THE

THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

 THE

THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

BY

SURENDRAMOHAN GANGULI, D.Se.

LECTURPlR IN HIGHER GEOMETRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA,
PRElIICHAND ROYCHAND SCHOLAR, MEMBER OF THE
CALCUTTA IUTHEMATICAL SOCIETY, AUTHOR OF
ANALYTICAL GJCO~E'l'R;Y" OF HYPERSPACB:S,
,ETC., ETC, ,

VOLUME I

SECOND EDITION
(Tborougb/y rev/sed slid ellisF'led)

PUBLISHED BY THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
1925
~ll ,ig1tta reaerveil
 ,-t~~
PAINTED BY BiuPBN»&'LAL BANEBJSE

AT ft. UNI"BSITY P•• BB

 In
Memory of

SIR ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE

••
" PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The first edition of the present volume, published

'ome years back under the title " Lectures on the Theory
of Plane Curves," was designed to meet the syllabus
prescribed by the University of Calcutta forthe Master's
Degree, and intended as an introductory course suitable
for students of higher geometry, scarcely assuming any
further knowledge of higher analysis on the part of the
reader than is to be found in most of the ordinary text
books on Calculus and Plane Analytical Geometry. Since
then it has been suggested that the book should be so
revised and enlarged as to include materials which would
not only be of use to the students for the Master's course,
but also encourage independent thinking in students of
higher studies engaged in research work. In the prepara-
tion of the second edition, therefore, special care has
been taken to incorporate recent researches as far as
possible and to indicate references to original sources as far
as practicable. In fact, almost all the chapters have
been re-written and the articles re-numbered, while five
additional sections-Chapters VII, X, XI, XII, XIII-have
been inserted and a large number of examples given
illustrating the subject-matter and serving as exercises for
students. The volume contains an exposition of the general
theory of plane algebraic curves in its various aspects
with applications to conics, cubics, quarties, etc.
In writing on Higher Geometry, it is always a
problem to determine what matters to exclude, and in
dealing with a subject, so wide in its scope, which
attracted so many workers and has been so much
developed in recent years, specially by the Italian
viii Pltll:l'AOll:

Geometers, it has not been possible to do full justice to all

the importa.nt topics; in consequence, some have received
fuller attention, while others of equal or greater importance
have been little noticed or even omitted altogether. It
is hoped, however, that the book will afford some
scope for independent thinking and research, when the
student enters upon a systematic study of plane curv•.
In the preparation of the volume, constant recourse
has been had to the classical works of Salmon, Clebscb,
Cayley, Cremona, the works of Basset, Teixeira, Scott,
Wieleitner, Loria and the papers of Zeutben, Brill
and Nother, Castelnuovo and others, published in the
.arious Journals and Periodicals. Prof. Pascal's .R~.
tori'Unt der ltolteren Geometrie was of great use in supplying
a number of important references. Since the publication
of the first edition, Prof. Hilton has published his
"Plane Algebraic Cnrves," which has also been studied
with much advantage. My obligations to these authors,
greater than I can confess, are gratefully acknowledged,
and it is impossible to record in detail my obligation ~ the
great inspiring work of Salmon-Higher Plane Curves.
I had no access to the recent work of Enriques,-Lezioni
mlta teoria geometrica deUe equazioni e deUe Junzioni
algelJriclle-2 YoIs, 80 highly spoken of, and it is likely
that the present volume could have been made much more
suggestive, had I had the opportunity of consulting
this book.
In concluding this preface, I must take the opportunity
of recording my indebtedness to Prof. J. L. Coolidge
of Harvard for his very valuable suggestions for the
improvement of the work, and to Mr. A. C. Bose, Controller
of Examinations in the University of Calcutta, for his
extreme kindness in giving valuable hints and suggestions.
 puP.•..
C. IX

. My best thanks are also due to my former pupil Mr. L.

Murthi, M.A., who made a number of important sugges-
tions and pointed out several printing and other errors in
the preparation of the edition.
With a keen sense of sorrow and gratitude, I record my
indebtedness to the late lamented Sir Asutosh Mookerjee
former Vice-Chancellor and President of the Post-graduate
Councils in the University of Calcutta, whose untimely
death has been deeply felt by all Indian workers in the
field of mathematics, pure or applied. It was at his
suggestion that I was induced, difficult as the task was,
to revise the original lecture notes for the Press, and it
was he who helped and encouraged me to bring out a.
second and revised edition) but it is a matter of profound
regret that he was not spared to see its completion. As
an humble token of gratitude, this volume is dedicated
to his revered memory.

UNIVERSITY OP CALCUTTA,
Marek, 1925.
S, M. G.
'III
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I

INTllODUCTION
P.lH
Co-ordinates 1
The Special Line at Infinity
Cartesian as a. Special System of Hcmcgeneena
... 2

Co-ordinates
Tangential or Line Co-ordinates
Rela.tion between the Co-ordinates of a, Line and
those of a Point on it ... 4r
Tangential Equation 6
The Circular Points at Infinity 7
The Co-ordinates of the circular points at infinity t
Properties of the Circular Points at Infinity 10
Properties of the Line at Infinity 11
Theory of Projection 11
Analytical aspect of Projection 18
Figures in Perspective 14-
Analytical Treatment of Plane Perspeetive 15
Theory of Inversion 17
Reciprocation 19

CHAPTER II

PLANE ALGEBRAIC CURVES

Section I-General Properties

Notion of algebraie Curves 21

Representation of Functions 12
 1r
xii CONTlINT8

The general equation of a curve of the nth

degree ... ..••.. 2S
Number of points determining a curve of
order n 24
Degenerate and Non-degenerate Curves 25
Intersections of Curves 26
Curves through !n(n+8)-1 points !8
Chasles' Theorem on the intersections of two
cubics 31
:OergQl',lJ)e'sTheorem on the intersections of two
curves 32
Cayley's Theorem 84

.!
Section II-Theory if Reliduation
" .

.Theory of Residuation 86
Principles of Residuation explained 37
Addition Theorem on Residuation 38
Subtraction Theorem 39
Multiplication Theorem ... 40
Brill-Noether's Residual Theorem 43
Extension of the Residual Theorem 44

CHAPTER III

SINGULAR POINTS ON CUR VIIS

Singular Points on Curves 47

Points of Inflexion 49
Point of Undulation 50
Multiple Points 51
 CONTlINTI xiii

PAOB
Investigation in Trilinear Co-ordinates 52
Multiple point of order Ie ••. 53
·Conditions for a Double Point 54
Species of Double Points ... 56
Investigation of the Species of Double Points 57
Intersection of Curves at Singular Points 60
Limit to the number of double points ... 62
Deficiency of a curve 63
U nieursal Curves 65
Complex Singularities 70
·Singular Points at Infinity 71
,Multiple Tangents 73
·Reciprocal Singularities 74

CHAPTER IV

THEORY OJ' POLES .AND POLARS

Theory of Poles and Polars 77

Polar Curves defined 78
Mixed Polars... 83
·Equation of the tangents drawn from any point
to the curve 84
Geometrical interpretation of the equation of Polar
Curves .. 86
Centre of a Curve 88
A Theorem of Mac La.urin... 91
Polar Curves of the Origin 91
Polar line of a point 95
Poles of a. right line 98
Polar Curve of a. point on the curve 99
The class of a curve 101
 l
t

xiv

P.lGII:

The first~ polar of any point passes through the

double points 103
Multiple points on polar cunes 104,

CHAPTER V

COVUUNT CUXVU-TBl!: HESSIAN, TaB SUUllmUN

AND THE CA TL~TAN

Covariant Curves 107

The Hessian defined 108
The Steinerian 11S
The class of the Steinerian 116
A Theorem 120
The Cayleyan 121
The class of the Cayleyan 121
The Hessian passes through the double points 123
Multiple points on the Hessia.n U7
Harmonic Polar of a point of inflexion 128
Number of points of inflexion on an n-ic 121
Discrimination of a double point from a point of
inflexion ... 180
A Theorem on the inflexions of the first polars 181
Points of inflexion on a curve with singular
points 188

CHAPTER VI

POUR RECIPROCAL AND OTHER DERIVED CURVES

Polar Reciprocal Curves defined 185

Polar Reciprocal in homogeneous co-ordinates 137
•...

CONTBKT8

PA.C.
Tugential equation derived from point-equation 138
point-equation derived from tangential equation 140
polar Reciprocal by the Principle of Dua.Iity 142
Singularities on reciprocal curves US
Degree of the polar reciprocal curve 144
EDvelopes (one parameter) 145
Envelopes (two or more parameters) 148
Evolutes 153
Normal of the evolute 154
Tangential equation of the evolute 155
Caustics defined 156
Equation of katacaustic 157
Caustic by reflexion of a circle 158
Tangential equation of the Caustic 160
Intersections of the Caustic with the reflecting
circle 162
Caustic by refraction of a straight line 163
Secondary caustics 165
Pedal Curves ... 167
The Cartesian Equation of the Pedal 168
Inverse Curves 170
Parallel Curves 171
Isoptio Loci ... 173
Orthoptic Loci 115
Equation of the Orthoptic locus when the polar
equation of a curve is given 179

CHAPTER VII

CHARACTERISTICS OF CUltVES

Plucker's Equations un
Pliick~rian cbaracteristics defined 181
 XVl CONT:&NT8

P.lGJ:

The Bitaogential Curve 183

Deductions from Plucker's Formulae 185
The point and line deficiencies 187
Curves with the same deficiency 188
The Characteristics of the Hessian 191
The Characteristics of the Steinerian 192
The Characteristics of the Cayleyan 193
The Characteristics of the Inverse Curve 193
The Characteristics of the Pedal 195
The Characteristics of the Evolute 197
The Characteristics of the Parallel Curves 201
'I'he Characteristics of the orthoptic locus 202
The Characteristics of an isoptie locus 207
Other Derived Curves 207

CHAPTER VIII'

FOCI OJ' CURVES

Plucker's conception of foci 209

Foci of curves with siogularities 211
The co-ordinates of the foci 214
Foci in tangential equation 216
Equation of confocal curves 216
Determination of singular foci 217
A new theory of foci 220
Foci of Inverse Curves 223
Reciprocal with respect to a focus 224
Foci. of Circular Curves !25
 CONTENTS. xvii

CHAPTER IX

TRACING OF CURVES

Section I-Approzimate Forms of Curves

PAGE
Ana.lytical Triangle 227
Practical Method 229
Properties of the analytical triangle 229
Use of the analytical triangle in three variables 232
Newton's method of approximation 234
Application of Newton's method in three variables 236
Infinite branches 236
Branches with higher singularities 237
Determination of the asymptotes 239
Special Methods 240
Asymptotic Curves 242
Parabolic branches 243
Circular Asymptotes 244

Section II-Tracing of Curves

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates 245
Curve Tracing in homogeneous Co-ordinates 245

CHAPTER X

RATIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Rational and birational Transformations 2~9

Linear Transformation 250
Collineation 251
Collineation treated geometrically 252
Dualistic TraDsformation '" 253
xviii

PAGE

Pole and Polar conics 256

Quadric Inversion 257
Analytical treatment 258
Quadric Inversion as rational transformation 259
The Inverse of special points 261
The Inverse of a straight line 261
Proper ,Inverse 26~
Inverse of the line at infinity 263
Inversion of special points on a curve 263
Effeets of inversion on singularities !65
EJIeets of inversion on a curve 266
Application of Quadric Inversion .2£7
Circular Inversion 268
Special Quadric Transformations 2..69
Nether's Transformation 271
Cremona conditions 272
Cremona transformation reduced to a series of
Quadric Inversions 274
Deficiency unaltered by Cremona Transformation 275
Riemann Transformation ... 276
Reduction of the order of transformed curve 279
Reduction of a curve with multiple points 2.81
Adjoint Curves 283
Intersections of a curve with its Adjoint 284
Intersections with a pencil of Adjoints ... 284
Transformation by Adjointa 285

CHAPTER XI

UNICURSAl CURVES

Parametric representation 281

Clebseh Method 288
 COlfTBNTS XIX

PAGE

The order of the unieursal curve 289

The class of the unieursal curve 290
Parametric representation in line co-ordinates 290
Singular Points 292
Inflexions 294
Bitangents of unieursal curves 295
Special class of Rational Curves ~98
The circuit of a. unicursal curve 298
Unipartite Curves not necessarily unicursal 299
Curves with unit deficiency 299
Co-ordinates in terms of elliptic functions 300
Simplification by Weierstrass's notation 302
The Converse Theorem 304

CHAPTER XII

THEORY OF CORRESPONDENCE

Correspondence of points on a curve 307

Analytical discussion 309
United Points ... 310
Chasles' Correspondence Theorem 312
Correspondence Index 313
Common elements of two correspondences 314
Cayley-Brill's Correspondence FormnIa 317
Applications of the Formula 319

CHAPTER XIII

HIGHER SINGULARITIES ON CURVES

Hietorical 821
Species of cusps 822
xx CONTENTS

P~GE
Double Cusps ... 323
Classification of triple points 324
Equivalent singularities 325
Analysis of higher singularities 326
Successive Transformations 328
Practical Applications 329
Linear and Superlinear Branches 331
Application of the method of expansions 334
Practical Method 335
Expansion of a Function '" 336
Discriminantal Index 337
Inter.sections of two curves at a singular point 339
Expansion in line co-ordinates 343
Polar reciprocal of a superlinear branch 347
Cuspidal Index 348
Extension of Plucker's Formulae 350
Curves of closest contact: Osculating curves 352
Conics with four-pointie contact 354
Transon's Theory of Aberrancy 355
Angle of aberrancy 356
Aberrancy Curve 358

CHAPTER XIV

SYSTEMS OF CURVES

A pencil of n-U8 361

Points having the same polar line with respect to
two curves 362
Curves which touch a given curve 363
Particular cases 364
Tact-Invariant of two curves 364
;'.

CONTENTS :0;1

Generation of a curve 365

The Jacobian of three curves a66
Net of curves 368
The Jacobia.n (or Hessia.n) of a net of curves 368
Net of first Polars 369
Invaria.nts and Covariants of two ternary forms 370
Characteristics of a system of curves 372
Relation between the characteristics 373
The characteristics of conditions 375

Index 379