Atoms - are the smallest particles of an element.

Daltons Atomic Theory (1

st
appeared in print in 1808)
All elements are made up of small, indestructible and indivisible particles called atoms.
All atoms of a given elements are identical, but the atoms of one element differ from the atoms of any other element.
Atoms of different elements can form combinations to give a compound.
A chemical reaction involves a change not in the atoms themselves, but in the way atoms are combined to form compounds.

INSIDE THE ATOM
Atom is composed of small, heavy nucleus with particles surrounding it at relatively great distances. Thus, atom is composed of empty space, that space between the
nucleus and the surrounding particles.
A team of researchers headed by Prof. Albert Crewe of the University of Chicago took the 1s
t
black and white picture of single atoms (uranium) using a special type of
electron microscope.
Prof. Gert Erlich & W.R. Graham of the University of Illinois photographed images of atoms on the surfaces of crystals.
George W. Stroke of the State of University of New York photographed images of C, Mg, Oxygen in a section of crystal.

THREE SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
1. ELECTRON (e
-
)
a. a sub-atomic particle w/ a relative charge of 1 and a negligible mass of 5.486 X 10
4
a.m.u.
b. it exists outside the nucleus of the atom in one of many energy level
c. was 1
st
proposed by George Stoney in 1874.
d. was discovered by the English Chemist and Physicist Sir William Crookes in 1879.
e. English Physicist Sir Joseph John Thomson and American Physicist Robert A. Millikan established the mass and actual charge of the electron in 1897.

2. PROTONS (p
+
)
a. sub-atomic particle with a relative charge of +1 and a mass of approximately 1 a.m.u.
b. it is located in the nucleus of the atom.
c. was discovered by German Physicist Eugene Goldstein in 1886.

3. NEUTRON (n or n
o
)
a. has no charge and has a mass of 1.0087 a.m.u.
b. was discovered by the English Physicist Sir James Chadwick in 1932.
c. it is located in the nucleus of the atom.

SUMMARY:
PARTICLE SYMBOL MASS (a.m.u.) RELATIVE CHARGE LOCATION
1. Electron e negligible -1 outside
2. Proton p 1 +1 inside
3. Neutron n 1 0 inside

NOW, how are these sub-atomic particles arranged in an atom?
Experiments conducted by English Physicist Ernest Rutherford in 1911 showed that virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated in a very small region at the center, called
NUCLEUS. Furthermore, he demonstrated that the nucleus was positively charged.

OBSERVATIONS OF ERNEST RUTHERFORD
All the protons and neutrons in an atom are found at the center of the atom in the nucleus.
Because most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in this very small region of the nucleus, the nucleus of the atom has a very high density.
Also, because the protons are positively charged and the neutrons are neutral, the relative charge on the nucleus must be positive and equal to the number of protons.

The number of protons plus the number of neutrons is equal to the mass number (A) of the atom.
Mass Number (A) = protons + neutrons

An atom is electrically neutral. The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
If the number of electrons in an atom does not equal to the number of protons, the atom is positively or negatively charged and exists as ION.
ION - atom or group of covalently bonded atoms in which the number of electrons does not equal to the number of protons, it carries a positively or negatively charge.

Electrons are found outside the nucleus in a certain energy level.
ENERGY LEVEL - series of areas outside the nucleus where the electrons are located.

MODELS OF THE ATOM
a. Daltons Atomic Model atoms are indivisible.
b. Plum-Pudding or Raisin-Bread Model - J.J. Thomson perceived atoms as a positively-charged sphere in which electrons are embedded, hence, an atom is neutral.
c. Rutherford Nuclear Atom miniature solar system; the nucleus is the sun with the electrons circling the nucleus in the same way as the planet orbits the sun.
d. Neils Bohrs Electron Atom similar to Rutherfords Model, but, electrons revolve in certain specified orbits around the nucleus which he called ORBITS (quantized orbits).

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
Each element has a given atomic number that represents that element and no other. It indicates the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element. It also tells
the number of electrons in the atom, these being located outside the nucleus.
Z = p = e

MASS NUMBER (A)
This equal to the number of protons and neutrons in that nucleus. The mass number is always a whole number.
A = p + n

ISOTOPES
atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number but different mass number
Most of the known elements have isotopes. Some have only 2, others have many more
In general, isotopes have identical chemical properties but have different physical properties.

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM
There is a definite order of arrangement of electrons in the atom. The electrons are located in the energy levels. An energy level represents a volume occupied by an electron
cloud. For our purposes, the terms electron cloud and energy level could be used interchangeably.

NIELS BOHR (1885-1962) Danish physicist proposed a theory that an electron in an atom have energies restricted to certain specific energy levels that increase in energy as
they increase in distance from the nucleus.
HENCE:
The nearer the electron is to the nucleus, the less energy.
The farther the electron is to the nucleus, the more energy it has.

These principal energy levels are designated by the whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
There is a maximum number of electrons that can exist in a given principal energy level.
This number depends on the value of the whole number and is given by the following relation:
Maximum no. of electrons in principal energy level = 2n
2

Where n = integers 1 to 7 of the principal energy level

PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVEL MAXIMUM NO. OF ELECTRONS
1 2 x 1
2
= 2 x 1 = 2
2 2 x 2
2
= 2 x 4 = 8
3 2 x 3
2
= 2 x 9 = 18
4 2 x 4
2
= 2 x 16 = 32
5 2 x 5
2
= 2 x 25 = 50
6 2 x 6
2
= 2 x 36 = 72
7 2 x 7
2
= 2 x 49 = 98

RULES
Begin by placing electron into the lowest principal energy level.
Continue placing electron into subsequent levels until the required number of electron has been assigned.
Remember not to exceed the maximum number of electrons for a given principal energy level.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE ELECTRONS IN SUBLEVELS
An energy level is composed of sub-levels labeled as s,p,d,f and also have a limit to a number of electron that they contain. They differ from one another in their spatial
arrangement. They are composed of ATOMIC ORBITALS also called ORBITALS (a region of space surrounding the nucleus of an atom)

SUBLEVELS NO. OF ORBITALS MAXIMUM NO. OF ELECTRONS
Sharp - s 1 2
Principal - p 3 (Px,Py,Pz) 6
Diffuse - d 5 10
Fundamental f 7 14

Each orbital can contain no more than two electrons. The orbitals are filled in a very definite sequence as indicated in the following chart :

7s 7p
6s 6p 6d The order of filling the orbitals can be found
5s 5p 5d 5f by reading diagonally upward in the direction
4s 4p 4d 4f indicated by the arrows.
3s 3p 3d 1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s
2s 2p
1s


ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
This describes how electrons are arranged in successive sublevel and orbitals.

RULES TO FOLLOW

I - AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
German word meaning building up.
Each electron normally occupies orbital in the lowest energy level. Each added electron occupies the orbital according to increasing energy with the lowest orbital filled
first.

II - PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
Each orbital can accommodate only 2 electrons and must have opposite spins.

III - HUNDS RULE - Friedrich Hund
Electrons must occupy singly first before pairing and with parallel spins in degenerate orbitals to minimize energy repulsion. Degenerate orbitals are orbitals of the
same energy.

QUANTUM THEORY

Quantum Theory or Quantum mechanics describe matter as acting both as a particle and as a wave.
Quantum numbers used to describe the energy of an electron.

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
- it designates the shell (or level) in which the electron is found. The value of n indicates the relative average distance from which the nucleus and may takes values 1,2,3,

Azimuthal Quantum number (l)
it is called sunsidiary quantum number. It specifies the subshell hence the shape of the orbital, may have integral values from 0 to n-1.
l = 0, designates an s-subshell (s, sharp)
l = 1, designates a p-subshell (p, principal)
l = 2, designates a d-subshell (d, diffuse)
l = 3, designates an f- subshell (f, fundamental)

Magnetic Quantum Number, m
the term magnetic refers to the fact that in the presence of a magnetic field, the orbitals of a given subshell are no longer equivalent in energy (or no longer degenerate).It gives
information about the orientation of an orbital in space.

Spin Quantum Number, m
s
refers to the spin of an electron and orientation of the magnetic field produced by the spin. It can take values, +1/2 or 1/2.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

PERIODIC TABLE is a listing of the elements by increasing atomic numbers.

Early in Chemistry history, it was recognized that many elements have similar properties. Because of their similarities in the chemical and physical properties, chemists tried to
classify them so that their similarities could be emphasized.

DATE DISCOVERIES
1661 BOYLE introduced the modern definition of elements. 13 then were known.
1789 ANTOINE LAVOISIER French physicist/chemist arranged elements into group of simple substance
that do not decompose by any means.
1830 Chemists have identified 55 elements.
1863 DE CHANCOURTOIS arranged the atomic masses of elements in a spiral order around a look-alike
cylinder forming vertical lines.
1864 JOHN NEWLAND an English chemist arranged the elements in the order of increasing atomic
weights. He noticed that the 8
th
element was just a repetition of the 1
st
and thus the 2
nd
set of
elements was the same pattern as the 1
st
. He called this pattern the LAW OF OCTAVES. However,
this arrangement was true only for the 1
st
20 elements.
1869 DMITRI MENDELEEV Russian chemist presented a paper describing a periodic table. He
arranged the elements in order of their increasing atomic weights in a manner similar to
Newlands table. His table is a short form consisting of 8 groups and 12 rows. He left gaps to some
elements which he believed to see before he dies.
1870 LOTHAR MEYER a German chemist published an incomplete periodic table and an extended
version with 56 elements. He presented a periodic table of elements based on their physical
properties and plotting atomic volume against atomic number.
Both Mendeleev and Meyer proposed the PERIODIC LAW which states: WHEN THE ELEMENTS ARE
ARRANGED IN ORDER OF INCREASING ATOMIC MASSES, CERTAIN SETS OF PROPERTIES RECUR
PERIODICALLY. This is a conclusion about properties of elements being related to their atomic
numbers.
1888-1915 HENRY MOSELEY proved that the elements could be periodically arranged in order of increasing
atomic number. This led to the revision in the Periodic Law now known as the MODERN
PERIODIC TABLE.
As the atomic number increases, the number of electrons also increases.
The arrangement of the element is related to their valence electron and to their electronic
configuration.
1895 JULIUS THOMSEN Danish chemist proposed to arrange the Periodic Table into 7 Horizontal
lines/rows called PERIODS and 18 vertical columns called GROUPS OR FAMILIES.

DESCRIPTION OF A MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

PERIODS gives the principal energy levels. 7 horizontal rows in the periodic table.
GROUPS OR FAMILIES gives the number of valence electrons. 18 vertical columns in the periodic table; elements in each group have the same number of valence electron.

ELEMENTS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS FAMILY A AND B
1. GROUP A - REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS number of valence electrons is given
by the Roman numeral in the vertical column,
2. GROUP B TRANSITION ELEMENTS 2 incomplete or unstable shells therefore may
2 oxidation nos. with d-orbital halfly filled up.

GROUP I-A Alkali Metal (except H because not all its properties resemble those of the alkali metals) (H,Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs,Fr)
GROUP II-A Alkaline Earth Metals (Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba,Ra)
GROUP III-A Boron Family
GROUP IV-A Carbon Family
GROUP V-A Nitrogen
GROUP VI-A Chalogens (O,S,Se,Te,Po)
GROUP VII-A Halogens (F,Cl,Br,I,Astatine)
GROUP VIII-A Noble Gases relatively unreactive (inert) elements include He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn

FRANCIUM most metallic stable element.
FLOURINE most non-metallic element but most reactive.
GROUPS 1a & 2A are the most active metals.
GROUPS 5A & 7A are the most non-active metals.
GROUP 8A are the noble gases because they have the same number of electrons
permitted in the valence shell. They are also called INERT GASES because they are usually unreactive.

5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP

1. The periodic table separates the METALS from the NON-METALS.
To the right - are non-metals
To the left are metals w/ the most metallic element on the extreme left (Fr)

METALLOIDS elements that look like metals and in some ways behave like metals; but that also have some non-metallic properties.

2. In the group A elements (representative elements) the no. of valence electron is given by the Roman Group numeral in the numbered vertical columns.
Ex. Na Group I-A
Al - Group III-A

3. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and similar electronic configuration.

4. In the Group A elements, the metallic properties increase within a group with increasing atomic numbers and the non-metallic properties decrease.
Ex. Group V-A Nitrogen considered to be a non-metal.
Bismuth is the last number of metal.
Francium is the most metallic.
Fluorine is the most non-metallic found in the upper right corner.

5. There is a gradual change of many physical and chemical properties within a group with increasing atomic no.
The melting point/boiling point/densities and atomic radii of the elements increase as the atomic no. increases.
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and similar electronic configuration.
The metallic properties increase within a group with increasing atomic no. and non-metallic properties correspondingly decreases.


3 NEW ELEMENTS DISCOVERED

Scientists have reported the discovery of three new superheavy elements, atomic numbers 114,116 and 118, since the beginning of 1999.

reported its discovery in January 22, 1999 led by scientist YURI OGANESSIAN of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia.

& 118 discovered by a team led by KENNETH GREGORICH , a nuclear chemist and VICTOR NINOV, a nuclear physicist in June at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in
Berkeley, California.

The largest previously known element is 112, discovered in 1996, UNUMBIUM, the last element added to the periodic table.

Now that scientists have produced a few super heavy elements in the laboratory some want to attempt to make element 126, which is believed to be in the island of stability.
Other nuclear scientists are busy trying to recreate elements 114,116 & 118 to confirm that the scientists have found them.

If other scientists could reproduce results, then the elements will be solid candidates to officially join the Periodic Table.

THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

The elements that make up the Periodic Table are the foundation of the universe. Yet seldom do we encounter these elements in the pure state. In this topic, we will consider
the forces that hold atoms of various elements to form molecules and compounds of our world.

Electrons are transferred or shared, in such a way that atoms acquire an especially stable configuration. Usually this is a noble configuration, one with 8 outer shell electrons or
OCTET.

VALENCE ELECTRON ( VALENCE ENERGY ELECTRON) - electrons occupying the highest principal energy level.
CORE (or Kernel) - the remainder of the atoms ( nucleus and other electrons).

ELECTRON-DOT-FORMULA - is a schematic representation of the electronic properties of the given atoms. It helps us visualize how molecules are held together.

RULES FOR WRITING ELECTRON-DOT-FORMULAS
Write the symbol for the element to represent the core.
Assign a maximum number of 2 electrons to each of the four sides of the symbol to give a total of 8 electrons around the symbol.
Arrange the valence electrons around the four sides of the symbol, with one electron assigned to each side up to a maximum of 4 electrons.
If needed, pair electron on the four sides up to a maximum of 8 electrons. Be sure not to exceed the actual number of 4 valence electrons for the element.

In all the preceding examples, you may have noted that 8 electrons filled all 4 sides. There is a specific rule governing this, the RULE OF EIGHT OR OCTET RULE which states that
in forming molecules, most atoms attempt to obtain a stable configuration of 8 valence electrons around the atom.

IN GENERAL:
1. Atoms having 1,2 or 3 valence electrons tend to lose these electrons to become positively (+) charged ions called CATIONS. Metals show this behavior.
Atoms with 5,6 or 7 valence electrons tend to gain electrons and become negatively (-) charged ions called ANIONS. Non-metals show this behavior.
Many non-metals may also share electrons to obtain 8 electrons in their valence energy level. Those elements with 4 valence electrons (ex. C) are most apt to share their valence
electrons.




SOME COMMON METALS W/ THEIR FORMULAS OF THE CATION AND THEIR NAMES
METAL (SYMBOL) CATION NAME OF CATION
Al Al
+3
Aluminum
Ba Ba
+2
Barium
Cd Cd
+2
Cadmium
Ca Ca
+2
Calcium
Cu Cu
+1
Copper (I)/ Cuprous
Cu
+2
Copper( II)/ Cupric
H H
+1
Hydrogen

Fe Fe
+2
Iron (II)/Ferrous
Fe
+3
Iron (III)/Ferric
Pb Pb
+2
Lead (II)/Plumbous
Pb
+4
Lead (IV)/Plumbic
Li Li
+1
Lithium
Mg Mg
+2
Magnesium
Hg Hg
+1
Mercury (I)/Mercurous
Hg
+2
Mercury (II)/Mercuric
K K
+1
Potassium
Ag Ag
+1
Silver
Na Na
+1
Sodium
Sr Sr
+2
Strontium
Sn Sn
+2
Tin (II)/Stannous
Sn
+4
Tin (IV)/Stannic
Zn Zn
+1
Zinc

SOME COMMON NON-METALS
Br Br
-1
Bromide
Cl Cl
-1
Chloride
F F
-1
Fluoride
H H
-1
Hydride
I I
-1
Iodide
N N
-3
Nitride
O O
-2
Oxide
P P
-3
Phosphide
S S
-2
Sulfide

The formation of compounds and molecules depends not only on the existence of unfilled energy levels in many elements but also in the ionization energy of the atoms
involved.

Formation of chemical bonds depends in part on the
a) IONIZATION ENERGY of an element the amount of energy it takes to remove the most loosely held electron from an atom of the element to give a cation.
b) ELECTRON AFFINITY of an element the amount of energy released when an atom of the element combines with an electrons to give an anion.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY - degree to which an atom attracts a pair of covalently bonded electrons to itself.tendency for an atom to attract a pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
LINUS C. PAULING - an American scientist gives the electronegativity values of most of the elements in the periodic table. The values are based on a scale from 0.7 to 4 where a:
LOW VALUE indicates an element does not have a strong attraction for bonded electrons. Usually exhibited by metals.
HIGH VALUE indicates an element has a strong attraction for bonded electrons. Usually exhibited by non-metals.

LIST OF IONS

I. CATIONS II. ANIONS
A. Monovalent (+1) A. Monovalent (-1)
Ammonium - NH4 Aluminate - AlO
2

Aurous - Au Bicarbonate - HCO
3

Cuprous - Cu Bisulfate - HSO
4

Hydrogen - H Bisulfite - HSO
3

Lithium - Li Bromate - BrO
3

Mercurous - Hg Bromide - Br
Potassium - K Bromite - BrO
2

Silver - Ag Chlorate - ClO
3

Sodium - Na Chloride - Cl
Chlorite - ClO
2

B. Bivalent (+2) Cyanide - CN
Barium - Ba Flouride - F
Cadmium - Cd Hydride - H
Chromous - Cr Hydroxide - OH
Cobaltous - Co Hypobromite - BrO
Cupric - Cu Hypochlorite - ClO
Ferrous - Fe Iodide - I
Magnesium - Mg Nitrate - NO
3

Manganous - Mn Nitrite - NO
2

Mercuric - Hg Permanganate MnO
4

Nickelous - Ni Peroxide - O
Plumbous - Pb Thiocynanate - SCN
Stannous - Sn
Strontium - Sr
Zinc - Zn

C. Trivalent (+3) B. Bivalent (-2)
Aluminum - Al Carbonate - CO
3

Arsenous - As Chromate - CrO
4

Auric - Au Dichromate - Cr
2
O
7

Antimonous - Sb Oxide - O
Bismuthous - Bi Oxalate - C
2
O
4

Boron - B Stannate - SnO
3

Chromic - Cr Stannite - SnO
2

Cobaltic - Co Sulfate - SO
4

Ferric - Fe Sulfite - SO
3

Manganic - Mn Sulfide - S
Nickelic - Ni Thiosulfate - S2O
3

Phosphorus - P Zincate - ZnO



D. Tetravalent (+4) C. Trivalent (-3)
Plumbic - Pb Arsenate - AsO
4

Silicon - Si Arsenite - AsO
3

Stannic - Sn Borate - BO
3

Nitride - N
E. Pentavalent (+5) Phosphate - PO
4

Antimonic - Sb Phosphide - P
Arsenic - As
Bismuthic - Bi
Nitrogen - N