Final Sajaneesh Report

Mobile Ring Detector
INTRODUCTION
This handy mobile bug or MOBILE RING detector, pocketsi!e mobile transmission
detector or sni""er can sense the presence o" an acti#ated mobile cellphone "rom a distance o" one
andahal" metres$ %o it can be used to pre#ent use o" mobile phones in e&amination halls,
con"idential rooms, etc$ It is also use"ul "or detecting the use o" mobile phone "or spying and
unauthorised #ideo transmission$
The circuit can detect both the incoming and outgoing calls, %M% and #ideo transmission
e#en i" the mobile phone is kept in the silent mode$ The moment the bug detects R' transmission
signal "rom an acti#ated mobile phone, it starts sounding a beep alarm and the LE( blinks$ The
alarm continues until the signal transmission ceases$
Viswam Degree & P.G College Madanapalle
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
BLOCK DIAGRAM
COMPONENTS LIST
BATTERY WITH SNAP : 9V
ANTENNA : 5
CAPACITORS : C1, C2, 22pF
C, 22)'
C!, 1"")'*+,-
C5 !#pF
C$, C#, C% "&1)'
C9 !&#)'*+,-
RESISTORS : R1,R 2&2M O'()
R2 1""K O'()
R! 1K O'()
R5 2K O'()
R$ 15K O'()
L&E&D : 5((
TRANSISTOR : BC5!%
IC CA 1" : IC 1*CA 1"
IC 2*NE 555
SWITCH :
PIE+O BU++ER :
B,--./0 1.2.3-/434-05
-arious cells and batteries .tople"t to bottomright/0 t1o one handheld ham radio battery,
t1o 2#olt .334/, t1o 555, one, one camcorder battery, one cordless phone battery$
5n electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that con#ert stored chemical
energy into electrical energy$ %ince the in#ention o" the "irst battery .or 6#oltaic pile6/ in +788 by
5lessandro -olta and especially since the technically impro#ed (aniell cell in +74,, batteries
ha#e become a common po1er source "or many household and industrial applications$
5ccording to a 988: estimate, the 1orld1ide battery industry generates ;%<=7 billion in sales
each year, 1ith ,> annual gro1th$
There are t1o types o" batteries0 primary batteries .disposable batteries/, 1hich are
designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries .rechargeable batteries/, 1hich
are designed to be recharged and used multiple times$ Batteries come in many si!es, "rom
miniature cells used to po1er hearing aids and 1rist1atches to battery banks the si!e o" rooms
that pro#ide standby po1er "or telephone e&changes and computer data centers$
The symbol "or a battery in a circuit diagram$ It originated as a schematic dra1ing o" the
earliest type o" battery, a #oltaic pile$
In strict terms, a battery is a collection o" multiple electrochemical cells, but in popular
usage battery o"ten re"ers to a single cell$ 'or e&ample, a +$:#olt 555 battery is a single +$:
#olt cell, and a 2#olt battery has si& +$:#olt cells in series$ The "irst electrochemical cell 1as
de#eloped by the Italian physicist 5lessandro -olta in +?29, and in +788 he in#ented the "irst
battery, a 6pile6 o" many cells in series$
The usage o" 6battery6 to describe electrical de#ices dates to Ben@amin 'ranklin, 1ho in
+?=7 described multiple Leyden @ars .early electrical capacitors/ by analogy to a battery o"
cannons$ Thus 'ranklinAs usage to describe multiple Leyden @ars predated -oltaAs use o" multiple
gal#anic cells$ It is speculated, but not established, that se#eral ancient arti"acts consisting o"
copper sheets and iron bars, and kno1n as Baghdad batteries may ha#e been gal#anic cells,
-oltaAs 1ork 1as stimulated by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Gal#ani, 1ho
in +?78 noticed that dissected "rogAs legs 1ould t1itch 1hen struck by a spark "rom a Leyden @ar,
an e&ternal source o" electricity$ In +?7, he noticed that t1itching 1ould occur during lightning
storms$5"ter many years Gal#ani learned ho1 to produce t1itching 1ithout using any e&ternal
source o" electricity$ In +?2+ he published a report on 6animal electricity$6 Be created an electric
circuit consisting o" the "rogAs leg .'L/ and t1o di""erent metals 5 and B, each metal touching the
"rogAs leg and each other, thus producing the circuit 5C 'LCBC5C'LCB$$$etc$ In modern terms,
the "rogAs leg ser#ed as both the electrolyte and the sensor, and the metals ser#ed as electrodes$
Be noticed that e#en though the "rog 1as dead, its legs 1ould t1itch 1hen he touched them 1ith
the metals$
Dithin a year, -olta reali!ed the "rogAs moist tissues could be replaced by cardboard
soaked in salt 1ater, and the "rogAs muscular response could be replaced by another "orm o"
electrical detection$ Be already had studied the electrostatic phenomenon o" capacitance, 1hich
reEuired measurements o" electric charge and o" electrical potential .6tension6/$ Building on this
e&perience, -olta 1as able to detect electric current through his system, also called a Gal#anic
cell$ The terminal #oltage o" a cell that is not discharging is called its electromoti#e "orce .em"/,
and has the same unit as electrical potential, named .#oltage/ and measured in #olts, in honor o"
-olta$ In +788, -olta in#ented the battery by placing many #oltaic cells in series, piling them one
abo#e the other$ This #oltaic pile ga#e a greatly enhanced net em" "or the combination, 1ith a
#oltage o" about :8 #olts "or a 49cell pile$ In many parts o" Europe batteries continue to be
called piles$
-olta did not appreciate that the #oltage 1as due to chemical reactions$ Be thought that
his cells 1ere an ine&haustible source o" energy,, and that the associated corrosion e""ects at the
electrodes 1ere a mere nuisance, rather than an una#oidable conseEuence o" their operation, as
Michael 'araday sho1ed in +74=$ 5ccording to 'araday, cations .positi#ely charged ions/ are
attracted to the cathode, and anions .negati#ely charged ions/ are attracted to the anode$
5lthough early batteries 1ere o" great #alue "or e&perimental purposes, in practice their
#oltages "luctuated and they could not pro#ide a large current "or a sustained period$ Later,
starting 1ith the (aniell cell in +74,, batteries pro#ided more reliable currents and 1ere adopted
by industry "or use in stationary de#ices, in particular in telegraph net1orks 1here they 1ere the
only practical source o" electricity, since electrical distribution net1orks did not e&ist at the time$
These 1et cells used liEuid electrolytes, 1hich 1ere prone to leakage and spillage i" not handled
correctly$ Many used glass @ars to hold their components, 1hich made them "ragile$ These
characteristics made 1et cells unsuitable "or portable appliances$ Near the end o" the nineteenth
century, the in#ention o" dry cell batteries, 1hich replaced the liEuid electrolyte 1ith a paste,
made portable electrical de#ices practical$
%ince then, batteries ha#e gained popularity as they became portable and use"ul "or a
#ariety o" purposes$
P/4634p2. 78 7p./,-476
E2.3-/73'.(43,2 3.22
5 #oltaic cell "or demonstration purposes$ In this e&ample the t1o hal"cells are linked by
a salt bridge separator that permits the trans"er o" ions, but not 1ater molecules$
5 battery is a de#ice that con#erts chemical energy directly to electrical energy$ It
consists o" a number o" #oltaic cellsF each #oltaic cell consists o" t1o hal"cells connected in
series by a conducti#e electrolyte containing anions and cations$ One hal"cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to 1hich anions .negati#ely charged ions/ migrate, i$e$, the anode or
negati#e electrodeF the other hal"cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to 1hich cations
.positi#ely charged ions/ migrate, i$e$, the cathode or positi#e electrode$ In the redo& reaction that
po1ers the battery, cations are reduced .electrons are added/ at the cathode, 1hile anions are
o&idi!ed .electrons are remo#ed/ at the anode$ The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte$ %ome cells use t1o hal"cells 1ith di""erent electrolytes$
5 separator bet1een hal"cells allo1s ions to "lo1, but pre#ents mi&ing o" the electrolytes$
Each hal"cell has an electromoti#e "orce .or em"/, determined by its ability to dri#e
electric current "rom the interior to the e&terior o" the cell$ The net em" o" the cell is the
di""erence bet1een the em"s o" its hal"cells, as "irst recogni!ed by -olta$ There"ore, i" the
electrodes ha#e em"s and , then the net em" is F in other 1ords, the net em" is the
di""erence bet1een the reduction potentials o" the hal"reactions$
The electrical dri#ing "orce or across the terminals o" a cell is kno1n as the
terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in #olts$The terminal #oltage o" a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the opencircuit #oltage and eEuals the em" o" the cell$
Because o" internal resistance, the terminal #oltage o" a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the opencircuit #oltage and the terminal #oltage o" a cell that is charging
e&ceeds the opencircuit #oltage$
5n ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it 1ould maintain a constant terminal
#oltage o" until e&hausted, then dropping to !ero$ I" such a cell maintained +$: #olts and stored a
charge o" one coulomb then on complete discharge it 1ould per"orm +$: @oule o" 1ork$ In actual
cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and the open circuit #oltage also
decreases under discharge$ I" the #oltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting
graphs typically are a cur#eF the shape o" the cur#e #aries according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed$
5s stated abo#e, the #oltage de#eloped across a cellAs terminals depends on the energy
release o" the chemical reactions o" its electrodes and electrolyte$ 5lkaline and !incCcarbon cells
ha#e di""erent chemistries but appro&imately the same em" o" +$: #oltsF like1ise NiGd and
NiMB cells ha#e di""erent chemistries, but appro&imately the same em" o" +$9 #olts$ On the other
hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions o" lithium compounds gi#e
lithium cells em"s o" 4 #olts or more$
Batteries are classi"ied into t1o broad categories, each type 1ith ad#antages and
(isad#antages$
H Primary batteries irre#ersibly .1ithin limits o" practicality/ trans"orm chemical energy to
electrical energy$ Dhen the initial supply o" reactants is e&hausted, energy cannot be
readily restored to the battery by electrical means$
H Secondary batteries can be rechargedF that is, they can ha#e their chemical reactions
re#ersed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition$
%ome types o" primary batteries used, "or e&ample, "or telegraph circuits, 1ere restored to
operation by replacing the components o" the battery consumed by the chemical reaction$
%econdary batteries are not inde"initely rechargeable due to dissipation o" the acti#e materials,
loss o" electrolyte and internal corrosion$
PRIMARY BATTERIES
3rimary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly$ (isposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded$ These are most commonly used in portable de#ices that
ha#e lo1 current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used 1ell a1ay "rom an alternati#e
po1er source, such as in alarm and communication circuits 1here other electric po1er is only
intermittently a#ailable$ (isposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily re#ersible and acti#e materials may not return to their original
"orms$ Battery manu"acturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells$
ANTENNA:
The A6-.66, F,3-7/ is used by R' or EMG antenna engineers to describe the reEuired
electric "ield strength that produces + -olt at the terminals o" an antenna$ 5lternati#ely, the
5ntenna 'actor concept speci"ies 1hat the recei#ed #oltage is in the presence o" an electric "ield$
It is de"ined mathematically as0
Technically, the abo#e de"inition is a little ambiguous$ 'or instance, i" the terminals o" the
antenna are short circuited, the recei#ed #oltage is al1ays !ero, so the 5ntenna 'actor is not
de"ined$ Bence, the 5ntenna 'actor has an implied impedance associated 1ith the antenna
terminals, most commonly :8 Ohms$ Bo1e#er, sometimes an 6open circuit6 antenna "actor is
discussed, 1hich is the a#ailable #oltage "or an antenna 1ith an open circuit .no recei#er or load
attached/$ The basic concept o" antenna "actor 1ith a terminal .port, recei#er or load/ impedance
is sho1n in 'igure +$
'igure +$ Graphical Illustration o" 5ntenna 'actor, 1ith 5ntenna Terminated in a Load .1hich
represents the Recei#er/$ In the abo#e 'igure, the E"ield is sho1n as part o" a propagating 1a#e
.1hich isnAt neccessarily the case/$ The antenna recei#es the "ield at a #oltage sho1s up at its
terminals, the circles sho1n in 'igure +$ The recei#er impedance .or the load, or a measuring
de#ice such as a net1ork analy!er/ is sho1n connected to the antenna terminals$ The ratio o" the
incident "ield strength to the output #oltage is the 5ntenna 'actor$
The abo#e eEuation "or the 5ntenna 'actor assumes that the polari!ation o" the E"ield
and the antenna are matched .no polari!atoin mismatch loss/$ 5 relationship can be deri#ed "or
the 5ntenna 'actor in terms o" the antennaAs gain and the "reEuency o" operation$ 5ssuming that
the antenna is recei#ing a propagating 1a#e .as is the case i" the antenna is recei#ing po1er in
the "ar "ield o" another antenna /, 1e can deri#e this relationship$ I" the an incident "ield is part o"
a propagating 1a#e, the po1er density S Iin Datts*metersEuared .D*mJ9/K o" the 1a#e is gi#en
by0
po1er a#ailable "rom the antenna can be determined using the antennaAs e""ecti#e aperture$
Bence, the po1er captured "rom the plane 1a#e is gi#en by0
In the abo#e eEuation 1e ha#e substituted in the "ormula "or the e""ecti#e aperture , f is
the "reEuency o" the plane 1a#e, c is the speed o" light and G is the gain o" the antenna$ On the
recei#er side o" the antenna, the po1er recei#ed depends on the impedance o" the recei#er
.Zload/ and the recei#ed #oltage0
%etting the preceding eEuations eEual to each other, 1e can obtain the "inal result0
I" the load impedance is :8 Ohms, then the 5ntenna 'actor can be 1ritten in a "orm that is
commonly seen0
Its crucial to note that the preceding t1o relationships only hold "or propagating plane
1a#es ."ar "ield conditions/, and are polari!ation matched to the "ields$ The impedance mismatch
bet1een the antenna and recei#er is included in the 5ntenna 'actor only the a#ailable #oltage is
measured at the recei#er$
In addition, since the gain o" an antenna #aries 1ith direction, the antenna "actor also
#aries as a "unction o" the direction o" the incoming "ields to1ards the antenna$ I" no direction is
speci"ied, the direction that is meant is al1ays the direction o" ma&imum gain$
The antenna "actor also sometimes comes in di""erent #arieties near "ield and "ar"ield
conditions$ Because near "ields can beha#e di""erently than "ar "ields .in general near "ields are
more reacti#e and comple& to "igure out/, an antenna beha#es di""erently in the presence o" the
t1o$ Bence, sometimes an antenna has near and "ar "ield antenna "actors speci"ied$
'inally, although much less common, the 5ntenna 'actor can also be de"ined in terms o"
the magnetic "ield0
This is simply the reEuired magnetic "ield strength to produce a #olt at the terminals o" the
antenna$
CAPACITOR COLOUR CODE :
Generally, the actual #alues o" Gapacitance, -oltage or Tolerance are marked onto the
body o" the capacitors in the "orm o" alphanumeric characters$ Bo1e#er, 1hen the #alue o" the
capacitance is o" a decimal #alue problems arise 1ith the marking o" a 6(ecimal 3oint6 as it
could easily not be noticed resulting in a misreading o" the actual #alue$ Instead letters such as p
.pico/ or n .nano/ are used in place o" the decimal point to identi"y its position and the 1eight o"
the number$ 'or e&ample, a capacitor can be labelled as, n=? L 8$=?n', =n? L =$?n' or =?n L
=?n'$ 5lso, sometimes capacitors are marked 1ith the capital letter M to signi"y a #alue o" one
thousand pico'arads, so "or e&ample, a capacitor 1ith the markings o" +88M 1ould be +88 &
+888p' or +88n'$ To reduce the con"usion regarding letters, numbers and decimal points, an
International colour coding scheme 1as de#eloped many years ago as a simple 1ay o"
identi"ying capacitor #alues and tolerances$ It consists o" coloured bands .in spectral order/
kno1n commonly as the C,p,34-7/ C7279/ C7:. system and 1hose meanings are illustrated
belo10
C,p,34-7/ C7279/ C7:. T,;2.
Golour (igit 5(igit BMultiplier (
Tolerance
.T/ N +8p"
Tolerance
.T/ O +8p"
Temperature
Goe""icient
.TG/
Black 8 8 &+ P 98> P 9$8p'
Bro1n + + &+8 P +> P 8$+p' 44&+8,
Red 9 9 &+88 P 9> P 8$9:p' ?:&+8,
Orange 4 4 &+,888 P 4> +:8&+8,
Qello1 = = &+8,888 P => 998&+8,
Green : : &+88,888 P :> P 8$:p' 448&+8,
Blue , , &+,888,888 =?8&+8,
-iolet ? ? ?:8&+8,
Grey 7 7 &8$8+
R78>,98>
Dhite 2 2 &8$+ P +8> P +$8p'
Gold &8$+ P :>
%il#er &8$8+ P +8>
Gapacitor -oltage Golour Gode Table
Golour
-oltage Rating
Type S Type M Type L Type M Type N
Black = +88 +8 +8
Bro1n , 988 +88 +$,
Red +8 488 9:8 = 4:
Orange +: =88 =8
Qello1 98 :88 =88 ,$4 ,
Green 9: ,88 +, +:
Blue 4: ?88 ,48 98
-iolet :8 788
Grey 288 9: 9:
Dhite 4 +888 9$: 4
Gold 9888
%il#er
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE REFERENCE
Type S (ipped Tantalum Gapacitors$
Type M Mica Gapacitors$
Type L 3olyester*3olystyrene Gapacitors$
Type M Electrolytic = Band Gapacitors$
Type N Electrolytic 4 Band Gapacitors$
5n e&ample o" the use o" capacitor colour codes is gi#en as0
The C,p,34-7/ C7279/ C7:. system 1as used "or many years on unpolarised polyester
and mica moulded capacitors$ This system o" colour coding is no1 obsolete but there are still
many 6old6 capacitors around$ No1adays, small capacitors such as "ilm or disk types con"orm to
the B%+7:9 %tandard and its ne1 replacement, B% EN ,88,9, 1ere the colours ha#e been
replaced by a letter or number coded system$ The code consists o" 9 or 4 numbers and an
optional tolerance letter code to identi"y the tolerance$ Dhere a t1o number code is used the
#alue o" the capacitor only is gi#en in pico"arads, "or e&ample, =? L =? p' and +88 L +88p' etc$
5 three letter code consists o" the t1o #alue digits and a multiplier much like the resistor colour
codes in the resistors section$ 'or e&ample, the digits =?+ L =?T+8 L =?8p'$ Three digit codes are
o"ten accompanied by an additional tolerance letter code as gi#en belo1$
CAPACITOR TOLERANCE LETTER CODES TABLE
Letter B G ( ' G S M M U
Tolerance G O+8p' Pp' 8$+ 8$9:
8$: + 9
G N+8p' P> 8$: + 9 : +8 98 R7898
Gonsider the capacitor belo10
CAPACITOR LETTER CODES TABLE
P4378,/,:
1pF5
N,678,/,:
16F5
M43/78,/,:
19F5
C7:.
P4378,/,:
1pF5
N,678,/,:
16F5
M43/78,/,:
19F5
C7:.
+8 8$8+ 8$8888+ +88 =?88 =$? 8$88=? =?9
+: 8$8+: 8$8888+: +:8 :888 :$8 8$88: :89
99 8$899 8$888899 998 :,88 :$, 8$88:, :,9
44 8$844 8$888844 448 ,788 ,$7 8$88,7 ,79
=? 8$8=? 8$8888=? =?8 +8888 +8 8$8+ +84
+88 8$+ 8$888+ +8+ +:888 +: 8$8+: +:4
+98 8$+9 8$888+9 +9+ 99888 99 8$899 994
+48 8$+4 8$888+4 +4+ 44888 44 8$844 444
+:8 8$+: 8$888+: +:+ =?888 =? 8$8=? =?4
+78 8$+7 8$888+7 +7+ ,7888 ,7 8$8,7 ,74
998 8$99 8$88899 99+ +88888 +88 8$+ +8=
448 8$44 8$88844 44+ +:8888 +:8 8$+: +:=
=?8 8$=? 8$888=? =?+ 988888 988 8$9 9:=
:,8 8$:, 8$888:, :,+ 998888 998 8$99 99=
,78 8$,7 8$888,7 ,7+ 448888 448 8$44 44=
?:8 8$?: 8$888?: ?:+ =?8888 =?8 8$=? =?=
798 8$79 8$88879 79+ ,78888 ,78 8$,7 ,7=
+888 +$8 8$88+ +89 +888888 +888 +$8 +8:
+:88 +$: 8$88+: +:9 +:88888 +:88 +$: +::
9888 9$8 8$889 989 9888888 9888 9$8 98:
9988 9$9 8$8899 999 9988888 9988 9$9 99:
4488 4$4 8$8844 449 4488888 4488 4$4 44:
RESISTORS
E&ample0
Gircuit symbol0
FUNCTION
Resistors restrict the "lo1 o" electric current, "or e&ample a resistor is placed in series
1ith a lightemitting diode .LE(/ to limit the current passing through the LE($
CONNECTING AND SOLDERING
Resistors may be connected either 1ay round$ They are not damaged by heat 1hen
soldering$
T'. R.)4)-7/ C7279/ C7:.
Golour Number
Black 0
Bro1n +
Red 9
Orange 4
Qello1 =
Green :
Blue ,
-iolet ?
Grey 7
Dhite 2
RESISTOR VALUES * THE RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol "or ohm is an omega $
+ is Euite small so resistor #alues are o"ten gi#en in k and M $
+ k L +888 + M L +888888 $
Resistor #alues are normally sho1n using coloured bands$
Each colour represents a number as sho1n in the table$
Most resistors ha#e = bands0
The 84/)- ;,6: gi#es the 84/)- :4<4-$
The ).376: ;,6: gi#es the ).376: :4<4-$
The -'4/: ;,6: indicates the 69(;./ 78 =./7)$
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be
ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.
This resistor has red .9/, #iolet .?/, yello1 .= !eros/ and gold bands$
%o its #alue is 9?8888 L 9?8 k $
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the #alue is 1ritten 9?8M$
'ind out ho1 to make your o1n Resistor Golour Gode Galculator
%mall #alue resistors .less than +8 ohm/
The standard colour code cannot sho1 #alues o" less than +8 $ To sho1 these small
#alues t1o special colours are used "or the -'4/: ;,6:0 <72: 1hich means V 8$+ and )42>./ 1hich
means V 8$8+$ The "irst and second bands represent the digits as normal$
'or e&ample0
/.:, >472.-, <72: bands represent 9? V 8$+ L 9$?
</..6, ;29., )42>./ bands represent :, V 8$8+ L 8$:,
Tolerance o" resistors ."ourth band o" colour code/
The tolerance o" a resistor is sho1n by the 879/-' ;,6: o" the colour code$ Tolerance is
the p/.34)476 o" the resistor and it is gi#en as a percentage$ 'or e&ample a 428 resistor 1ith a
tolerance o" P+8> 1ill ha#e a #alue 1ithin +8> o" 428 , bet1een 428 42 L 4:+ and 428 R
42 L =92 .42 is +8> o" 428/$
5 special colour code is used "or the 879/-' ;,6: tolerance0
)42>./ P+8>, <72: P:>, /.: P9>, ;/7?6 P+>$
I" no "ourth band is sho1n the tolerance is P98>$
Tolerance may be ignored "or almost all circuits because precise resistor #alues are rarely
reEuired$
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES 1LEDS5
Gircuitsymbol0
F963-476
LE(s emit light 1hen an electric current passes through them$
C766.3-46< ,6: )72:./46<
LE(s must be connected the correct 1ay round, the diagram may be labelled , or @ "or
anode and A or *"or cathode .yes, it really is k, not c, "or cathodeW/$ The cathode is the short lead
and there may be a slight "lat on the body o" round LE(s$ I" you can see inside the LE( the
cathode is the larger electrode .but this is not an o""icial identi"ication method/$
LE(s can be damaged by heat 1hen soldering, but the risk is small unless you are #ery slo1$ No
special precautions are needed "or soldering most LE(s$
T.)-46< ,6 LED
Ne#er connect an LE( directly to a battery or po1er supplyW It 1ill be destroyed almost
instantly because too much current 1ill pass through and burn it out$
LE(s must ha#e a resistor in series to limit the current to a sa"e #alue, "or Euick testing
purposes a +k resistor is suitable "or most LE(s i" your supply #oltage is +9- or less$
R.(.(;./ -7 3766.3- -'. LED -'. 37//.3- ?,0 /796:B
C7279/) 78 LED)
LE(s are a#ailable in red, orange, amber, yello1, green, blue and 1hite$ Blue and 1hite
LE(s are much more e&pensi#e than the other colours$
The colour o" an LE( is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring
o" the ApackageA .the plastic body/$ LE(s o" all colours are a#ailable in uncoloured packages
1hich may be di""used .milky/ or clear .o"ten described as A1ater clearA/$ The coloured packages
are also a#ailable as di""used .the standard type/ or transparent$
T/4 *3727/ LED)
The most popular type o" tricolour LE( has a red and a green LE( combined in one
package 1ith three leads$ They are called tricolour because mi&ed red and green light appears to
be yello1 and this is produced 1hen both the red and green LE(s are on$
The diagram sho1s the construction o" a tricolour LE($ Note the di""erent lengths o" the
three leads$ The centre lead .k/ is the common cathode "or both LE(s, the outer leads .a+ and a9/
are the anodes to the LE(s allo1ing each one to be lit separately, or both together to gi#e the
third colour$
B4*37279/ LED)
5 bicolour LE( has t1o LE(s 1ired in Ain#erse parallelA .one "or1ards, one back1ards/
combined in one package 1ith t1o leads$ Only one o" the LE(s can be lit at one time and they
are less use"ul than the tricolour LE(s described abo#e$
S4=.), S',p.) ,6: V4.?46< ,6<2.) 78 LED)
LE(s are a#ailable in a 1ide #ariety o" si!es and shapes$ The AstandardA LE( has a round
crosssection o" :mm diameter and this is probably the best type "or general use, but 4mm round
LE(s are also popular$
Round crosssection LE(s are "reEuently used and they are #ery easy to install on bo&es
by drilling a hole o" the LE( diameter, adding a spot o" glue 1ill help to hold the LE( i"
necessary$ LE( clips are also a#ailable to secure LE(s in holes$ Other crosssection shapes
include sEuare, rectangular and triangular$
5s 1ell as a #ariety o" colours, si!es and shapes, LE(s also #ary in their #ie1ing angle$
This tells you ho1 much the beam o" light spreads out$ %tandard LE(s ha#e a #ie1ing angle o"
,8X but others ha#e a narro1 beam o" 48X or less$
C,2392,-46< ,6 LED /.)4)-7/ >,29.:
5n LE( must ha#e a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LE(,
other1ise it 1ill burn out almost instantly$
The resistor #alue, R is gi#en by0
R C 1V
S
*V
L
5 D I
S
L supply #oltage
L
L LE( #oltage .usually 9-, but =- "or blue and 1hite LE(s/
I L LE( current .e$g$ +8m5 L 8$8+5, or 98m5 L 8$895/$
Make sure the LE( current you choose is less than the ma&imum permitted and 376>./-
-'. 39//.6- -7 ,(p) 1A5 so the calculation 1ill gi#e the resistor #alue in ohms . /$ To con#ert
m5 to 5 di#ide the current in m5 by +888 because +m5 L 8$88+5$
I" the calculated #alue is not a#ailable choose the nearest standard resistor #alue 1hich is
</.,-./, so that the current 1ill be a little less than you chose$ In "act you may 1ish to choose a
greater resistor #alue to reduce the current .to increase battery li"e "or e&ample/ but this 1ill
make the LE( less bright$
F7/ .E,(p2.
I" the supply #oltage -
%
L 2-, and you ha#e a red LE( .-
L
L 9-/, reEuiring a current
I L 98m5 L 8$8985, R L .2- 9-/ * 8$895 L 4:8 , so choose 428 .the nearest standard #alue
1hich is greater/$
W7/A46< 79- -'. LED /.)4)-7/ 87/(92, 9)46< O'(F) 2,?
OhmAs la1 says that the resistance o" the resistor, R L -*I, 1here0 - L #oltage across the
resistor .L -
%
-
L
in this case/ I L the current through the resistor
%o R L.-
%
-
L
/*I
'or more in"ormation on the calculations please see the OhmAs La1 page$
I6-.</,-.: 34/394-
6%ilicon chip6 redirects here$ 'or the electronics maga!ine, see %ilicon Ghip$
Integrated circuit "rom an E3ROM memory microchip sho1ing the memory blocks, the
supporting circuitry and the "ine sil#er 1ires 1hich connect the integrated circuit die to the legs
o" the packaging$
Dide angle shot o" the memory microchip sho1n in detail abo#e$ The microchips ha#e a
transparent 1indo1, sho1ing the integrated circuit inside$ The 1indo1 allo1s the memory
contents o" the chip to be erased, by e&posure to strong ultra#iolet light in an eraser de#ice$
5n 46-.</,-.: 34/394- or (76724-'43 46-.</,-.: 34/394- .also re"erred to as IC, 3'4p, or
(43/73'4p/ is an electronic circuit manu"actured by the patterned di""usion o" trace elements
into the sur"ace o" a thin substrate o" semiconductor material$ 5dditional materials are deposited
and patterned to "orm interconnections bet1een semiconductor de#ices$
Integrated circuits are used in #irtually all electronic eEuipment today and ha#e
re#olutioni!ed the 1orld o" electronics$ Gomputers , mobile phones, and other digital
appliances are no1 ine&tricable parts o" the structure o" modern societies, made possible by the
lo1 cost o" production o" integrated circuits$
IC CA 1"
15MH=, B4MOS Op./,-476,2 A(p2484./ ?4-'
MOSFET I6p9-DCMOS O9-p9-
G54+485 and G54+48 are op amps that combine the ad#antage o" both GMO% and
bipolar transistors$ Gateprotected 3Ghannel MO%'ET .3MO%/ transistors are used in the input
circuit to pro#ide #eryhighinput impedance, #erylo1input current, and e&ceptional speed
per"ormance$ The use o" 3MO% transistors in the input stage results in commonmode input
#oltage capability do1n to 8$:- belo1 the negati#esupply terminal, an important attribute in
singlesupply applications$ 5 GMO% transistorpair, capable o" s1inging the output #oltage to
1ithin +8m- o" either supply#oltage terminal .at #ery high #alues o" load impedance/, is
employed as the output circuit$
The G54+48 %eries circuits operate at supply #oltages ranging "rom :- to +,-, .P9$:- to
P7-/$ They can be phase compensated 1ith a single e&ternal capacitor, and ha#e terminals "or
ad@ustment o" o""set #oltage "or applications reEuiring o""setnull capability$ Terminal pro#isions
are also made to permit strobing o" the output stage$
The G54+485 o""ers superior input characteristics o#er those o" the G54+48$
Pinouts
CA1", CA1"A
1PDIP, SOIC5
TO3 -IED
CA1", CA1"A
1METAL CAN5
TO3 -IED
Features
H MO%'ET Input %tage 3ro#ides0
-ery Bigh UI L +$: TY .+$: & +8+9Y/ .Typ/
-ery Lo1 II $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ :p5 .Typ/ at +:- Operation
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ L 9p5 .Typ/ at :- Operation
H Ideal "or %ingle%upply 5pplications
H GommonMode Input-oltage Range Includes
Negati#e %upply RailF Input Terminals can be %1ung 8$:-
Belo1 Negati#e %upply Rail
H GMO% Output %tage 3ermits %ignal %1ing to Either .or both/ %upply Rails
App243,-476)
H GroundRe"erenced %ingle %upply 5mpli"iers
H 'ast %ampleBold 5mpli"iers
H Long(uration Timers*Monostables
H BighInputImpedance Gomparators .Ideal Inter"ace 1ith (igital GMO%/
H BighInputImpedance Dideband 5mpli"iers
H -oltage 'ollo1ers .e$g$ 'ollo1er "or %ingle%upply (*5
Gon#erter/
H -oltage Regulators .3ermits Gontrol o" Output -oltage
(o1n to 8-/
H 3eak (etectors
H %ingle%upply 'ullDa#e 3recision Recti"iers
H 3hoto(iode %ensor 5mpli"iers
555 -4(./) IC
Internal block diagram The 555 -4(./ IC is an integrated circuit .chip/ used in a #ariety
o" timer, pulse generation and oscillator applications$ The ::: can be used to pro#ide time
delays, as an oscillator, and as a "lip"lop element$ (eri#ati#es pro#ide up to "our timing circuits
in one package$
Introduced in +2?+ by %ignetics, the ::: is still in 1idespread use, thanks to its ease o"
use, lo1 price and good stability, and is no1 made by many companies in the original bipolar
and also in lo1po1er GMO% types$ 5s o" 9884, it 1as estimated that + billion units are
manu"actured e#ery year$ (esign
The IG 1as designed in +2?+ by Bans R$ Gamen!ind under contract to %ignetics, 1hich
1as later acEuired by 3hilips$
(epending on the manu"acturer, the standard ::: package includes 9: transistors, 9
diodes and +: resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 7 pin mini dualinline package . (I3
7 /$-ariants a#ailable include the ::, .a +=pin (I3 combining t1o :::s on one chip/, and the
t1o ::7 Z ::2s .both a +,pin (I3 combining "our slightly modi"ied :::s 1ith (I% Z TBR
connected internally, and TR is "alling edge sensiti#e instead o" le#el sensiti#e/$ There is no ::?$
The NE::: parts 1ere commercial temperature range, 8 XG to R?8 XG, and the %E:::
part number designated the military temperature range, [:: XG to R+9: XG$ These 1ere a#ailable
in both highreliability metal can .T package/ and ine&pensi#e epo&y plastic .- package/
packages$ Thus the "ull part numbers 1ere NE:::-, NE:::T, %E:::-, and %E:::T$ It has been
hypothesi!ed that the ::: got its name "rom the three : k\ resistors used 1ithin,

but Bans
Gamen!ind has stated that the number 1as arbitrary$
Lo1po1er #ersions o" the ::: are also a#ailable, such as the ?::: and GMO% TLG:::$
I=K
The ?::: is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic ::: and the manu"acturer
claims that it usually does not reEuire a 6control6 capacitor and in many cases does not reEuire a
decoupling capacitor on the po1er supply$ %uch a practice should ne#ertheless be a#oided,
because noise produced by the timer or #ariation in po1er supply #oltage might inter"ere 1ith
other parts o" a circuit or in"luence its threshold #oltages$
U),<.
P46)
3inout diagram The connection o" the pins "or a (I3 package is as "ollo1s0
+ GN( Ground, lo1 le#el .8 -/
9 TRIG O;T rises, and inter#al starts, 1hen this input "alls belo1 +* 4 GG$
4 O;T This output is dri#en to R-GG or GN($
= RE%ET 5 timing inter#al may be interrupted by dri#ing this input to GN($
: GTRL 6Gontrol6 access to the internal #oltage di#ider .by de"ault, 9* 4 GG/$
, TBR The inter#al ends 1hen the #oltage at TBR is greater than at GTRL$
? (I% Open collector outputF may discharge a capacitor bet1een inter#als$
7 R, G G 3ositi#e supply #oltage is usually bet1een 4 and +: -$
M7:.)
The ::: has three operating modes0
Monostable mode0 in this mode, the ::: "unctions as a 6oneshot6 pulse generator$
5pplications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce"ree s1itches, touch s1itches,
"reEuency di#ider, capacitance measurement, pulse1idth modulation .3DM/ and so on$
5stable 0 "ree running mode0 the ::: can operate as an oscillator$ ;ses include LE( and
lamp "lashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulationand so on$ %electing a thermistor as timing resistor allo1s the use o" the ::: in a
temperature sensor0 the period o" the output pulse is determined by the temperature$ The use o" a
microprocessor based circuit can then con#ert the pulse period to temperature, lineari!e it and
e#en pro#ide calibration means$
Bistable mode or %chmitt trigger0 the ::: can operate as a "lip"lop, i" the (I% pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used$ ;ses include bounce"ree latched s1itches$
M767)-,;2.
%chematic o" a ::: in monostable mode
The relationships o" the trigger signal, the #oltage on G and the pulse 1idth in
monostable mode In the monostable mode, the ::: timer acts as a 6oneshot6 pulse generator$
The pulse begins 1hen the ::: timer recei#es a signal at the trigger input that "alls belo1 a third
o" the #oltage supply$ The 1idth o" the output pulse is determined by the time constant o" an RG
net1ork, 1hich consists o" a capacitor .G/ and a resistor .R/$ The output pulse ends 1hen the
#oltage on the capacitor eEuals 9*4 o" the supply #oltage$ The output pulse 1idth can be
lengthened or shortened to the need o" the speci"ic application by ad@usting the #alues o" R and
G$
The output pulse 1idth o" time t, 1hich is the time it takes to charge G to 9* 4 o" the supply
#oltage, is gi#en by 1here t is in seconds, R is in ohms and G is in "arads$
Dhile using the timer IG in monostable mode, the main disad#antage is that the time span
bet1een the t1o triggering pulses must be greater than the RG time constant$
B4)-,;2.
In bistable mode, the ::: timer acts as a basic "lip"lop$ The trigger and reset inputs .pins
9 and = respecti#ely on a :::/ are held high #ia 3ull up resistors 1hile the threshold input .pin
,/ is simply grounded$ Thus con"igured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts as a AsetA
and transitions the output pin .pin 4/ to -cc .high state/$ 3ulling the reset input to ground acts as
a AresetA and transitions the output pin to ground .lo1 state/$ No capacitors are reEuired in a
bistable con"iguration$ 3in : .control/ is connected to ground #ia a small#alue capacitor .usually
8$8+ to 8$+ u'/F pin ? .discharge/ is le"t "loating$
A)-,;2.
%tandard ::: astable circuit In astable mode, the ::: timer puts out a continuous stream
o" rectangular pulses ha#ing a speci"ied "reEuency$ Resistor R
+
is connected bet1een -
GG
and
the discharge pin .pin ?/ and another resistor .R
9
/ is connected bet1een the discharge pin .pin
?/, and the trigger .pin 9/ and threshold .pin ,/ pins that share a common node$ Bence the
capacitor is charged through R
+
and R
9
, and discharged only through R
9
, since pin ? has lo1
impedance to ground during output lo1 inter#als o" the cycle, there"ore discharging the
capacitor$
In the astable mode, the "reEuency o" the pulse stream depends on the #alues o" R
+
, R
9
and G0
The high time "rom each pulse is gi#en by0
and the lo1 time "rom each pulse is gi#en by0
1here R
+
and R
9
are the #alues o" the resistors in ohms and G is the #alue o" the capacitor in
"arads$
The po1er capability o" R
+
must be greater than
3articularly 1ith bipolar :::s, lo1 #alues o" R+ must be a#oided so that the output stays
saturated near !ero #olts during discharge, as assumed by the abo#e eEuation$ Other1ise the
output lo1 time 1ill be greater than calculated abo#e$
To achie#e a duty cycle o" less than :8> a diode can be added in parallel 1ith R
9
to1ards the capacitor$ This bypasses R
9
during the high part o" the cycle so that the high inter#al
depends only on R
+
and G$
Sp.34843,-476)
These speci"ications apply to the NE:::$ Other ::: timers can ha#e di""erent
speci"ications depending on the grade .military, medical, etc$/$
%upply #oltage .GG/ =$: to +: -
%upply current .GG L R: -/ 4 to , m5
%upply current .GG L R+: -/ +8 to +: m5
Output current .ma&imum/ 988 m5
Ma&imum 3o1er dissipation ,88 mD
3o1er consumption .minimum operating/ 48 mD]:-, 99: mD]+:-
Operating temperature 8 to ?8 XG
BC5!%:
The BG:=7 is a general purpose silicon N3N BST transistor "ound commonly in
European electronic eEuipmentF the part number is assigned by 3ro Electron, 1hich allo1s many
manu"acturers to o""er electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identi"ication$
The BG:=7 is commonly a#ailable in European ;nion and Gommon1ealth Gountries and is
o"ten the "irst type o" bipolar transistor young hobbyists^ encounter$ The BG:=7 is o"ten "eatured
in circuit diagrams and designs published in Electronics Maga!ines such as 6%ilicon Ghip6 and
6Elektor6$
5s a representati#e o" the large "amily o" bipolar transistors the BG:=7 pro#ides a
6stepping o"" point6 to the use o" more esoteric, higher #oltage, current or "reEuency de#ices "or
beginners$
I" the TO29 package is held in "ront o" oneAs "ace 1ith the "lat side "acing to1ard you
and the leads do1n1ard, .see picture/ the order o" the leads, "rom le"t to right is GOLLEGTOR,
EMMITOR and B5%E
Sp.34843,-476):
The e&act specs o" a gi#en de#ice depend on the manu"acturer$ It is important to check
the datasheet "or the e&act de#ice and brand you are dealing 1ith$ 3hilips and Tele"unken are
t1o manu"acturers o" the BG:=7$
cbo
L 48 -
c
L +88 m5
total
L :8 mD
t
L 488 MB!
GEDEC ,6: GIA )-,6:,/:)
The SE(EG numbered N3N 9N428= and 3N3 9N428, possess #ery similar electrical
characteristics to the BG:=7 and BG::7 respecti#ely but the pin outs are re#ersed$ I" the TO29
package "or these de#ices is held in "ront o" oneAs "ace 1ith the "lat side "acing to1ard you and
the leads do1n1ard, .see picture/ the order o" the leads, "rom le"t to right is emitter, base,
collector$
The Electronic Industries 5ssociation o" Sapan .EI5S/ assigns the 9%G pre"i& to N3N transistors
"or high "reEuency use$ The N3N 9%G+7+: and 3N3 9%5+8+: are usually the most the common
general purpose de#ices 1hich are encountered and also possess characteristics 1hich are similar
to the BG:=7 and BG::7$ I" the TO29 package "or these de#ices is held in "ront o" oneAs "ace
1ith the "lat side "acing to1ard you and the leads do1n1ard, .see picture/ the order o" the leads,
"rom le"t to right is emitter, collector, and base$
U). 46 '7;;04)- 34/394-):
Generally all o" the abo#e de#ices can be used interchangeably in lo1 po1ered hobby
electronic circuits operating at "reEuencies op to 988 MB! or so$ 6Elektor6 maga!ine has coined
the term 6(;% T;3 T;N6, meaning 6(iode ;ni#ersal, %ilicon6, 6Transistor uni#ersal 3$N$3$6
and 6Transistor ;ni#ersal N$3$N$6, 1here the 6(;%6 means something like a +N=+=7 or +N2+=,
t1o #ery commonly encountered small signal silicon diodes, the 6T;36 re"erring to the BG::7,
9N428, or 9%5+8+: and the 6T;N6 re"erring to the BG:=7, 9N428= or 9%G+7+:$ This allo1ed
their maga!ine to be sold in di""erent geographical realms and circuit constructors need only be
a1are o" the pinout con"igurations o" the de#ices a#ailable in their particular realm$ In more
demanding applications, such as po1er con#ersion or high "reEuency eEuipment, de#ices must
be more care"ully chosen depending upon the task and position in the circuit$
Related transistors:
The BG+=8 and BG+,8 are complimentary de#ices 1hich are similar to the BG:=7 and
BG::7 but possess a collector current o" +5 and a -c
ebo
o" 78#$ These are similar to the North
5merican 9N99+2 and 9N928,$
The BG,42 and BG,=8 are similar to the abo#e t1o de#ices but possess a greater -cebo o" +88#$
The pin outs o" these de#ices di""er "rom most o" the other 6BG6 "amily 1ith the collector lead in
the middle "or heat dissipation$ These de#ices are similar to the North 5merican 9N9999 ans
9N928?$
In electronics, a )?4-3' is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or di#erting it "rom one conductor to another$
I+KI9K
The most "amiliar "orm o" s1itch is a manually operated electromechanical de#ice 1ith
one or more sets o" electrical contacts, 1hich are connected to e&ternal circuits$ Each set o"
contacts can be in one o" t1o states0 either 6closed6 meaning the contacts are touching and
electricity can "lo1 bet1een them, or 6open6, meaning the contacts are separated and the s1itch
is nonconducting$ The mechanism actuating the transition bet1een these t1o states .open or
closed/ can be either a 6toggle6 ."lip s1itch "or continuous 6on6 or 6o""6/ or 6momentary6 .push
"or 6on6 or push"or 6o""6/ type$
SWITCH
5 s1itch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as
a computer keyboard button, or to control po1er "lo1 in a circuit, such as a light s1itch$
5utomatically operated s1itches can be used to control the motions o" machines, "or e&ample, to
indicate that a garage door has reached its "ull open position or that a machine tool is in a
position to accept another 1orkpiece$ %1itches may be operated by process #ariables such as
pressure, temperature, "lo1, current, #oltage, and "orce, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system$ 'or e&ample, a thermostat is a temperatureoperated s1itch used
to control a heating process$ 5 s1itch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a
relay$ Large s1itches may be remotely operated by a motor dri#e mechanism$ %ome s1itches are
used to isolate electric po1er "rom a system, pro#iding a #isible point o" isolation that can be
padlocked i" necessary to pre#ent accidental operation o" a machine during maintenance, or to
pre#ent electric shock$
I6 34/394- -'.7/0
In electronics engineering, an ideal s1itch describes a s1itch that0
has no current limit during its ON state
has in"inite resistance during its O'' state
has no #oltage drop across the s1itch during its ON state
has no #oltage limit during its O'' state
has !ero rise time and "all time during state changes
s1itches 1ithout 6bouncing6 bet1een on and o"" positions
3ractical s1itches "all short o" this ideal, and ha#e resistance, limits on the current and
#oltage they can handle, "inite s1itching time, etc$ The ideal s1itch is o"ten used in circuit
analysis as it greatly simpli"ies the system o" eEuations to be sol#ed, ho1e#er this can lead to a
less accurate solution$
C76-,3-)
5 toggle s1itch in the 6on6 position$
In the simplest case, a s1itch has t1o conducti#e pieces, o"ten metal, called contacts,
connected to an e&ternal circuit, that touch to complete .make/ the circuit, and separate to open
.break/ the circuit$ The contact material is chosen "or its resistance to corrosion, because most
metals "orm insulating o&ides that 1ould pre#ent the s1itch "rom 1orking$ Gontact materials are
also chosen on the basis o" electrical conducti#ity, hardness .resistance to abrasi#e 1ear/,
mechanical strength, lo1 cost and lo1 to&icity$
I4K
%ometimes the contacts are plated 1ith noble metals$ They may be designed to 1ipe
against each other to clean o"" any contamination$ Nonmetallic conductors, such as conducti#e
plastic, are sometimes used$ In order to pre#ent the "ormation o" insulating o&ides, a minimum
1etting current may be speci"ied "or a gi#en s1itch design$
Sp.34,2 -0p.)
%1itches can be designed to respond to any type o" mechanical stimulus0 "or e&ample,
#ibration .the trembler switch/, tilt, air pressure, "luid le#el .the float switch/, the turning o" a key
.!ey switch/, linear or rotary mo#ement .the limit switch or microswitch/, or presence o" a
magnetic "ield .the reed switch/$
F77-)?4-3'
5 "oots1itch is a rugged s1itch 1hich is operated by "oot pressure$ 5n e&ample o" use is
"or the control o" an electric se1ing machine$ The "oot control o" an electric guitar is also a
s1itch$
R.>./)46< )?4-3'
5 (3(T s1itch has si& connections, but since polarity re#ersal is a #ery common usage
o" (3(T s1itches, some #ariations o" the (3(T s1itch are internally 1ired speci"ically "or
polarity re#ersal$ These crosso#er s1itches only ha#e "our terminals rather than si&$ T1o o" the
terminals are inputs and t1o are outputs$ Dhen connected to a battery or other (G source, the =
1ay s1itch selects "rom either normal or re#ersed polarity$ %uch s1itches can also be used as
intermediate s1itches in a multi1ay s1itching system "or control o" lamps by more than t1o
s1itches$
L4<'- )?4-3'.)
In building 1iring, light s1itches are installed at con#enient locations to control lighting
and occasionally other circuits$ By use o" multiplepole s1itches, control o" a lamp can be
obtained "rom t1o or more places, such as the ends o" a corridor or stair1ell$
Three pushbutton s1itches .Tactile %1itches/$ Ma@or scale is inches$
P4.=7 B9==./:
F2046< L.,: B9==./) 11
'lying Lead Bu!!ers "or e&ternal mounting, ideal "or robots and alarm systems$ 5#ailable
in both 5G and (G types, 1ith sound output up to ++8dB$
3GB MO;NT
PCB M796- B9==./)
Miniature, Gompact 3GB Mount Bu!!ers in 5G and (G type, ideal "or use 1ith
Microcontrollers and Gontrol %ystems$ Lo1 current consumption and loud sound output$
ELECTROMECHANICAL
E2.3-/7(.3',643,2 B9==./)
Basic Electromechanical Bu!!er 1ith single sound output and (G operating -oltage$ Easy to use
and ideal "or 1arning indication$


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