Base
Shrinkage of weld metal alone is not sufEcient to
account for the amount of shrinkage sometimes actu-
ally encountered. The heat of welding causes the metal
just adjacent to the weld deposit to expand. However,
this metal is rest~ained by thc relatively cooler sections
of the remainder of the plate. Almost dl the volume
exprsion must take place in thickness. On cooling,
this heated section undergoes volume contraction,
building up shrinkage stresses in the longitudinal and
transverse direction, and this adjacent base mrt:il tends
to shrink along with the weld metal.
Ef f ect of Hi g h We l di ng Speeds
The volume of this adjacent base metal which contrib-
utes to the clistortion can he controlled by weldiug
procedures. Nigher welding specds through the use of
powdered-iron-type manual electrodes, semi-automatic
and frilly automatic submerged-arc welding equipment,
or vapor-shielded automatic welding equipment reduces
the amount of adjacent material affected by the heat
of the arc and progressively decreases distortion.
M O W J O r d emmlo Lnim ~ h i r boiid cur-
sic., ,sn* s"vm *,<* piat. ihahrdcuwe &- 'iitxr'd)
FIG. 7 Vorionce of welding technique. In eoch
case, surface isotherm of 300F is shown sur-
rounding welding source.
The effect of welding current and arc speed on
adjacent base metal is illustrated in Figure 7. Approxi-
mately the same weld size was produced with proce-
dures ( a ) and ( c ) . The important difierence lies in
the fact that the higher-speed \\;elding technique pro-
duced a slightly narrower isotherm, measuring outward
from the edge of the molten pool. The width of this
isotherm of 300F can be used to indicate the amouut
of adjacent metal shri nhgc along with the weld, and
therefore distortion; this helps to explain why in general
faster welding speeds result in less distortion. This
slight difference i s also evident in a comparison of the
quantity of welding heat applied to the plate.
For ( a )
= 85,000 Joules/lhear in. of weld
7.7-4 / Join* Desi gn a n d Producti on
= 81.000 Joules/linear in. of weld
Another condition can be observed by using con-
ditions ( a ) and ( b ) of Figure 7. Two butt joints were
made, one in the vertical position and the other in
the horizontel position, using a multiple-pass groove
weld. The same welding current ( i i 0 amps) was used
in both joints. The vertical joint used a vertical-up
weaving procedure, 3 passes at a speed of 3"/min.,
procedure ( a ) . The horizontal joint used a series of 6
stringer passes at a speed of 6"/min., procedure ( b) .
The faster welding of ( b) , G"/min., produces a nar-
rower isotherm. However, it required 6 passes rather
than 3 of procedure ( a) , and the net result is an
over-all cumulative shrinkage effect greater than that
for (a).
This helps to explain why a given weld made with
more passes will have slightly greater transverse shrink-
age than one made with fewer passes. The transverse
shrinkage can be reduced by using fewer passes. A
further reduction can also be achieved by using larger
electrodes.
In the weld on sheet metal, Figure 7 ( d) , it is
noticed that a greater portion of the adjacent base
metal is affected as compared to the weld itself. This,
combined with the fact that the thin sheet metal is less
rigid than the thick plate (its rigidity varies as its
thickness cubed), helps to explain why sheet metal
always presents more of a distortion problem.
FIG. 8 Transverse shrinkage vories directly
with omount of weld deposit.
5. TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
Transverse shrinkage becomes an important factor
where the net effect of individual weld shrinkage can
be cumulative.
The charts in Figure 8 throw some light on trans-
verse shrinkage. In the lower chart transverse shrink-
age, for a given plate thickness, is seen to vary directly
with the cross-sectional area of the weld. The large
included angles only help to illustrate this relationship
and do not represent common practice. The relative
effects of single and double V-joints are seen in the
upper chart. Both charts assume no unusual restraint
of the plates against transverse movement. Calculations
show that transverse shrinkage is about 10% of the
average width of the cross-section of the weld area.
= . lo x aver. width of weld
Where the submerged-arc process is involved, the
cross-section of the fused part of the joint is considered
rather than simply the area of the weld metal deposited.
Estimate the transverse shrinkage to be expected after
welding hvo 1" plates together if plates are free to
pull in.'Use a double-V groove weld, Figure 9.
FIG. 9 Transverse shrinkoge of this weld con
be closely estimated from computed crors-
sectional area of the weld.
area of weld
(%")(I") = ,125
2(%)(%")(.58") = .29
2(2/3)(1")($46'') = ,083
-
A, = ,498 in.2
Control of Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-5
shrinkage
A,
A,,.,. = .10 -
t
Iron powder electrodes should reduce this shrink-
age, and submerged-arc automatic welding should
further reduce it. Also, a procedure resulting in fewer
passes should reduce the shrinkage.
Notice that Figure 8 would indicate a transverse
shrinkage of about .08". However, in the above work,
if the root opening were increased to %" rather than
the %" shown here and if the reinforcement were
increased accordingly, the weld area would be in-
creased to .75 in.2. Thus the indicated shrinkage would
increase to ,075". This shows good correspondence
between Figure 8 and the above method of estimating
shrinkage.
Use of Tables 6 and 7 in Section 7.5 (for weight
of weld metal for various joints) makes it unnecessary
to compute the cross-sectional area of the weld. Sunply
divide the weight of the weld (-lhs/ft) by 3.4 to obtain
the weld area in square inches.
For example, this 1" double-V joint is equal to
two %'' single-V joints. From Table 6 (Sect. 7.5),
urea of weld
= ,494 in." a d from this
FIG. 11 Pull-in can be
estimated readily.
transaerse shrinkage
(.494)
A,,,", = .lo -
(1.0)
= .05" the same as before
-
FIG. 10 Radial movement can be expected
after welding large multi-segment ring as the
cumulative effect of transverse shrinkage of
each weld.
A steel tension ring, %" x lo", is to slipport a dome
of 136' diameter. Each segment of this ring is to be
groove welded to a stcel insert plate directly over each
of the 24 cd~mms. See Figure 10. When fabricated, no
allowance was made for the transverse shrinkage of
thcse field welds. It was later found that the circum-
ference of this ring had shnmk, causing each column
to pull inward about 'h".
How should this have been estimated in ordcr to
open up the joints by this amount before welding?
area of weld
'h(l")(%s") = ,125
( %") ( l h' r) = ,125
'A(%")(%") = ,125
---
A, = ,375'' in.'
average width of weld
transverse shrinkage
Atpans = .lo (.545")
= ,055" estimated
Since there are 24 columns or 48 groove welds,
oucrall shrinkage in circumference
A?\,,,, = 48 (.05Y1)
= 2.64" or a
radial pull-in of columns
Of murse any poor fitup (increasing the root
opening) or excessive weld reinforcement will grcatly
increase this transverse shrinkage.
. ANGULAR DISTORTION
The formula for calculating warpage is-
i aut omat i c
ut ual A . .I2 "
i a/ i u/ nt ddA. ,146'
Figure 12 gives both the actual and caIculated
warpage for each of eight different flanges, fillet welded
as indicated. The close agreement between the two
values verifies the formula used. Only three exceed the
-4merican Welding Society allowable (%% of the width
of the flange). It should be noted that these were
overwelded.
7. BENDING OF LONGITUDINAL MEMBE
Distortion or bending of longitudinal members results
from developmtmt of a shrinkage force applied at some
distance from the ncntral axis of the member. The
amount of distortion is directly controlled by the
magnitude of thc shrinkage moment and the member's
resistance to bending as indicated by its moment of
inertia.
Assuming no unusnal initial stresses, thc following
foimula indicates the amonnt of distortion or bcriding
that will result from any longitudinal welding on a
given member:
where:
A, = total cross-sectional area within the fusion
line, of all welds, in.'
d = distance between the center of gravity of tlie
weld group and the neutral axis of the mem-
ber, in.
L = length of thc member, assuming welding the
full length, in.
I = moincnt of inertia of the member, in.4
A = resulting vertical movement, in.
Control of Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-7
FIG. 13 Actual meosured
distortion corresponds well
with calculated distortion,
using the formula given.
Measurement of actual distortion verifies the for-
mula for theoretical calcnlation of distortion, Figwe 10.
111some instances when equal welds arc positioned
symmetricdly around nentral axis of a member, a
certain amount of distortior~ still occnrs even though
the magnih~tlcs of the shrinkaga moments are e q d
and opposite. It is believed some plastic flow or ilpset
occurs in the compressive area next to the weld area
after the first weld is made. Heca~ise of this upset, the
initial distortion, from the first wdd, is not quite offset
by the second weld on the opposite side. Where
multiple-pass welding is involved, this condition can
be corrected, as illustrated in the groove-weld sequence,
Figure 5. Herc Pass 1 is on t he top side. Pass 2, depos-
ited on the opposite side, does not quite pull the plates
back into flat alignment; therefore Pass 3 is added to
the same side. The net resnlt will usually pnll the plate
slightly beyond the flat position and Pass 4, on the
top side, should bring this plate back into flat align-
ment. Frequently this probltm is of no major impor-
tance since the sections to be wc l d~d arc large enough
in respect to the size of the weld to prevent the oecur-
rence of this upsetting. As a result, on large sections
the second w-eld on the opposite side is jnst as effective
as the first weld.
In cases where the welds are not symmetrically
balanced ahout the neutral axis of the section, advan-
tage may be takcn of this Mer enr x in distortion by
first completing thc joint nearest the neutral axis (it
has the shorter moment arm) and then welding the
joint on the side farthest from the nentral axis (taking
advantage of its greater moment arm). See Figure 14,
which illustrates a masonry plate welded to the bottom
flange of a rolled beam. On the icft, thc welds are not
symmetrical, so weld ( a ) was made first. Weld ( b)
follows since it has a grcater moment a m. On the
right, the widcr masonry plate extends slightly on the
left, and allows both welds to he made at the same time
(since they are both in the fiat position). The equal
rnomcnt arms in this situation should result in no
s wc q of the beam. In both cases the welds will
produce some cambc;r but this is usually desirable.
Many long slender members are made by welding
together taw light-gage fonnecl stctions. Waiting until
the first weld has cooled brfore making the second
FIG. 14 Where welds ore not bolonced obout
the neutrol axis of the section, distortion con
be minimized by welding first the ioint nearest
the neutral oxis ond then the joint farthest
from the neutral axis. Similarly, weld sizes moy
be varied t o help bolonce forces.
FIG. 15 To avoid bowing of long, thin box
sections welded up from two channels, the first
weld is protected against cooling until the
second weld is completed. The two welds ore
then allowed to cool simultaneously.
weld on the opposite side, usually results in some
find bowing since the second weld may not quite pull
the memlxr hack, Figure 15. Notice ( a ) the heating
of the top side of the member 1)y the first weld initially
causes some expmsion and bowing ripward. Turning
tlic member over quickly while it is still in this shape
and depositing the second weld, increases the shrink-
ing effect of thr second weld deposit and the member
is ~isirally straight dt er cooling to room temperature.
The sequence for aiitoinatic wvlding to produce
the four fillets or1 a fabricated plate girder can he
varied without major effect on distrotion. In most
cases this sequene is based on the type of fixture
used and tire method of nioving the girder from one
welding position to anothcr (Fig. 16). When a single
automatic welder is used, the girder is usually posi-
tioned at an angle between 30" and 45', permitting
the welds to hc deposited in the flat position. This
position is desirable since it makes welding easier and
slightly faster. It also permits better control of bead
shape and the production of larger welds when nec-
<:ssary.
Pernrissiblt: AWS tolerances for most welded
FIG. 16 Proper welding position and sequence
for fabrication when girder is supported by
inclined fixture (top) or trunnion-type fixture
(bottom).
1nlcmtd8sie ililfmm m 36th Sidtr oi W e b ,
I , , : L<,% Tho* &, ~ - &
, : ~ w m m A = - &
FIG. 17 AWS permissible tolerances for corn
mon welded members.
Control o f Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-9
FIG. 18 Small clip angles and wedges can
be used to economically maintain alignment
of plates during welding If clips are welded
thts fh!cKnsss ,ssomo os
on one side only, they can later be knocked
root opcnlng of p n t
off with a hammer.
botiom ,doh osr.mb& PM= assambly
n t h wdge
members are illustrated in Figure 17: ( a ) deviation
between centerliuc of web and centcrlinr of flange;
( b ) camber or sweep of columns; ( c ) at left, tilt of
flange, and at right, warpage of flange; ( d ) deviation
of camber of girders; ( e ) sweep of girders; ( f )
deviation from flatness of girder web.
8. PROPER ALI GNMENT OF PLATES
Various methods have been used for pulling plate
edges into alignment and maintaining this alignment
during welding. The most widely used technique (Fig.
18) calls for welding small clips to the edge of one
plate. Driving a steel wedge between each clip and the
second plate brings both edges into alignment. Weld-
ing the clips on one side only, simplifies removal.
In the top part of Fi y r e 19, pressure is applied
by steel wedges whereas, in the bottom part of this
figure, pressure is applied by tightening the strong-
backs with bolts previously welded to the plate.
9. PEENING A D FLAME SHRl NKl NG
Peening is used occasionally to control distortion. Since
the weld area a~ntracts, peening, if properly applied,
tends to expand it. However, this expansion occurs
only near the surface.
Upsetting or expansion of the weld metal by
peening is most effective at higher temperatures where
the yield strength of the metal is rathcr low. Unfortu-
nately, most of the distortion occurs later at the lower
temperatures after the yicld strength has been restored
to its higher value. For this reason, peening docs not
accomplish the desired results. An additional disad-
vantage of peening is that it work-hardens the sudace
of the metal and uses up some of the available ductility.
Flame shrinking or flame straightening is another
method of correcting distortion, through localized heat-
ing with a torch. The heat causes the metal in this area
to expand, and this expansion is restrained in all direc-
tions by the surronnding cooler metal. As a result, this
FIG. 19 Large plates can be aligned against
Platcs forcadi nto olignmmt and haid t h a n by mlrons of
strongbacks, the plates being pulled up by
b~i,,. The pmssvrrk;ng opp/ kd b~ O+ a
means of and wedge combination; or,
" d s c dr.van ," botw<en a j a r s and thc strong bark.
bolts are welded to the plates and run through
the strongbacks to facilitate alignment.
area of the metal expands abnormally through its
thickness and upon cooling tends t o become shorter in
all directions. The section so treated will become
shorter and stresscd in tension with each successive
application of heat.
The bending of a member by welding and its
straightening by flame shrinking is analogous to the
case of a stool which will tilt to one side when the
legs on one side are shortened but will again become
erect when the opposite legs are also shortened the
same amount.
10. SUMMARY AND CHECK LIST
Transuerse distortion
1. Depcnds on restraint.
2. Is eqwal to about 10% of the average width of
the weld arca.
3. Increases with the weld area for the same plate
thickness.
4. Increases with the root opening and the in-
cluded angle.
5. Is directly proportional to the welding heat
input per inch, that is, Joules per inch.
Angular distortion can be reduced by.
I. Use of a double bevel, V, J, or U for butt joints.
2. Alternating welds from side to side.
3. Beveling the web of a T-joint; this will reduce
the moment a m of the weld and reduce the angular
movement.
4. Use of the smallest leg size for fillet welds,
since the distortion varies approximately with the
1.3 power of the leg size of such a weld.
5. Use of thicker Aanges; distortion varies ap-
proximately inversely with the square of the flange
thickness.
Bending of long membcrs by lorlgitudinal welds can
be partially controlled by:
1. Balancing welds about the neutral axis of the
member.
a. Making welds of the same size at t he same
distance on the opposite side of the nentral axis of
the member.
b. For welds of different sizes-if at different
distances from the neutral axis of the member-making
the wdds that are farther away smaller.
2. If the welding is not symmetrical, this result
is achieved by:
a. Prebending the member.
h. Supporting the tnember in the middle and
letting the ends sag, and for the opposite effect, by
supporting the member at the ends and letting the
middle sag.
c. Breaking the manher into sub-assemblies bo
that each part is welded about its own neutral axis.
Ddlrction is directly proportional to the shrinkage
moment of the welds (weld area times its distance
from the neutral nsis of the member) and inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia of the memher.
Although a high moment of inertia for the member i.
desired to resist bending. it also makes the member
more difficult to straighten, once it has become dis-
torted. Flame shrinking may be applied to the longer
side if welding has bent the member.
Assrmhly pror~durcs that help control distortion
1. Clamp the member in position and hold during
welding.
2. Preset the joint to offst:t expected contraction.
3. Prebend the member to oifszt expected dis-
tortion.
4. Before welding, clamp two similar members
back to back with some prebending.
5. If stress-relieving is required, \veld two similar
members back to back and keep fastcned until after
stress relief.
6. Use strong-hacks.
..
I . Use jigs and fixtures to maintain proper fit-up
and alignment drtring melding.
8. Make allowances for contraction when a joint
is assembled.
9. Arrange the erection, fitting, and welding se-
quence so that parts will have freedom to move in
one or more dire&ions as long as possible.
10. Use subasscinblies and complete the welding
in each before h a 1 assembly and welding together.
11. If possible break the member into proper
sections, so that the welding of each section is balanced
about its ouw neutral axis.
12. Weld the more flexible sections together first,
so that they can be easily straightened before h a 1
assembly.
1. THE MATURE OF RUSTING
Any steel surface* will gradually and progressively mst
if left unprotected. For this reason it is important to
keep most steel stnictures painted.
Most of us are so familiar with the rusting of steel
that we fail to recopi ze several important facts about
this:
Fe + O ' (moisture) 2 Fez 0,
(steel) (ai r) (rust)
1. Most chemical reactions will come to a stop if
just one of the reqnired elements or compounds is not
supplied, or if one of the prodncts is not removed from
the reaction.
2. A moist condition (water) is required for steel
to rust in the presence of air (oxygen). Steel will not
rust in dry air.
3. Under ordinary conditions, there is a continu-
ous supply of air (oxygen) and moisture, so this re-
action never comes to equilibrium. The result is a
continuous rusting action, unless prevented by some
protective coating.
2. PROTECTION OF TUBULAR AND OTHER
CLOSED SECTIONS
It is believed the inside of closed-in hollow box struc-
tural sections can be left impainted. This is because
any slight oxidation of the steel would soon come to
equilibrium, since there is no continual supply of air
and moisture.
The question is whether box sections must be
made airtight, rntwly protected from rain, or left
completely open. If airtight, should any precaution
he takcn to dry the air before sealing, and should any
untisual test methods be taken to insure complete
tightness?
To shed more light on these questions, comments
were solicited from several leading authorities in the
structural field in the United States, Canada, and
-
* The rusting of certain proprietary steels produces a thin
protective oxide layer that hihibib further corrosion. Such steels
(for example, A242) an, often used unpnintcd.
Europe. Foreign reaction is particularly significant
since the adoption of welded box-section structurals
has progressed further there than in this country, no-
tably in German bridges built in the past 15 ypars.
What follows is a symposinm of their replies.
@ Frorn an article, "Corrosion l're\mtion Inside
Closed Hollow Bodies, by Seils and Kranitzky, in DER
STAHLRAU (Germany), February. 1959, pp 16-53.
(Translated in abstract form. ) :
Investigations on behalf of the German railroads
are reported on six groups of weldcd structures: Four
railroad bridges; three highway bridges; hollow
supports on a Munich railroad station; a locomotive
turntable; traveling platform on a rail car; and one
experimental weidment.
These welded steel towers carry two 30" pipe-
lines % mile across the river. The 273' towers
are hermetically-sealed box-section members
internally reinforced to keep skin from buckling.
They will stand for many years without concern
for internal corrosion.
Detailed inspection substantiated the present
assumption that condensation in hollow steel sections
is very slight. Inaccessible or difficult-to-reach sections
should :~lways he welded airtight. Any manholes shonld
bc cl osd with rnbber gaskets. With these precautions,
corrosion protection of inner p r t s becomes unnecessary.
Wherever possible, large, accessible liollow weld-
ments should be madc n airtight as is practical. Closure
docs nnt lead to any observable tenciency for water
condensation and resulting corrosion. If sections are to
hc ventilated, adetlnate numbers of openings should be
provided on the front and side walls to allow for soma
eircnlation of air. Openings in the floor are not very
sr~itablr for ventilation, particularly when sidewalls
have no openings. U~ ~ d e r this condition humidity coiild
he higher.
If water pipes have to pass tl~rough hollow sections;
there should be an opening in the hollow member to
allow water to escape in case the pipe should later
develop a lcak. This opening, however, can be prolkled
with a t we of relief or check valvc which will auto-
matically opcn when rerjnired and later reseal. Areas
i n the vicinity of any of t h e e opcnings shonld be
particularly well protected. The pipe system itself
should be insulated to n\roid possible condensation.
Experience has shown that if any condensation
does occur in the interior of scaled sections, the upper
cover plate is tlie most vulnerable area.
In contrast to the outside coatings, a simpler
corrosion protection can he applied to the inside sor-
faces. Areas subject to frequent use, such as manhole
openings or in some cases the bottom side of a cover
plate, should be given additional protective coating.
A recent type of corrosion protection for the
interior of hollow sections is zinc powder paints. They
have two important propertics: First, they are largely
imaffected by the welding heat; and, sec~ndl y, they
do not influence the quality of the weld metal.
5 Several of the new mnlti-span German bridges
across the mi n e make nse of welded orthotropic
(orthagonal anisotropic) plate decks, with savings in
dead weight of steel as high as 50% over mnventional
bridges. In this section, Boor beams and longitudinal
rihs are s!iop welded to the top deck plate, the latter
thus serving as a common top flange.
Many times torsionally rigid ribs are used, either
U-shaped or trapezoidal, forming a closed box section
with the top deck plate. Thickness seldom oxceeds
5 , ,,, ,r , and occasionally is as little as :KG". The box-
shaped rihs are either butt welded to the webs of the
fioor hcarns at each intersection, or pass through thcrn
and are attached with fillet welds.
Orthotn~pic plate decks naturally have many sealed
sections. Tlicy are not given any special corrosion pro-
tection insidc. It is felt that after the initial minor
corrosion resnlting from entrapptd moist air, Little
further advance will he experienced, and even undcr
the most adverse conditions could not detract from the
strcngth of the section.
* From a structural engineer at Eindhoven,
Netherlands, representing an American international
construction company:
"All modern fabricators make completely closed
sections. There arc a few which have taken some pre-
cantions for corrosion protection, probably at the insist-
imce of the customer. One has used a normal type of
manholn in large girders, for inspection pnrposes. The
girders were not painted on the inside.
"Another company is using this mnstruction in
colnmr~s. Near the bottom of the d u m n is a hole
abont %" di an~et t ~r, drilled and than closed with a ping.
7Bi. holc is nsed in two ways. First, bcfore the column
is shipped, pressure is applied to thc inside to deter-
mine whether welds are airtight. If they ;are, the plug
is replnced, the column erected and then inspected
after a few years hy removing the plug, to see if any
water has collected. Until now, there has never been
an!; water for~nd insitlc thc columns.
"E.D.F. iri France has in use a large number of
long welded steel colurnns closed at both ends, with
n o access holes.
"It is bad practice to completely close columns
filled with concrete. Holes should be punched or drilled
to avoid the possibility of explosion in case of Ere.
Water in the concrete may vaporize nnder heat. caus-
ing tremendous pressure on the inside if no escape hole
is lxesmt.''
5 From a London striictural engineering director,
active with one of the 1argt:st companies in the field
there:
"This 'bogey' of internal corrosion in hollow sec-
t i o ~~s is constantly cropping up. . . In general, in order
to be ahsohttely certain of the absence of internal
corrosion, it is always preferable to insure that the
structure is scaled completely."
5 The papi,r, L'ESERGIA ELETTRICA (Italy).
July, 1953, discusses tlie mechanics by which water can
enter an iinperfectly sealed stnictnre--condensation,
hrei~thing resnlting from heating and cooling, capillary
infiltration, etc.
A passage from this research study is worth quot-
ing for its basic informatio~~.
"To produce internal corrosion, one essential con-
dition must be fulfilled, i.c., an aperture of appreciable
size in order that water and oxygen can he present in
sufficient quantity and a lack of either will delay cor-
Painting and Corrosion / 7.8-3
rosion. In the case of a closed tube, chemical equi-
librium between water, oxygen and rust is reached as
soon as a practically imperccpiible layer of oxide has
been formed.
"Tests we have made indicated that corrosion was
unlikely to occur through holes having direct access
to the atmosphere. provided they were shielded from
actual films of water. The test, of course, refers to
structures under ordinary airnospheric couditions whew
>,
no artificial agcncy was teuding to draw air into the
structure.
"We would prefer that a hollow welricd section
be airtight, and if this is do~i e there is no nced to dry
the air hefore sealing unless, of course, a slight initial
currosiol~ must be avoided."
From the chief structrrml engineer of an eastern
structural fabricator and erector:
"On light structures such as schools, we have
observed many designs which use tubular sections.
Some are Bled with concrctc and many are not. Sonre
require sealing and others do not. '4pparently no con-
cern is shown in regard to the rusting of the unsealed
sections.
"If tubular sectioiis are used and moisttue is apt
to accumulate, provision should hc made to drain thcm.
To seal fully tubular sections does not appear a
feasible proposition."
e .A consulting engineer in Phoenix, Ariz., now
active on higliway work in Alaska has this to say:
"There has always been a question in my mind as
to the feasibility of closing the box sections so as not
to permit the circulation of air through the member.
I believe that if air is allowed to circulate, rusting will
take place, but any good paint should take care of that
and will last considerably longer if not exposed directly
to the air and liglit.
"Some of the states have used a galvanized pipe
or square section for a (bridge) railing member; how-
ever, galvanizing would be impracticable for a large
bridge inemher. I have placed somc hopes on the new
epoxy resin which apparently has characteristics mak-
ing it an almost ptxrma!ient protection coat."
e From the assistant chief engineer of a major
steel producing company:
"Our own corrosion experts have assured me that
if the box member is completely sealed, any moisture
or other corrosion causing substance will soon react
and become neutralized, so that after a very slight
amount of corrosion there will be no Further action.
How-cver, if there is any opening to permit any air
circulation, there will be new un-neutralized moisture
from condensation, etc., and corrosion will be con-
tinued.
"If, however, sealed members are used, then some
provision should he n~ade for frequent checking of the
seal by testillg the tightness of the box under air
pressi~re."
From the geueral secretary of the -4rnerican
Welding Society:
"For many ycars clevatcd storage tanks in t hh
country have been supported by towers consisting of
closed tubular mcmbers. Companies in the structural
field have had extensive experience in the usc of such
closed sections in which normally the i nt end surfacc
receives no spccial trcatment. Some of these have been
sealed sections and somc not scaled. Service generally
has been entirely sat is factor:^ in both casos. Whcre the
section has been snalcd: no rffort his been made to dry
the containcd air before sealing."
Tower masts, roof girders and havnched framer
for the Tulsa (Oklahoma) Exposition Center ore
box sections, entirely weld fabricated. Mem-
bers such as these are copped to prevent entry
of water; otherwise receive no special protec-
tion agoinst internal corrosion.
7.8-4 / Joinr Design and Production
@ From a partner in a New York city consulting
engineering firm:
"Closed box sections should be sealed, but if pos-
sible should be covered with a protcctive intcrior paint
beforehand. The use of higher alloy steels, such as
\vcldable A242, adds a measure of pmtection at low
additional cost, and the added strength may offset
the extra cost.
"I have seen no general applicatio~rs in this country.
However, some of the older bridges using the old
Phoenix shapes (arc form with ends bent up at right
angles) have been sealed and have stood up well.
"The subject of interior corrosion is very important,
not only for columns but also for lnrgc closed box
girders which at some f ~ ~ t u r e time may become popular
in this country."
@ From tlrc manager of technical research for a
Canadian bridge company:
"One of our erection engineers who has worked
on bridge erection in England, India and other coun-
tries states that bridge hox chords, either welded or
riveted, are often sealed to avoid air movements. This
sealing is accomplished by gasketing the manway open-
ings into the chords. When this is done, painting on
the inside can be a single coat or can be eliminated
entirely. Seding of box sections to avoid rusting on
the inside is increasing in popularity.
"It is presnmcd that where welding is continuous
to seal any box section completely, rusting will be
inconsequential, being limited by the amonnt of air
present wl ~cn sealed."
The chief engineer of the same company's
Vancouver, B.C., plant adds:
"The practice of hermetically sealing struchual
mcmbers to avoid inside painting and corrosion origi-
natcd in Europe when cl os d welded sections were
introduced. No type of closure short of hermetic sealing
is dep'ndable. In such structures, no manholes were
providcd and no paint was applied on the inside."
"Completely logical" is how this engineer describes
the practice of hermetically sealing closed welded
members.
@ The Port Mann arch bridge in British Col ~~mbi a
uses an orthotropic deck. The longitudinal stiffeners
are U-shaped and when continuously welded to the
deck, form a closed tnbular section. The ends of the
stiffeners have openings for field bolting. At a distance
of 15" from each end of each stiffener, diaphragms are
continuously welded inside to seal off' the remaining
length frorn the ontside. This sealed portion of the
stiffener was not painted on the inside
There may be an occasional problem with paint dis-
coloring, flaking, or blistering over welds or in an
immediate adjacent area. There are several possiblc
reasons for this. Dnst, smoke film, iron-oxide film,
grease and similar materials on the surface of the weld
and immediate adjacent area prevent the paint from
coming in contact with the snriace of the steel and
properly bonding to it. These materials form a barrier
between the paint and the steel surface. h surface that
has been bnrnishrrl very smooth with a power wire
brush might also prevent proper bonding.
Elements in the fumes of wclding, when deposited
in the slag as a film on the stet:l surface, may combine
with moisture in the air to produce an alkaline solution
that reacts wit11 paint. This may cause discoloring
and blistering. This problcrn incrrascs with increas-
ing humidity.
Submerged-arc welds :ire relatively free of paint
problems because thp slag is ncarly always removed
and the process leavcs no filn~ of smoke or iron oxide
on the adjacent plate.
Clcaning is thc obvious first step. Removing slag,
spatter, smoke iilm, iron-oxide film; and other similar
materials, helps cliniinatc both causes of problems.
First, it provides a cleon smface to which the paint
can bond. Secondly, it removes from weld deposits
most of the chmnicals ihat might r ead with a paint. In
most cases, cleaning will eliminate paint problenrs, but
don't burnish the surface with a power brush.
If discdoration or blistering prcvails after normal
cleaning, two additional steps will help. First, a wash
in a mild acid solution, such as boric acid, followed
by a good rinse with clear water will neutralize the
alkaline solution so that it won't &cct the paint. Sec-
ondly, a more alkaline-resistant paint m.ay be substi-
tilted. Paints with a vinyl, epoxy or chlorinated rubber
base are the best.
Just wiping the snrface with a shop rag will removr
much of the film 'and improve paint bonding. Painting
with a bmsh instead of a sprayer lrelps the paint get
under the film and make a hetter bond to the sudace.
Painting the affected area as quickly as possible after
welding will prevent the chemicals in the deposited
film from picking up much moisture. Therefore less
al l di ne solution will be formed to attack the paint.
Two coats, including an alkaline-resistant primer put
on as soon as practical, is usually better than a
single coat.
1. REJECTION VS. PREVENTION
The structtiral w-rlding of br~ilclings and bridges cnjoys
:t good rqntation in the scLnsc that weld faih~res of a
c v . ' 1 ,rstrophic nature have not occurred. But, it is not
uncommon to find welds whicli hxve failed in the sense
that they did not meet final irispoetion xquirrments.
Then: are mrny ronsons why \velds may be rejected
at final inspwtion. Before repairing the weld, howcver,
s e m d wr y appropriate qwstions should be resolved.
I<'or example, it is always good policy t o review the
inspection methods; to look for and insist upon some
reliable correlation bctween the reztsons for rejection
and the service conditions. When such correlation does
mist, prompt @ion should be taken to corrcct thc
rejr&:d welds and t o prevent tlieir rvcuncnce. If, 0x1
thc other har~d, the inspcction mcthods arc rmrealistic
or inappropriate, they shorrld 11c repl acd.
When wcld rtjcction is j~lstificd, a person can be
certain that somebody cithrr did not know what his
job was, or jrrst did not do it properly. There is a logical
~:xplanation for any sc+rious weld defect, and there is
an ecpally logical remedy and correction. Many \veld
defects are rrht rt l to proeetl~~res arrcl can be visnally
detected as the job progresses.
Early detection of weld dcft:cts permits economical
vorn:ction. If left for final inspwtion after the. job is
complete, a ni:ijor loss of t i ~ne 2nd riioncy nsnally
rrsults. Pcrfnnnance standards on the production floor
and the. enSctirm site :u.c needed to assrtrc thc quality
of the weld 1)eing produced.
2. WHAT I S A GOOD WELD?
To a great mmy people, the answer to "What is a
~ o o d weldy would be, "Any wcld that passcs final
i~rspectiotr." We can hardly blame production-minded
pcopIe for g o i ~ ~ g along with this answer. But is this
a good answer when you realize that frequently there
is little or no conriection behveen the defects found
during inspi>ction and the performance of the weld in
service? (See Section 1.1, an Tntrodnction to Welded
I hi r m. 1
- ,
An improved definition uwdd be, "A good weld is
any weld which will continua indefinitely to do the
job for whicli it was intended." The problem with this
definition is that we do not haw any thoroughly satis-
factory nondc~strrictive trsting device that car1 provide
a "yes" or *now answer. Instead, we look for; 2nd hope
not to find, \veld drfccts. if thty art: found, ilic weld
is j ndgd "goacY or "h:~d" as wr. think the dcfccts may
or may not influmce its pcrformnnce in scrvicc.
3. WHAT 15 THE SOLUTION?
First, find out what these defects arc and what causes
tlicin. S < ~ ~ x i d , set rrp welding procrdurcs that will
clirninatc tlrarn. 'This is not as (liffiailt as it inight
appea' It dot^, howevc*r, mean that a great inany
snrall, bnt irrrportmt, details must be spe1lt:d out md
nccomited for.
It is mm~~r a gi ng to note that good qualified u-el&
ors and wcldirig machine operators undr.rstand tho
importanw of those sinall drtails. They arr also gener-
ally capable of prctlicting t~xnctly what fiilal inspection
will n w d . ..\ conscientinns wrldor or welding operator
can provide fnll-timc visual inspection. Since llo sr w
evcry head, he is hettcr infomiccl than any inspector
\vho only sccs a finished weld or some srnall portion
of t h~. wcld as it is heing madc.
4. WHEN DOES INSPECTION START?
'l'he dccisim to inspect only dt cr welding is completed
is extnwely dangcnms and not the best way to assure
product quality. This puts thr iirspwtor in the position
of a combir~:rticn physician-coroner with the dubious
distinction of being tho one to declare the weld dead
or alivc, and if dead, to decide "the cause of death."
A batter approach to quality ml t rol allows inspection
to provide constant checkr~ps as welding progresses-
prwentivc inspection. This promotes early detection of
symptorns and corrrction of procednrcs :is well as minor
Ilaws, both of which might otherwise l exl to scrions
dcfrxts. LVII~II this approach is follow~xd, final inspcc-
tion hecorncs a nxitinr function to confirm the fact
that good welding procednres have bcen employed
and that ol)jcctionablo defects haw: not been permitted
to occur.
Inspection should start bcfortb the first arc is struck
:md shonld not bt* the sole responsibility of an inspector
p r ,w. Evcryont: iirvolved in the preparation and
pn)dr~ction of a wclded connection or joint should at
least visually inspect his own work to make snre that
7.9-2 / Joint Desi gn and P~oduc t i a n
(a) No problem for next pass to [b) Not enough room left between
fuse properly into i i de of joint iide of ioint and l ai t porr; will
ond weld not fuse properly; moy trap slag
it has hacn dents properly and in a ilialiner consistent
\vith tlw t~stablisltcd stmdarcls of qiiality. This goes
for p mp k wlm prepire plate cdges, assembly men,
wcld t a c h s , wdding operators, weldors' helpers, :md
everyone whose riforts can in any way affcct the
qi~nlity of tllc welds.
5. RECOGNI ZE SMAL L DEFECTS AND
CORRECT THE
l'erliaps the most common weld rejections occur as
;t rcsult of r;diographic inspection, This method has the
ability to espose lack of fission and/or slag inchsions
that wolild not be apparent to visrial final inspection
tcclmiqrrcs.
With very few exceptions, a good, conscientious
v ~ l d o r can h:ll by vi si ~d inspection whcthcr or not
he is pt t i ng good fusion, Figure 1. This irlcll~drs what
he sees 61s he makc,s the bcad as well as what he sees
FIG. 2 Correct opplicotion of the various semi-outo-
motic welding processes con tremendously increase
deposition rote and lower costs.
FIG. 1 The conscientious
weldor visually inspects
each bead as it i s made.
He knows that bad bead
contour, poor wash-in ot
the edges or uneven edges
are symptoms of trouble
and tokes steps to correct
them before they produce
weld reiects.
uhen the bead is concluded. Bad bead contour, poor
wash-in at the edgm or uneven edges are all indications
of poor fusion at tile moment, or that it will occur on
s~~bseqoent beads.
Tlisre are marig symptoms of trouble which the
\veldor can spot. This is the time to correct the con-
dition either by gouging trixt the questionable portion
:tnd/or cl~ar~ging the procedure. The wrong attitude at
a timt: like this is to assume, as some weldors are in-
clined to, that "the defect can be 'burned out' on the
n c ~ t pass." This is a game of Russian Roulette that
invariably pays off only in weld rejccts.
6. "PREQUALIFIED JOINTS"
Thc term "preqnalifisd joints" has led to some mis-
imdcrst:mding and, in 21 sense, it is a misiiomer. It is
certainly a mistake to think that just hcciuse pre-
rlualifird joints have been nscd the final results will
be completely satisfactory.
The AWS Code for Wclding in Building Constroc-
tiori (AWS D1.O-66) and i\WS Specifications for
Welded I-1igh:hil.a~ and Railway Bridges (AWS D2.0-66)
c1o not suggest that it is that simple. They say that
these joints are to be "w-elded in accordance with
Sections 3 and 4," :tnd then they may be considered
"~~~- ' ~l ~~al i f i ed. " A carefd study of Sections 3 and 4
rt:\,c& 12 pngcs of good sound advice, recommenda-
tio~is, restrictions, etc., all aimed i n the direction of
producing good \velds.
If joints are prepared as "prriql~alified joints" and
;ill of the rcqiiirements of Sections 3 and 4 have been
met, it would appcar to be nearly impossible to pro-
(lrsce welds wliich worild not pass final inspection. Also,
it should he inidt:rstood that prequalified joints have
hren put in the code and are recommended only he-
cause past osperienct: has demonstrated that these
joints arc cayablr of prodi~cing good weld qnality zchen
t hey ure rrscd together with good welding procedures.
The establishment of preqnalified joints, however,
docs not p r d u d e the fact that other joint designs can
Irad to equally satisfactory results. The progressive-
eld Quality and Inspection / 7.9-3
minded fabricator or mnstrnctor who wishes to use
other joint preparations and has valid reasons should
he n~conraged to do so.
The code allows adoption of alternate joint desigr~s.
I t also logically requires special tests be performed to
prove the acccptnbility of wckls made with the alter-
nntc dc.sign. 111 most cnscs, thcse special tests, although
admittedly tinic consuming, ;Ire worth completing to
pcnnit the q~plication of a progressive proccdnre that
Icads to iinprov(:il pcrform;lnce or cost reduction.
7. GOOD COMMUNI CATI ONS ARE NEEDED
With the hroai lntitodc that wiMing offrrs to the
designer, it is only natural t11:lt hridgrs and buildings
takc on ;I "one of x kind" natnrc. Tlicse connection
variations present a challenge u-hich welding is quite
cqmblr of mwting. Rirt not v~ithout good comm~inicn-
lions hct\vr:rn all intmrstrd parties.
Comnru~riceting is most important 1 in the
gamt., especially \vl~iltb welding proctd~rrcs are being
worked out. This is tlrc time for dcsign vs, pr odi don
discnssions to bring up and solvv questionable issim
before they become points of major c1is:igrecrncnt.
. FIVE P'S OF GOOD STRUCTURAL WELDING
There are fivr ; mas which reqnire close atttwtion to
assore good \ vdd qr~ality:
1.. Process selection (\velcling process mnst be
right for the job).
2. Preparation (joint preparation rnnst he corn-
patible with the pro~css being used).
3. Procedures (dctailcd pr oc<~hr es are essential
to assure uniform results).
CURRENT
VOLTAGE
POLAR/ r Y
1. Pt~rsonnel (qnalified personnel should bc :IS-
signed to the job).
5. Prove it (pretcst procednres and preparations
to prove needed u~, l d qriality will result with their use).
Process Selection
Tbi: first and most important step is selecting the best
weldiiig proccss for the job. This is a very cl~allenging
dccision to make, espt ~i al l y if the job is suited to semi-
;mtoniatic welding wl me there are so many cliflerent
choices. Anti yet, in this area lies the greatest oppor-
tunity for i~nprovemcnt, Figure 2. Since manual weld-
i ~i g is inhcrcntly slow a ~ ~ d espensive and subject to the
111nnan cltvntmt, it is hecoming a matter of rconomic
si~rviral to convert whenwcr possible to a semi-auto-
nrntic process, Figure 3.
The entire indnstry is involved in this transition,
but the progms is n:i;itivdy slow. This is &a in part
to the rl:itnral rcluctancc to acccpt new methods. It
is also iror that raclr of the newer processes has its
own pecnliaritirs. ;dvarrtagcs rind limitations, and all
introduce somc prohltrms affecting weldor training,
joint prcparatiorr and welding procedures.
Th? semi-ar~tomatic processes (exclusive of sub-
i nt ~gel - ar c) do not enjoy the "prequalified status of
~na~i ual and suhmergcd-arc welding. This shonld not,
however, picvent their use. since the AWS Code and
Specifications statr, "other welding processes and pro-
cedures may be: nscd, provir1:d the contractor qualifies
thrm in accordance with the requirmnients of Article
502."
Srlection of a st.mi-;~litornatic process may also
scqniro joint quailification since appropriate joint prepa-
FIG. 3 This cost comparison of manual and semi-automatic welding methods
demonstrates the important role process selection plays in the control of weld costs.
7.9-4 / Joint Design end Production
ration may not be tlw smnc as "PI-eqoalified rnanunl"
or "pr ~y~~al i f i ed s~~bnnergcd-arc joints."
Where coiiditior~s pcrnnit, the rrst: of frill-;tr~tomatic
welding providrs rrvm~ greater ecmomv arrd control of
weld quality.
Preparation
Acccptahlt: butt joint preparatioiis arc r~othing more
than a coinpromise between the inclr~ded angle of
bevel and thc root spacing dimer~sion. A large iincluded
anglc will permit a smaller root spacing; convsrsely, a
small i11c1uclc.d angle requires a larger root spacing.
'The t yi x of joint, the vi~elding position, arid the process
being r~scd will all irifhimcc t i ) <, lxw4 ; i r ~ i root \paciiig.
AII of tllest. fnctol-s h;ivi, h w r takt511 into wrrsiilrr;ition
i n tllr p~-tyr~alifi(d joir~ts.
The joints detailed in the ;~pprriilis of t hi code
I)ook iudicntc ;I nomind tlimension for hevrl and
root spacing. Sinw tlri. joint design (hrvrl angli,
root spacing) must priwidc ; ~cwss of the arc to tine
basts of th? jllint, it is importaiit to ~u~ticrstand that
the dimcnsi~ms of tlw rtmt opening mtl groow, ar~glc
of t ht joiqts are minimi~rn v d o w (:ill of this and
rnme is c11vcn~1 i l l the fine print of tire sprcificatirm !
Also set. Srct i i )~~ 7.:) mi joint I>csign
Not only rnt~st thc mot spacing and bevel bc
Maximum S i z E l d r o d = a
Vertical
f i l l et Graovo
1 * If Exx 14, 15, 16, or 18 electrode i s used
FIG. 4 The code book
places specific limits on
electrode size for specific
joint designs and weld
positions.
el d Qual i t y and l nspect i on / 7.9-5
FIG. 5 Mock-up welds, such as shown here, provide o first-hand check of welding
procedures before they reoch the production floor. They can later be used as
workmanship samples
treatcd as nrinimt~m climcnsions, but tlre rtlcctrode size
rnust he compatible with the combirratio~r hcing i~sed.
Hew again, the AWS Code arrd AWS Specification
specifics lnaxirnrirn pcmissible clcctrode s i ~c s which
may be used mrdcr certain conditions Figure 4..
The first insprction action considered vitally im-
portant is to chcck thc joint prepfration before weld-
iug. hldic sirre that the, joitrt prrparatiorr corresl?onds
to the joirrt dr~t;~iJs ns specifivtl ~ I I the prnccdore. Re
sure that the joint has hrcn propt2rly assrmhled and
correct fit-rip and root spacing ol~tained.
Procedures
'l'lie imprtairt \velded connectiorrs of ;my s hct ur e
~leserve a u.i:ll i , l ; u~~i t ~t , thoro~ighly investigated and
coniplcttaly drtailcd w.;cldirrg prr~ctdiirc.
Reliahlc \vrl<Ii~ig l?xx"lirrcs are hcst obtained
tlrroi~gli first-tranl-1 qwrii:ncr~. I n the strnctrlriil field.
it is ofte~r helpfnl to prod~~ct : a f d sc;dc mock-up of
the aclwl joint prior to its i - f h w to the productio~r
floor. I f possihl(~, use t l ~c identical stcel, same type,
chtmistry, sin3s and siiaprs that will be iised on the
job. Figure 5 corrtnirrs csamplt~s of "mock-up" welds.
FIG. 6 A completely detoiled welding ~rocedure
helps guarantee uniform weld quolity, It ~r ovi des
o rood map for the weldor ond a check list with
which inspection con check weldor performonce. In
some cases more detoils will be required thon ore
shown in this example.
4 proccdiir~~ properly dcvrloped riilder these con-
liti ions worild inch&:
1. Irirntification of tlrc joint.
2. Joint dirnrnsim det;iils and tolc~airccs.
3. Identification of the welding process.
4 Type and size of clcctrodr.
WELDING PROCEDURE:
T' h Electrode:
Technique:
Preheat:
Inspection Req'd.:
7.9-6 / Joi nt Design and Production
5. Type of flux, gas, etc. (as req~i i nxi ).
6. Current and voltage (with changcs as required
for diffcrent passes ).
7. Preheat and interpass temperature.
8. Pass sequence (show sketch if necessary).
9. Type of inspection required.
10. Any comments or information that will help
the weldor, such as special techniques, electrode angles,
wdd bead placement, etc., Fjgme 6.
This method of establishing the welding procedure
takes time. It, nevertheless, is an almost foolproof ap-
proach to guaranteeing weld quality since it provides
firsthand experience, workmanship sampIes. sa~nples
for destructive testing and positive evidence that the
ailopted procedure can produce the required results.
And perhaps most important of all, it gives all weldors
one "proved procedure" so that the job is no longer
subject to the multiple choice of several weldors.
Personnel
In the case of manual wclding, it is true that the weld
quality cannot be any better than the skill of the
weldor. This skill should be evaluated before the man
is permitted to do any actual welding.
The simple and relatively inexpensive device for
doing this is the AWS weldor quaiification test, Figure
5 Weidor Qualification Test Resuirements
..,,.. .... , . >I . s .,,. * ,.,., FILLET WELD TEST GROOVE WELD TEST GROOVE WELD TEST
~ , , , ~ " ~ , ~ r " , ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ " , , , ~ , , ,,,kk"*~,",
ica *oax w,,i raoovir ,/A. <>a ioa wow w,r* aaoovir ai aw
TEST PLATE
PREpARATl ON
>/r ,.". ,I.,#" . ,.rr.d". i,"r,.,,u.,, a' . "ai r
_,ll lul,, ,,, ,.,, <,*d
FLAT POSI TI ON
HORI ZONTAl
POSITION
l ERTl CAL POSITION
VE RHE AD POSITION
SPECI MEN
PREPARATI ON
FIG. 7 AWS Weldor QwoI-
ificotion Test requirements
ore completely detailed in
the code books.
eld Qual i t y and Inspection / 7.9-7
Pretest It
FIG. 8 Sample welds, such or those shown, made
under typicol conditions should be made and sub-
jected to the vorious types of destructive and non-
destructive tests needed to establish the degree of
quality required for the iob. With this approach,
many tests con be applied that might be impractical
or impossible to use during final inspection.
.,
i . This tcst is ns~ially adequate. But in a great many
instances, it is qurstionahlr \vhether this siniplc test
(~stahlishes thc ability of tile weldor to do the actiial
job and proves that ho can make the welds 011 thc
job that will satisfy final inspcction rquirements.
For example, i f the weldor will be r api r ed to
make vertical butt wrlds on %" thick plate and final
inspection calls for radiographic inspection (Section
1-09 of the I1ridge Specifications), will the AWS weldor
qualification test prove the wr:ldor can produce these
ivelds in a satisfactory manner? Obviously, it will not
because radiogl-aphic inspection is not nornlally called
for in the AWS \ve,ldor qualification tcst. The test
hrcomes Inore mexningfr~l i f radiographic i~~spection is
added to the normal testing reipircments.
TIE contractor is in the hcst position to evaluate
the actual skill required for the job as opposed to the
skill reqnired to p:iss an AWS weldor qualification test.
When the actual j ( ~b demands more of the man than
he would otherwise hc able to demonstratr on a stand-
ard weldor qualification tcst, the contractor for his own
protection is jrlstified in requiring more realistic tests.
Most srmi-autoniatic processes present some prob-
lems relative to wt:ldor training. If, however, the
process has been properly selected for the job and
correct welding proccrf~irt:~ ha w been worked out,
weldor training should not pose a difiicult problem.
With competent instiuctiorr, this can be handled as a
joint weldor-tr:~ining, wt:ldor-yr~i~lification program.
The question of pn)perly qualified personnel also
involves people other t hm weldors, and attention
should be given to their training also.
Once a uddi ng pmctdnre has been established,
nobody shonld be more cager to prove it than the
contractor, and nolwdy is in a better position to do
so. Mock-~rp sample viclds m d e under typical condi-
tions can he subjected to all kinds of destructive and
nondestmctive tests, Figurc 8. Many of these tests
woiild bc cornplrtely impractic;il or even i~npossiblc
;as a final inspection requirement. Testing at this stage
is relatively inexpensive, and the latitude is much
broader than wonld he pcrn~ittc<l or [lcsired as h a 1
insp("ctior~. h4asi1num testing at this time gives assur-
ance that fi13al inspr:ction c m he held to a minimum.
9. PREVENTIVE INSPECTfON
I n summary, it shorild be nnivrrsally recognized that
i~~spcction aftcr \v~4dirrg, while often rssential. is somc-
what too late. Any excessive wt:ld cracks, undercuts,
undcrsize wclds, poor fusion or other defects detected
that late will hc cxprnsive to correct. All parties con-
ccrned slior~ld insist on good wclding, supervisim" con-
scientious q~~al i l i ed wtMors, and a thorough system of
prcivtmtivo inspection.
Preventive inspection, in which cveryont: con-
c e r nd should sharc rcsponsihility, involves a systematic
obst.rv;xtion of wcldiug prncticcs and adhertmce to
sp~di cat i ons hefom. dnring, and after wclding in order
to visi~ally detect and stop any occurrences that may
result in st~bst;~nitard wi4ds. Thc: check list that follows
will aid in dweloping this pattem of operation.
FIG. 9 This "mock-up" beom-to-column connection
was mode with scrap ends, ~ r e ~ o r e d and assembled
to specifications then welded to work out procedure
details.
eck List of items That influence
Points to be Visually Checked for
uring and After
0 9 0 Check During Welding
0 0 9 Check After Welding
( 1 ) Proper Included Angle
0 0
The incli~dcd angle most bc snificient to allow electrode
to rcaeh root of joint, and to ensure fr~sion to side walls
on multipk~ passes. In gcn'rnl, the greater this angle
the more weld metal will be required.
(21 Proper Root Opening (Fit-Up)
Spacer boi
U'ithorrt a backing bar, there is a possibility of burning
through on the first pass; so, the root opening is re-
duced slightly. Lack of fusion of the root pass to the
verv bottom of the joint is no roal problem becausc
the joint must be back gouged before the pass may
be m:de on the hack side.
With a backing h; ir, the mot opening is increased
to dlow proper fnsion into the backing bar, since it
will riot be hack goiigmi; :tlso thcre is no bnrn-through.
\Vith a spoccr bar, it serves as a hacking bar but
milst be back gougcd hefore welding on the back side
to cnsure sonnd fusion.
(3) Proper Root Face
A root face is r~soall)- specified in joints welded by the
snbrnergcd-arc process to prevent bum-through on the
first or root pass; therefore, there is n minimum limit
to this (limension. Thcre is also a maximum limit so
that the hack pass, wlren madc, will fuse with the first
root pass to provide :I somd joint. This fusion of root
and hack passes can hc checked niter welding, if the
joint rrms out to an esposcui edge of the plate and onto
nni-off bars.
(a] Too mal l i oot face; [b) Too large ioot face; (c] Proper i oot fcce;
burn-through lock of penetration proper penetration
The above items, included angle (1) and of plate, there is ;I range in thc combination of
root opening ( 2 ) , go hand in hand to ensure inchided angle and root opening that will result
clearance for tlie electrode to enter the joint ill a minitnnm amount of \veld metal consistent
sufficiently for proper fusion at the root, and yet with the required \veld qnality.
rnot reqnirc excessive weld metal.
In general, as the included angle is decreased
to rednee the amount of weld metal, the root must
be opend up to maintain proper fusion of weld
metal at thc joint root. For any given thickness
-i r-3/8" r r%"
Wel d Quality ond Inspection / 7.9-9
(41 Proper Alignment
. 0 0
. . . . - - - -
Misalignrner~t of plates bring joined may resnlt in an
t~npcnetrated portion between root and back pass~s.
This would r r q ~~i r c more back gonging.
(51 Cleanliness of Joint
e e e
Joint arsd plate surface must bc clean of dirt, rust, and
moisture. This is especi;illy important on thosc snrfaces
to be f u s d with the deposited weld metal.
(61 Proper Type and Size of Electrode
Electrodes must suit the metal being joined, the
wciding position, the function of the weld, the plate
thickness, the sizn of the joint, etc. Where stand-
ard procedures specify the electrodes, periodic checks
should be made to ensure their nse.
(7) Proper Wel di ng Current and PoloriCy
Welding current and polarity must snit the type elec-
trode used and the joint to be made.
(81 Proper Tock Wel ds
0 . 0
These should be small a d long, if posible, so they
won't interfere with subsequent snhmerged-arc welds.
On heavy pl;it~.s, low-l~ydr-ogerr clwtrodes shonld bc
~zsed.
19) Good Fusion
(101 Proper Preheat and lnterposs Temperoture
Tl ~c nced for pre'nwt a i d rerjuil-ed temperatnrt: lcvel
11tye11ds on the plate thickness, the grade of steel, the
w~l di ng prnccss, and ambient temperat~n-es. Wherv
thme conditions dictate thc nt.cd, periodical clsccks
sl~ould be made to r n s ~ ~ r c adherence to rcquiremmts.
( 1 1 ) Proper Sequencing of Passes
0 . 0
(01 No prohiern for next poi $ to jb) Not enough room left between
fuse properly into rde of joint side of joint and last posr; wi l l
ond weld not fuse rnoy trop slog
The srqi~rneing of passrs shoilld ha such that no un-
fused portion results, nor distortion.
(12) Proper Travel Speed
o @a 0 n
Ii travrl speed is too slow, molten wcld mctal and
slag will tend to ran ;thead and start to cool; the main
body of u&l mctal will I - I I ~ over this without the arc
pmetrating far cnongh, 3 r d the trapped slag will
rrducc fusion.
Each pass slionlci fuse properly into any backing plate,
prccedirig pass, or adjacent plate metal. No unfillcd or
unfused pockets should be Icft between weld beads.
If t r a \ ~ l speed is increasetl, good fnsion will rcsait
because t l ~c nroltrn weld inctal and slag will be forccd
backu.ard, with the arc digging into the plate.
03) Absence of Overlap
m-,"ndeicur along
upper leg of weld
Reiagniic Chi5
by rolling-over
efieit along
this edge
penitroti. beyond MOY *how rl' ohf
root of joint ""fused portion
. .. . dye
if specd of travel is too slow, thc cxcessivo :mount of
\veld metal 1 1 h g (Icpositcd will tend to roll ovcr
along tlrc edges, prrventing prqwr fnsii"~. This roll-
over :rctioi~ is easily noticed dnring wkl i ng. Thc (.or-
rection is very si~npli.: increasing the. travd speed will
achieve the desired cffect (Itrlow).
(141 i n Vertical Welding, Ti l t of Crater
0. 0
Th e cr at er posi t i on
should be kept t i l t ed
slightly so slag will run
out toward the front of
weld and will not inter-
fcre. This will help en-
sure good fusion.
Spend enough
I 3 time ot middle
I& of weld so extra
ye,weld metal here
/*' wi l l keep shelf
ttlted upward
. *--
' ,
Weaving Crorr-seclion Front wew
technjque of weld of weld
( 15) Filled Craters
It might he argued that craters are a problem if-
1) they arc undcrsize. i.e. not full throat, and/or
2) they art: concave, since thoy might cr:tcl< upon
cooling; of course, once tlioy cool down to room tem-
perature, t l ~i s would no longer 11c a problem.
Normally, 011 wntin~rons fillet \velds, there is no
crater pn~hl e~n htxanse arc11 crater is filled by tho nest
\vcl(l. Thc weldor starts his arc at the outer end of the
last crater and n~ornr~ltarily swings h c k into the crater
to fill i t hc~forc going ;ih(,ad for t11ca next wcld.
For a s i ~~gl c connrction, it is important at tho end
of thr wcld r ~ot to lravo the crtltcr in a highly stressed
;u-t.a. If nrwssary to do so, estr:r wr e shor~ld he taken
to carrfolly fill the crater to ffdl thniat.
Esonrplc: On a hcam-to-col~~mn connection nsing
a top connecting plate, thc crater of the fillet weld join-
ing the plate to the beam flange shoold be matlo full
throat.
9 Esamplc: I n shop \ i ddi ng a flexible seat angle
to the srrplmrting col~irnn flmgc, t h ~ weltling saqiirncc
should pcrrnit the weld to start at thc top portion of
the seat :trrglc, :and carry clown ;11ong the edge. u-it11
the crater :tt t l ~ t hottorn; as shown.
harmful
On intcimittrnt fillet \velds, in~fillrd craters should
normally hc no prohlrm hecnnse:
1. Thc ;~dditio~r:rl strwigtl-i obtained by filling the
cr:ttcr woi11d not lx' nrcdcd in this lov-strcsscd joint.
for \vhicl~ intt~nnittant fillet wclrls are sufficient.
2. An!: notch cffoct of an rirrfilletl crater shnnld hc
no worsr ttrm tilt, notch prrscrrted hy the st:~rt end of
thc Gllct weld; sho\vrr bclow. No rn:rttcar what is clone
to the crater, it will still rtyi-i~si:~it thc lermirration Of
tl11. \veld, in other \ vord ;111 ~ t n w ~ ~ l d ~ d por t i o~~ ~ncctirrg
a weldcd portion.
Hol d rod momen-
tary ot rides;
I will build up
/ -._ '
.-- I weld to ful l
0 - - ,
3 , size and will
/ A,
-- , prowde piope:
;==Z , weld ihope
Crorr-sedi on Front view
Weoving
techniaue of weld
of weld
~ o t i h effecl of
(Giding croter up to
crater i r no worse
full thiaol doer not
t han that at stoil
reduce its notch
of weld
effeil at etid of weld
Wel d Quality and lnrpection / 7.9-11
(16) Absence 04 Excessive Undercut
0. 0
Double undercut of
Cover ie of rolled hcoin
I
Undercut along
cover plate would
not represent any
aoorec~oble loss
i n area; would
not be hoirnful
@ If 1% force must bc transfrrred transverse to t he
( a )
<liggiIlg efft>ct of tile arc lnelts a of
axisof thc ~indrrcut, \vhich may then act as ti notch
the base plate.
or stress riser.
( a ) Ncre the tensile force is
(b) :lidriu,
applied ti-ansverse to the un-
dwcnt ntrd presents a stress
riser. This would h 1 , harmfnl.
( b ) If the arc is too lone. tlic inoltrn weld mrtal
, ,
from the end of the electrode may fall short and not
( h ) Hcre t hr axial tensile
completely fill this tnclted zone, thus lealing an under-
cut along the upper leg of thc weld.
not present a stress riser. This
should not be hannful.
(c)
( c ) Htw t l ~c he a r force is
applied parnilel to the ~mdcr-
cut and wolzld not present a
stress riser. This shoold not
be harmful.
( c ) If the arc is shortened to the proper arc length,
thc molten weld metal from tltc end of the electrode
will completely fill this melted zone and will leave no
The AWS :rllows imdercrrt up to 0.01" in depth
if it lies transverse to tire applied force, and :42" if
it lies parallel to the force.
* Althonglt hotlr nndcrcnts in this tensile joint are
Undercut should not he accepted on a recurring
trarlsvrrsr to the twtch, ttrc rlpper undcrcnt imdonbt-
basis sincc it can be eliminated with proper \velding
cdly has less effect upon proditcing a stress raiser
procedure. If, hou~rver, ondercnt docs occi~r, the ques-
heeai~sc the stress ilows smoothly below the surf:ice of
tion to be nns\vered at this point is \vhrther it is
tho root of the notch. On the other hand, thc lower
harmful and ireeds repair.
i~rtdercitt does reurescnt a stress raiser because thc flow
u, If the undercut results in a sizeable loss of net of stress is greatly disttirbcd as it is forced to pass
sectton that cannot he allowed. sharply :iround the root of tire notch.
Uooer undercut
In addition, any eccentricity would produce
bending stresses in the region of the lower undercut.
Bending rtreiier and tearing
octon along lower undercut
"
rei nforcement
.4 nominal weld reinforcement (about X6" above
Hrish) is required. Any more than this is unnecessary
and increases the weld cost.
(18) Full Size on Fillet Welds
0 0 .
Goge for concave
oge or convex
i i l l etr measurer
fillets measurer l eg
Proper gaging of fillet welds is important to ensure
adequate size.
einforcement on Groove
(19) Absence of Crocks
Q @ @
0 8 9
There should be no cracks of any kind, either in the
weld or in the. heat-drected zone of the welded plate.
e p1 a
The following beam diagrams and formulas have been fonnd useful in thc design of welded
steel structures.
Proper signs, positive (+) and negative (-), are not necessarily indicated in the formulas.
The following are suggested:
Shear diagram above reference line is ( +)
Shear diagram below reference line is (-)
Reaction to left of (+) shear is upward (-k)
Reaction to left of (-) shear is downward (-)
Reaction to right of (+ ) shear is downward ( - )
Reaction to right of ( - ) shear is upward ( + )
Moment above reference line is ( + )
Compressive bcnding stresses on top fibers
also tends to open up a. corncr connectjon
Moment diagram on same side as compressive stress
Moment below reference line is ( - )
Compressive bending strcsscs on bottom fibers
also tends to close up a corner connection
open coiner
Angle of slope, 0
clockwise rotation ( - ), counter-clockwise rotation (+)
On the next page is a visual index to the various heam diagrams and formulas. As indi-
cated, these are k e p d by number to the type of beam and by capital letter to the type of load.
For some conditions, influence curves are included to illustrate the effect of an important
variable. These are keyed to the basic beam diagram and arc positioned as close as practical to
the diagram.
VISUAL INDEX TO FORMULAS O N FOLLOWI NG PAGES
FOR VARIOUS BEAM-LOAD CONDI TI ONS
Type of
Type of
\ (i
t 3
free
fixed
(2
I\\
guided f '
fixed
(2
Simpiy rupportec
F-3
supported
E
H
fixed
/'
--
(5
4
supported
fixed
E
m
Single span
with averhong
e
f7-7
Continuous
two rpon
Ioncentruted force
@
P
I Ao a
/
Uniform lood
entire span
0
10
Uniform ioad
port101 span
Vorying ioad
@
I Do
1 Db
Fa Couple
70
See odjocent to @
Beam Formulas /
.l-4 / Reference Design Formulor
Beam Formulas /
@ Beam supported a t both ends
Two equal concentrated loads. equally spaced from ends
P P
R = V = P
M,,,.,, = P a
R
When x < a M, = I'x
Mi P a
At center, An18x = - (3 LZ - 4 ai
24 E I
/ i
rhea, ' 1 When x > a
- ,
Pa
but
< (L - a, AT =-(3Lx - 3xZ - a2
6EI
P a
At ends, 8 = -(L - a)
2 E I
Beam supported at both ends
Two unequal concentrated loads, unequally spaced from ends
Max when Hz<;P? Mz = Rz b
M, = Ri x
moment
but x ( ( L - b) M, = Ri x - Pi ( X - a )
Beam supported a t both ends
@
Uniform load partially distributed over span
W
M, = Rrx - - ( X - aj2
: but x < ( a + b) 2
i Whenx>( a+b) Mv = Kz (L - x)
moment
When a = c
w b
R = V = -
2
b
V~ = w( a +- - -
w b
~t center, MnaX = -(a + $1
2
wb x
Wh e n x < a M>=-
2
When x > a wbx w
My=- - -
but x < ( a + h)
( x - a)=
2 2
wb
At center, An =- (+EL3 - 4bZL + bJ)
384EI
Beam Formulas / 8.1-7
BEAM FORMULAS APPLIED TO SIDE OF TANK. BIN OR HOPPER
( p = pressure, psi; m = width of panel considered)
h4 m
An,ax = ,00652 !?-.--
E I
(at x = ,5193 h)
Al so see f or mul as on page 7
( * These values are within 98%
of maximum.)
Maximum bending moment is least when
a = . 5 7 h
b = .43 h
M,,., = .01:7 p h%
(negative moment at middle support, 2)
Ri = + ,030 p h m
Rz = + , 320phm
Rs = i- . 150phnl
V,,,., = + ,188 p h m
(at middle support, 2 )
@ Influence Lines
Effect of location of middle support (2) upon reactions (R) and moments (M)
.40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75
Position (a) of middle support R,
B
e
a
m

s
u
p
p
o
r
t
e
d

a
t

b
o
t
h

e
n
d
s

I

@

M
o
m
e
n
t

a
p
p
l
i
e
d

a
t

o
n
e

e
n
d

I

M
x
=

M
o
+

R
l
x

=

M
,
,

W
h
e
n

x

=
,
4
2
2
L

M
,
]
L
2

A
m
a
x

=

.
0
6
4
2

-

E

I

I

I

I
I

6
E
I

B
e
a
m

f
i
x
e
d

a
t

b
o
t
h

e
n
d
s

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
d

l
o
a
d

a
t

m
i
d
-
s
p
a
n

P

R

R

I
-
'
-
"
-
-
-
-
-
L

A
t

c
e
n
t
e
r

a
n
d

l
o
a
d

-

P

L

M
,
,
i
"
y
=

-

,

a
t

e
n
d
s
,

8

B
e
a
m

s
u
p
p
o
r
t
e
d

a
t

b
o
t
h

e
n
d
s

@

M
o
m
e
n
t

a
p
p
l
i
e
d

a
t

a
n
y

p
o
i
n
t

4

W
h
e
n

a

>

b

M
,

M
,
,

R
,

R
,
=
-
-
=
V

R
2
=
-

L

L

W
h
e
n

x

<
a

M
e
x

M
,
=

-
-

W
h
e
n
x
<
a

M
,
,
x

P
X
=

+
-
(
L
Z
-
3
b
Z
-
x
Z
)

W
h
e
n
x

>
a

G
E
I
L

w
t

A
,

=

M
"

(
L

-

x
f
(
3
a
Z

-

2
L
x

+

x
2

G
E
I
L

A
t

c
e
n
t
e
r
,

M
"

M
4
.
=

-
-

2

A
t

c
e
n
t
e
r
,

M
,

A
&
=

+
-
(
L
Z
-
4
b
Z
)

1
6

E

I

W
h
e
n

a

=

b

=

L
/
2

J
?

A
t

x

=

L

=

.
2
8
8
6
7

L
,

6

A
m
a
x
=

M
n
L
Z

1
2
4
.
7
1

E

I

M
,

L

A
t

c
e
n
t
e
r
,

0
s

=
-
1
2
E

I

earn Formulas /
Influence Lines
Effect of position of force (F) upon moments Ma, MI, M2 and upon kmax
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Position jo) of applied force F
eam Formulas /
@ Intluence Lines
Effect of position of moment (Mo) upon Mi, M2, M+ and M-
Porttion (o] of moment Ma
@ Influence Line for Maximum Deflection
Beam Formulas /
Single span, suoply supported beam, w~ t h overhang
1 @ Uniform load over entire beam
w I L + 01
W
V3 = -(L2 + aZ)
2 L
M, Betweeusupports, V, = Hi - wx
I
v
For overhang, Vxi = n (a - xi)
W x
Between supports, M. = - (L2 - a2 - x 1.)
2 L
w
For overhang, Mki = - (a - xi)*
2
\\ x
Between supports, Ax = - (L'-21,'x' + Lx3 - 2 a 2 LZ + 2a2x' )
24 EIL
wx,
For overhang, A.1 = -- (4aZ L - L1 + 6a2xi - 4 a xl Z + xi')
24 E I
wa
At free end, A =- ( 3 a 3 +4 a ZL- L1 )
24 E I
When a = ,414 L, MI = M2 = OX579 w L2
@ Single span beam, overhanging at both ends
Uniform load over entire bean1
w(2'i + Lj
w xiz
For overhang, Mxi = -
2
w a2
At support, M= -
2
W
Betweensupports,-- (L x - x2 - aZ)
2
W
At center, bl c = - (L' - 4 a2)
8
wa
At ends, A = - (L1-6aZL-3a')
24EI
At center,
wLZ
Ac = - (5LZ-24a2)
384EI
When a = ,207 X total length
or a = ,354 L
Single span, simple supported beam, with overhang
Uniform load over entire span
At center,
w LZ
M,., = -
8
WX
M, =-
2
(L - x)
At center,
5wL'
A"., = -
384 E I
wx
A, = -
24EI
(L"ZLxZ+x3)
W L ~ X L
Ax, = -
24EI
@ Single sPW simp!^ supported beam, with overhnng
Uniform load on overhang
W"
@ THEORY OF THREE MOMENTS
Consider the following continuous beam:
The above moment diagram may he considered as made up of two parts: the
positive moment due to t he applied loads, and t he negatlve moment due to
the restraining end moments over the supports.
For any two adjacent spans, the following relationship is true:
where:
Mi, Mz, and M3 are t he end moments a t t he k t , 2nd, and 3rd supports.
LI and I,2 are t he lengths of the 1st and 2nd span
11 and 12are the moments of inertia of the 1st and 2nd span
A* and A2are t he areas under t he positive moment diagrams of the 1st
and 2nd span.
a1 and azare t he distance of t he centroids of t he areas of t he positive
moment diagrams to the 1st and 3rd outer supports.
By writing this equation for each successive pair of spans, all of the moments
may he found.
Beam Formulas / 8. 144
The moment diagram for a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam is a
parabola; and a concentrated load produces a triangular moment diagram.
The following shows the area and distance to the centroid of these areas.
w uniform load
concentrated load
Area
- -
Area
A = 2 / 3 iM L A = L / Z ML
Distance to centroid Distance to centroid
a = L/2 m + L
a=-
3
@

T
w
o

s
p
a
n
,

c
o
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i
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C
o
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a
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s
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a
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n
l
y

t

m
o
m
e
n
l

-

1
3

R
I
=
V
I
=
-
-
P

3
2

I
1

R
2

=

V
Z
+
V
I
=

-
P

1
6

3

R
3
=
V
a
=
-
-
P

3
2

1
9

V
z

=

-
P

3
2

A
t

l
o
a
d
,

M
,
,
,
,
,

=
1
3

P

L

6
4

A
t

R
2
,

3

M
Z
=
-
P
L

3
2

@

T
w
o

s
p
a
n
,

c
o
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,

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o
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,

4
t

R
2
.

P

m
o
m
e
n
t

-

P
b

R
1

=
V
I

=
-
[
4
L
2
-
a
(
L
+
a
)
]

4
L
3

P
a

R
Z
=

V
2
+
V
3

=

-
[
2
L
Z
+
b
(
L
+
a
)
]

2
~
~

P
a
b

R
s

=
V
3

=
-
(
L
+
a
)

4

L
3

P
a

V
2

=
-

[
4
L
Z
-
b
(
L
+
a
)
]

4

L
"

P
a
b

M
m
.
.

=
-
-

[
4
L
1
-
a
(
L
+
a
)
]

4

L
"

P

a

h

M
z

=
-
(
L
+
a
)

4

L
Z

T
w
o

s
p
a
n
,

c
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

b
e
a
m

3

U
n
i
f
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r
m

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o
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e
r

o
n
e

s
p
a
n

o
n
l
)

r

m
o
m
e
n
l

I

R
I

=

V
I
=

-
w
L

1
6

5

R
z
=
V
z
+
V
a
=
-
w
L

8

1

R
~
=
V
~
=
-
W
L

1
6

9

v
2
=
-

W
L

1
6

4
9

A
t

x

=

7
/
1
6

L
,

M
m
a
x

=

-
w

L
Z

5
1
2

A
t

R
z
,

w
L
Z

M
I
=
-
1
6

W
X

W
h
e
n

x

<

L
,

M
X
=

-

1
6

(
7
L

-

8

x
)

e

R
a
p
e
s

8

a
n
d

9

f
o
r

b
e
a
m
-
l
o
a
d

c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n

7
C

-
Member
T
I T = T
L - At support, @ =- T L
Es R
Torsionai di agr am
At support, T = t L
t LZ
H z -
2 E, R
FIGURE 1 - BEAMS O N A HORIZONTAL CURVE, UNDER VNIFORM LOAD (w)
W
Scde view
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (a), degrees

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