Human Capital in a Knowledge

Economy
The Twelfth Scientific Annual International
Conference for Business

2013 ( ) 25 - 22

ISSN : 2231-8275
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VIII

IX

Malaysia

Universiti Tenaga
Nasional
(UNITEN)

11

Jordan

Al-Zaytoonah
University of
Jordan

22

Jordan

Petra University

28

Malaysia

40

Malaysia

50

Jordan

64

Jordan

69

Saudi
Arabia

77

Jordan

Universiti Tenaga
Nasional
(UNITEN)
Tenaga National
University
Middle East
University
Al-Zaytoonah
University of
Jordan
King Fahd
University of
Petroleum and
Minerals
Middle East
University
Al-Zaytoonah
University of
Jordan

87

Jordan

Al-Zaytoonah
University of
Jordan

94

Jordan

Al-Zaytoonah
University of
Jordan

99

Egypt

The British
University

106

Palestine

116

Egypt

Professor Dr.
Zainal Ariffin
Ahmad
Dr. Saad G.
Yaseen
Dr.Muna F. AlSammaraie
Hala Abdulqader
Sabri
Hussain Ali
Bekhet
Ali Matar
Mahmoud Khalid
Almsafir
Dr. Abdel-Aziz
Ahmad Sharabati
Prof. Dr. AbdulNaser Ibrahim
Nour

Human Capital Development in Malaysia: Challenges of

Innovation-led High Income Economy

.1

Business Intelligence Application: A New Measure of

Multi Spectral Medical Images Enhancement

.2

Towards a Systematic Approach for Managing Human

Capital in Arab Countries:The Leadership and Culture
Challenge
The Impact of Global Financial Crisis on the Economic
Growth and Capital Market Returns: Evidence from
Jordan
The Relationship Between Public Bus Transportation
Service and Customer Satisfaction

.3
.4
.5

Human Capital Indicators within Middle East University

.6

Saeb Farhan Al
Ganideh

Capitalizing on consumer ethnocentrism influence: What

local marketing managers need to know and to do?

.7

Dr. Mourad
Mansour

Impact of HR Practices on Firm Performance

.8

Lecturer Dhia
Kassim
Lecturer Ahmed
Shuhaiber

Factors Affecting Employees Usage of B2E Portals - An

Empirical Case Study

.9

Al-hroot,
Abdelhafeez. H
Al-hroot, Hadeel.
A
Dr. Qeethara AlShayea
Dr. Muna AlSamarae

Talent Management in the Organization

.10

Implementation of National Broadband Network in

Various Sectors in Jordan

.11

Dr.Eman Elish
Dr. Hany Elshamy

Absorptive Capacity of Human Capital and International

R&D Spillover
on Labour Productivity in Egypt

.12

Al-Quds
University

Mrs. Nermeen
Sayyad

Talent management: Strategic Workforce Planning

.13

The British
University in
Egypt (BUE)

Dr. Karim Badr

El-Din Attia
Hassanien

126

Qatar Gov.

. .

The Three Major Aspects of the Economic Risks of

Human Capital Accumulation and Efficiency: Poverty,
Poor Environmental Conditions, & the Filtration from
Education

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XII

Human Capital Development in Malaysia:

Challenges of Innovation-led High Income
Economy
Professor Dr. Zainal Ariffin Ahmad
Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
Malaysia

Abstract:
This keynote paper highlights the experiences of capacity building and human capital development
in order to make Malaysia a developed nation by 2020. Besides the government transformational
initiatives and development plans, I will discuss how innovation is driving the SMEs and the
challenges of tripartite (G-I-A government-industry-academia) strategies in pushing for innovationled high income economy and social wellbeing. The role of Malaysian universities in capacity
building and human capital development through R&D and innovation are also discussed.

Introduction
Since Independence in 1957, Malaysia has gone through several economic eras from the Agricultural era in
1960s (labour-driven), Industrial Era in 1970s (labour-driven), Technology Era in 1980s (investment-driven),
Knowledge Era in 1990s (productivity-driven), and Innovation Era 2000s (knowledge-driven). The Malaysian
economy was led by several drivers, from agricultural-based economy led by government in the 1960s to the
knowledge-based economy with innovation and human capital-driven in 2000s led by private enterprises
(Tay, 2013). This paper presents Malaysias experiences in capacity building and human capital development
in her journey to become a developed nation by 2020. Starting with a review of the National Innovation
Model and government and economic transformation initiatives, I will discuss how innovation and human
capital are driving the K-economy and the challenges of tripartite (G-I-A government-industry-academia)
initiatives in strategizing the innovation-led high income economy and social wellbeing. I will also share the
lessons learnt and how the Malaysian universities are involved in capacity building and human capital
development through R&D and innovation and inculcating a culture of excellence.
From P-economy to K-economy
As shown in Figure 1, the Malaysian economy was an agriculture-based economy after independence in 1957
and embarked on industrialization with the opening of the free-trade zones. The country became a resourceled economy in the 1980s to mid-1990s with the government focusing on developing infrastructure,
encouraging industrialization via collateralized risk-free capital and training and importation of labour. The
Malaysian economy made the transition into knowledge based or K-economy in the early 2000 with three
industries namely manufacturing, trading/hotels/restaurant services and finance/insurance/real estate/business
services being the largest contributors to the Malaysian GDP in 2000 (Nordin, 2001). In 2000, manufacturing
contributions to GDP was 67.3% and services was 35.5% whereas in 2011, services account for 57.3% and
manufacturing was only 27.6% (Economic Report, 2011).

Figure 1. The National Innovation Model (2007)

K-economy in Malaysia is defined as the generation and exploitation to create value in the economy (Bank
Negara Malaysia Annual Report, 1999:63). Bank Negara Malaysia makes three distinctions of the traditional
resource- or production-based P-economy and the knowledge or K-economy:

Knowledge as the driver of economic growth - knowledge can increase the production capacity of
other factors of production and transform them into new products and processes.

K-economy encompasses both qualitative and quantitative changes that transform the structure, mode
and the way the economy operates focusing on exploitation of intellectual capital, information advantage,
learning culture and agile organisations.


Firms in K-economy focus on investments in tangibles such as human capital, R&D capacity,
customers database, brand names and reputation. As creators of knowledge-based assets, k-firms organize
and create intellectual assets, exploit networks and gain access to other clusters of knowledge assets that
belong to their suppliers and customers.
Bank Negara Malaysia further distinguishes the characteristics of P- and K-economy as follows (Manshor,
2001):
Table 1

Comparison between P-economy and K-economy

P-economy
K-economy
Manufacturing, agricultural, construction,
Merging and blurring of sectors and
Economic sectors
mining and services sectors.
emergence of K-based sectors.
Land, labour, capital, and decreasing
Intellectual capital, knowledge and
Factors of
returns to scale.
increasing return to scale.
production
Networking and horizontal
Organisational
Hierarchical organisations.
organisations.
structure
Stable and longer life cycle.
Less stable and shorter life cycle.
Products
Output is mass-produced.
Customized with k-contents.
Traded in market space through
Output and
Traded in the market place.
information-based channels.
resources
Low cost of labour and abundance of raw
Intellectual capital and exploitation of
Competitive
materials.
knowledge.
advantage
Production work.
k-work and growth of e-commerce.
Based on
Source: Bank Negara Malaysia Annual Report (1999)
Set with the Vision 2020 to become a developed nation, Malaysia embarked on the Government
Transformation Programme (GTP 2009-2020) to transform the civil service and government structure through
seven National Key Results Areas (NKRA). The GTP dovetails with the Economic Transformation
Programme (ETP) to translate government transformation initiatives for long term structural changes in the
economy and ensuring sustainability of public finances during the 10th Malaysia Plan. A total of 52 private
finance initiatives (PFI) were launched and various private sector projects under the National Key Economic
Area (NKEA) were implemented. Both the 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) and the New Economic Model
(NEM) stress on human capital development and improvements in innovation capacity. The Economic
Transformation Programme Annual Report 2012 stated that Malaysias private investment tripled to a 22%
growth in 2012 compared to 12.2% in 2011 and average of 6.7% between 2000 and 2010 (ETP Annual
Report, 2012). A total of 149 out of 152 Entry Point Projects (EPP) have been announced with a total of
committed investment of RM211.34 (USD 70.45) billion. Therefore, Malaysia potentially can achieve high
income economy status well before the targeted USD 15,000 in 2020 as the countrys per capital Gross
National Income (GNI) has risen 48% in two years from USD 6,700 in 2009 to USD 9,970 in 2012 (The Star,
20th March 2013).
With the theme Transformation towards a Developed and High-Income Nation, the 2011 Malaysian budget
was tabled by the Prime Minister guided by four strategies, namely reinvigorating private investment,
intensifying human capital, enhancing the quality of life and strengthening public sector delivery (Star Special
16 October, 2010). The human capital development strategy focused on the education system to provide
strong foundation for literacy and numeracy skills as well as instill the quest for knowledge and selfimprovement. To develop human capital, the government is set on improving access to and quality of
education via strengthening and improving the curricula from early education programmes right up to primary
and secondary education. Recently, Prime Minister Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak unveiled the Government
Transformational Programme phase two GTP 2.0 (2013-2015) which will broaden the reforms to complete the
transformation of the civil service (GTP Annual Report, 2012). However, Malaysia is still faced with
numerous challenges such as the need to address the shortage of human capital, low productivity and
innovation and simplify bureaucratic procedures besides increase level of private investment in the Keconomy.
Knowledge-based economy is both innovation and human capital driven. To be innovation-driven, two
knowledge-based critical success factors are technology-driven and market-driven innovations for wealth
creation, employment creation and societal well-being. Malaysia strives to be an innovation-led economy in
preparation to be a developed country in 2020 and beyond to 2057. Malaysia adopts the balanced approach for
Characteristics

market-driven and technology-driven innovations in targeting identified markets and emerging markets to
capitalize on strategic market positioning and niches. Specifically, market-driven innovation will be
aggressively pursued to capture short-to-medium term (3 to 5 years) opportunities for value creation through
acquisition of technology and managing risk capital. On the other hand, for technology-driven innovation, the
government will continue to actively support and facilitate technology-driven innovation for medium-to-long
term (10-15 years) benefits through funding research and technology via grants as outlined in the National
Higher Education Strategic Plan (NHESP) as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The Balanced Approach Market and Technology Driven Innovation Adopted by Malaysia
Innovation and Human Capital Development in Malaysia
Like many other countries, Malaysia developed her own National Innovation Model in 2007 and has
embarked on various initiatives in capacity building and human capital development through R&D and
innovation. Spearheaded by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Technology, these efforts involved
various stakeholders at many levels comprising the ministries, universities, community, schools and
grassroots. The National Innovation Model was developed to fulfill the nations mission:
To move the economy up the value chain
To raise the countrys capacity for knowledge, creativity and innovations and nurture first class mentality
To address persistent socio-economic inequalities constructively and productively
To improve the standard and sustainability of our quality of life
To strengthen the institutional implementation capacity of the country.
In unveiling the National Innovation Model, the National Innovation Council meeting on 30th November
2007 proposed nine recommendations as summarized below:
1 Innovation-led economy driven by domestic private enterprise
2 Market driven innovation short-to-medium opportunities, Technology-driven innovation for
medium-to-long term benefits
3 Government research in basic science (supply side) and Private sector drives market-driven
innovation (demand side)
4 Technology
a) Technology Acquisition,
b) Technology Development,
c) IP Patents
5 Funding Private risk capital CAPITALrisk
6 Market a) Take to market activities (global)
b) expand existing services
c) Buy Malaysia First procurement policy
7 SMEs/Entrepreneurs
a) Fiscal incentives
b) Launch Fast-Track Programme for I-SMEs

c) Provide I-SMEs with access to research for technology

8 Innovative Human Capital
a) Entrepreneurship education
b) Portfolio of incentives
c) New programs with university/industry
9 Institution administrative infrastructure, rule of law, cross-ministry/ agency consultation.
Developing Innovative Human Capital
Human capital, in particular entrepreneurship, is the other driving force of the K-economy where it permeates
both the market-driven and technology-driven innovation approaches. According to Manshor (2001), two
elements of the K-economy are knowledge and information. However, in order to facilitate economic growth
and development, intelligence and generation of ideas into innovations are required, thus the need for human
capital known as knowledge-workers or k-workers. In the pioneering book Malaysia and the K-economy
edited by Abdullai (2001), several authors highlighted the importance for requisite human resources
(knowledge-workers) to power Malaysias efforts of moving towards knowledge-based or k-economy and the
challenges faced to produce such workers. One such challenge is improving higher education to develop the kworkers. As shown in the Malaysian Dynamic Innovation Framework (Figure 3), human input plays an
important as innovative resources to generate knowledge through programs in SMEs and MNCs.
Human capital in K-economy or k-workers can be referred to as a cadre of workers whose work primarily
require the use of mental power rather than muscle power (Zidle, 1998). Ahmad, Abdulai and Cheng (2001)
characterized k-workers as having a strong formal education, practice learning how to learn, continuous or
lifelong learning, expertise or specialist and ability to work in a team. Manshor (2001) further state that kworkers should have strong analytical skills, be technologically savvy, possess a high passion for innovations,
versatile and autonomous yet collaborative. However, for Malaysia, serious gaps exist in critical skills and
expertise reflecting rising demand for quality human capital and a shortage of quality supply, partly due to
increasing talent outflow.

Innovation
Resources
Conditions
Human Input

Infrastructure

Induce
further
innovation

Program

Outcomes

Locus

Knowledge
-intangible assets
-improves
institutional
system

SME
MNC

Material

Networking

Public to private transfer

Cluster role model as an Institutional
System
Figure 3. Dynamic Innovation Framework
Human Capital Development in Malaysia
Various initiatives have been undertaken by the Malaysian government to develop innovative human capital.
Since her independence in 1957, Malaysia has always focused on human resource development in the 5-year
development plans up to the 6th Malaysia Plan (1991-1995) when Malaysias P-economy was labour-driven.
Human resources were developed through training and apprenticeship via the enactment of the Human
Resource Development Act in 1992 where it became compulsory for all employers with 50 or more
employees to contribute to the Human Resource Development Fund (HRDF). New investors who are

registered with the HRDF are eligible to claim for reimbursement for sending apprentices for on-the-job
training or to industrial technology institutes for training. The National Apprenticeship Scheme was launched
to encourage private companies to sponsor apprentices.
However, in line with the shift to K-economy, starting with the 7th Malaysian Plan (1996-2000), human
resource development was focused on developing skilled manpower and to support Malaysias restructuring
efforts into k-economy with capital-intensive and knowledge-based industries. The strategic thrust during this
period included increasing the supply of skilled manpower to support the needs of knowledge-based and
capital-intensive industries; improving accessibility to education and training to enhance income and quality
of life; reducing dependence on foreign workers as industries shift towards greater automation and laboursaving technologies in production processes, and encouraging self-employment through entrepreneurship,
management and finance. The transition from human resource development in the 8 th Malaysia Plan (20012005) to human capital development in the 9th (2006-2010) and 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) saw an
obvious difference in investment as well as the focus on the education system to provide strong foundation for
developing human capital via improving the access to and quality of education, strengthening and improving
the curricula for early, primary and secondary education level.
It is noteworthy that Malaysias experience is similar to the experience of Koreas Miracle of the Han River
in terms of harnessing the power of education in engendering positive changes. Education nurture talents, and
science is the future that those talents open up as espoused by the Korean President Lee Myung-bak
Education creates talents, and talents create the future. To achieve economic and political success, Korea
became a powerhouse of talents and prepared human capital through education and used scientific and
technological break-through to drive economic growth (Lee, 2012). For Malaysia, four key initiatives for
human capital development under GTP 1.0 (2009-2012) were to improve access to quality early childhood
education, Literacy and Numeracy Screening Programme (LINUS), implementing high-performing schools
and school improvement programmes, and implementing new deals for principals and headmasters. These
initiatives were aimed to immediately arrest the decline in student outcomes (education NKRA) and to
establish good foundation for future reform within the Malaysian education sector (The Star, 20 th March
2013). This foundation is critical for reforming higher education in order to produce the requisite human
capital.
Challenges of Tripartite Innovation Initiatives
As Malaysia prepares the nation for GTP 3.0 (2016-2020), the GTP programme dovetails with the ETP to
transform the economic sectors into high-value, high-income generating industries and supported by an
efficient and effective government infrastructure. Moreover, the GTP and ETP will operate in tandem to
ensure that the Malaysian workforce is transformed to be competitive and matching the talent and high-value
jobs (GTP Annual Report, 2012). Thus, capacity building and human capital development is a concerted effort
among three parties, namely the government, industry and academia or G-I-A as outlined in the National
Innovation Model. These tripartite collaborations pose several challenges within and among the three parties
in facilitating the economic transformation towards K-economy.
The Malaysian government has a critical role in addressing the wide range of skills shortage, which can be
mitigated in the short-term through a friendly regulatory regime and smart use of incentives, to attract global
talent and aggressively upgrade human capital through training and mentoring. Presently, Malaysia undertook
a multi-ministry approach to carry out the recommendations made in the National Innovation Model which
posed a major challenge of coordination across ministries. To illustrate, the Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation (MOSTI) was tasked to work out the modalities of implementation in consultation with the
Ministry of Finance (MoF), Economic Planning Unit (EPU) of the Prime Minister Department, Ministry of
Higher Education (MoHE), and other relevant agencies. The National Coordination Task Force on Innovation
was chaired by the Chief Secretary of the government and executed by MOSTI to facilitate the bureaucratic
and procedural challenges. In contrast, Korea strategically merged its Ministry of Education of Human
Resource Development (MOE) and the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) into the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in 2008 as a concerted effort to make Korea a Powerhouse of
Talents and shifting the education system from provision of labour to the cultivation of talent (Lee, 2012).
Phase two or GTP 2.0 (2013-2015) will push for broad reforms to complete the transformation of the civil
service. As Malaysia undergoes the GTP to further develop a performance culture, we have to prepare the
human capital for the next phase of development. In GTP 3.0 (2016-2020), the government is expected to
evolve focusing on innovation (GTP Annual report 2012), hence the government may need to innovate itself.

Therefore, the challenge of major structural changes such as merging of the ministries similar in the Korean
case merits consideration if Malaysia wants to be a powerhouse of talents.
As for industry, the Malaysian government realized that it cannot afford to be the sole provider of training and
that the responsibility of developing human capital and training had to be shared with private enterprises and
higher education institution. Therefore, in the Second Outline Perspective Plan (OPP2) (1990-2000), the
government enlisted enterprise collaboration in order to equip Malaysia with a strong education and training
base and private employers to assume greater responsibility for industrial training. This was also
accomplished via fiscal incentives such as deduction on training expenses for manufacturing companies
understating in-house and external training in approved training institutions (ATI). The government also
increased private sector involvement in curriculum development to ensure that education and training facilities
adapt quickly and produce suitable qualified trainees and in establishing specialist skills centres to produce
trainees skilled in new and emerging technologies. Success in market-driven and technology-driven
innovation to create income growth and jobs will require the private sector to actively lead in identifying
market opportunities, and taking innovative products and services to market; government to facilitate this
effort by mitigating market risk. In the National Innovation Model, it was recommended that the government
provide a portfolio of incentives (including fiscal) and other measures to create a conducive environment to
attract global talent to fill critical gaps, and transfer skills and knowledge (train and mentor). One challenge is
to invoke retirees with relevant skills to be targeted in this initiative.
For the academia, one of the recommendations by Manshor (2001) was to encourage universities and other
training institutions in Malaysia to initiate and promote close collaborations between them and private sector
companies. The collaboration should cover curriculum development, staff/employee exchange program,
executive training program, technology-based training, and other areas which may benefit both parties. Such
collaborations may reduce the job/skill mismatch, enhance the quality and practicality of programs offered
in the institutions, reduce the burden of companies to provide high-technology equipment and laboratories,
and enhance the opportunity for employees to pursue better education and training. Manshor (2001) also
recommended that one-stop training centre to be set up to provide full information on government policies,
schemes and incentives for training, including the rules for the licencing of training centres, tax and non-tax
incentives and the schemes adopted by the various agencies to promote the sharing of resources and facilities.
The National Innovation Model also calls for new programs targeted at entrepreneurship, innovation risk
management, and mind-set change with university/industry, starting with Harvard and MIT (as offered by
them) to all stakeholders, and extending program offerings through collaboration with specialist global
institutions (National Innovation Model, 2007).
The Role of Malaysian Universities in Capacity Building and Human Capital
Khaled Nordin (2001), the present Minister of Higher Education (MOHE) outlined the role of higher
education in supporting the governmental and economic transformation in order to increase knowledge and
innovation in the k-economy. In his 2011 annual speech, he stressed the need for achieving excellence and
acculturation of excellence among the academics and calls upon the vice chancellors to strive for academic
leadership and international outlook so that they are relevant, referred and respected (3R) at the
national, regional and global arenas. To this end, MOHE introduced one Critical Agenda Project (CAP) under
the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (NHESP) focusing on Knowledge Transfer Programme. Besides
knowledge transfer, academic mobility is encouraged for university academics to contribute their expertise to
the public service sector via secondment and administrative roles in ministries and departments. The idea is
for cross-fertilization so that the government agencies can benefit from the academics expertise and their
experiences with the government sector can be brought back to the universities upon their return as part of the
human capital development in the universities. This is also to arrest the brain drain so that academics are given
opportunities to share their knowledge and to be recognized by the universities for their contributions towards
nation building. Nordin (2011) also highlighted that the culture of excellence should be inculcated among the
academics and in the universities.
The key to capacity building and human capital development is via research. The R&D initiatives for
Malaysia began with the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (NHESP) launched in 2007. Research,
development and innovation aimed at increasing knowledge, discovery and commercialisation of new
products are a priority in Phase 2 (2011-2015) of the NHESP. To boost R&D and innovation, steps have been
taken:
a) to encourage a pioneer mindset among researchers;
b) encourage innovative research in line with the requirements of nation;

c) translate findings to products or platforms that can be commercialised; and

d) enrich the knowledge repository of the country.
Further, several strategies initiatives were also outlined in the NHESP including:
a) the Research University (RU) programme and its impact on driving Malaysias R&D excellence initiatives;
b) the Higher Institutions Center of Excellence (HiCOE) programme where more HiCOE will be established
on the basis of mutual understanding and collaboration. The six existing HiCOE has begun collaboration with
world renowned research institutes; and
c) management of research funds-Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), Exploratory Research Grant
Scheme (ERGS), Long-Term Research Scheme (LRGS) and Prototype Development Research Grant Scheme
(PRGS) under the 10MP to enliven the landscape of R&D and increase commercialization. This was spelled
out in the technological innovation approach in Figure 2 earlier.
Passion and dedication towards research will also be inculcated, and increased collaboration and funding
enhanced to improve R&D output e.g. commercialisation of at least 5% of R&D efforts and producing five
world renowned R&D centres of excellence with the aim of creating internationally-acclaimed research
universities. In 2012, five research universities (UM, UKM, USM, UPM and UTM) were conferred autonomy
by the Minister of Higher Education to act with full accountability and responsibility on matters related to
administration, academic management, student intake, institutional governance, finance and human resource
management. All five research universities have been instructed to intensify efforts to spearhead high-impact
research platforms.
Besides research, teaching and learning in higher education is given much attention with the inception of the
SETARA (Rating System for Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia) in 2009. It is Malaysia's first rating
system to measure the performance of undergraduate teaching and learning in universities and university
colleges in Malaysia. My present university, Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) was recently conferred
SETARA 5 Excellent in 2012, a good indication that it is moving towards becoming a research university in
developing human capital with strong undergraduate teaching foundation.
According to the National Higher Education Strategic Plan, efforts has been intensified to increase the number
of researchers, scientists and engineers (RSE) at a ratio of 50 RSEs per 10,000 workforce. However, presently
the ratio is 16 RSEs per 10,000 and this raises concern to many parties. Therefore, the government initiated
efforts via the National Innovation Model to realign resources to support efforts to: (i) include
entrepreneurship (including cross-cultural, multi-disciplinary, interactive communication) into the education
curriculum, and (ii) develop further key technical disciplines (specifically researchers, scientists, prototype
engineers and designers), as proposed in the recent National Higher Education Strategic Plan; in addition,
expand the Plans focus to (iii) include change of mind-set, and (iv) develop key financial and management
disciplines (specifically innovation risk managers, production managers and brand managers) to add depth to
entrepreneurship. In the curriculum, much emphasis has been given to inculcate the seven soft-skills including
leadership and entrepreneurship under the outcome-based education (OBE).
At the national level, the Malaysia government has mandated nine R&D Priority Areas to be used as a guide
by the granting agencies such as MOHE Research Grant Schemes for FRGS, ERGS, LRGS, and PRGS and
MOSTI for e-ScienceFund as shown in Table 2. One major requirement of these grants is human capital
development in that each research will produce human capital in terms of PhD or masters graduates as
outcomes.
Table 2.
Priority Areas
Biodiversity
Cyber Security
Energy Security
Environmental
Climate Change
Food Security

&

Medical & Healthcare

Malaysian R&D Priority Areas

Scope
Exploitation of Malaysian biodiversity to address the following issues identified and
anticipated.
Development of national autonomous and secure systems to reduce the dependency on
foreign for systems of strategic importance.
Harnessing alternative resources and improving the efficient use of energy especially in the
areas of renewable energy to reduce dependency on fossil fuel.
Supporting ecosystem management, protection and improvement to mitigate flood, drought &
air pollution as well as promotion of eco-tourism for sustainable development.
Improvement of food crops, livestock, fisheries & animal feedstock; focusing on post-harvest
physiology & technology to reduce dependency of import on staple food and increase the
level of self- sufficiency.
Improving health, wellbeing &longevity through the diagnostic, prevention & treatment of

Plantation Crops &

Commodities
Transportation
&
Urbanisation
Water Security

lifestyle diseases as well as new and emerging diseases.

Creating sustainable plantation crops and commodities sector by increasing the productivity
and utilization, focusing on oil palm, timber, rubber, cocoa & pepper.
Reduce dependency of fossil fuel & enhance energy efficiency by focusing on the use of
alternative energy & design engineering. Ensuring sustainable urbanization via efficient urban
waste management.
Ensuring sustainable water supply & optimizing water usage focusing on creating sustainable
sources and improving the processing, treatment & distribution of water

Lessons Learnt
As part of knowledge sharing in this keynote, I try to identify the lessons learnt that may benefit
fellow universities in Jordan and the middle-East as they explore their roles in human capital development in
the K-economy. However, this is far from prescriptive as we have to customize the transformation efforts to
the socio-political-cultural situations in the respective countries
As highlighted earlier, human capital development in Malaysia evolved over the years into human capital
development with deliberate efforts through economic development via the 5-year development plans. Guided
by Vision 2020 and supported by the Outline Perspective Plans, National Higher Education Strategic Plan and
National Innovation Model, Malaysia instituted broad transformation with the Government Transformation
Programme and Economic Transformation Programme focusing on broad reforms of the civil service to
further develop a performance culture in facilitating economic growth. These efforts are not without
challenges, and lessons learnt are highlighted below:
1. Human capital development in K-economy is an integral strategy of a deliberate economic development
plan of the country (Vision 2020).
2. Human capital development requires major investment and reform in the education system from early to
higher education and in training and mentoring.
3. Coordination and collaboration between government, industry and academia is imperative to initiate and
implement human capital development initiatives.
4. Government the public sector plays a critical role in human capital through multi-ministry mobilization
and facilitation, regulatory and fiscal incentives, training and mentoring.
5. Industry the K-economy is led by the private sector which must collaborate with the government to take
advantage of the fiscal and regulatory incentives and become partners.
6. Academia inculcating a culture of excellence through collaboration with the government via knowledge
transfer and cross-fertilization and close collaboration with the private sector in training, research and
commercialization to develop human capital.
7. Inculcating performance culture in the government sector to support the innovation in the k-economy led
by the private sector.
Conclusion
In this keynote, I have presented various initiatives undertaken by the Malaysian government to facilitate
economic transformation in the public and private sectors and how innovation and human capital are driving
the K-economy. I have discussed the challenges faced by Malaysia in the tripartitegovernment, industry,
academiainitiatives to develop human capital in the K-economy. It is hoped that this knowledge sharing
provides insights for fellow academics on the roles and initiatives that can be undertaken by their respective
universities in capacity building and developing human capital to sustain economic growth in the K-economy.
REFERENCES
Abdulai, D. N. (Ed.) (2001). Malaysia and the k-economy. Subang Jaya: Pelanduk Publications.
Ahmad, Z. A. (2012). Developing Innovativeness in SMEs: The role of leadership. In Aida Idris and
Norbani Che Ha (eds.) Readings on Entrepreneurship and SME Development in Malaysia.
Kuala Lumpur: UM Press.
Ahmad, Z. A. (2013). Enterprise Innovation: Managing Knowledge, Innovation and Technology.
Lets Be Enterprisingly Innovative! Malaysian Productivity Corporation: Petaling Jaya.
ISBN 978-983-2025-97-9
Ahmad, M. I., Abdulai, D. N., & Cheng, M. Y. (2001). Future trends and development of human
resources in the K-economy. Paper presented at the National Productivity Conference 2000,
7-8 November 2000, Kuala Lumpur.

Bank Negara Malaysia Annual Report (1999). Kuala Lumpur.

ETP Annual Report (2012). Economic Transforrmation Programme Annual Report 2012.
Putrajaya: Performance Management and Delivery Unit, Prime Ministers Department
Malaysia. ISSN: 2232-1411 (http://etp.pemandu.gov.my/annualreport/) .
GTP Annual Report (2012). Government Transformation Programme Annual Report 2012.
Putrajaya: Performance Management and Delivery Unit, Prime Ministers Department
Malaysia. ISSN: 2232-7619 (http://www.pemandu.gov.my/gtp/annualreport2012/).
Higher Education in Malaysia (n.d.). Accessed from: http://www.studymalaysia.com/education/
art_education.php?id=nationaledu2
How Measuring Research Performance Based On Evidence Can Lead Malaysia To World-Class
Research (2012, July 5). Accessed http://umnews.um.edu.my/highlights-view.php?news_id=122
Lee, J-H. (2012). Positive Changes: The Education, Science and Technology Policies of Korea. Seoul,
Korea: Korea Economic Daily & Business Publications Inc.
Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-2000). Malaysia: Economic Planning Unit, Prime Ministers Department.
Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005). Malaysia: Economic Planning Unit, Prime Ministers Department.
Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010). Malaysia: Economic Planning Unit, Prime Ministers Department.
Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-2015). Malaysia: Economic Planning Unit, Prime Ministers Department.
Manshor, A. T. (2001). Challenges and potential in human resource development in a Knowledge
-based Economy: A Malaysian Perspective. In D. N. Abdulai (Ed.) Malaysia and the
k-economy. Subang Jaya: Pelanduk Publications.
National Innovation Model (2007). Malaysia: Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation.
Nordin, M. R. (2001). The challenges for higher education in Malaysia in an era of a Knowledge
-based Economy. In D. N. Abdulai (Ed.) Malaysia and the k-economy. Subang Jaya: Pelanduk
Publications.
Nordin, K. (2013). Dinamics of Higher Education (2nd Ed.). Putrajaya: Ministry of Higher Education.
Tay, W. (2013). Innovation-Driven Entrepreneurship. Lets Be Enterprisingly Innovative! Malaysian
Productivity Corporation: Petaling Jaya. ISBN 978-983-2025-97-9.
Zidle, M. (1998). Retention hooks for keeping your knowledge workers. Manage, 50(1) 21-22.
___ High income likely before 2020. The Star, 20 March 2013.

10

Business Intelligence Application: A New Measure

of Multi Spectral Medical Images Enhancement
Dr. Saad G. Yaseen
Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Dr.Muna F. Al-Sammaraie
Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Abstract:
The aim of this research is to present a multi spectral image enhancement methods used to achieve
highly real digital image populates only a small portion of the available range of digital values. Also
a quantitative measure of image enhancement is presented. This measure is related with concepts of
the Webers Low of the human visual system.
For decades, several image enhancement techniques have been proposed. Although most techniques
require profuse amount of advance and critical steps, the result for the perceive image are not as
satisfied. This study involves changing the original values so that more of the available range is used;
then increases the contrast between features and their backgrounds. It consists of reading the binary
image on the basis of pixels taking them byte wise and displaying it, calculating the statistics of an
image, automatically enhancing the color of the image based on statistics calculation using
algorithms and working with RGB color bands. Finally the enhanced image is displayed along with
image histogram. A number of experimental results is illustrated the performance of these
algorithms. Particularly the quantitative measure has helped to select optimal processing parameters:
the best parameters and transform.
Keywords: Business intelligence, Image enhancement, multi spectral, RGB and histogram.

11

Introduction
In the modern information system, digital images have been widely used in a growing number of applications.
The enhancement techniques are employed in order to increase the contrast and brightness of an image using
RGB color bands and the goal of the image enhancement is to improve the visual appearance of the image.
Noise removal and preservation of useful us information are important aspects of image enhancement. A wide
variety of methods have been proposed to noise removal problem. Recently, researchers have focused their
attention on nonlinear smoothing techniques in the spatial domain. Most of these techniques are local
smoothing filters, which replace the center pixel of the neighborhood by an average of selected neighbor
pixels.
The basic steps of enhancement are Reading the binary image on the basis of pixels, taking them byte wise
and displaying the raw image. Then the image is displayed along with the histogram. Then calculating the
statistics of the image it includes calculating mean, median, mode and standard deviation for the image based
on the pixel values. Then, automatically enhancing the color of the image based on statistics calculation and
working with RGB color bands. Finally, displaying the enhanced image along with the image histogram.
This paper presents new quantitative measures of image enhancement and novel image enhancement methods
for object detection and visualization. A number of experimental results are described to illustrate the
performance of these algorithms. Comparative analyses of transforms based image enhancement algorithms
are given.
The structure of the paper is arranged as follows: section 1 included the introduction and section 2 included
the methodology of the proposed scheme. The proposed method is explained with many details in Section 3.
Section 4 included the results. Conclusions are shown in Section 5
Literature Review
Business Intelligence
Business Intelligence (BI) is most frequently discussed relative to software applications which what we have
done in this paper, data management activities which is also done in this paper, data warehousing, and
decision support. If someone searches the wep to learn about BI, then they are going to think that BI has
everything to do with information technology. Data and analytics are together the foundations of BI. In an
issue of IBM systems magazine, analytics are described as a component of BI, where the try in enhancing the
fingerprint images is considered as an imaging analysis.
The BI itself is referenced as a "system", "environment", a "solution", and an offering. It is also described as a
combination of "statistical and data-mining capabilities". Therefore, we can consider what is done in this
research as a solution for the problem of getting damaged images and also the transformation of image to data
and then using these data to obtain an enhanced image is considered as BI, where statistical methods are used
in this study.
A CRM magazine article distinguishes between business intelligence and analytics. The BI is stated to be
more about a source of data that we want to slice and dice, and then report to a group of pixels. Analytics are
something we use when we want to analyze data in the context of a specific issue, such as understanding,
segmentation, or using the MATLAB software in doing the analysis in this study.
The analytics such as the analysis in this research are seen as a part of BI, but the term analytics becomes a
way to distinguish various BI applications such as operations analytics, finance analytics, IT analytics, , etc.
So, BI involves a process of gathering, problem solving, reasoning, and learning to enable the successful
functioning of the business system through effective decision making [16].
BI is the application of data, technology, and analytics to gain insight and knowledge that enable decisions
about people, processes and services that yield positive economics outcomes. However, IT articles about BI
would talk about technology's ability to contribute to successful business results not simply about components
and their capabilities.

Image enhancement
Image enhancement is a process principally focuses on processing an image in such a way that the processed
image is more suitable than the original one for the specific application. The word specific has significance.
It gives a clue that the results of such an operation are highly application dependent. In other words, an image
enhancement technique that works well for X-ray topographic images may not work well for satellite images.

12

The technique falls in two categories on the basis of the domain they are applied on. These are the frequency
and spatial domains. The frequency domain methods works with the Fourier Transforms of the image. The
term spatial domain refers to the whole of pixels of which an image is composed of. Spatial domain methods
are procedures that operate directly on the pixels. The process can be expressed as:
g(x, y) = T[ f (x, y)]
Where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an operator on f defined over some
neighborhood of (x, y) [1]. A number of enhancement techniques exist in the spatial domain. Among these are
histogram processing, enhancement using arithmetic, and logical operations and filters.
For the study of each and every filter:
Mean Filter: Mean filtering is simply the process of replacing each pixel value in an image with the mean
(average) value of its neighbors, including itself [2,3]. This is simply done using 3*3 kernel.
Median Filter: The median is calculated by first sorting all the pixel values from the surrounding
neighborhood in numerical order and then replacing the pixel being considered with the middle pixel value
[3]. This is also implemented using 3*3 kernels.
Mode Filter: Mode filtering simply involves the replacing of each pixel value in an image by the mode value
of its neighbors, including itself [3]. This is also implemented by 3*3 kernels.
Circular Filter: Circular filter is implemented using the product of original matrix and convolution mask
provided [3]. A 5*5 kernel is used here.
Pyramidal Filter: Pyramidal filter is implemented using the product of the original matrix and convolution
mask provided [3]. A 5*5 kernel is used here.
Cone Filter: Cone filter is implemented using the product of original matrix and convolution mask provided
[3]. A 5*5 kernel is used here.
Digital Image
In a generalized way, a digital image is an array of numbers describing spatial distribution of a certain data or
topographical elevation or radar return. It is a two dimensional array of brightness value where each number
in the array represents the value of the parameter at that point or over a certain unit area Figure 1. The smallest
unit that constitutes the picture is a picture element called pixel. Each point in the image or scene is
represented by an integer digital number (DN) usually 256 (0 to 255), normally in the dynamic range of the
display device the lowest intensity of the parameter where no signal is assigned to DN value zero and the
highest intensity or largest signal to 255, the intermediate intensities receiving appropriate intermediate DN
value [4].

13

Figure 1: Structure of Digital Image

Medical Images (multi spectral image)
Medical images are a special kind of images. These images are used for the diagnostics of diseases in the
patients [5, 6]. A number of modalities exist for obtaining these images. Among popular ones are Computed
Topographic Imaging (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), etc. Our focus here will be on the image
obtained through Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
Biologic tissues are comparatively transparent to x-rays and opaque to radiation with intermediate
wavelengths when proceeding from the shorter to the longer wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This is true for ultraviolet, visible, and, to some extent, infrared light and microwaves. However, there is a
window in tissue absorption through with radio waves can be used to probe deep inside the human body. The
benefits derived from low-energy radiation and unprecedented level of information available from nuclear
signals combined to make imaging by magnetic resonance a valuable biomedical imaging modality [7].

14

Magnetic resonance cholangiography (MRC) is an imaging method using a magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) scanner. Because MRC can acquire the pancreatic duct with a high MR signal, it has been widely used
for diagnosing diseases of the pancreatic duct, such as calculi and pancreatitis [8]. However, there are some
limitations for use of MRC: first MRC images often involve other tissues (e.g., fat, stomach) that have a high
MR signal because MRC imaging method gives a high MR signal for water. Therefore, when we generate 2D
projected images by means of maximum intensity projection (MIP), volume rendering (VR), or others, those
tissues with high MR signal will overlap with the pancreatic duct and secondly, If we use a low-tesla MRI or a
thick slice of imaging parameter to reduce the imaging cost or to be faster the imaging time, some parts of the
pancreatic duct will disappear because of a partial volume effect (PVE). Such lacks may impede the
physicians observation, and might lead to a miss-diagnosis that is, the problem is that the MR signal of the
pancreatic duct is lower than or equals MR signals of the other tissues. Therefore, use of image enhancement
techniques will contribute to overcoming these limitations.
Measure of image enhancement
In this subsection, we present a short survey of existing quantitative measure of the image enhancement and
presented a new one. When analyzing the signals and systems, it is useful to map data from the time domain
into another domain (in our case, the frequency domain). The basic characteristics of a complex wave are the
amplitude and phase spectra. Specifying amplitude and phase spectra is an important concept for complex
waves. For example, an amplitude spectrum contains information about the energy content of a signal and the
distribution of the energy among the different frequencies, which is often used in many applications. To solve
the corresponding problem, the real variable, t, is generalized to the complex variable, (u + jv), which then is
mapped back via the inverse mapping. For example, the Fourier transform maps the real line (time domain)
into the complex plane, or real wave into the complex one. But, it has a high complexity of implementation
which involves complex multiplications and additions.
The improvement in images after enhancement is often very difficult to measure. A processed image can be
said to get an enhancement over the original image if it allows the observer to better perceive the desirable
information in the imaging. In images, the improved perception is difficult to qualify. There is no universal
measure which can specify the both objective and subjective validity of the enhancement method [16]. In
practice, many definitions of the contract measure are used [9], [11], [10]. For example, the local contrast
proposed by Gordon and Rangayyan [13] was defined by the mean gray values in two rectangular windows
centered on a current pixel.
Baghdan and Negrate [10] proposed another definition of the local contrast based on the local edge
information of the image, in order to improve the first mentioned definition. In [10], the local contrast
proposed by Beghdadi and Negrate have been adopted, in order to define a performance measure of
enhancement.
Use of statistical measures of gray level distribution measures of local contrast enhancement (for example,
mean, variance or entropy) has not been particularly meaningful for mammogram images [13]. A number of
images, which clearly illustrated an improved contrast, showed no consistency, as a class, when using these
statistical measurements.
A measure proposed in [9], which has greater consistency than the statistical measures, is based on the
contrast histogram. Intuitively, it seems reasonable to expert that a image enhancement measure values at
given pixels should depend strongly on the values at pixels that are close by weekly on those that are further
away and also this measure has to related with human visual system. in our definition we will use a some
modification of the Webers and Fishers Lows. In the second image enhancement measure definition we will
use the well known entropy concept: In Weber established its visual low, argued that the human visual
detection depends on the ratio, rather than difference.
The Weber definition of contrast is used to measure the local contrast of a single object (One usually assumes
a large background with a small test object, in which case the average luminance will be close to the
background luminance. If there are many objects these assumptions do not hold). The Fisher Low, proposed
the following relationship between the light intensity i(x, y) and brightness:

f
B kLn
f max

f
kLn max
f

min

Where fmax and fmin are the maximum and minimum luminance values (within a small window), respectively.

15

We now introduce two new quantitative measures of image enhancement. Let an image x(n,m) be split into
k1k2 blocks wk,l(i, j) of sizes l1 l2, and let and { } be a given class of orthogonal transforms used for image
and
to be found, then we
enhancement with enhancement parameters (or, vector parameter) ,
define

EME max x ( EME ( ))

max x (

Where I

k1k 2

w
min : k ,1

k2

k1

20 log
t 1 k 1

I max;
I

k ,t

w
min; k , t

I max :k ,1 are respectively minimum and maximum of the image X(n,m) inside the

and

block wk,l. The function is the sign function, (x) = x, or (x) = x, depending on the method of
enhancement under the consideration. The decision of adding this function have been done after the study
various examples of enhancement by transform methods using the different coefficients Ci(p, s), i = 1, 2, 3,
which are described in the next section.
Definition 1: EME is called a measure of enhancement, or measure of improvement.
In the second image enhancement measure definition, we use the well known entropy concept.
Definition 2: Let an image x(n,m) be split into k1k2 blocks wk,l(i, j) of sizes l1 l2. Then, the quantity

EMEE max x ( EME ( ))

x ( EME ( ))

1
k1k 2

k2

k1

log
t 1 k 1

I max;
I

k ,t

w
min; k ,t

is called a measure of enhancement by entropy.

Definition 3: The best (optimal) image improvement transform-based enhancement algorithm is called a
transform 0 such as EME( 0) = EME, or EMEE( 0) = EMEE.
Definition 4: The best (optimal) image improvement transform-based enhancement algorithm is called a
transform 0 such as EME( 0) = EME, or EMEE( 0) = EMEE.
Webers law
The ability to detect a spot of light does not depend so much on the luminance of the spot itself as on the
difference in luminance of spot and background, i.e., the contrast. Of course, the luminance must be above
some minimal value, but it is the contrast of spot and background that must be above a certain threshold
before we can detect the spot. We call this threshold the just noticeable difference. Webers law states that the
just noticeable difference L is proportional to the background luminance L. In other words, the higher the
background luminance, the higher the contrast needs to be before we detect a difference.
Proposed algorithm of Enhancement
Image reading is a big process where each and every pixel of the image is read byte wise. The main used in
image reading which returns raw array, containing the raw image values. The image reading is done by
skipping the in between values by finding scale so that, the actual meaning of the image will not be changed.
Histogram for raw image is obtained by taking a two dimensional array consisting of bands and the intensity
values. For every band, the values are firstly initialized to zeros and are incremented for every repetition of the
intensity value. In this way, the histogram array will be obtained. The highest value of pixels is founded and
scale is being found with respect to that value, and the final histogram is being displayed according to the
scale.
Statistics include calculating mean, median, mode, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values
according to the pixel values. These statistics are very important as the enhancement is done based on these
values.

16

1. Min-Max Enhancement
The enhancement is done based on the minimum and maximum values of the pixels. Where the zero value of
the pixels are replaced by the minimum value and the highest value becomes the maximum value there by
increasing the intensity ranges making the image more clear.
2. Standard Deviation Enhancement:
In standard deviation enhancement, the minimum value is standard deviation subtracted from the mean and
maximum value is standard deviation subtracted from maximum value. The enhancement done using standard
deviation is more accurate as the zero probable values are replaced by the calculated range of standard
deviation values [14].
The enhanced histogram values are obtained similar to the previous procedure and it is displayed using the
same methods with changed parameters.

Select color medical

image

Read Image Byte

wise

Display all details

Enhanced
Histogram

Generate Histogram of
Raw Image
Apply

Statistics for
Enhancement

Output Image

Figure 2: Algorithm diagram for medical image Enhancement

Experimental results
In this section a number of experiments in order to evaluate the enhancement algorithm are described. For
more clarity/visibility, we demonstrate the experimental results for 2-D signals such as medical images.
The present module is automatic in which images are enhanced with in no time and the enhancement is
correct as it uses statistics for enhancement [15]. The results of this work are carried out in several phases. The
following is the sequence of the procedure involved in getting the results.

17

a. Raw image and its Histogram

18

(b) Min-Max Enhanced image and its Histogram

19

(c) Enhanced image and its histogram using Standard deviation

Figure3: Medical image enhancement experiments Results
The enhancement measure of the original image shown in Figure 3 is 4.5, or EME (X) = 4.5 at points
0.92 and 2 = 0.6 . EME=10.35 in (c) and in (b) is EME=9.15

Conclusion
The system facilitates processing of raw images which are obtained from medical devices. This module is
developed in order to attain highly realistic visualizations of raw medical imagery with all the features
mentioned earlier.
A new class of based signal/image enhancement algorithms have been described and applied for detection and
visualization objects within the image. A quantitative measure of signal/image enhancement was presented.
This measure is related with conceps of the Webers Low of the human visual system. It helps to choose
(automatically) the best parameters. The wide range of characteristics can be obtained from a single transform
by varying enhancement parameters.
The proposed algorithms are simple for design, which makes them practical. A number of experimental results
were given illustrate the performance of these algorithms. The comparative analysis of transforms based
image enhancement algorithms has been described, too.
References
1. D.Stark and W.Bradley Jr., Ed. 1992, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
2. Cheevasuvit F, Dejhan K and Somboonkaew A (1992), Edge Enhancement Using Transform of Subtracted
Smoothing Image, ACRS, Vol. 3, No. 12, pp. 23-28
3. Gonzales, R.C. and R.E. Woods, 2002. Digital Image Processing. 2nd Edn., Prentice Hall, USA., ISBN: 10:
0130946508, pp: 793.
4. Tinku Acharya and Ajoy K.Ray. Image Processing-Principles and Applications
5. He, Huiguang; Tian, Jie; Zhao, Mingchang; Xue, Jian; Lu, Ke, 3D Medical Imaging Computation and
Analysis Platform, IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology ICIT, Dec. 2006, Vol., Iss., 1517, pp. 1160-1165.

20

6. Latha Parthiban; R. Subramanian, Medical Image Denoising using X-lets, Annual India Conference, Sept.
2006, Vol., Iss., pp. 1-6.
7. D.Stark and W.Bradley Jr., Ed. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1992.
8. Y. Watanabe, M. Dohke, T. Ishimori, Y. Amoh, K. Oda, A-Okumura, K. Mitsudo, and Y. Dodo, Highresolution MR cholangiopancreatography, Critical Rev Diagno Imaging, 39 (1998), 111258.
9. W.M.Morrow and all., Region-Based Contrast Enhancement of Mammograms, IEEE Trans. on Medical
Imaging, vol. 11 (3), September 1992.
10. Beghcladi, and A.L. Negrate, Contrast enhancement technique based on local detection of edges,
Comput. Vision, Graphic, Image Processing, vol. 46, 1989, pp. 162-274.
11. J. K. Kim, J.M. Park, K.S. Song, and H.W. Park, Adaptive Mommographic Image Enhancement Using
First Derivative and Local Statistics, IEEE Trans. on Medical Imaging, vol. 16 (5), October 1997.
12. S.W. Hang, Y-H. Chan, and Wan-Chi Sin Subband, Adaptive regularization methods for removing
blocking effect
13. J.S. Leim, Two-dimensional Signal and Image Processing, Prentice Hall, 1990.
14. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ High-pass-filter
15. http://forums.sun.com/thread.jspa?threadID=5378450&tstart=0
16. Herschel, R. "what is business intelligence?" , article in press , 2010.

21

Towards a Systematic Approach for Managing

Human Capital in Arab Countries:
The Leadership and Culture Challenge
Hala Abdulqader Sabri
Petra University
Jordan

Abstract:
Businesses in the developing countries are still unable to achieve the required transformation in their
leadership styles and strong corporate cultures which constitutes, in addition to other factors, an
obstacle towards their ability to join the knowledge societies of the modern world. An area of
concern in this regard is the state of human capital in Arab societies. These societies, who despite
their efforts to cope with global developments in achieving knowledge based economies, through the
presentation of adequate business environment, sufficient infrastructure and trained human resources,
could not present suitable changes in their culture, corporate governance and authoritarian
management styles that are rooted in their patriarchal structure. As a result, qualified Arab human
resources still lack the vital motivation to present their knowledge towards the achievement of
knowledge society.
This study explores the state of human capital in the Arab business environment and discusses its
obstacles and futuristic stance. It adopts an analytical approach and presents an investigation of the
leadership's role in creating a supporting culture for human capital in which they share the
management's vision and are aware of their role in achieving it. The study sets a proposed framework
on how to transform Arab bureaucracies into knowledge creating cultures by means of a
transformational leadership that has the ability to create the right culture in which information
sharing, learning and knowledge formation should be parts of the organizational norm. The topic
merits investigation because it takes place in the wake of the Arab Spring that is initiated by Arab
youths who emphasize democratic change in Arab leadership styles and political systems. Hence,
any evaluation of the underlying causes of this turmoil would recognize that a fundamental
transformation in Arab management and leadership styles is required; a transformation that creates
an acceptance and eagerness to do things differently, and to keep pace with the rapidly developing
societal and cultural environment.
Keywords: Human Capital, Arab Countries, Leadership, Culture

22

The Leadership and Culture Challenge

The most exciting breakthroughs of the 21st century will occur not because of technology but because of an
expanding concept of what it means to be human.
John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene (Megatrends, 2000)
Introduction
The global rise towards knowledge economy and knowledge society has opened the eyes of organizational
leaders to the realities of the importance of human capitals in their organizations. This reality coupled with
globalization and rapid technological changes have significantly forced managers to alter their leadership
styles and place increasing values on the management of human capital that have gained a considerable
importance within organizations today. However, while the issue of human capital is more easily applicable in
the developed countries, that possess the required technical know-how and managerial capabilities, it is
difficult to apply in the third world countries because of different managerial and organizational problems.
This is mainly important to Arab countries whose development prospects are increasingly linked to their
managerial capabilities and the quality of their human capital. Therefore, addressing the issue of human
capital management becomes a critical challenge for Arab organizations to enhance their competitive
advantage in the global economy.
For these reasons, the business literature has witnessed, in recent years, a booming interest in human resources
and human capital management from different disciplines: organization experts, knowledge management
analysts, economists, and psychologists. However, these disciplines have mostly discussed human capital
issues from only one perspective; few were interested in treating it from a multidisciplinary perspective, by
means of relating it to different factors of the organizational context such as leadership styles and
organizational culture. In this context, Myers (1996) asserts that organizational performance depends to a
great extent on the interaction between three primary factors within the organizational context: organizational
strategy, organizational design and individuals behavior. Moreover, economic growth in the Arab region over
the past decade has not coincided with equally strong human resource development, raising obvious concerns
for sustainable and balanced growth.
Purpose and Significance of the Study
To varying degrees, Arab countries are faced with similar human capital challenges that serve as obstacles to
knowledge-based economic development. Moreover, in spite of increasing interests in human resource and
human capital management, the study of the reflection of leadership and culture on the management of human
capital in the contemporary Arab world is a relatively recent incident hence, this study. It specifically explores
the issue of human capital management and discusses its obstacles and futuristic stance in the Arab business
environment. The topic merits investigation because it takes place in the wake of the Arab Spring that is
initiated by Arab youths who emphasize democratic change in Arab leadership styles and political systems.
Hence, any evaluation of the underlying causes of this turmoil would recognize that a major change in Arab
management and leadership styles is required; a change that creates an acceptance and willingness to organize
things in a new way that keeps pace with the continuously evolving environment.
The Interplay between Knowledge and Human Capital Management
March (1997) maintains that the management of human and intellectual capitals has become a central theme
in todays business literature and a commonly cited source of competitive advantage. Organizations are being
advised that to remain competitive, they must efficiently and effectively create, locate, capture and share their
organizations knowledge and expertise, and have the ability to bring that knowledge to bear on problems and
opportunities.
Different leading management and organization theorists (Nonaka, 1994; & Quinn, et. al., 1996) argue that in
todays economy, knowledge is people, money, learning, power and competitive advantage. It is stored in the
individuals brain or encoded in the organizational processes, documents, products, services, facilities and
systems. Drucker (2003) for instance argues that the shift to the knowledge society puts the person in the
center. Drucker (2003:287) states:
Knowledge is not impersonal, like money. Knowledge does not reside in a book, a database, or a software
program; these contain only information. Knowledge is always embodied in a person; applied by a person;
taught and passed on by a person; used or misused by a person.
For knowledge to be of value it must be focused and current, tested and shared. This caring for and sharing of
knowledge has become one of the most debated topics in business. It is called knowledge management that
came about to embody a transition towards treating human systems as key components that engage in
continuous assessment of information archived in the technological systems. Hansen et.al., (1990) emphasized
that the rapid advances in information technology accompanied by companies efforts to become learning

23

organizations, in which managers strive to create a culture and a system for creating new knowledge, have
surged the interest in the management of knowledge and human capital. Therefore, managers have started to
look for ways for managing this knowledge by using the techniques that were developed as part of the
information technology (IT) to support their human resources and human capitals through training and
developing knowledge based systems that allow the organization to stay competitive (Davenport, et. al.,
1996).
Human Capital in its Context
The Leadership and Culture Perspectives
Several management scholars have confirmed that culture can help create high levels of employees loyalty
and motivation and provide the company with structure and control without the need for an oppressive
bureaucracy. Kotter & Heskett (1992) presented, in this instance, an analysis of the relationship between
strong cultures, adaptive cultures and effectiveness.
McDermott & ODell (2001) argue that corporate culture is reflected not only in visible aspects such as its
mission and adopted values, but also in less apparent aspects such as in the way people act or what they expect
of each other. Because of these layers of culture, people can often act in ways inconsistent with the
organizations mission and values, but consistent with their underlying core values.
Human Capital Management: the Culture Perspective
The concept of culture as an internal variable is found in the literature of Organization Development (OD).
The organization development interventions serve to make organizational culture more receptive to change
and facilitating the performance of the organization as a whole. Underlying the interests in comparative
management and corporate culture is the search for predictable means to regulate organizational control and
improved methods for organization management.
Harrison (1990) identified certain cultural orientations in which leaders practices determine the degree of
impact on their human capital. In Power culture leaders are expected to be all knowing and powerful, still,
they should display justice and be paternalistic. Subordinates comply with the boss orders and are motivated
by rewards and punishments, and by the wish to be associated with a strong leader. Role culture has a pyramid
shape with clearly defined rules and expectations. There will be less direct supervision and performance is
monitored through well-established information systems. The values of the Role culture are order,
dependability, rationality and consistency. In Achievement culture employees enjoy challenging jobs and
prefer tasks that are intrinsically satisfying. Top management trusts employees and gives them the freedom to
make decisions and act to meet goals. It relies on self-motivating strategies and is based on competence. It
also creates a high-energy environment by using the mission to attract and release its human capital energy in
pursuit of the common goals. Finally while achievement culture fuses the human will of its members in the
service of the organization's objectives, the support culture evokes human love to the organization, and
stimulates strong motivation in the service of the group. Support culture assumes that people derive
satisfaction from relationships, mutual respect, trust and support.
Human Capital Management: the Leadership Perspective
Much of the research on leadership until the midst of the 20 th century concentrated on leaders who are more
concerned with leader-follower relation that is established on exchange of rewards and threats for compliance.
In the past years, however, research on leadership and management has evolved as a key area of interest
among Human Resource Development (HRD) scholars. Drucker (2003) maintained, in this regard, that as
knowledge workers are becoming important human capital and leading organizations became increasingly
attracting well-educated and well-informed individuals and provide knowledge-intensive services and
products, new approaches of leadership have emerged which assume that leaders' success is manifested
through their ability to manage culture change and transformation. These leaders should have strong abilities
and skills, and should be attuned to the nature of the information service and thus, establish commitment to
lifelong learning.
Since the late 1980s, much of the leadership research has concentrated on characteristics and specific effects
of charismatic and transformational leadership (Bass 1985; and Kanungo & Jaeger 1990). Transformational
leaders (Bass & Avolio, 1993) have vision, are effective and induce dynamic change in cultural values. They
support and motivate employees to higher levels of development, and stress achievement of common mission
and vision. This means that effective organizations require a special leadership style that values and
encourages cooperation, trust, learning, and innovation and provide incentives for engaging in knowledgebased activities and processes. As such, transformational features of leaders are better predictive factors of
organizational performance than the traditional/transactional leadership style. Meek (1988), also asserted that
organizational performance depends to a great extent on the interaction between organizational strategy,

24

organizational design, leadership and individuals behavior. This means that leaders need to create the right
culture that motivates people to act in line with the organizational objectives.
The new leadership approaches assumed that leaders influence workers through their ability to manage culture
change. Nelson and Cohen (2010) believe, however, that many leaders do not recognize the influence that
organizational culture has on the past, present, and future accomplishments of their organizations. Even more
important is their lack of understanding about how they influence the culture. For this reason, in most
organizations today, a knowledge creating culture cannot be developed without the support of higher
management. ODell and Grayson (1998) believed also that any effort to fit organizational factors together
cannot succeed without the support of leaders at the top. That is: leadership, a healthy organizational culture,
and information technology, all intertwined, are necessary for the success of any real human capital
management initiative.
Arab bureaucratic Structure and Power Culture
Zack and McKenney (1995) maintain that organizational context reflects the socio-cultural factors affecting
knowledge, such as culture, power relations, norms, reward systems, and leadership style. Therefore, to
address human capital management issue in the Arab context, it is necessary to examine the socio-cultural
factors that might affect the development of an effective human capital management process in Arab
organizations.
Much of the research (Sabri, 2007, & 2011; Hickson & Pugh, 2002; Hofstede, 2001) indicate that
organizations in Arab countries face many problems, stemming from their bureaucratic design and prevailing
large power culture where there is a considerable dependence of subordinates on superiors and preference for
autocratic management. Power in Arab societies is based on family, friends and charisma and the ability to use
force. The head of family has absolute power and all family members must obey and respect his wishes.
Children are brought up to be obedient and submissive rather than autonomous which instill in them a sense of
dependency, lack of self-reliance, and weakness of character (Sharabi, 1990). Barakat (2008) denotes also that
Arab management practices are a mix of different characteristics: hierarchical authority, rules and regulations
contingent on personality and power of individuals who make them, subordination of efficiency to personal
relations and connections, indecisiveness in decision making, informality among lower level managers, a
generally patriarchal approach and nepotism. Original thinking and creativity are condemned, and
submissiveness and obedience are rewarded. Managers and other employees are not allowed to voice their
concerns or suggestions even within established channels.
Hofstede (2001) argues, however, that when power and rules are combined, they create a situation where
leaders have virtually ultimate authority, and the rules, laws and regulations developed by those in power
reinforce their own leadership and control. Therefore, it is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed
insurrection, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change.
Leading Arab Human Capital through Culture Change
The previous review denotes critical issues for Arab organizations in their quest for progress in a competitive
marketplace, especially that Arab countries are faced with the challenge of developing their populations' skills
and human capital, in order to compete in the 21st century global economy. One major study achieved by
Mohammad Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Foundation (2007) surveyed the opinions of 587 prominent business
leaders from 18 Arab countries on the challenges facing human capital development in Arab countries. The
final report indicates that the Arab regions economic growth over the last decade has not coincided with
equally buoyant labor and human resource development. The mismatch between supply and demand, both in
terms of the quality and quantity of labor available, is amongst the most pressing challenges to Arab
businesses going forward. The Arab Human Capital Challenge clearly demonstrates that without concrete
changes today, future regional growth and development could be severely hindered.
Despite these indications and challenges it can be argued, however, that one major outcome of the
technological communication is that it has changed the face of the Arab world with the recent uprising of
youths in several Arab countries. This uprising has challenged, to a great extent, the argument that Arab
populations have an expectation and acceptance that leaders will separate themselves from the group and this
condition is not necessarily subverted upon the population, but rather accepted by the society as their cultural
heritage.
Discussion and Conclusion
Inspired by research in the field of human capital management, this study argued that in most organizations
today, a knowledge creating culture cannot be developed without the support of higher management. In this
regard, Drucker (1997) confirms that organizations nowadays need a special form of leadership that
recognizes the human capital as an invaluable. These leaders should have strong abilities and skills and should

25

establish commitment to human capital empowerment. Yet, adapting culture to other organizational elements
is also essential to create an organization that fuses the human will of its members in the service of the
organization's objectives. Such an organization creates a high-energy environment by using the mission to
attract and release its members' energy in pursuit of the common goals.
The study provided a theoretical framework summarizing important determining factors and their roles in
creating an effective human capital management in Arab organizations. That is, supportive leadership and
healthy organizational culture are necessary for the success of any initiative to empower human capital in the
Arab region. It is emphasized, therefore, that Arab managers need to recognize that no human resource
management will be successful without a fundamental change in the corporate culture, one that creates an
acceptance and eagerness to do things differently in an ongoing process.
Arab managers and leaders still have the chance to work towards changing their bureaucratic designs and
power orientations in order to develop knowledge creating organizations. Obviously, these difficulties in
transforming the management styles need too much efforts and time, but it is not impossible. Undoubtedly,
2011 is a remarkable year with young Arab people incited an uprising because they are unable to enjoy life's
full opportunities and rewards, in terms of education, work, income and material well-being. The author
believes that the evaluation of the underlying causes of this unprecedented turmoil would recognize that any
major change in Arab leadership or political systems will spill over and influence many other aspects of Arab
societies, among of which Arab management and leadership styles that are required to embrace the required
transformation and keep pace with the rapidly changing environment.
References
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Arab Unity Studies.
.Bass, B. M. (1985), Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1993), Transformational leadership: A response to critiques. In M.M. Chemers &
R. Ayman (eds.), Leadership theory and research: Perspectives and direction (pp. 4988). San Diego, CA:
Academic Press.
Davenport, T.H., Jarvenpaa, S., & Beers, M. (1996), "Improving Knowledge Work Processes", Sloan
Management Review, summer, 53-66.
Drucker, P. F., (2003), The Essential Drucker, New York: Harper Business.
Drucker, P. F. (1997). "The Future that has already happened", Harvard Business Review, 75 (SeptemberOctober), 20-24.
Hansen, M. T., Nohira, N., & Tierney, T. (1999), "Whats your Strategy for Managing Knowledge?" Harvard
Business Review, (March-April), 106-16.
Harrison, R. (1995). The Collected Papers of Roger Harrison, McGraw Hill Book Co.
Hickson, D., and Pugh, D. S. (2002), Management Worldwide: The Impact of Societal Culture on
Organizations around the Globe (2nd ed.), London: Penguin Books.
Hofstede, G. (2001), Cultural Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations
across Nations (2nd ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Kotter, J.P. and Heskett. J. L. (1992), Corporate Culture and Performance, Free Press.
KPMG Management Consulting (1999) Knowledge Management: Research Report 2000, London: KPMG
web site.
March, A. (1997), A Note on Knowledge Management, Harvard Business School Review Notes.
McDermott, R. and ODell, C. (2001), Overcoming cultural barriers to sharing-knowledge,
Journal of Knowledge Management, 5.(1).
Mohammad Bin Rashid Al-Maktoum Foundation (2007), Arab Human Capital Challenge: the voice of CEOs,
in cooperation with PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) Intelligent Strategy Unit. Online from
http://www.mbrfoundation.ae/English/Documents/AHCC-%20English.pdf
.Meek, L.V. (1988), "Organizational Culture, Origins and Weaknesses", Organization Studies, 9 (4), 453-473
Myers, M. (2000), Qualitative Research and the Generalizability Question: Standing Firm with Proteus. The
Qualitative Report, 4 (3/4). Online http://www.nova. edu/ ssss/ QR/ Myers.html
Naisbitt, J. and Aburdene, P., (1991), Megatrends 2000, Avon Books, pp. 161-67.
Nelson, P. and Cohen, E. (2010), Riding the Tiger: Leading through Learning in Turbulent Times, ASTD Press,
Nelson Cohen Global Consulting, online at http://nelsoncohen. com/wpcontent/uploads/2010/03/Organizational_Culture.pdf
ODell, C. and Grayson, C. (1998), Context and Organizational Effectiveness, Harvard Business School
Press.

26

Sabri, H. (2011), Do Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance determine Organizational Structure: A
Culture Bound Versus Culture Free Debate. A Paper Presented at Common Ground's 10th International
Conference on "Knowledge, Culture and Management", Madrid-Spain, 15-17 June 2011. Online
http://www.youtube. com/watch ?v= fcdZ2y9ZVts&feature=mfu_in_order&list=UL
Sabri, H. (2007), Jordanian Managers' Leadership Styles in Comparison with the International Air Transport
Association (IATA) and Prospects for Knowledge Management in Jordan, International Journal of Commerce
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27

The Impact of Global Financial Crisis on the

Economic Growth and Capital Market Returns:
Evidence from Jordan
Hussain Ali Bekhet , Ali Matar
Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN)
Malaysia

Abstract:
The current paper attempts to examine the equilibrium relationship between economic growth and
the capital market return (CMR) with consideration of financial crisis impact in Jordans capital
market for the 1978-2011 period. It Utilized the Autoregressive Distributed lags (ARDL) approach to
test both short-run and co-integration relationship. It, also, combined CUSUM and CUSUMQ tests to
show the stability of that relationship. The empirical results identified that there is a co-integration
between CMR and Jordans macroeconomic variables indicating long-term equilibrium relationship.
In addition, the global financial crisis has a significant negative impact on the CMR.
Keywords: ARDL; Capital Market Return, Global Financial Crisis, Equilibrium Relationship,
Jordan.

28

1. Introduction
The past decennium witnessed the most effective economical crashes since 1929 crisis that is the global
financial crisis (GFC), which stated from USA and spread periodically to other countries. The emerging
capital markets are becoming more integrated with each other and with developed markets (Collins & Biekpe,
2003). Numerous studies have examined the relationship between stock market and the state of the economy.
Furthermore, there is extensive discussion in the finance literature that emerging and developed financial
markets may be able to promote economic growth. The results have shown a positive correlation between the
economic growth and the financial development. Therefore, if the economy is performing well, the stock
market is likely to do the same returns (Kirman, 1992; De Gregorio & Guidotti, 1995).
Past studies have been dedicated to test the impact of economic activities on the capital markets (see, Fama &
Shwert, 1977; Chen & Ross, 1986). Several studies have confirmed long-term equilibrium relationship
between Capital Market Returns (CMR) and relevant macroeconomic variables (Rushdi et al., 2012; Hussain,
2011; Hammoudeh & Sari, 2011; Abugri, 2008; Liu & Shrestha, 2008; Maysami, 2004; Wongbangpo &
Sharma, 2003; and Bilson et al., 2001). Furthermore, numerous studies analyzed the impacts of GFC on the
economic growth and equity markets (see Kenourgios et al., 2011; Moshirian, 2010; Cheung et al., 2010;
Claessens, 2010; Markwat et al., 2009; and Saleem, 2008). In emerging market stock indices have been
characterized as having higher volatility than indices in the more developed markets (Abugri, 2008).
Nonetheless, do both the GFC and macroeconomic variables cause the volatility of emerging markets CMR?
Due to the current decline of the Jordans economy with large budget deficit, this study aims to evaluate the
macroeconomic variables and GFC impacts on the CMR in Amman Stock Exchange (ASE). The ASE a wellestablished, small, open market, providing a case for other emerging markets in the world. The study adopts
ARDL approach to allow for multiple co-integrations and for examining co-integration among variables for
the purposes of evaluations.
Since the macroeconomic variables are important in the economic growth, this study will highlight its impact
on the Jordans capital market to fill this gap in the literature. The ASE becomes one of the most important
markets in the Middle East due to the different developments, innovations and regulations done by sequential
governments. Subsequently, we hypothesized a long-term equilibrium relationship between GDP, M2, DR, &
CPI and CMR. Also, there is a significant relationship between GFC and CMR.
This paper is constructed as follows: The next section reviews the Jordans economy, ASE and GFC. Section
3 presents literature review. Section 4 provides data sources. Section 5 illustrates methodology. Section 6
reports the empirical results while conclusions and policy implications are presented in the last section.
2. Jordans Economy and Financial Crisis
The GFC has resulted in major financial and economic impacts on emerging markets and developing
countries. Some of these countries benefited from their recovered essentials as they were better able to treat
the negative impacts of the crisis on their economies. Whereas, the crisis has also highlighted some specific
financial sector improve challenges for emerging markets and developing countries (Claessens et al., 2010).
In 2007, the GFC started when the mortgage crisis begun in USA then quickly spread to several economies all
over the world. It has been the most destructive global financial crisis, the world has experienced since the
different sequential crisis like, great depression of 1930; the1987 crashes; the 1994 Mexican crisis; Asian
financial crisis 1997; and Russian crisis 1998. However, the crisis plays the most complicated challenge to the
globalization process. It was started as a local problem in USA called (subprime mortgage crisis), then spread
across the whole world and ascended into a GFC. That crisis impacting both economic activities and financial
systems in many countries resulted in a general recession worldwide.
In 2008, with the breakdown of Lehman Brothers Bank and the disturbance on Wall Street, losses spread to
other global financial system like a number of world banks failures, declines in many financial markets stock
indices, and harshly drop in the market value of equities. Therefore, the Arab monetary fund composite index
for Arab stock markets denominated in USD declined by 54.6%. The year 2008 was a disastrous year for most
of the international stock markets with losses exceeding a 40%. World index calculated by Morgan Stanley to
all stock exchanges worldwide (developed and developing) decreased by 43.5% in 2008 comparing with
2007. Whereas, Arab stock markets response were vulnerable to the GFC and it can summarized that most of
them fell down.
In general, the impact of the crisis on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) may be less compared to the
US and western countries. Early impact was visible in some countries with strong links to global financial
markets like Arab gulf countries. Nevertheless, ASE was affected by the GFC in limited manner as compared
to other Arab stock exchanges. Price indices in most of the Arab and international stock exchanges marked
deeper declining rates compared with the ASE (http://www.ase.com.jo/).

29

Billions (JD)

The Central Bank of Jordan has taken preventive steps at the beginning of GFC to support the domestic
money market, including full secure of all bank deposits. Thus, Jordans economy has limited effect from
recent financial crisis avoiding major losses among banks or capital flight. The three most important of Jordan
economy effects are strongly lower global and regional growth outlook, declining global goods prices, oil, and
dropping private capital flows to developing countries. Consequently, Jordans growth rate skid to 3.0-4.0%
during 2009.
During the (20002009) period, Jordans economy has slowed largely due to the global and regional
downturn. The annual real GDP growth averaged about 6%, supported by the implementation of favorable
external conditions and economic policies. It was consistent with the global economic slowdown. In 2009
output growth fell sharply, and economic activity rises up modestly (IMF, 2010).
Pre-Crisis

25
20
15

Post-Crisis

GDP = 2E+09e0.0567x
R = 0.8538

10
5
0
19781980198219841986198819901992199419961998200020022004200620082010

Figure 1: GDP Index for Jordanian Economy for the (1978-2011) period.
Source: World Bank (2012), World indicators (GDP), available at
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD/countries/JO.
Figure 1 reveals the growth rate of Jordanian GDP which was 5.7 percent for the (1978-2011) period. Also, it
shows a gradually upward trend over the targeted period. Despite of the GFC, and other several events during
this study period, Jordanian GDP rate reached JD20.1 billion in 2011. The ASE was established in March
1999 as a nonprofit, private institution with administrative and financial autonomy. It is authorized to function
as an exchange for the trading of securities. The exchange is governed by a seven-member board of directors.
A chief executive officer oversees day-to-day responsibilities and reports to the board.
Jordans capital market classified rank as frontier market according to S&P Country Classification in June
2011(see https://www.sp-indexdata.com). The ASE membership is consisting of Jordans 68 brokerage firms,
248 companies traded on ASE until February 2012. The performance of ASE in the 2009, 2010 and 2011
years was exceptional. The trading value of ASE that ended the trading transactions for these years was JD9.7,
JD6.7, and JD2.9 billion respectively.
Furthermore, Figure 2 shows a gradual development of the market capitalization (MC), value traded (VT) and
the stock price index (SPI) before and after GFC crisis. VT started at JD5.62 million in 1978, rising gradually
to reach the first peak in 2005 with a value of JD16.88 billion then dropped dramatically in 2006 and 2007 to
JD14.21; JD 12.35 billion respectively. In contrast it climbed back to reach the second peak in 2008 with a
value of JD 20.32 billion, then dropped again affected by GFC to reach 181,1million in 2011. Besides, MC
and SPI have taken the same trend with the VT. The growth rates for these indicators (MC, VT, and SPI) were
12.9%, 18.6% and 6.9% respectively (see Figure 2).

30

25
20

Post-Crisis
9000

VT = 2E+07e0.1863x
R = 0.8358

8000
7000
6000

MC = 3E+08e0.1292x
R = 0.9397

15

SPI = 501.82e0.0693x
R = 0.7924
10

5000
4000
3000
2000

1000

0
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

MC & VT in Billions (JD)

30

Pre-Crisis

M
C
V
T

Thousands (SPI Points)

35

Figure 2: Market Capitalization, Value Traded, and SPI of ASE for the (1978-2011) period.
Source: ASE (2012), Major Financial Indicators for the ASE, available at
http://www.ase.com.jo/en/major-financial- indicators-ase.
3. Literature Review
The relationship between CMR and economic growth represented by GDP and other macroeconomic
variables has been extensively researched in developed countries. Yet, there seems to be no assent regarding
the relationship in developing countries. In the current paper, we classify the literature based on the countries.
3.1 Macroeconomic variables and capital markets
In US stock market Karagianni et al. (2012) examined the causality relationship between US GDP and tax
burden on production; imports and personal income. They found that when disaggregated at taxes on
production and imports, taxes on corporate income, become significant determinants in the GDP growth
empirical modeling. Gosnell & Nejadmalayeri (2010) determined that if macroeconomic announcements
affect the Fama-French market, size, and momentum factor and book-to-market risk factors. The result
suggested that Inflation, employment, consumption and business activities have a significant impact on risk
factor volatilities. However, they found that industrial production and GDP influence only the level of the
momentum factor and inflation.
Enisan & Olufisayo (2009) tested the causality long-run relationship among stock market development and
economic growth for seven countries in Africa by employing the ARDL approach. They suggested that the
stock market development is co-integrated and has a significant positive long run impact with economic
growth in Egypt and South Africa. Also, there is a bidirectional relationship between stock market
development and economic growth.
In Australia, Rushdi et al. (2012) figured out the long-term relationship between the real stock return and
inflation by using ARDL approach. They found that the expected inflation had no significant impact on real
stock returns, while the observed inflation had a significant with negative effect.
Maysami (2004) tested the co-integration and the long-term relationship between selected macroeconomics
variables and the Singapore stock index. The results have shown a long-term relationship between stock
market index and selected macroeconomic variables. The same results with the same model were suggested
by Al-Sharkas (2004). He examined the impact of selected macroeconomic variables on ASE. In Thailand,
Nidhiprabha (2010) investigated macroeconomic policy interaction to the GFC. He found fiscal policy is
relatively less effective than monetary policy.
3.2 The impact of GFC on Capital markets
Ha et al. (2001) explored the extent of fundamental factors affecting the financial crisis in Korea by
employing VAR model. They found evidence of non-fundamental components of stock market prices in
Korea causes the sudden decline in stock market prices during the 1997 financial crisis. Chakrabarti & Roll
(2002) compared the Asian stock markets with European markets before and during the 1997 Asian crisis.

31

Their result showed that correlations, volatilities and co-variances are increased from the pre-crisis compare
with the crisis period in both regions, but the percentage increases were much larger in Asia.
Asian financial crisis has been analyzed by using high-frequency data empirically on exchange rates and stock
indices of the Philippines and Thailand (Nagayasu, 2001; Khalid & Kawai, 2003). The results suggested that
the causality of the financial sector index in Thailand occurred in a unique direction. Furthermore, they did not
find strong support for a contagion case and did not claim that there was absolutely no contagion effect
working during the Asian Crises.
By utilizing VAR model, Serwa & Bohl (2005) tested the contagion in European stock markets associated
with seven big financial shocks focuses on a comparison between developed Western European markets and
emerging stock markets in Eastern and Central Europe. They suggested a significant evidence of instabilities
in cross-market linkages after the crises.
Kenourgios et al. (2011) researched the financial contagion in a multivariate time-varying asymmetric
framework, focusing on four emerging financial markets, namely Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRIC) and two
developed markets (U.K. and U.S.A). They found that emerging BRIC markets are more prone to financial
contagion, while the industry specific trouble has a larger impact than country-specific crises.
Excessively, several studies examined the effect of GFC on stock markets (see, for example, Yang & Bessler,
2008; Cheung et al., 2010; Ji, 2010). Yang & Bessler (2008) found that the crash originated in the US market
and an upward movement in the Japanese market after the crash helped the recovery in the US market.
Cheung et al. (2010) found a significant effect from the US market to other global financial markets in Japan,
UK, Hong Kong, Australia and China. Eventually, Ji (2010) suggested that global money markets had failed
to contain stress on the role of the Japanese yen as a liquidity source and US dollar funding appeared to be
significant.
4. Model Specification, Data and Variables
In this paper, the annual data of the CMR for the (1978 2011) period were gathered from ASE database. The
stock returns are based on the closing prices of the last trading day in each year (stock price index). The
macroeconomic variables were selected from the publication of ASE, IMF and CBJ. To explain the
determinants of stock market return in Jordan, we limit this study to selected macroeconomic variables.
The CMR, GDP, CPI and M2 variables have been transformed into natural logarithmic (L). Also, the unit of
variables standardized by utilizing SPSS 20, Microfit 4.1, and E-views 7 packages. Equation (1) represents
CMR as a function of all variables which are used in this study. It follows the standard procedure of time
series data starting from unit root testing by employing the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Phillip
Perron (PP) tests, co-integration and causality tests (mentioned in the next section).
LCMRt = 0 + 1 LGDPt + 2 LM2t + 3 LCPI t + 4 DR t 5 D t + t
(1)
Where: CMR is a measure of the performance of underlying stocks stems from the stock price index, changes
in the index reflect changes in the value of the stocks over the time; 0: constant term; 1,., 5: are the
coefficients of the model; t: is error term.
GDP: is gross domestic product reflects the Jordan economic growth during the study period.
M2: (Money Supply) is the broad amount of money available in an economy usually including currency in
circulation and demand deposits. We assume that M2 has positive impacts on CMR.
CPI: (Consumer Price Index) is a measure of the inflation rate for the consumers in Jordan; it is a rise in the
general prices level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. There is a strong negative
relationship between the inflation and the stock prices (Rangel, 2011).
DR: is the interest rate variable of central bank charges depository institutions that borrow reserves from it
used to represent the monetary policy. Finally, past studies confirmed that there is a negative relationship
between DR and the CMR as a restrictive monetary policy (Jensen & Johnson, 1995; Chen, 2007).
D: Dummy variable represents the GFC that will be analyzed as dummy variables by taking the value of (1)
during the corresponding year of event date and (0) otherwise. The actual stock return on each stock is based
on the stock price index in ASE calculated as follows:
R i,t+1 =

Pi,t+1 - Pi,t

(2)

Pi,t

Where Ri,t+1 is the return on stock i in the year t+1; Pi,t is the closing price of stock i of the year ; Pi,t+1 is the
closing price of stock i in the yeart+1 (Bekhet & Matar , 2012).

32

5. Methodology
Several studies were using Engle and Granger (1987) and Johansen Juselius (1991) techniques to find out the
co-integration between macroeconomic variables and CMR. These techniques require that all variables
(regressors) in the system must be stationary and with the same level of integration; uniform lag length; and
large number of observations. Pesaran et al. (2001) have developed a model to introduce a surrogate cointegration technique known as ARDL bound testing approach.
ARDL approach has many advantages over the previous co-integration techniques. First, it has more proper
considerations than the J-J & Engle-Granger techniques for testing the co-integration among variables in small
sample size (Ghatak & Siddiki, 2001). Comparatively, the Johansen co-integration techniques need large data
sample for validity. Second, no need to examine the non-stationary property and order of integration, this
means that we can apply ARDL whether underlying regressors are purely I(0) or purely I(1), while other cointegration techniques require all the regressors to be integrated of the same order (Pesaran et al., 2001).
Third, the ARDL application allows the variables may have different optimal lags, while it is impossible with
conventional co-integration procedures (Ozturk & Acaravci, 2011). Finally, the ARDL model has become
increasingly popular in recent years (Jayaraman & Choong, 2009).
Basing on these advantages of ARDL model this paper will employ bound test for testing co-integration
among the variables in the current study. To examine the co-integration among variables in matrix form, the
ECM representation of the ARDL approach is formulated for each variable using combinations of first
differences and lagged levels for cointegrated variables and another combination of short and long-run
relationship as the follows:
n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

i=1

i=0

i=0

i=0

i=0

LCMRt = 01 + 11 LCMRt-i + 12 LM2t-i + 13 LGDPt-i + 14 LCPI t-i + 15 DRt-i + 11 L C MRt-1 + 12 L M2t-1 + 13 LGDPt-1 + 14 LC PI t-1 + 15 DRt-1 + 11 Dt + t1
n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

i=1

i=0

i=0

i=0

i=0

LM 2t = 02 + 21 LM 2t-i + 22 LCM R t-i + 23 LGDPt-i + 24 LCPI t-i + 25 DR t-i + 21 L CM R t-1 + 22 L M 2t-1 + 23 LGDPt-1 + 24 LCPI t-1 + 25 DRt-1 + 21 D t + t2
n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

i=1

i=0

i=0

i=0

i=0

LGDPt = 03 + 31 LGDPt-i + 32 LCM R t-i + 33 LM 2t-i + 34 LCPI t-i + 35 DR t-i + 31 L C M Rt-1 + 32 L M 2t-1 + 33 LGDPt-1 + 34 LC PI t-1 + 35 DRt-1 + 31 D t + t3
n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

i=1

i=0

i=0

i=0

i=0

LCPI t = 04 + 41 LCPI t-i + 42 LCM R t-i + 43 LM 2t-i + 44 LGDPt-i + 45 DR t-i + 41 L CM R t-1 + 42 L M 2t-1 + 43 LGDPt-1 + 44 LC PI t-1 + 45 DRt-1 + 41 D t + t4
n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

i=1

i=0

i=0

i=0

i=0

DRt = 05 + 51 DRt-i + 52 LCM Rt-i + 53 LM 2t-i + 54 LGDPt-i + 55 LCPI t-i + 51 L CM R t-1 + 52 L M 2t-1 + 53 L GDPt-1 + 54 LCPI t-1 + 55 DRt-1 + 51 D t + t5

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Where: 01,., 05: are the constant terms; 11,., 55: are the short-term coefficients matrix for the variables;
11,., 55: are the long-term coefficient for the variables; 11,., 51 are the coefficients of the dummy
variable (GFC); and t1,.,t5 are the standard errors for all models (Pesaran, 2009).
For testing the existence of short-term relationship among the above matrix we can formulate the H0 and H1
hypotheses as the following:

H0 : No short term relationship

H1 : Short term relationship

1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 0

11 12 13 14 15 16 0

21 22 23 24 25 26 0

21 22 23 24 25 26 0

31 32 33 34 35 36 0

31 32 33 34 35 36 0

41 42 43 44 45 46 0

41 42 43 44 45 46 0

51 52 53 54 55 56 0

51 52 53 54 55 56 0

61 62 63 64 65 66 0

61 62 63 64 65 66 0

However, for testing the existence of long-run relationship, the H0 and H1 hypotheses have been formulated as
the following:

H0 : No longterm relationship

33

H1 : A longterm relationship

 11 12 13 14 15 16 0

11 12 13 14 15 16 0

21 22 23 24 25 26 0

21 22 23 24 25 26 0

3 1 32 33 34 35 36 0

31 32 33 34 35 36 0

41 42 43 44 45 46 0

41 42 43 44 45 46 0

51 52 53 54 55 56 0

51 52 53 54 55 56 0

61 62 63 64 65 66 0

61 62 63 64 65 66 0

The decision to reject or accept H0 (no co-integration among the variables) is based on the following
procedures (Pesaran et al., 2001):
If Fs > Upper bound then reject H0 and the variables are co-integrated.
If Fs < Lower bound then accept H0 and the variables are not co-integrated. But if Fs Lower bound and
Upper bound then the decision is inconclusive. Where: Fs is: F-statistic value.
6. Results Analysis
6.1 Unit Root Tests
As known, the problems associated with non-stationary time series, the practical question is what do to avoid
the spurious regression problem that may arise from regressing a non-stationary time series. Gujarati & Porter
(2009) confirmed that if we face a non-stationary time series, we have to transform it into stationary by using
the first difference. It is very important to analyze the stationary requirement of the six variables as the
stationarity characteristic is necessary in time series approaches. Tables 1 report the results of ADF and PP
tests, both in levels and in first-differences.
Table 1: Unit Root Tests.

Variables

ADF Level

LCMR
LGDP
LM2
LCPI
DR

1798.0971.08170070077070
970..9-

ADF 1st
Difference
***07.781***070.00***770900***0797.1***479097-

PP 1st
Difference
***07.014***070089***770900***079848***470414-

PP Level
178000970884170070070000
079790-

Order of Integration
I (1)
I (1)
I (1)
I (1)
I (1)

Notes: ***, ** denotes significant level of 1% and 5%, respectively.

Source: output of E.Views Package, version 7.
The results reveal that we cannot reject the (H0) of unit roots for all variables in level forms which is
stationary at I(0). However, the null hypothesis was rejected when the ADF and PP tests was applied to the
first differences of each variable. The first differences of all variables are stationary of order one, I(1). Since
all variables are stationary, now it is appropriate to check whether the variables are co-integrated or not
without any problems like spurious.
6.2 Equilibrium testing of co-integration
To examine if there is an equilibrium relationship among the variables, bound testing approach (ARDL) has
employed (the results presented in Table 2). Choosing the optimal lag length is based on the Schwartz
Bayesian Criterion (SBC) which is minimizing lag and the most suitable for yearly data (Pesaran & Shin,
1999).
Table 2: Bound Testing of Co-integration.

FLC M R (LCM R / LGDP , LM 2, , LCPI, DR)

**07878

Signific
antlevel
%01

FLGDP (LGDP / LCM R , LM 2, LCPI, DR)

*97000

%0

Model

34

F-statistic

Critical bound
Lower Upper

Decision

9700

4709

Co-integration

9797

0710

Inconclusive

%0

47.0

No cointegration

FLM 2 (LM 2 / LCM R , LGDP, LCPI, DR)

070.4

0717

FLCPI (LCPI, /LCM R , LGDP, LM 2, DR)

*47790

Co-integration

FDR (DR, /LCM R , LGDP, LM 2, LCPI)

*47040

Inconclusive

Notes: 1. the critical value bounds are from Table F in Pesaran et al. (2001) Table CI (iii) case (III)
unrestricted intercept and no trend. 2. *,**,***, significant at 10%, 5%, 1% respectively.
Source: Output of Microfit Package, version 4.1.
Table 2 reveals that there is a compelling long-term co-integration relationship among the variables when the
regressions are normalized on LCMR and LCPI models. On the other hand, when the process was repeated for
the other models, the computed F-statistics is less than the upper bound, for the LGDP model the result is
inconclusive because the F-statistic located between upper and lower bound at the 10% level of significance,
the same results obtained in DR model but at the 5% level of significance. However, there is no-co-integration
among the variables when the LM2 is dependent variables.
Subsequently, Table 3 shows that the long-run coefficients are significant for DR only at the 10% level of
significance which signals a negative impact on stock return. In contrast, the rest of variables have
insignificant impact on the LCMR on the long-term. Furthermore, all coefficients have a correct sign as we
discussed in Section 4 except for the LGDP and LCPI variables.
Table 3: Long-Run Coefficient of the LCMR.

LCMR is dependent variable

LCM R t 0.048 0.013 LGDPt -1 + 0.097 LM 2t -1 + 0.207 L CPI t -1 0.023 DR t -1 0.133D

t-value
p-value

07004]17047[

17944
]17000[

179.4
]17484[

*07997]171.0[

07709]17000[

Note: ***, **, * denotes 1%, 5% and 10%. level of significance, respectively.
Source: Output of Microfit Package, version 4.1.
Moreover, Table 4 represents the results of the short-term dynamics equilibrium relationship between the
LCMR and the regressors. The error correction terms (Ectt-1) indicates the speed adjustment back to
equilibrium in the dynamic model. When Ectt-1 is significant with a negative sign in the short-run model
confirms the existence of a long-term equilibrium relationship among the variables (Nayaran, 2005). The
magnitudes of the coefficients of Ectt-1 denote the speed of adjustment in correcting any disequilibrium in the
short-term and then the economy can return to its equilibrium (Pesaran & Pesaran, 2009). The Ect t-1
coefficient is found to be negative and significant [-0.345, 0.002] which is highly significant at 1% level with
correct sign. This implies that 35% of disequilibrium from previous year can return to long-term equilibrium
in the current year. In addition, the regressions for the underlying ARDL model passed the diagnostic tests of
normality, serial correlation, functional form and hetroscedasitcity which reveal no evidence of any
misspecification.
Subsequently, the finding suggested that there is a negative impact of GFC on the LCMR in Jordan at the 10%
level of significant, since the p-value of the dummy variable and has negative sign. This finding is consistent
with the literature (see, Li et al., 2008; Chakrabarti & Roll, 2002; Kenourgious et al., 2011; and Dungey et al.,
2006). On the other vein, it is inconsistent with some studies like Khalid & Kawi (2003) and Nagayasu
(2001).
Table 4: Error Correction Estimation, LCMR is Dependent Variable.
L C M R t = - 0 .0 1 6 + 0 .8 1 8 L G D P + 0 .0 0 4 L G D P * t -1 0 .0 3 3 L M 2 t 0 .0 4 6 L M 2 t -1 ***
t

+ 0 .0 7 1 L C P I t 0 .0 0 8 D R t * 0 .0 4 6 * D 0 .3 4 5 E C T t -1 ***
2
Serial Correlation (1) =.[0.262]

= [0.897]
D=[-0.08]

2
Functional Form (1) =.[0.985]

2
Heteroscedasticity (1) =.[0.113]

D-W = 2.289

Note: ***, **, * denotes 1%, 5% and 10%. Level of significance, respectively.

35

2
Normality (2)

p-value of the

Source: Output of Microfit Package, version 4.1.

Plot of Cumulative Sum of Squares of Recursive Residuals
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
1979

1987

1995

2003

2010

The straight lines represent critical bounds at 5% significance level

Finally, to check the estimated ARDL model stability of the long-run coefficients with the short-run dynamics
between LCMR and its determinants, we apply the cumulative sum of recursive residuals CUSUM and the
cumulative sum of squares CUSUMQ (Brown et al., 1975; Pesaran & Pesaran, 1997; and Bahmani-Oskooee
& Bohl, 2000). If the plot of CUSUM and CUSUMSQ statistic stays within 5% range of significance level
(within the two straight lines) the null hypothesis that all coefficients in the error correction model are stable
and cannot be rejected (Bahamni-Oskooee & Ng, 2002). If either of the lines is crossed, the null hypothesis of
coefficient constancy can be rejected at the 5% level of significance. Figure 5 reveals that the plot of both
CUSUM and CUSUMQ statistics stays within the critical boundaries showing stability of the long-run
coefficient of the LCMR function. Thus, all coefficient are stable which reflects the stability of the LCMR and
its determinants.

Plot of Cumulative Sum of Recursive Residuals

20

10

-10

-20
1979

1987

1995

2003

2010

The straight lines represent critical bounds at 5% significance level

Figure 5: Plots of CUSUM and CUSUMQ Underwriting LCMR.

Source: Output of Microfit package.
7. Conclusion and Policy Implications
This study has examined the relationship between stock return and its determinants with respect of the GFC
impact. It has applied the ARDL time series approach on ASE annual data for the (1978-2011) period to test
the co-integration among the variables. The empirical results provided strong evidence to reject the null
hypotheses of unit roots in all series under investigation. The results imply that CMR in the short-term
affected by M2 and DR only. These findings reflect the disequilibrium of the Jordans economy in the short
run. In addition, the ECM coefficient determines the speed of adjustment which has a highly significant
negative sign. Thus, the results are consistent with the hypothesis, where the CMR is found to have a short
and long-term significant relationship with the selective variables. The results of ARDL approach revealed the
existence of long-term equilibrium relationship between the CMR and macroeconomic variables.
Moreover, the findings suggest a negative significant impact of GFC on the CMR at 10% level of
significance. The CUSUM and CUSUMQ stability tests also show that the coefficients of the error correction
model are stable. Subsequently, these results are consistent with the earlier findings (see, Hammoudeh & Sari,

36

2011; Rushdi, 2012; Maysami, 2004; Birz & Loh, 2011; Hussain, 2011; Bilson et al. 2001; Wongbangpo &
Sharma, 2003; Bekhet & Matar 2012; Bekhet & Mugableh, 2012; and Bekhet & Al-Smadi, 2012).
In the current study, it adds to the existing literature by employing the most popular approach in examining
co-integration among financial variables in ASE. In addition, studying the relationship between the
macroeconomic indicators and the stock return can shed some light on the stock markets response to
macroeconomic factors for similar emerging markets. Therefore, it can be claimed that CMR variability is
basically linked to economic variables, through the change in stock return that lags behind economic
activities. Finally, for further studies, we suggest more factors that may cause the obvious structural breaks on
CMR such as, FD, wars, terrorist attacks, and the revolutions especially the recently Arab spring).
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39

The Relationship Between Public Bus

Transportation Service and Customer Satisfaction
Mahmoud Khalid Almsafir
Tenaga National University
Malaysia

Abstract:
This research aims to investigate the relationship between public bus transportation service and
customer satisfaction in the social routes of Tmn Universiti Indah to Serdang KTM Komuter, Sri
Serdang to Serdang KTM Komuter and Tmn Sungai Besi Indah to Serdang KTM Komuter. The
study is mainly focused on the population who resides within these social routes. Despite having
public bus transport for the residential social route for the residents to commute in their routine
travel, the service has not brought a complete remedy to eradicate the exacted measures above. For
reasons such as increasing disposable incomes and poor management of the public transportation
system, the number of vehicles has grown unabated and in fact, is aided by various contradictory
policy measures such as national car projects and the existence of fuel subsidies. This research is
performed with the objective of learning the satisfaction level in public bus transportation service of
the population within the above mention social routes and adapting it with a more appropriate
approach of public bus transport service. This will then enhance the traffic flow as well as all other
road user to gain better efficiency in their travel time and needs. The population selected in this
research is based on the probability sampling. Surveys of 470 respondents are used in this research
paper to gather data. The methodologies used in this research are descriptive, reliability and
correlation to analyze these data. The result expected is to understand the gap in the current
transportation service and provide the scope of improvement areas that will help policy makers as
well as the Rapid KL the remedy as to how they can increase their customer satisfaction, hence
inducing the usage of the public bus transportation service. Enhancement in the planning of public
transportation service and inducing their usage is recommended. This will reduce the needs of
travelling with privately owned vehicles and encourage a greener Malaysia.
Keywords: Punctuality, Service Quality, Information and Customer Satisfaction, Malaysia.

40

1. Introduction
Public bus transportation is a passenger transport service for intercity and commuter towns that draws
a large number of people who travel on a daily basis. Public buses are usually optimized for maximum
passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and luggage space, though they seldom
have all the amenities of long-distance express buses. The public transportation is all modes provided by the
government to the public such as buses, taxis, monorail, train and others. These services by the government
are aligned with their objective of providing more convenience towards people for urban and rural areas to
move (White, 2002).
RapidKL (2012) In Malaysia, public bus transport are operated by a few service providers, namely
Causeway Link, Metrobus Nationwide, Rapid KL, Rapid Penang and others. This research focuses on the
Rapid KL public bus transportation service around Cheras - Kajang - Sg.Besi Putrajaya (Zone 4). The routes
that are used for this research purpose will be based on buses around Serdang residential area to KTM
Komuter Serdang, Malaysia. Rapid KL, short for Rangkaian Pengangkutan Integrasi Deras Sdn Bhd, is a
government-owned company which was formed in 2004 as part of the restructuring of the public transport
system in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia's capital. Rapid KL is the operator of Kuala Lumpur's two light rail transit
(LRT) lines, is the largest stage bus (regular or trunk bus route) and feeder bus service in Kuala Lumpur. In
Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding suburban areas, Rapid KL is a popular mode of transport for commuters
working in Kuala Lumpur as they can travel to the city without being caught in traffic congestion. Due to the
rapid growth of urbanization in Malaysia, there existed an increase in economic activities which led to the
increased trips made and longer distance. Therefore, many users choose to use private transportation in order
to improve their access to urban services, and before long, existing road capacity are pushed to its limit
resulting in severe traffic congestion. An increased private motorization has resulted in an increased traffic
congestion which in turn results in longer travel times for many people (Beiro & Sarsfield-Cabral, 2007; Asri
& Hidayat, 2005). In order to prevent more problems caused by this increase in motorization it is highly
recommended by many researchers as well as public decision makers to provide an attractive public transport
service as an alternative transport mode in many cities. Public transport should become part of a solution for
sustainable transport in the future. However, in order to keep and attract more passengers, public transport
must have a high service quality to satisfy and fulfill more wide range of different customers needs (Oliver,
1980; Anable, 2005).
Malaysia saw significant improvements in public transportation last year as the Government stepped
up efforts to realize its aspiration for public transport to become the mode of choice for urban commuters. A
survey by the Performance Management and Delivery Unit (Pemandu) revealed that public transport user
satisfaction increased by 3% in 2011 from 50% in the previous year. Among the key successes was the
introduction of 470 new Rapid KL buses, which increased the frequency of buses across the Klang Valley,
resulting in 4.04 million more passengers using the service compared to the previous year. This paper intends
to explain the relationship between punctuality, service quality and information of public bus transportation
and customer satisfaction within the selected routes as mentioned above.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Customer Satisfaction
This part presents some theories from the literature which regards customer satisfaction in public bus
transportation as one of the research variables for this paper
Edvardsson (1998) showed in his research that customer dissatisfaction or satisfaction depends on the
usage of the information that the business can dig out from its customers. One way is through complaints. He
found that the driver plays a significant role on the dissatisfaction or satisfaction of the customer. The driver
usually does not know the customers needs and expectations. In many cases it is something that leaves the
driver indifferent to this. Also, he showed that the combination of information and the driver is the key
success for customer satisfaction, as the driver is the main means of interaction with the customers. Moreover,
he found a singularity, where he noticed that the unhappy and dissatisfied customers continued to utilize
public transportations and that was because of the nature of public transportation. Moreover, friendliness of
the personnel especially bus driver behavior in relation to service frequency has an impact on customer
satisfaction. Friendliness behavior of the bus driver can satisfy customers by developing better communication
and knowledge of its customers needs (Disney, 1998).
Additionally, Andreassen (1995) claimed that customer dissatisfaction or satisfaction in public
transportation depends on three things: ticket price, price level and, finally, the layout of the platform or the
station, especially for buses. Furthermore, he separates customers in two categories: one category are the ones

41

who use public transportation very often and they are considered expertise users, to those who are not often
users and they are not considered expertise. He found that dissatisfaction or satisfaction varies according to
the above 3 elements (price level, ticket price and layout) to 2 categories of customers. Expertise users
consider those 3 factors very important in contrast to those who are not expertise in the use of public
transportation. To conclude, underlining that public transportation is an area with low utility (low customer
satisfaction) due to low rate of accordance between customer needs and the provided services.
Moreover, reliability and convenience are these factors which are considered to be important in
customer satisfaction. Specifically, reliable and convenience transportation means increase customer
satisfaction (Cavana & Corbett, 2007). Furthermore, reliability, travel time and comfort are considered to have
a great impact on customer satisfaction in relation with the type of the trip. For instance, those who utilize
buses for professional reasons consider time as the most important dimension and particularly in buses. An
interesting result is that the price of the ticket is not considered being significant and does not affect customer
satisfaction directly (Beirao & Sarsfield-Cabral et al., 2007).
Another thing, according to Anderson (2010) which affects customers satisfaction is the operation
failures of the services. An operation failure, such as a possible delay of a transportation means, creates bias to
customers, resulting to unsatisfied customers. Also, he showed that, customers have the trend to blame the
service provider for everything that happens, even if the service failure is affected by external or internal
factors. On one hand, it showed that interaction has a major impact between customers and personnel and
creates satisfaction and on the other hand operation failures reduce the interaction between customers and
personnel, and that is because customers are becoming biased by the workforce of a public transportation
company.
Focusing on factor time Bielen & Demoulin (2007) showed that customer satisfaction is being
determined by dimension waiting time, in which 3 determinants are included; perceived waiting time,
satisfaction which is related with information in occasion of delays and finally with satisfaction which is
related with the waiting environment. As long as the above 3 determinants function well, customers will stay
satisfied. Also, waiting time is considered to be crucial as it plays an intermediate role between satisfaction
and loyalty link.
Moving into this direction Dziekan & Kottenhoff (2007) presented that at stop, real-time information
displays affect customer satisfaction by influencing several dimensions. Specifically, perceived waiting time
is being reduced as customers with real time information overrate their waiting time by 9-13% compared to
24-30% without taking account of real time information. Furthermore, it has positive psychological effects
and particularly, it decreases uncertainty and stress as customers know the actual department time, it increases
the feeling of security of customers especially at night and it finally increases the easiness of use as customers
want to economize efforts when they make a trip. Additionally, it increases willingness to pay and it creates
an adjusting travel behavior as customers can utilize its waiting time constructively or can achieve more
effective travelling. Moreover, real time information displays create mode choice, as a result of the
augmentation of patronage leading finally to new customers.
In addition, bus route frequency has a major impact on customers satisfaction. In particular,
increasing route frequency in strategic bus channels can lead to an increase in customers satisfaction and bus
patronage. Moreover, an improvement to the existence services in the bus or present new buses is a way for
customer satisfaction to be achieved (Wall & McDonald, 2007). Furthermore, Tyrinopoulos & Antoniou
(2008) showed that service frequency, vehicle cleanness and coverage of network are the most important
dimensions for customer satisfaction followed by waiting conditions and tidiness, especially in buses.
Thompson & Schofield (2007) related customer satisfaction with destination. In particular, ease of use of
public transportation is the most significant factor which affects directly customers satisfaction in relation to
the destination. Finally, time and safety are not considered as being crucial for customer satisfaction in
relation to the destination.
Recently, Gopal & Cline (2007) underline, on one hand the importance of CRM (Customer
Relationship Management) in public transportation as they consider emotions to be the key factor for
customers buying decisions and CRM is a tool which can help management to evaluate actions and behaviors
about its customers, and also provide better services, if management faces as the core of CRM tool, the key
element which increases satisfaction and that is, emotions. On the other hand, it is mentioned that
transportation companies fail to face CRM as a tool for serving better their customers as they affront CRM as
a means of gathering data and information about purchases and other activities which concern their customers
and they do not try to explain the reason of these behaviors or feelings. The result of this action is unsatisfied
customers.

42

The examination of the literature provide some interested results: Beginning, customer satisfaction is
an ambiguous area with no conceptual framework, especially in public transportation. However, there are
some critical points which can be considered important especially, in public transportation. In particular,
behavior of personnel and specifically behavior of bus driver, frequency of services, reliability of services as
well as time and particularly waiting time seemed to be the most crucial factors affecting customer satisfaction
within other.
2.2 Public Bus Transportation Service
Public transportation is all modes provided by the government to the public such as buses, taxis,
monorail, train and others. These services are provided by the government in order to give more convenience
towards people for urban and rural areas to move (White et al., 2002). Current state of Malaysias public
transport especially public bus is perceived of unable to meet citizens needs satisfactorily. Many claim that if
the public transport is being improved, they are willing to use it instead of paying for outrageous petrol prices
and tolls and ending up stuck in traffic jams (Kamba, 2007). Before the rapid growth in the number of private
vehicles, the percentage of public bus user in Klang Valley was higher; 34% in 1985, and later 20% in 1997.
By January 2010, the percentage decreased to 10%. The Malaysian Government introduced the Government
Transformation Programme (GTP) in accordance with the principles of 1Malaysia, People First, Performance
Now to improve the public transport in certain populated areas. In June 2010, the percentage of public bus
user in Klang Valley has increased to 12%. The governments target is to achieve 13% modal share by 2010
and 25% by 2012 (GTP Roadmap, 2010).
2.2.1 Punctuality
Punctuality is defined in terms of time arrival and departure of the mode of transport service used by a
passenger. Reliability of transportation system can be defined as the ability of the system to adhere to a
schedule or maintain regular headways and a consistent travel time; in other words, as the on-time/punctuality
performance and headway evenness (Chen, 2009). For Malaysian Ministry of Transportation, the reliability of
public transport is defined as the percentage of journey times completed within 60 minutes during the morning
peak period (GTP Roadmap et al., 2010). Reliability is well attested for its importance in attributing the level
of service quality for transportation (Bates, 2009). It is an important element in service quality; it is shown in
previous study that the public bus service reliability has a preference to the user in determining the perception
and expectation towards the particular bus service. This is further illustrated in the service of quality attributes
and levels in this case, therefore this indicate user not satisfied with the punctuality or reliability of the public
service because the bus lateness to reach to the destination (Eboli & Mazzula, 2008). The problems also faced
by the people in urban areas which in Kuala Lumpur capital of Malaysia, the bus was still late despite the
route stating that the bus would arrive every 15 minutes, but the user waiting until half an hour. This is
punctuality problems faced by the public buses in Malaysia (The Star, 2008).
2.2.2 Service Quality
The concept of service quality is regarding outcomes, satisfaction and other intangibles of public
transport expectations and along with the facilities and more tangible aspect of public transports physical
elements (Fodness & Murray, 2007). Service quality also involves the perception and expectation of the
service level delivered to the user which meets their needs. The service quality also regards the consumer
expectations on service environments, process and the output quality they can see themselves and received
(Kiew & Chee, 2002).
This issue showed even thou the public transportation is modernized in the urban areas, the service
quality is still lacking and not well implemented. This will lead to negative perception and non-satisfactory of
consumer using the public transports (Thompson & Schofield, 2002). Cleanliness and comfortable of the
public transport is one of the appearances which focuses on the cleanliness of interior, seats and windows of
the particular public transport. The perception assessment of input quality would include consideration of
whether the equipment seem up to date and in good working order; whether waiting areas were appropriately
furnished, cleaned, whether service providers were appropriately attired. The knowledge and skills possessed
by employees represent important inputs to service production. This shows the service quality in the public
transport focuses in tangible dimensions. The physical appearances such as the condition of the interior in the
public transport are one of the measurements in service quality. Reliability is focusing on frequencies and
punctuality of the public transport arriving on time and able to meet the expectation of the user. Reliability
means the ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately. This reliability dimension of
quality in the public transport is focuses on frequencies of the public transport available in the particular areas.
The measuring arrival of the public transport at the destination on time is of limited usefulness and will give
positive impact towards the public expectation and perceptions (Parasuraman, 1988). Based on the best value

43

perspective the measurement of service quality in the service sector should take the customer expectations of
service as well as perceptions of service into consideration. One service quality measurement model that has
been extensively applied is the SERVQUAL model developed by Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1986, 1988, 1991,
1993, 1994; Zeithaml et al., 1990). However a criticism on the SERVQUAL instrument is that the 22
associated attributes have been deemed inappropriate, or that they cannot be simply adopted for measuring
service quality in all service industries (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Lai & Chen, 2010).
2.2.3. Information
Another service aspect affecting transit service quality is linked to the availability of information
pertinent to the planning and execution of a journey. Passengers need to know how to use transit service,
where the access is located, where to get off in the proximity of their destination, whether any transfers are
required, and when transit services are scheduled to depart and arrive. Without this information, potential
passengers will not be able to use transit service (Transportation Research Board, 2003). Beirao & SarsfieldCabral (2007) found that several respondents think that the bus system is difficult to use and information is
difficult to obtain; among bus users, the main problem occurs when bus companies change timetables or
routes and do not provide enough information to users. In recent years, many transit agencies have taken steps
for increasing and improving transit service information. Pre-trip information helps the rider to plan routes
and connections. Pre-trip information consist the location of the nearest bus stop, routes that travel to the
desired destination and transfer locations, fare, time of departure, and approximate duration of the trip. Intransit information assists the rider at each decision point during the trip (Transportation Research Board,
1995). In Eboli & Mazzulla (2011) an indicator of the attribute availability of schedule/maps on bus, and
announcements was calculated as the ratio of the number of vehicles with functioning information device on
board to the total number of vehicles sampled in a certain time period; a trained checker verifies the
functioning of the information devices on different days. In addition, an indicator of the attribute availability
of schedule/maps at bus stops was evaluated on the basis of a score assigned to each stop of a line, from a
minimum value of 0 to a maximum value of 10. The minimum value was assigned to the stops without any
kind of information device at the stop; the maximum value to the stops with schedule and maps. The indicator
was calculated as average value of the scores assigned to all the line stops.
3. Methodology

3.1.
Conceptual Framework
Fig.1. Model of the conceptual framework
3.2. Hypothesis
A public bus transportation service that is able to improve its services would be able to increase
sustain customers. Previous researches have shown that improvements in punctuality, service quality and
information of public bus transportation would lead to higher customer satisfaction of public bus
transportation users in Malaysia. The study was conducted under the framework as shown in Fig.1. It
demonstrates the variables of Public Bus Transportation Service and Customer Satisfaction that were used in

44

the study. In line with the view suggested in the literature, the study formulated the research hypotheses as
below.
H1: There is significant relationship between public bus transportation service and customer
satisfaction
H1a: There is significant relationship between punctuality of public bus transportation service and customer
satisfaction.
H1b: There is significant relationship between service quality of public bus transportation service and
customer satisfaction.
H1c: There is significant relationship between information of public bus transportation service and customer
satisfaction.
3.3. Measurement of the variables
SERVQUAL as the most often used approach for measuring service quality has been to compare
customers' expectations before a service encounter and their perceptions of the actual service delivered
(Gronroos, 1982; Lewis and Booms, 1983; Parasuraman et al., 1985). The SERVQUAL instrument has been
the predominant method used to measure consumers perceptions of service quality. It has five generic
dimensions or factors and are stated as follows (van Iwaarden et al. , 2003):
(1) Tangibles. Physical facilities, equipment and appearance of personnel.
(2) Reliability. Ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately.
(3) Responsiveness. Willingness to help customers and provide prompt service.
(4) Assurance (including competence, courtesy, credibility and security). Knowledge and courtesy of
employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence.
(5) Empathy (including access, communication, understanding the customer). Caring and individualized
attention that the firm provides to its customers.
In the SERVQUAL instrument, 22 statements (Appendix I) measure the performance across these
five dimensions, using a seven point likert scale measuring both customer expectations and perceptions
(Gabbie and O'neill, 1996). It is important to note that without adequate information on both the quality of
services expected and perceptions of services received then feedback from customer surveys can be highly
misleading from both a policy and an operational perspective. In the following, the application of
SERVQUAL approach is more specified with an example in a catering company.
3.4. Data Screening
In this study, the Cronbachs alpha, which is the most common reliability test, was used to test the reliability of
the data collected. The data are using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software using
frequency analysis, reliability analysis and correlation analysis.
3.4.1. Demographic Analysis
Respondents for the present study were 470 users of public bus transportation in Serdang, Malaysia.
From these individuals, only 274 respondents were male, while the rest comprised of female respondents.
About 62.4% of the respondents are Malaysians and the rest are non-Malaysian. 31.5% consists of Malay
respondents, 13.8% are Indians, 16% are Chinese and 26.3% consists of other races. Of the subjects, only 10
percent were represented by the age of 18 years old and below, as for the 18 25 years old are 21 percent,
next is 26 33 years old are 33 percent, 34-41 years old are 20.1 percent, 41- 48 years old are 11.2 percent
and lastly the age level for 49 years old and above are 2.2 percent. As for the marital status, only 49.3% are
single meanwhile 38.2% are married. About 4.8 percent of the respondents are primary school students, 25.7
percent are secondary school students, 2 percent of the respondents are currently pursuing their
Foundation/Pre-U/A-Level/O-Level, 24.6 percent are diploma holders, 9.7 percent are Bachelor holders, 5.2
percent and 0.7 percent of the respondents are Masters and PHD holders. However there are 14.7 percent of
the respondents are with other/unknown education level.
3.4.2. Reliability Analysis
Most of the variables showed an acceptable range of reliability. Basically, reliability coefficients of
0.7 or more are considered adequate (Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978). Nevertheless, it is important to
mention that this may decrease to 0.6 in exploratory research (Hair, Black, Babin, Rolph, Anderson &
Tatham, 2006; Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991), which fits in the specific study. The scale exhibiting

45

reliability values of greater than 0.7 can be accepted straightway. It can therefore be concluded that the
constructs are reliable for exploratory research purposes as illustrated by Table 3.1
Table 3.1
Reliability Coefficients for the major variables
Variable

N=400

Number of items
5
5
5
10

Cronbach Alpha
.750
.816
.719
.668

Punctuality (P)
Service Quality (SQ)
Information (I)
Customer Satisfaction (CS)
3.4.3. Normality Analysis
Table 3.2 illustrates the descriptive statistics for the sample of the study showing the mean, skewness
and kurtosis. The descriptive statistics represent all the independent variables which are Punctuality, Service
Quality, Information used to examine the relationship of Customer Satisfaction. The normality of the data was
assessed using the skewness and kurtosis statistics derived from the descriptive statistics which should have a
range of -1 and +1. If the range is between this range, then the distribution is normally distributed and
therefore there is no need for transforming the data to normal distribution in order to perform the necessity
statistical tests.
One of the variables which is the Service Quality variable was found to be far beyond the normal distribution
of -1 and +1 range of normality, thus the normality assumption is violated. Therefore this variable was
transformed in order to obtain the normal score data. Table 3.2: shows the variables after transformation of the
data into normal score. Consequently, the assumption of normality is met.
Table 3.2: Statistics
Punctuality
Service_Quality
Information
Customer_Satisfaction
Valid
470
470
470
470
N
Missing
67
67
67
67
4.1664
1.4193
4.0906
Mean
3.9362
560.2.377516.Skewness
467. 113.
0.113
113.
Std. Error of Skewness
113.
735.
9.161
159.Kurtosis
248.
225.
225.
225.
Std. Error of Kurtosis
225.
3.4.4. Correlations Analysis
In this section, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
among the study variables. In addition, it identifies significant that opposites the potential value of the error
from first type, and it is the amount probability uncertainty value is at significance (0.05) and (0.01) to
determine the moral differences between the study variables. The statistical results are shown in Table 1,
which verifies the hypothesis, that is, there are significant correlations between the Punctuality, Service
Quality and Information of Public Bus Transportation Service with Customer Satisfaction.
3.5. Sample and Analysis
The sample of this study is the public bus transportation users in Serdang, Malaysia. To obtain
representativeness and generalizability of the findings, users of public bus were selected by using a nonrandom sampling technique to participate in this study. The public bus companies that were selected to
participate in this research are Rapid KL and Metrobus Nationwide. Questionnaires were completed by
the respondents fully voluntary and responses were unknown. Cover letter was attached with the questionnaire
explaining the objective of the study and encouraged them to participate in the study.
All statistical analyses will be carried out using the SPSS statistical computer package. The analyses
that are going to be examined in the study will include:
1. Cronbach Alpha To view the reliability of the measurement.
2. Frequency analysis To analyze the pattern of respondents background.
3. Reliability analysis To analyze if the data is reliable.
4. Descriptive analysis To analyze the public bus passengers satisfaction on the public bus transportation
service in terms of punctuality, service quality and information.

46

5. Normality analysis To determine the normal scores of data

6. Correlation To see if there are an relationship between public bus transportation service and customer
satisfaction.
3.6. Questionnaire Design
The researcher uses descriptive study because the researcher wanted to gaze any relationship between
Punctuality, service quality and information of public bus transportation and customer satisfaction. The
instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire survey. There are all 3 sections inside the questionnaire
and consist of thirty-one (31) questions. The first section is section A, which has six (6) questions referring to
demographics information of respondents, next is section B with five (5) questions referring to punctuality,
five (5) more for service quality and another five (5) for information. Lastly is section C with ten (10)
questions referring to customer satisfaction? All the questions are closed-ended in form. The questionnaire is
structured and closely follows the arrangement of the questions. The questionnaire is structured through Likert
Scale. There are five scales that will be used to identify the answer. The Likert scale is classified as below:5=strongly agree; 4= agree; 3= neutral; 2= disagree; 1= strongly disagree

Data Collection .3.7

The sample of this study is the users of public bus transportation in Serdang, Malaysia. 500 questionnaires
surveys are conducted where the completion of these questionnaires was entirely voluntary and responses
were anonymous. Cover letter is attached with the questionnaire explaining the objective of the study and
encouraged them to participate in the study. 470 questionnaires were collected with a total resulted in 94.00%
response rate. The questionnaire data are analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
software using frequency analysis, reliability analysis and correlation analysis.
4. Findings
4.1 Testing Hypothesis
H1: There are significant correlations public bus transportation service and customer satisfaction.
H1a: There is a significant relationship between punctuality and customer satisfaction.
Statistical results of the correlation between public bus transportation service and customer satisfaction are
shown in table 1. Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value on the relationship between punctuality and
customer satisfaction was 0.566** at a significance smaller than 0.01. It is a significant positive correlation.
This means punctuality has moderate significant correlation with customer satisfaction based on Guilfords
theory. This in turn supports the sub-hypothesis mentioned above.
H1b: There is a significant relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction
Statistical results of the correlation between public bus transportation service and customer satisfaction are
shown in table 1. Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value on the relationship between service quality
and customer satisfaction was 0.400** at a significance smaller than 0.01. It is a significant positive
correlation. This means service quality has moderate significant correlation with customer satisfaction based
on Guilfords theory. This in turn supports the sub-hypothesis mentioned above.
H1c: There is a significant relationship between information and customer satisfaction
Statistical results of the correlation between public bus transportation service and customer satisfaction are
shown in table 1. Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value on the relationship between information and
customer satisfaction was 0.590** at a significance smaller than 0.01. It is a significant positive correlation.
This means information has moderate significant correlation with customer satisfaction based on Guilfords
theory. This in turn supports the sub-hypothesis mentioned above.
Table 4.1: The Correlation result between Public Bus Transportation Service and
Customer Satisfaction
Total Customer
Variables
Satisfaction
0.566**
Rs
Punctuality
0.000
Sig
Service Quality
Public Bus
0.400**
Rs
Transportation
Sig
0.000
Service
Information
0.590
Rs
0.000
Sig

47

Total Public
Bus Transportation

0.570**
0.000

Rs
Sig

As the statistical results shown in Table 4.1, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value on the
relationship between total public bus transportation service and the total customer satisfaction is 0.570** at a
significance smaller than 0.01. It is a significant positive correlation. This means public bus transportation
service has strong significant correlation with customer satisfaction. This in turn supports the first main
hypothesis mentioned above.
5. Conclusion
This paper is basically a review on city bus service in Serdang, Selangor Malaysia. From the review,
it is found that the value of the findings obtained identifies the relation between public bus transportation
service of punctuality, service quality and information with customer satisfaction. A questionnaire survey was
conducted, the survey is intended to evaluate the quality of bus service and the resulting passengers
satisfaction. The evaluation is limited to information discovered during data gathering and the questionnaire
survey. Hence the researcher has found that there could be other variables that can have an impact on
customer satisfaction using the public bus transportation service in Serdang and the total number of public bus
passengers in Serdang is unidentified, therefore should be determined in future study. This paper is an extract
for an ongoing research about Public Bus Transportation Service in Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
This study can be done and replicated in different locations. This could be accomplished by
conducting the research in larger metropolitan areas or combinations of several locations enabling the use of
the random sample that will represent the population in more clarity. The future researchers are suggested to
include more variables which are not examined in this study. Furthermore, future research should investigate
the reasons which leads to the low level of Customer Satisfaction in terms of Service Quality in the Public Bus
Transportation Service. This research has limitation to the indipendent variables, location and sample used to
derive the results of this paper. Hence the above mentioned recommendations for future research could
overcome this limitations.

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49

Human Capital Indicators within Middle East

University
Dr. Abdel-Aziz Ahmad Sharabati
Middle East University
Jordan

Prof. Dr. Abdul-Naser Ibrahim Nour

Middle East University
Jordan

Abstract:
Purpose: The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of Human Capital (HC) on Middle East
University's (MEU) Business Performance (BP(.
Design/Methodology/Approach: To fulfill the purpose of this study, practical data were collected
from 106 students out of about 3017 students, by means of a questionnaire. Statistical techniques
such as descriptive statistics, t-test, ANOVA test, correlation, multiple regressions and stepwise
regressions were employed. To confirm the suitability of data collection instrument, a KolmogorovSmirnov (K-S) test, Cronbachs Alpha and factor analysis were used.
Findings/Results/Conclusions: The results of the study indicated a positive significant relationship
between HC and MEUs BP. The results also showed that the respondents were almost similar in
their preferences of the L&E indicators over E&E and I&C indicators. Moreover, the results also
indicated that the respondents believed that L&E and E&E are positively and directly affect the
MEU's BP, while they do not believe that I&C affects MEU's BP. However, the E&E was the most
important, followed by L&E, while still they have a lot of work to improve I&C indicators. Finally,
empirical results indicated that there are strong inter-relationships and interactions among the three
components of HC.
Research Limitations/Recommendations: The use of a single organization and/or a single industry
study design limits its generalisability to other organizations and/or industries. Extending the
analyses to other settings represent future research opportunities .

50

Introduction and Literature Review:

Definition of HC:
People knowledge and skills are known as human capital (HC), HC is the core of intellectual capital (IC). Rephann
et. al. (2009) defined HC as the stock of knowledge and skills embodied in labor as a result of training and
education that improves labor productivity. While, Westphalen (2009) said: HC can be defined strictly within an
economic context as a production factor. Moreover, Koednok (2011) added: HC is an economic term used to
describe the skills and knowledge that individuals draw upon to generate outputs of value, such as innovation and
productivity in job performance. Furthermore, Choudhury and Nayak (2011) pronounced: People are the
organizations greatest asset, providing the intellectual capital (IC) that drives differentiation and value added.
Moreover, Papadimitriou (2011) described HC as investing in the skills and knowledge that faculty and staffs need
in order to be outstanding teachers, scholars, innovators, and leaders. Finally, Enyekit et. al. (2012) defined HC as
the intangible factor of the production that brings human intellect, skills and competencies in the production and
provision of goods and services.
Importance of HC:
Almost all scholars and practitioners agreed upon the importance of HC and its direct effect on BP, they
considered HC as the core of each and every organization. GAO Report (2003) stated: Strategic workforce
planning addresses two critical needs: (1) aligning an organizations HC program with its current and
emerging mission and programmatic goals, (2) developing long-term strategies for acquiring, developing, and
retaining staff to achieve programmatic goals. Farazmand (2004) said: Without HC nothing can be
accomplished, and without well-trained, well-developed, well-appreciated, and well-managed HC, modern
organizations cannot meet the challenges of the globalization age. Armstrong (2006) mentioned: People
resourcing is a process concerned with ensuring that the organization obtains and retains the HC it needs and
employs them productively. Henschke (2009) elaborated: Developing and managing HC in corporations
require extensive monetary investment for years. Mehta (2011) proclaimed: For organizations to succeed in
todays rapidly changing and increasingly competitive marketplace, intense focus must be applied to aligning
HC with corporate strategy and objectives. Mehmood et. al. (2011) stated: HC outsourcing helps to increase
the overall performance of Organization and to get competitive advantage. Kumar and Pandya (2012) said:
HC information system is used to optimize workforce and HC costs, provide the organization with a glimpse
of the skill gaps within the organization, help the organization to develop strategies that will bolster market
value and make positive impact on the bottom line. Lombardi and White (2012) declared: The current
economic climate demands that organizations strike the right balance between short term business agility and
long term workforce planning. Finally, Shawyun (2012) pronounced: Higher education institutions have a
responsibility to the society to develop the future societal HC through its educational value that they propose
to the stakeholders: Students, alumni, employment market, etc.
HC and Organization's Business Performance (BP):
OECD (2001) concluded: HC has a positive impact on earnings, employment and economic growth. Moriones
and de Cerio (2002) found: With the use of high performance HC management systems, organizations can
improve their chances of reaching objectives. Bontis and Fitz-enz (2002) pointed out a negative feedback loop
between BP and employee turnover. Ahmad and Schroeder (2003) showed: HC management practices are
expected to enhance performance. Wang and Chang (2005) indicated: HC directly and indirectly affects BP.
Andreou and Bontis (2007) deduced: Achieving BP would drive HC. Shijin et. al. (2010) indicated: HC can
predict stock prices better than the standard empirical capital asset pricing model. Shih (2010) concluded: The
performance of HC exhibits significant influence on structural capital and customer capital. Consumer capital
significantly influences performance. Veltri and Silvestri (2011) found: HC efficiency affects organization's
market value. Hasanloo (2011) revealed: There is a significant relation between HC value and market values
of companies. Mehmood et. al. (2011) concluded: There is a positive relationship between the HC and BP.
Rahim et. al. (2011) indicated: HC efficiency has significant and positive relationships with firms
performance measured by Return on Assets (ROA). Jamal and Saif (2011) showed: firms HC management
has a significant positive impact on organizational performance. Huang and Lin (2011) suggested: Enhancing
R&D human capital will increase R&D creative performance. Fan and Lee (2011) observed: the R&D firm
gained their innovation performance through HC not directly but via structural and more importantly
relational capital. Iqbal et. al. (2011) revealed: HC management practice is positively correlated with
employees knowledge sharing and organizational capability. Zamani (2012) found: HC is the main source of
innovation and knowledge in organizational staff and a vital factor for the performance of every organization.
Lombardi and Laurano (2012) indicated: HC and talent management practitioners have positive impact on BP.
Smuda (2012) proved that improvements in the scope of HC management contribute to increase of local

51

governments functioning on three levels: effectiveness, economy and benefits. Dodaro (2012) stated:
Integrating HC planning with broader organizational strategic planning is essential for ensuring that
organizations have the talent and skill mix needed to cost-effectively execute their mission and program goals.
Goosen (2012) concluded: For higher education, HC improvements measured by increased productivity and
earnings of graduates who enter and are retained in the state workforce. Sharabati et. al. (2013) indicated: HC
has a positive and direct effect on Jordanian Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Organizations' BP.
HC Indicators:
Until now there is no agreement among scholars, researchers and practitioners regarding HC indicators and
how to measure and evaluate HC. Bontis and Serenko (2007) stated: Employee capabilities and performance
depend on training and development, as well as, job satisfaction levels. SHRM Report (2007) mentioed:
Succession planning is the biggest HC challenge that will be faced by companies in the future, regardless of
company size. Soltani and Poursina (2008) studied five drivers of HC: Learning capacity, availability of
people's knowledge, people participation, optimizing work force, leadership practices. Perry (2010) stated:
there are five criteria to develop HC: direct compensation, motivation, culture and political context, efficacy
and effectiveness, and training and development. Zhai and Liu (2010) deduced: A positive relationship
between HC practices, especially training and rewards, and organizational performance. Ukenna et. al. (2010)
found: Training and skill are stronger predictors of HC effectiveness over and above knowledge and
education. Al-Ghazawi (2012) revealed: There is a significant impact of staffing, training & development,
incentives, and retention policy on the effectiveness of HC. Sharabati et. al. (2013) divided HC into three
elements: "learning and education", "experience and expertise" and "innovation and creation".
HC Challenges:
The main challenge of HC is related to: What are the HC indicators? How to acquire, manage, develop, and
retain HC? GAO Report (2007) pronounced: NASA attracts and retains critical personnel by using tools such
as recruiting and retention bonuses. Henson (2009) concluded: There is significant alteration in the pool of
available talent related to both measurable demographics and accompanying worker attitudes and preferences.
Gilbride et. al. (2010) said: Workforce planning identifies HC required to meet organizational goals. Nandy
and Mahapatra (2010) found: The future success is dependent primarily on the ability to attract, retain and
productively manage the shrinking pool of talented and motivated people. Aberdeen Group (2010) reports
found: Best-in-Class companies are able to balance the need to control HC service costs with the need to
improve and reduce the administrative burden placed on HC personnel. Lacko (2012) stated: Business leaders
worldwide are aware that having the best talent on board provides them with a priceless competitive
advantage. CGMA Report (2012) confirmed: Firms around the world are finding it hard to manage their talent
base in the most effective manner. This is preventing organizations from undertaking important projects or
initiatives, and from innovating and meeting performance and growth targets.
Another challenge is relate to: How to measure and evaluate HC? OECD (2001) concluded: HC measures
need to look at actual skills, as well as, inputs like time spent in education. Bassi and McMurrer (2006) said:
The measurement systems that most organizations use to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of HC and its
impact on their business outcomes are grossly inadequate. Becca (2008) stated: Most organizations lack not
only a consistent and holistic view of the work force, but also the necessary analytics to perform workforce
optimization. Wang (2010) suggested: Performance measurement in universities has been focused on output
and outcome measurement. However, outcome and output measures fail to catch the whole process of
academic activities. Input and process measures should be included in the performance measurement in
addition to output and outcome measures. Most current performance indicators are quantitative. They are
unable to measure some aspects such as customer satisfaction and employee satisfaction. Lucas and Messmore
(2010) stated: HC management report is a tool for analyzing performance indicators. Therefore, the use of
qualitative indicators is proposed. Bloomberg Businessweek Research Services (2011) concluded: In the next
two years HC management will be a major focus for integration, as companies increasingly need to evaluate,
develop, promote and compensate talent on a global basis. Aryanindita and Budi (2011) showed: The IC
component can be used as a guide in assessing the performance of the university. Report to Congressional
Requesters (2012) mentioned: High-performing organizations identify their current and future HC needs, and
then create strategies for identifying and filling gaps.
Study Purpose and Objectives:
This study investigates the effect of HC indicators on the MEU's BP. For this purpose, the current study
attempts to find the impact of HC elements (learning & education, experience & expertise and innovation &
creation) on MEU's BP. More specifically, this study intends to answer the following question: Is there a
direct impact of HC elements on MEU's BP?

52

The main objective of this research is to provide sound recommendations about performance measurement
within HC context by identifying and defining the main attributes of quality and productivity of HC, i.e. to
point out critical factors of HC and find suitable ways for measurement and management in that context.
Study Importance and Scope:
This study presents the necessary components of HC definitions. It partially focuses on managerial norms, and
partially on social norms. A better understanding of the effect of HC elements on the MEU's BP draws
conclusions that can be beneficial not only for MEU but also to other universities, institutions and policy
makers. The content also may be of an interest to academic studies related to the reporting and decision
making concerning HC. This study might be considered as initiative that presents the effect of HC on
Jordanian universities' BP. If this study is put to use in the near future, it could present an important
cornerstone that facilitates cross-disciplinary dialogue about HC indicators in Jordanian universities. This
research is also an important one, in terms of the analysis of the situation of HC in Jordanian organizations, as
well as in determining some of the relevant HC indicators used by those organizations.
Problem Statement:
As mentioned above, the problem of defining and identifying HC indicators, measuring and evaluating HC,
and its effect on BP is not related to one organization or industry, but it seems to be it is a worldwide problem.
Accordingly, the purpose of this research is to identify the main indicators which constitute HC, and to
investigate the effect of HC elements on MEU's BP.
Problem Elements:
The study problem can be perceived by having detailed and scientific answers to the following questions:
Main Question:
1. Is there a direct impact of the HC on MEU's BP?
The main question can be further divided into three questions according to the HC elements as follows:
1.1. Is there a direct impact of learning and education variable on MEU's BP?
1.2. Is there a direct impact of experience and expertise variable on MEU's BP?
1.3. Is there a direct impact of innovation and creation variable on MEU's BP?
Study Hypotheses:
Based on the above-mentioned questions about the problem statement and its elements, the following
hypotheses can be developed:
Main Hypothesis:
H0: HC elements (variables) do not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
The HC hypothesis can be further divided into three hypotheses according to HC variables as follows:
H0.1: L&E variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
H0.2: E&E variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
H0.3: I&C variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
Study Model
Human Capital (HC): HC has been divided into three variables: Learning and Education (L&E),
Experience and Expertise (E&E) and Innovation and Creation (I&C).
Figure (1): Study Basic Model

Human
Capital (HC)

The

Learning &
Education (L&E)

Experience &
Expertise (E&E)

Innovation &
Creation (I&C)

current research studies the effect of HC variables on Jordanian Universities' BP as shown in the study model
figure (2).

53

Dependent Variable

Independent Variables

:Human Capital
(Learning and Education (L&E

Business Performance

(Experience and Expertise (E&E

(Innovation and Creation (I&C

Figure (2): Study Model

Data Collection Methods and Procedures
Study Design:
The current study is considered as a casual study. It aimed at investigating the cause/effect relationship
between HC elements and MEU's BP. The data that have been used for fulfilling the purposes of the study can
be divided into two groups: secondary and primary data. Secondary data were collected from MEU's annual
reports, journals, books, researches, thesis, dissertations, articles, working papers, and the Worldwide Web.
Primary data flowed to the researchers from expert interviews, content analysis (annual reports and other
related documents), panel of judges, and the survey. A questionnaire was designed and developed in contrast
with hypotheses. Then the questionnaire was validated through expert interviews and panel of judges. Data
were collected from MEU students. The collected data were verified through the SPSS 20 software focusing
on the correlation among HC variables and their relationship with MEU's BP.
Population, Sample and Unit of Analysis: The Middle East University (MEU) is a Jordanian private
University inaugurated its first phase on June 30, 2005. At the time of the study, there were about 3017
students (Master and Bachelor) in the MEU; the entire population was targeted to explore the topic of HC,
thus negating any need for sampling. The survey unit of analysis was composed of all Master and Bachelor
students drawn from the MEU.
The Questionnaire: One of the main tools in actualizing a research project is the development of a tested
instrument. Initial items to measure various constructs were developed depending on prior researches. With
the help of experts the questionnaire was designed and developed in contrast with hypotheses and research
model. Then the questionnaire was validated through expert interviews and a panel of judges.
Questionnaire Variables: Independent Variables (HC): (items 1 to 21 in the questionnaire): Through
literature review, the researcher has identified three important independent variables that contribute to MEU
BP: learning and education; experience and expertise; and innovation and creation. Each was tested by 7
questions. Dependent variable (BP): (items 22 to 31 in the questionnaire): Dependent variable of the study is
related to MEU BP. BP was measured through 10 indicators as shown in the analysis. All variables were
measured by five-point Likert-type scale to tap into the individuals perceptions, ranging from value 1
(strongly disagree) to value 5 (strongly agree) used throughout the questionnaire.
Data Collection and Analysis:
Questionnaires were delivered to 120 out of about 3017 students. The researcher gathered only 112
questionnaires. Another 6 respondents failed to complete the questionnaire statements correctly. Therefore, the
actual number of questionnaires analyzed was only 106 (62 Master and 44 Bachelor students) representing 3.5%
of the total unit of analysis. Once the completed questionnaires were received back, the researchers checked
them for completion. The responses were coded against SPSS 20.
Normal Distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z Test): Table (1) shows that all the independent and
dependent variables are normally distributed because significance level was more than 5 percent (Bollen et. al.
2005).
Table (1): Normality Test: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Z) Test
Variables
(K-S)Z
Sig.
0.846
L&E
0.472
0.974
E&E
0.299
0.833
I&C
0.491
0.731
HC
0.658
0.614
BP
0.846

54

Reliability Test: Table (2) shows that Cronbachs Alpha coefficients were registered acceptable; because
Cronbachs Alpha results were between 0.700 and 0.839. According to Bontis (2001) and Bollen et. al. (2005)
Cronbachs Alpha above 0.60 is accepted.
Table (2): Cronbachs Alpha for Variables:
Variables
Alpha
L&E
0.724
E&E
0.700
I&C
0.784
HC
0.839
BP
0.835
Validity: Two methods were used to confirm content validity: First, multiple sources of data were used to
develop and refine the model and measures. Then, factor analysis (Pearsons Principal Component Analysis)
was carried out for all items included in the questionnaire. Table (3) shows that all dependent and independent
variable items were valid, since their factor loading values were more than 0.4. This result matches with
previous studies, such; as Bontis (2001), Bollen et. al. (2005) and Bin Ismail (2005).
Table (3): Factors Loading for HC Variables
HC Variables
Factor 1
Extraction
0.779
0.607
L&E
0.833
0.694
E&E
0.697
0.485
I&C
0.983
0.966
HC
0.697
0.485
BP
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Data Analysis and Results
Study Variables Analysis:
Human Capital Variables: Table (4) shows that the average means of respondents perception about the
implementation of HC variables were ranging from 2.87 to 3.13, with standard deviation that ranges from
(0.634 to 0.662). Such results indicate that there is a varied agreement on the implementation of HC variables.
The overall result indicates that there is no significant implementation of the HC variables among MEU,
where the total average mean is 3.00 with standard deviation 0.508and (t=0.091< 1.645).
Table4(5): Mean, Standard Deviation and One-Sample T-Test Results for HC Variables
HC Variables
Mean
Std. deviation
T value
T tabulated
3.13
0.662
2.032
1.645
L&E
3.01
0.647
0.193
1.645
E&E
2.87
0.634
2.103
1.645
I&C
3.00
0.508
0.091
1.645
HC
Tables (5,6,&7) showed that the average means of respondents perception about the implementation of L&E
variable were ranging from 2.79 to 3.35, with standard deviation that ranges from (0.973 to 1.219). While for
E&E variable were ranging from 2.67 to 3.25, with standard deviation that ranges from (0.943 to 1.232). Finally,
for I&C variable were ranging from 2.79 to 3.04, with standard deviation that ranges from (0.885 to 1.059). Such
results showed that there is a varied agreement on the implementation of L&E, E&E and I&C variables items.
The results also indicated that there is a significant implementation of the L&E variable, where the total average
mean is 3.13 and (t=2.032 > 1.645), while there is no significant implementation of the E&E variable, where the
total average mean 3.01 and (t=0.193 < 1.645), and I&C variable, where the total average mean 2.87 and (t=2.103 < 1.645).
Table (5): Mean, Standard Deviation and One-Sample T-Test Results for L&E Variable Items
No.
Items
Mean
Std. Deviation
T value
T tabulated
Employees competence
3.08
1.057
0.735
1.645
1
Team work
3.35
1.219
2.948
1.645
2
Continuous training
2.79
0.973
2.1961.645
3
Continuous learning
2.92
0.992
0.7831.645
4
Education average
3.21
1.039
2.056
1.645
5
Knowledge & skills development
2.92
1.066
0.7291.645
6
Market share improvement
3.64
1.181
5.594
1.645
7

55

Mean total L&E

3.13
0.662
2.032
1.645
Table (6): Mean, Standard Deviation and One-Sample T-Test Results for E&E Variable Items
No.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

E&E Items
Employees are expert
Perform at best
Make it different
Turn over
University efficiency
Staff professionalism
Lowest cost/transaction
Mean total E&E

Mean
3.19
3.01
3.08
3.02
3.25
2.88
2.67
3.01

Std. Deviation
1.164
1.151
1.119
0.956
0.984
0.943
1.232
0.647

T value
1.669
0.084
0.695
0.203
2.567
1.3392.7590.193

T tabulated
1.645
1.645
1.645
1.645
1.645
1.645
1.645
1.645

Table (7): Mean, Standard Deviation and One-Sample T-Test Results for I&C Variable Items
I&C Items
Mean
Std. Deviation
T value
T tabulated
Employees are creative
2.79
0.943
2.2651.645
Voice their opinion
2.92
0.885
0.9881.645
New ideas
2.82
0.954
1.9341.645
New programs launched
3.04
1.059
0.367
1.645
Knowledge sharing
2.84
0.896
1.8431.645
Satisfaction with innovation.
2.84
0.997
1.6571.645
Motivation & commitment
2.85
0.974
1.5961.645
Mean Total I&C
2.87
0.634
2.1031.645
Business Performance Indicators (BP): Table (8) shows that the average means of the respondents
perception about the role of BP indicators were ranging from 3.01 to 3.52, with standard deviation that ranges
from (0.839 to 1.018). The result indicates that there is a significant role of BP indicators, where the total
average mean is 3.25 and (t=4.238 > 1.645).
Table (8): Mean, Standard Deviation and One-Sample T-Test Results for BP Indicators
No.
Statement
Mean
Std. Deviation
T value
T tabulated
Industry leadership
3.01
0.941
0.103
1.645
22
Future outlook
3.52
1.016
5.256
1.645
23
Overall response to competition
3.15
0.913
1.702
1.645
24
Success rate in new launches
3.23
0.939
2.483
1.645
25
Overall BP
3.35
0.996
3.610
1.645
26
Employee productivity
2.96
0.839
0.4631.645
27
Process productivity
3.10
0.850
1.257
1.645
28
Sales growth (No. of students)
3.38
1.018
3.815
1.645
29
Profit growth
3.52
1.016
5.256
1.645
30
University market valuation
3.25
0.916
2.863
1.645
31
Mean Total BP
3.25
0.601
4.238
1.645
No.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Relationships between the Study Variables:

Before testing the hypotheses, Pearson correlation (r) was carried out to test the correlation among the
responses of HC variables, then between them and BP indicators. The table (9) shows that the HC variables
significantly and strongly related to MEU' BP.
Insert Table (9): Pearsons Correlation (r) Among Independent Variables, and With Dependent
Variable
L&E
E&E
I&C
HC
BP
L&E
E&E
**0.512
I&C
**0.328 **0.420
HC
**0.789 **0.823 **0.737
BP
**0.450 **0.522 **0.328 **0.554
*Correlation is significant at 0.01 levels (2-tailed)
Pearson correlation matrix table (9) shows that the relationships between the HC variables: L&E, E&E and
I&C with MEU's BP are strong, where r equals 0.450, 0.522 and 0.328 respectively. For the HC variable r

56

equals 0.554 indicates a very strong relationship between the HC and MEU's BP. The matrix also shows that
the relationships among the HC variables are strong, where r ranges from 0.328 to 0.512. The results indicate
that the HC variables are strongly related with each other.
Hypotheses Testing:
To test hypotheses, a multiple regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the HC
variables and MEU's BP. Regression analysis is robust against non-normality, multi-collinearity and
independence of error, therefore, applicable in the case at hand.
Multi-collinearity: Table (10) shows that VIF value is less than 10 and the Tolerance value is more than 0.2.
This indicates that there is no Collinearity within the independent variables of the study.
Table (10): Multi-Collinearity Test for Main Hypothesis
Multi-Collinearity Statistics
HC Variables
VIF
Tolerance
0.722
L&E
1.385
0.666
E&E
1.501
0.806
I&C
1.241
Dependent Variable: Business Performance
Independence of errors: Durbin Watson test is conducted, where (d=1.977), which approximately equals
two. This indicates that the residuals are not correlated with each other; therefore, the independence of errors
is not violated.
Multiple Regressions:
The R square value is 0.326; therefore, the model is regarded as being suitable to be used for multiple
regressions with the data.
Table (11): Results of Multiple Regression Analysis: Regressing HC Variables against BP
Variable
r
R2
ANOVA F- Value
Sig.
0.571
0.326
16.445
0.000
HC Variables
Main Hypothesis:
H0: HC elements (variables) do not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
Table (11) shows the results of the multiple regressions analysis that regress the three variables of HC together
explained 32.6 percent of the variance, where (R2 =0.326, F=16.445, Sig. =0.000). Therefore, the null
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which states that the HC variables affect
MEU's BP, at =0.05.
Table (12) shows the significant effect of each variable within the HC. It shows that the E&E variable has the
highest effect on MEU's BP, where (Beta=0.335, sig.=0.000), followed by the L&E variable, where
(Beta=0.210, sig.=0.017), finally, the I&C variable does not have significant effect, where (Beta=0.095,
sig.=0.270).
Table (12): Un-standardized and Standardized Coefficients of Multiple Regression Model for HC
Variables
Un-standardized
Standardized
HC Variables
Coefficients
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
Beta
t-value
p
1.306
0.294
4.448
0.000
(Constant)
0.210
0.087
0.231
2.420
*0.017
L&E
0.335
0.092
0.362
3.631
*0.000
E&E
0.095
0.086
0.100
1.109
0.270
I&C
*Calculate is less than 0.05
The relationship between the dependent and independent variables derived by this model can thus be
expressed as:
Human capital = 1.306 + 0.210 (L&E) + 0.335 (E&E) + 0.095 (I&C)
Sub-hypothesis 1:
H0.1:
L&E variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
Table (12) shows that there is a positive direct and significant effect of the L&E variable on the MEU's BP,
where (Beta=0.231, sig.=0.017). Since (t=2.420, p < 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis is accepted, which indicates that the L&E variable affects MEU's BP, at =0.05.
Sub-hypothesis 2:

57

H0.2:
E&E variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
Table (12) shows that there is a positive direct and significant effect of the E&E variable on the MEU's BP,
where (Beta=0.362, sig.=0.000). Since (t=3.631, P < 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis is accepted, which indicates that the E&E variable affects MEU's BP, at =0.05.
Sub-hypothesis 3
H0.3:
I&C variable does not have a direct impact on MEU's BP, at (0.05).
Table (12) shows that there is positive direct but not significant effect of the I&C variable on the MEU's BP,
where (Beta=0.100, sig.=0.270). Since (t=1.109, P > 0.05), the null hypothesis is accepted, which indicates
that the I&C variable does not significantly affect MEU's BP, at =0.05.
Stepwise regression
From table (13), the first stepwise regressions model (ANOVA) shows the importance of the E&E variable,
where (R2=0.273, F=39.040, Sig.=0.000). The second stepwise regression model shows the importance of the
E&E variable plus L&E variable, where (R2=0.318, F=23.998, Sig.=0.000). Therefore, it is concluded that the
second model increases R2 with 0.045, this means that the E&E variable alone explains 27.3% of the variance
in the MEU's BP. While the second model explains 31.8% of the variance, this means that L&E variable adds
4.5% to the first model.
Table (13): Stepwise Regressions (ANOVA) for HC Variables
Model
r
R2
F
Sig.
HC Variables
0.522(a)
0.273
39.040
0.000
E&E
1
0.564(b)
0.318
23.998
0.000
E&E plus L&E
2
Dependent Variable: Business Performance
Table (14) shows the relation between the HC variables and MEU's BP: the first stepwise regression model
shows that there is a positive direct relation between the E&E variable and MEU's BP, where beta equals
0.522. The second stepwise regression model shows that there is a positive direct relation between the E&E
variable plus L&E variable with MEU's BP, where beta equals 0.396 and 0.247, respectively. Such results
indicate that the E&E variable the most important variable, followed by the L&E variable, while the I&C
variable has no significant impact the MEU's BP.
Table (14): Stepwise Regressions Model for HC Variables
Model 1
Model 2
Un-standardized
Un-standardized Coefficients
HC Variables
beta
Coefficients
beta
B
B
1.787
1.440
Constant
0.485
0.522
0.367
E&E
0.396
0.224
L&E
0.247
I&C
Dependent Variable: Business Performance *sig. <0.05
Results Discussions and Conclusions
Study Variables Analysis
Human Capital Variables: Results indicated that there is a varied agreement on the implementation of HC
variables. The overall result indicates that there is no significant implementation of the HC variables among
MEU staffs. Results also showed that there is a varied agreement on the implementation of L&E, E&E and
I&C variables items. The results indicated that there is a significant implementation of the L&E variable,
while there is no significant implementation of E&E and I&C variables. The results seem to suggest that the
respondents either they are not aware about the role of HC variables in Jordanian Universities BP, or they do
not believe that HC is important for Bp, or they believe that the MEU's management is not interested in
developing HC. Respondents strongly believe that the L&E variable is important and implemented, while they
do not believe that the E&E and I&C is implemented in MEU. As compared with previous studies, the current
study results are not supported by Sofian et. al. (2004) study which rated (3.94), Bin Ismail (2005) study rated
(3.36), Salleh and Salamat (2007) study rated (3.71), Miller (1999) study rated (3.63), Moslehi et. al. (2006)
study rated (3.15), Berglud et. al. (2002) study rated (3.15), Sharabati et. al. (2010) study rated (3.43). In
addition, the result is not supported also by Lim (2002), Kukko (2003), Bollen et. al. (2005), Bontis et. al
(2000), Firer and Stainbank (2003) and Tomer (2005).

58

Learning and Education Variable: The average mean of respondents' perception about the implementation
of L&E was 3.13. The results indicated that there is a significant implementation of the L&E variable. It
seems that the respondents are aware of the role of the learning and education in MEU's BP. Evidence seems
to suggest that respondents have varied agreement about the implementation of the L&E variable items:
Respondents believe that: their qualifications are within education industry average, they cooperate when they
work in team tasks, and they try to improve the market share when they are performing their jobs. However,
they believe that: They do not have enough continuous learning, training, knowledge and skills development
which negatively impacted employee's competences. In general this result is supported by Sharabati et. al.
(2010) study which rated (3.58) Jordanian Pharmaceutical industry has rated higher mean compared with the
current study mean.
Experience and Expertise Variable: The average mean of respondents' perception about the implementation
of E&E was 3.01. The results showed that there is no significant implementation of the E&E variable. It
seems that the respondents are either unaware of the role of experience and expertise in Jordanian
Universities BP, or they strongly believe that E&E variable is not implemented with MEU. However,
evidence seems to suggest that the employees are not in agreement on the implementation of the E&E variable
items: Respondents believe that: Employees are experts and efficient and trying to perform their best. They try
to work hard to make their organizations different. However, the employees turnover is high, staffs are not
professional and the MEU does have lowest cost per transaction. This may be due to the lack of management
support and to the weaknesses of employees loyalty. The above result is supported by Bin Ismail (2005)
study regarding the employees expertise when they perform their jobs. Also supported by Sharabati et. al.
(2010) regarding employees turn over, the Jordanian pharmaceutical industry rated (3.45), much higher that
higher education industry.
Innovation and Creation Variable: The average mean of respondents' perception about the implementation
of I&C was 2.87. The results indicated that there is no significant implementation of the I&C variable. It
appears that the respondents are either unaware of the role of the I&C in Jordanian Universities BP, or they
strongly believe that the MEU does not implement I&C variable. Evidence might suggest that employees have
some agreement on the lack of I&C variable implementation: Respondents believe that the employees are not
creative and bright, do not voice their opinion. They are not encouraged to bring new ideas or come up with
new ideas; at the same time they have low motivation and commitment to share new ideas. Employees also do
not launch high number of new programs compared to others, and they are not satisfied with innovation
policies and programs. This may be due to the lack of management support, and the culture that generally
does not support innovation and creation. The above result is supported by Bin Ismail (2005) study regarding
the employees idea sharing and practicing creativity, but it is contradicted regarding the employees
innovation and creation when they perform their jobs. The current results are supported by Sharabati et. al.
(2010) study in some points and contradicting in other points, but generally speaking, Jordanian
Pharmaceutical Industry rated higher I&C (3.27).
Business Performance Indicators: The average mean of respondents' perception about the implementation
of BP indicators were 3.25. Results showed that there is an agreement among respondents about the role of
BP. The result indicates that there is a significant role of BP indicators. Evidence seems to suggest an
improvement in MEU's BP. Therefore, the MEU is directed and strongly leaning toward performance
improvement, and the respondents are aware of the role of BP indicators. The current study results are in line
with previous studies such as: Sofian et. al. (2004) study rated (3.20), Bin Ismail (2005) study rated (3.01),
and Moslehi et. al. (2006) study rated (2.4), Sharabati et. al. (2010) study rated (3.58).
Relationships between the Study Variables: Pearson correlation matrix showed that the relationships
between the HC variables: L&E, E&E and I&C with MEU's BP are strong. The matrix also showed that the
relationships among the HC variables are strong. These results are supported by Bollen et. al. (2005) and Bin
Ismail (2005), Moslehi et. al. (2006), Salleh & Salamat (2007) and Sharabati et. al. (2010).
Multiple and Stepwise Regressions:
Results of the multiple regressions analysis showed that the HC variables directly and positively affect MEU's
BP. It also showed that the E&E variable has the highest effect on MEU's BP, followed by the L&E variable,
while, the I&C variable does not have significant effect. The stepwise regressions supported the mentioned
above results with little modification in model1 and model two, where these models indicated that E&E
variable was the most important followed by L&E variable. The results are matching with previous studies
such as: Kumar and Pandya (2012), OECD (2001), Moriones and de Cerio (2002), Wang and Chang (2005),
Shih (2010), Li et. al. (2010), Sharabati et. al. (2010), Veltri and Silvestri (2011), Mehmood et. al. (2011),

59

Rahim et. al. (2011), Jamal and Saif (2011), Huang and Lin (2011), Al-Gazawi (2012), Wisikoti et. al.
(2012)etc.
Research Limitations/Recommendations:
The use of a single organization and/or a single industry study design limits its generalisability to other
universities, organizations and/or industries. The data is also limited to Jordanian organizations; therefore,
generalizing results of a Jordanian setting to other countries may be questionable. Extending the analyses to
other settings represent future research opportunities.
Contributions/Practical Implications:
HC is an important source of organizations wealth and therefore it should be taken into serious consideration
when formulating the Jordanian Universities strategy. This strategy formulation process can be enhanced by
fully integrating HC indicators into management practices. Jordanian Universities should coordinate different
perspectives of HC to improve Jordanian Universities BP and should assign scales for each of the three
components of HC. Finally, the data suggest that a similar set of HC indicators could be developed for other
organizations and industries whether government, public or private, profitable or non-profitable organizations.
Social Implications:
The results and indicators of the current study may help to define, measure, manage and develop both social
capital and individual capital (Brainpower). Social capital is the capacity of the society to create and develop
entrepreneurs, inventors, innovators and leaders. Individual Capital or Brainpower programs are about
changing the individual's paradigm i.e. changing performance: Behavior and attitudes which increases the
individuals efficiency and productivity to be one of the core capabilities or core competences for
organizations and society. This can be done by using the Brainpower test and 360 test, which will help in
selection, evaluation, development and training.
Expected Value:
The current research may be considered as initiative study that highlights the effect of HC on Jordanian
Universities BP. Moreover, it could be an initiative study that divided HC into three variables and focusing
on the role of each variable on Universities BP. This study extends prior researchs viewpoint about the linear
relationship between HC and organizations BP with empirical evidence. The results can provide the reference
for further research about the relationship between HC and BP.
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63

Capitalizing on consumer ethnocentrism

influence: What local marketing managers need to
know and to do?
Saeb Farhan Al Ganideh
Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Abstract:
It is worth noting here that most of the extant research on consumer ethnocentrism was conducted
from the viewpoints of international marketing and international business. This paper is based on the
proposition that the effect of consumer ethnocentrism goes far beyond marketing and needs to be
understood from the broader perspective of management so as to draw appropriate strategies to
maximize or minimize the impact of consumer ethnocentrism level. The current paper examines
Jordanians ethnocentric tendencies towards their local olive oil based on a sample of approximately
200 Jordanians who live in Amman city, the capital of Jordan. The findings indicate that Jordanians
are highly ethnocentric towards purchasing their local olive ,and thus, Jordanian marketing managers
should get benefit of high ethnocentric tendencies their consumers do show towards their national
products. However, global marketing managers should concentrate on Jordanian national symbols
while marketing their products to Jordanian consumers.

64

Introduction
A review of the marketing literature highlights the magnitude of results regarding pleasing and satisfying
consumers. It is of crucial importance to emphasize that local and global marketing managers are more
concerned currently with satisfying consumers in a highly competitive arena. Local marketers' survival is
continually threatened by global competitors (Steenkamp and Jong, 2010). Since consumer satisfaction is
crucial for the success of business efforts, marketing managers should better understand their consumers
needs and wants (Pan, 2004). Recently, most local and global marketing managers have faced changes in their
surroundings. These changes are branded by a highly competitive business environment, technological
innovations, the saturation of domestic markets particularly in developed countries and the emergence of new
communication tools (Keegan and Green, 2011). In view of the fact that differences between consumers in
different countries and regions of the world still exist due to diversities in culture, history and geography It
should be noted that the COO effect can be considered as the most researched international aspect of
consumer behavior since the 1960s when Schooler introduced his pioneer study (Pereira et al, 2005). The
impact of COO on consumers perceptions regarding purchasing domestic and foreign products has been
widely examined (Sohail and Anwar, 2003). However, it is important to understand preferences and attitudes
of consumers to domestic and foreign products and should marketing managers should respond to such
preferences.
Background
International marketing and business literature has linked the COO to levels of consumer ethnocentrism.
However, COO literature has ignored how cultural differences affect consumers perception of different
countries products (Balabanis et al, 2002). Deeper understanding of national cultures helps marketers to
conduct successful business locally and overseas (Gehart and Fang, 2005). Although a number of COO
studies have examined consumers perceptions towards domestic and foreign products these studies have not
explored how and why consumers differ regarding their evaluation of national and foreign products (Hung,
1989). In this regard, the consumer ethnocentrism concept could clarify why some consumers have negative
attitudes towards foreign products (Shimp, 1987; Shimp, 1987; Sharma et al, 1995).
Even though the phenomenon of ethnocentrism has received some attention amongst researchers the majority
of the research has been focused on examining COO effects. The concept of consumer ethnocentrism can
improve understanding of how consumers evaluate domestic and foreign products (Shimp and Sharma, 1987).
It is important to identify the effect ethnocentricity has on evaluations towards domestic and foreign products
(Sharma et al, 1995). Moreover, it is central to examine whether the phenomena of consumer ethnocentrism is
applicable in developing countries where consumers have a marked preference for foreign countries products.
Despite its importance in theoretical development and practical implications, consumer ethnocentrism
research has received relatively little attention. In addition, the research has ignored how local marketing
managers should build on the concept of consumer ethnocentrism to better market their local products.
Research can provide a wider context for understanding consumption as a sociological phenomenon (Lee et
al, 2003).
Overall, consumer ethnocentrism implies that buying domestic products is a must and patriotic to boost
domestic economy and buying foreign products is wrong as it has negative consequences on the domestic
economy (Orth and Firbasova, 2003; Guneren and Ozturn, 2008; Cleveland et al, 2009). Earlier, Herche
(1992) found a significant correlation between consumer ethnocentrism and ownership of domestic and
foreign products. Shimp and Sharma (1987) developed consumer ethnocentrism scale (CESCALE) to measure
ethnocentric tendencies of consumers towards purchasing domestic products. The CETSCALE measures the
extent to which consumers do feel that purchasing foreign products is wrong as it is unpatriotic, immoral and
it hurts national economy. The CETSCALE is a multi-item scale that reflects a tendency to prefer home
country products more than those of foreign origin (Cleveland et al, 2009). The scale was developed based on
socio-psychological literature on ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, nationalism and marketing literature dealing
with group influences on product assessment (Bruning, 1997). Generally, it is important to examine the
influence of socio- psychological antecedents such as nationalism, patriotism and internationalism on
consumer ethnocentrism. That should help managers to better segment their consumers and to conduct their
marketing activities more effectively. Dissimilarities between consumers in different countries still exist due
to diversities in culture. The concept of consumer ethnocentrism can help global marketers and managers to
differentiate markets and strategies and to position their products in domestic and global markets. Overall, it is
dangerous for domestic and global marketers to suppose that consumers all around the world are similar.
Nevertheless, they need to know more about consumers and their attitudes all around the world. In this vein,

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also it is important for international companies and organisations to conduct training programs for top
managers to reduce their ethnocentrism and to enhance their moral philosophy (Lee and Sirgy, 1999).
Food preparation and eating habits can be of the means of understanding culture; however, the study of eating
and drinking behavior has not attracted as much attention from consumer behavior researchers, especially in
the cross-cultural arena (Roberts and Micken, 1996). Jordan is the worlds eighth largest producer of olive oil,
with 17 million olive trees producing 170 000 ton olive oil which yield around 24 tons of oil every year and
generate a yearly income of JD100 million, with an average export worth JD20 million per year. As cheese
can be considered as a part of the French national identity Jordanians consider their olive oil a mean
component of their identity. Hence, it is important to study the behavior of Jordanian consumers regarding
their local olive oil.
Methodology
The literature review emphasized that the research in the fields of consumer ethnocentrism and country-oforigin (COO) is important as consumers all over the world are exposed to a wider range of foreign products in
their home countries. However, there is a dearth of studies conducted in the developing countries regarding
these themes. Jordan is an ideal country for empirical research for a number of reasons; in particular, it is
typical of other Arab countries in the Middle East and is a large importer of foreign products. In addition,
Jordan is economically and culturally different from countries used in previous empirical studies.
The current paper examines Jordanians ethnocentric tendencies towards purchasing their domestic olive oil
and how should marketing managers respond to such ethnocentric tendencies. To full fill the objectives of the
study a survey was conducting during the spring of 2012. Data was collected from a total number of 196
Jordanians who live in Amman city, the capital of Jordan and the largest city in the country. The city is good
representative for the Jordanian context. The subjects were asked to answer a modified 10-item 5-point Likert
format of CETSCALE scale. The subjects were asked to answer 10-item CETSCALE Jordanian/olive oil
version. The used scale found to be reliable with Cronbachs alpha of 0.84.
Data analysis
The main objective of this study examines ethnocentric tendencies among Jordanians towards purchasing their
local olive oil and to explore how marketing managers should react to such ethnocentric tendencies. It should
be noted that the vast majority of researchers has measured consumer ethnocentrism using the CETSCALE
(i.e Javalgi et al, 2005; Saffu and Walker, 2005; Cleveland et al, 2009).
Given the lack of previous empirical data on consumer behavior and ethnocentrism in Arab countries, it is not
easy to provide speculations regarding consumer ethnocentric tendencies for Jordanians towards purchasing
their local olive oil. Overall, Jordanian consumers have a different culture and lifestyle to their American,
Asian and European counterparts who have been mainly examined in previous consumer ethnocentrism
research. However, one might expect that, compared to consumers from other countries, Jordanians may
possibly show high ethnocentric tendencies due to domestic economic status (low economic growth), high
unemployment, the uniformity of ethnic groups and races in Jordan and the nature of the chosen product
(olive oil).
Table 1 10-Item CETSCALE Scores (Jordanian Olive Oil Version)
Item
Mean
SD
4.2551 0.96939
1 Jordanian olive oil, first, last, and foremost.
4.0918 1.17309
2 Jordan should not import olive oil.
3.4184 1.30422
3 Purchasing imported olive oil is un-Jordanian.
3.5459 1.27014
4 It is not right to purchase imported olive oil, because it puts Jordanians out of jobs.
2.1582 1.27319
5 A real Jordanian should always buy Jordanian olive oil.
We should purchase Jordanian olive oil instead of letting other countries get rich
3.4796 1.26272
6
off us.
Jordanian should not buy imported olive oil, because this hurts Jordanian framers
3.6429 1.20043
7
and causes unemployment.
3.7500 1.03466
8 It may cost me in the long run but I prefer to support Jordanian olive oil.
We should buy imported olive oil only if Jordans production will not be enough
3.6327 1.14925
9
to fill up the local need.
Jordanian consumers who purchase foreign olive oil are responsible for putting
3.3112 1.24862
10
their fellow Jordanians out of work.

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5-point Likert format (5= strongly agree, 1= strongly disagree)

The mean for each item of the 10-item CETSCALE (Jordanian version) can be seen in Table 1. However, the
respondents responses have an overall mean of 35.3. The responses have a wide spread with means going
from 2.2 to 4.3. The range for the responses is 2.1. The score of the CETSCALE is 35.3 out of 50. The
variance for this scale is 0.32.
Conclusions and implications
The results of this study concluded that feelings of consumer ethnocentrism regarding local olive oil exist
among Jordanian consumers. The empirical results in this study confirm that consumer ethnocentrism is
strongly found in developing countries where foreign products are likely to be preferred over local products. It
is clear that consumer ethnocentrism and the CETSCALE are applicable in the Jordan context where
Jordanians view domestic products as inferior to foreign products. In addition, the results of this study
revealed that Jordanian ethnocentric consumers have very positive attitudes towards their domestic products.
It is not surprising that domestic companies and organizations in most developing countries such as Jordan try
to survive against strong competitors from developed countries. The ethnocentrism concept could help local
marketing managers to better market their products. Any advertising campaign will produce the optimal
outcome if local marketers target consumers employing ethnocentric notion. However, it will be important to
use marketing communications that focus on national symbols to trigger Jordanian consumers national and
patriot feelings which might encourage them to buy their national products rather than foreign products.
While Jordanian local managers should build on consumer ethnocentrism to better market their products to
local consumers, international marketers are highly recommended to develop marketing communications that
suit consumer sentiments in Jordan. Such marketing communications should not activate patriotic feelings for
Jordanians; using a local brand name might be good idea in this case. Moreover, international marketers who
are seeking opportunities in Jordan should not treat the countrys market as one segment. Rather, they need to
deal with the countrys ethnocentric market as a collection of a number of segments. Traditional segmenting
variables, such as geographic and demographic, stay significant. Dealing with Jordan as three geographic
regions north, center and south could help to create more effective marketing strategies.
It is important for international firms planning to do business in Jordan and the Middle East to conduct
training programs for their marketing managers to improve their knowledge regarding how they deal with
ethnocentric consumers. International companies should not avoid high ethnocentric consumers but need to
modify their communication strategies to deflect consumers attention from COO. Perhaps, more emphasis
should be put on quality and price consideration and less on any COO label when marketing foreign products
to Jordanians. If the consumers in a specific market are found to be very ethnocentric, then the focus of
international marketers should be driven away from the products COO and focused on product quality and
features. Overall, consumer ethnocentrism provides local managers and marketing managers with a useful
concept for understanding consumers reasons for buying domestic versus foreign products. Moreover, local
and international organizations and companies should conduct training programs for top managers to better
deal with local ethnocentric tendencies and to develop more effective marketing campaigns while targeting
local and global customers.
Future research needs to extend the concept of consumer ethnocentrism to other product categories in
Jordanian society and to examine the level of ethnocentrism for local marketing managers towards Jordanian
products and foreign products. The results of this research may not be generalizable to all consumers in Jordan
due to sample size and location. Future research needs to be extended to other categories in Jordanian society
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Impact of HR Practices on Firm Performance

Dr. Mourad Mansour
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Saudi Arabia

Abstract:
Firms are continuously improving their human resource management (HRM) practices in order to
achieve sustainable competitive advantage and increase their profitability. These practices include
employee involvement, training, empowerment, compensation and rewards, etc.
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between human resource practices and
firm performance. Using companies in Saudi Arabia, this study tests the proposition that HR
practices (including training, job design, employee skills, employee attitudes, employee motivation,
etc) has an impact on the performance of these companies.
Field of Research: Human Resource Management

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1. Introduction
As stated by Price (2004) a company can achieve a competitive advantage and reach its goals by adopting an
efficient usage of its personnel. In the last two decades, an increasing interest in explaining the impact of
human resource management strategies on the organizations performance has evolved in the HR research
(Arthur, 1994; Becker and Gerhart, 1996; Becker and Huselid, 2006; Bae et al., 2001; Bjrkman and
Xiucheng, 2002; Boselie et al., 2003; Paauwe, 2004). March and Sutton (1997) stated that explaining
organizations performance variations remain one of the most enduring subjects of study. Since performance
stands and remains as one the main objectives of any company, much research has been directed at explaining
and understanding the relationship between human resources practices and firm performance. A number of
studies (Welbourne and Andrews, 1996; Hoque, 1999; Harel and Tzafrir, 1999; Khatri, 2000) have linked the
HR practices to different organizational outcomes such as productivity, quality, turnover, market value, ROI,
and profits. All this concern about the relationship between HR practices and performance is justified;
companies having long term objectives of sustained competitive advantage and high profitability should
enhance their human capital through putting in place systems and practices as tools to attain those goals.
This study aims to explore the relationship between HR practices and firm performance and to understand
how human resource decisions influence organizational performance.
2. Literature Review
To respond to their customers needs and move forward in their business, companies should manage their
employees special skills as they are viewed as an important source of competitive advantage. Succeeding to
attract, retain and motivate a skilled workforce helps companies to improve their results. Companies are
admitted to effectively manage their different HR activities such as recruiting, selecting, hiring, safety,
wellness, training, organization development, communication and rewarding personnel to ensure they help
positively in their financial growth and meet their challenges in a fast-changing business environment. A
highly committed and competent workforce helps companies succeeding these strategies and gain competitive
advantage as long as these strategies are communicated and the workforce is involved in both the formulation
and implementation phases.
Legge (1989) stated that human resource policies should be integrated with business planning. So, it is
important to integrate the HR policies with one another and with business planning more generally (Sisson,
1990). Companies should consider people as assets rather than variable costs and that they are valuable and
constitute a source of competitive advantage (Legge, 1989). As stated by Armstrong and Baron (2002) that
people and their collective skills, abilities and experience, coupled with their ability to deploy these in the
interests of the employing organization, are now recognized as making a significant contribution to
organizational success and as constituting a significant source of competitive advantage. Also, as remarked
by Baird and Meshoulam (1988) that business objectives are accomplished when human resource practices,
procedures and systems are developed and implemented based on organizational needs, that is, when a
strategic perspective to human resource management is adopted.
According to Bratton and Gold (2007), strategic human resource management is the process of linking the
human resource function with the strategic objectives of the organization in order to improve performance.
They added that SHRM is a managerial process requiring human resource policies and practices to be linked
with the strategic objectives of the organization.
There is a considerable debate in the literature related to whether the SHRM and related HR strategies is an
outcome or a process. For some academics such as Snell et al. (1996) the SHRM is an outcome where they
view the SHRM as an organizational systems designed to achieve sustainable competitive advantage through
people. While for others, it is a process of linking HR practices to business strategy (Ulrich, 1997). Similarly,
Bamberger and Meshoulam (2000) describe SHRM as the process by which organizations seek to link the
human, social, and intellectual capital of their members to the strategic needs of the firm.
Many researchers (Arthur, 1994; Huselid, 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Huselid et al., 1997; McMahan
et al., 1999; Fey et al., 2000; Huang, 2001; Stavrou and Brewster, 2005; Christiansen and Higgs, 2008) have
suggested that companys HRM practices contribute to increase its performance and thus help it to grow and
gain sustainable competitive advantage. These studies attempted to answer the question of whether or not
human resource management practices have a crucial role in creating a high financial performance and
sustaining a competitive advantage in a fast changing environment. Traditionally, human resources have been
viewed as a cost to be minimized (Becker and Gerhart, 1996) and subject to be downsized in order to reduce
these costs, rather than a source of value creation and a strategic lever that can have economically significant

70

effects on the firms performance (Becker and Gerhart, 1996). As mentioned by Becker and Huselid (1998), a
skilled and motivated workforce can have a very important role to provide the necessary speed and flexibility
to the organization to gain competitive advantage in a dynamic market environment where traditional sources
of competitive advantage (quality, technology, economies of scale, etc.) have become easier to be imitated by
the organizations rivals.
Huselid (1995) studied the impact of HRM policies and practices on firm performance. He found that these
practices have a significant impact on employee outcomes (turnover and productivity) and on the overall
corporate performance. Huselid et al. (1997) evaluated the impact of HR managers capabilities on HR
effectiveness and the impact of the latter on the corporate financial performance using a sample of 293 U.S.
firms. They found that effectiveness was associated with capabilities and attributes of HR staff and that there
exists a relationship between HR management effectiveness and productivity, cash flow, and market value.
Wright et al. (1999) examined the impact of HR practices (selection, training, compensation and appraisal)
and participation of the financial performance of 190 US petro-chemical refineries. Their results confirmed
the existence of a direct relationship between training and compensation with workforce motivation. However,
they found that only under highly participative systems, HR practices (selection, compensation and appraisal)
are positively related to firm performance.
Wan et al. (2002) tested six strategic HR variables (training, staffing, empowerment, performance appraisal,
job design, and performance-based pay) impact on firm performance and then examined how the combination
or the bundle of such variables together affect this performance. Using a sample of 191 Singaporean
companies, they found that effective implementation of the different strategic HR variables have a positive
effect on organizational outcomes (especially to the firm HR performance-employee productivity, job
satisfaction and commitment). They also found that performance appraisal and empowerment and training
were very important issue to tackle by top management if they are interested to enhance their HR performance
and hence the organization performance.
Bae and Lawler (2000) examined the effects of organizational strategic variables regarding HRM and the
source of competitive advantage of 138 Korean firms. They found that firms with high-involvement HR
strategies had better performance.
Batt (2002) examined the relationship between human resource practices, employee quit rates, and
organizational performance in the service sector. His findings confirm that, firms emphasizing high skills,
employee participation in decision making and in teams, and human resource incentives such as high relative
pay and employment security, have lower quit rates and higher performance (sales growth).
Using a sample of 52 Japanese multinational corporation subsidiaries in the U.S. and Russia, Park et al. (2003)
examined the impact of HR practices on firm performance. Their result confirmed the hypotheses that
employee skills, attitudes and behaviors play a mediating role between HR systems and firm outcomes.
Paul and Anantharaman (2003) tested the causal model linking HRM with organizational performance. They
found that practices like training, job design, compensation and incentives had a direct effect on the
operational performance parameters.
Sings study (2003) tested and showed that there exists a significant relationship between strategic HR
orientation of Indian firms and their performance. HR orientation was conceptualized as the alignment of HR
planning, selection, evaluating, compensating, developing and staffing practices with the business strategies of
the firm.
In his study of 194 Singaporean companies from different industries, Khatri (2000) found that theres a strong
direct influence of HR practices on firm profitability. Although their findings suggest that the role of HR
function in Singapore companies still remains secondary, they stated that encouraging signs suggest that HR
activities are increasingly being aligned and integrated with the organizations overall strategy.
More recently, Wattanasupachoke (2009) had explored the relationship between HR strategies and the
performance of 124 Thai companies and found that the extra pay and profit sharing is the only factor group
that has a statistically important correlation with the companies financial performances such as sales, profits
and liquidities.
As a result of the above, an extensive body of literature about the impact of HR practices on firm performance
had emerged as a dominant research issue in the HRM field (Fey et al., 2000). The results of these studies
confirm the dependency of firm success on the caliber of its employees and how effectively they are managed.
For the purpose of this study, the following hypotheses have been formulated:
HR Planning

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Bratton and Gold (2007, page 197) define HR planning as the process of systematically forecasting the future
demand and supply for employees and deployment of their skills within the strategic objectives of the
organization. According to Werner and DeSimone (2006, page 10), human resource planning helps
companies predict how changes in their strategy will affect their HR needs. Planning the workforce needs of
any company is very critical and important especially in the rapid changes in external market demands. Koch
and McGrath (1996) found a positive relationship between HR planning and labor productivity.
Hypothesis 1: Effective human resource planning is positively associated with organizational performance
Recruitment and Selection
According to Bratton and Gold (2007, page 239), recruitment is the process of generating a pool of capable
people to apply to an organization for employment and selection is the process by which managers and
others use specific instruments to choose from a pool of applicants the person(s) most likely to succeed in the
job(s), given management goals and legal requirements. Companies using a good selectivity in the hiring
process ensure getting the right skilled and qualified people for the right job (Pfeffer, 1994; Huselid, 1995).
According to Koch and McGrath (1996), there exists a positive relationship between HR recruitment and
selection and labor productivity.
Hypothesis 2: Good selectivity in the hiring process is positively associated with organizational performance
Training and Development
Companies intending to gain a sustained competitive advantage should help their employees raise their skills
by receiving continuous training so that they can learn new things need to ensure quality improvement of the
products and services of the company.
Hypothesis 3: The amount of training is positively associated with the performance
Participation and Involvement
Companies intending to gain a sustained competitive advantage should help their employees participate
actively decision-making processes and involve them in the day-to-day problems. Putting in place employee
involvement program afford employees with opportunities to reflect their own attitudes and work experiences,
as well as their own hopes for the future (Bratton and Gold, 2007). Batt (2002) states that high-involvement
practices may influence organizational performance and that employees involvement in problem-solving and
self-directed teams may increase autonomy and satisfaction.
Hypothesis 4: The greater participation of employees in decision making is positively associated with
performance
Performance Appraisal
The measurement of employees performance allows the company to provide compensation fairly to the
deserving individuals according to certain predetermined criteria like employee competency, teamwork
ability, initiative, soft skills and ethics.
Hypothesis 5: Performance appraisal is positively associated with performance
Compensation and Benefits
Bratton and Gold (2007, page 358) state that reward refers to all of the monetary, non-monetary and
psychological payments that an organization provides for its employees in exchange for the work they
perform. Motivating employees through a good reward system constitutes a difficult and challenging task for
general managers as it can positively affect employees behavior toward their jobs and increase their
commitment and thus their performance. Armstrong and Murlis (2007, page 34) states that reward strategies
are an important part of an organizations HR strategy and should be bundled with other HR strategies so that
they complement and reinforce one another. Arthur (1994), Huselid (1995) found that motivation through a
good reward system can lead to an increase in employees productivity. Kalleberg and Moody (1994) states
that some forms of compensation such as profit sharing is used as a strategic variable to improve firm
competitiveness because it ties the interests of workers more closely to that of the organization and thus
enhance their efforts and lead to better performance.

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Hypothesis 6: Performance-based compensation is positively associated with performance

In conclusion, many studies (e.g., MacDuffie, 1995; Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Huselid et al., 1997) have
shown a positive relationship between the different HR practices and firm performance. MacDuffie (1995) has
carried out one of the first studies on an HR bundle of HR practices and found that it affects performance not
individually but as a group.
3. Methodology and Research Design
This study examines whether there exists a relationship between human resource practices and systems and
the corporate performance of companies in Saudi Arabia. The data used in this research was collected
primarily from a questionnaire developed from the previous literature (information on strategic HR
effectiveness) and secondary data information sources (measures of performance). The study of Khatri (2000)
was the primary source of the questionnaire statements. The surveys were administered in English to
individuals with principal administrative responsibilities. They were asked to indicate the extent to which their
company used the following HR practices: planning, recruitment and selection, training and development,
participation and involvement, performance appraisal, and compensation and benefits. A total of 70 surveys
were collected.
Dependent Variable
In this study, two types of performance measurement were collected. The first type includes the opinion of the
respondents concerning rate of the companys performance over the past three years compared to other
companies in the industry. The second type was the sales growth and profit growth.
Independent Variables
The items of the questionnaire were developed on the basis of literature review and studying some previous
questionnaires. A five point Likert-type scale was used as the response format for the variables, with assigned
values ranging from 1 being "Strongly disagree" to 5 being "Strongly agree". The titles of the items (HR
practices) were not revealed to the respondents. The items of our questionnaire are grouped into six HR
practices as follows:
HR Planning includes eight statements (1 to 8). It represents the importance of HR planning in the company.
The scale exhibited a coefficient of reliability Cronbach Alpha of .935.
Recruitment and Selection includes three statements (9 to 11). It represents the extensive of the selection
process. The scale exhibited a coefficient of reliability Cronbach Alpha of .610.
Training and Development includes five statements (12 to 16). It represents the importance of employees'
training, its needs and evaluation of its effectiveness. The scale exhibited a coefficient of reliability Cronbach
Alpha of .922.
Participation and Involvement includes six statements (17 to 22). It represents the employees' participation
degree in decisions and the effectiveness of communication within the company. The scale exhibited a
coefficient of reliability Cronbach Alpha of .879.
Performance Appraisal includes six statements (23 to 28). It represents the effectiveness of the performance
appraisal procedure within the company and the degree of involving the employee in this process. The scale
exhibited a coefficient of reliability Cronbach Alpha of .919.
Compensation and Benefits includes nine statements (29 to 37). It represents the effectiveness of the
compensation procedure within the company and the degree of involving the employee in this process. The
scale exhibited a coefficient of reliability Cronbach Alpha of .923.
4. Discussion of Findings
The distribution of respondents by age, length of service, education level and salary shows that of the 70
respondents, 33 (47%) were below forty years old. The distribution by education level shows that most

73

respondents (74%) have a university degree. Concerning the monthly salary, 38 respondents (54%) have a
salary less than SR 10,000. Also it was found that 67% of the respondents have less than 10 years experience
with the company. The majority of the companies where the respondents work are of small and medium size
(less than 500 employees)
By calculating the means, standard deviations and intercorrelations among the variables representing the
different HR practices, namely, planning, recruitment and selection, training and development, participation
and involvement, performance appraisal, and compensation and benefits, it was found that employees are
agreeing that these practices are well-established in the different business units of the company. This result
can be considered as a good sign that the different practices are communicated companywide and recognized
by the different managerial positions.
The questionnaire respondents were asked to describe how closely the statements match their current
companys HR policies and practices on a 5-point Likert scale. A principal component factor analysis with
varimax rotation was used to determine underlying factors. Factor loadings of 0.5 and above were retained.
The application of principal component analysis to the 37 HR practices has lead to six underlying factors that
together accounted for 76.8 per cent of the variance.
Finally, regression analysis has been conducted between each HR practice and the firm performance which is
measured by the perception of the different respondents as appear in the following question: Compared to
other companies in your industry, please rate your companys performance over the past three years on the
following indicators. The different measures were: 1. Public Image and Goodwill, 2. Quality of services, 3.
Efficiency of operations, 4. Market share growth, 5. Profit growth, 6. Sales growth, 7. Staff morale, 8. Staff
overall satisfaction, 9. Staff loyalty. Results reveal a positive relationship between the overall HR practices
and the performance of the firm, and thus, confirming the different hypotheses and past researches.
5. Conclusion
It is interesting to find that HRM practices in the studied companies have a direct causal relationship to
performance obtained by asking the different top management about their perception of 9 measures. This can
be seen as a significant finding in SHRM research, especially in the Saudi context where, at my knowledge no
past research had been conducted. This finding is in conformity with previous studies (Pfeffer, 1994; 1998;
Huselid, 1995; Youndt et al., 1996). It follows that these companies should continue in enhancing more the
competence of its employees to attain better performance goals. So, it is important to ascertain that the HR
function plays its full role in attracting, retaining, motivating and developing the human resources according
to personal and group requirements, which will help the company to use effectively its human capital to
develop and sustain a competitive advantage, as people remain the unique inimitable resource in the firms.
In spite of the expected good results obtained from the statistical analysis, the limitation of this study can be
either theoretical as well as empirical. Theoretically, although in many studies the company strategy appeared
to influence the choice of HR strategy, the resource-based view suggests that companies will choose the
appropriate business strategies according to the available HR pools. Therefore, the relationship between
business and HRM strategies is dynamic and need to be reviewed constantly. Empirically, the causality effect
between HR practices and performance is not clear since large companies with good performance usually
adapt HR practices of long-term perspective.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his thanks and appreciation for the support provided by KFUPM in the
preparation of this paper.
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Factors Affecting Employees Usage of B2E

Portals - An Empirical Case Study
Lecturer Dhia Kassim
Middle East University
Jordan

Lecturer Ahmed Shuhaiber

Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Abstract:
Business-to-Employee (B2E) portals are one key form of electronic business that helps organizations
in managing its human capital thorough digital means to improve its capabilities. Despite its
potential in efficient dealing with personnel and staff affairs inside companys borders and remotely,
B2E portals experience relatively low utilization and usage levels, resulting in frittering companys
resources and weakening the electronic communications with the employees. Therefore, this study
seeks to understand the factors that influence the usage of B2E portals. By studying the case of Royal
Jordanian (Jordans national carrier), a convenient random sample of 327 surveys was empirically
tested. The results indicate that user characteristics, portal characteristics, perceived usefulness and
organizational support have a significant positive influence on the usage of B2E portals. The results
of this study can help in understanding the shortcomings and enhancing the utilization of B2E portals
and better recognizing companies-human capital relationships .
Keywords: B2E Portals, Electronic Business, Electronic Human Capital, Employee-to-Business,
Human Capital

77

1. Introduction
Recently, electronic business (e-business) has transformed the traditional business environment towards a
more efficient, globally connected and IT-oriented business. IT systems and networks have improved business
processes and have developed more agile, intelligent and efficient business functions (Davison, 2003). The
iterative developments and growth of IT and networks have made it possible for businesses to conduct many
of their functions online (Pedrinaci et al., 2008). The impact of this evolutionary shift in conducting business
processes has prevailed inside and outside organization boundaries. In other words, e-business is not just the
buying and selling of goods and services but also serving customers, collaborating with business partners, and
conducting electronic transactions within organizations (Turban et al., 2010).
The development of e-businesses has made it also possible to substitute traditional employee services with
information systems by developing online gateway (portals), also called B2E portals. According to Rahim
(2007a), B2E portals are web-enabled systems that deliver benefits to both employees and their organizations.
Comprehensive B2E portals have three components: online business processes, online people and
management, and online services to the work place community (Rahim, 2007a). These components can affect
organizations in less administration tasks, reduced costs of employees services, improved human resource
planning, effective decisions making, and improved employee functionality (Rahim, 2007b; Urbach et al.,
2010). Hence, there is no wonder that employees portal, as a B2E e-business system, has become a necessary
tool in modern organizations. B2E portals use web applications to provide employees with secured access to
their own information and services anytime and anywhere. A survey conducted in the UK in over 500 top
firms & companies showed that majority of these companies have basic level of B2E solutions and focused on
increasing efficiency by allowing convenient access of employees to their own information (Dunford, 2002).
Similarly, B2E portals have been conducted by many organizations in Jordan, in different industries
(educational, governmental, commercial, telecommunication, aviation, and others). However, this type of
systems are exposing to an inadequate utilization by employees. To understand this lack of B2E usage, factors
that influence the employees need to be investigated. The Royal Jordanian Company was selected as a case
study for this purpose.
2. The case of Royal Jordanian
Royal Jordanian (RJ), the Jordanian national carrier, has adopted B2E systems and created their own
employees B2E portal for more than six years. RJ is considered one of the biggest airlines in the Middle East
region with approximately 4260 employees. RJ employees are distributed in different areas and locations; the
head office, Queen Alia International Airport (QAIA), sales and cargo offices all around the country, and staff
located in 58 stations worldwide (RJHR, 2012). This relatively huge number and wide distribution of RJ staff
creates enormous difficulty in providing the employees with the services and the benefits they need, especially
that traditional ways of HR services are considered costly and slow (Mohini, 2008).

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Figure1. Main page of portal's services. Available at

http://rjstaff.rj.com/new/rjstaff/Personal_Services.asp

As shown in Figure1, RJ B2E portal has many staff services. Some of the significant services provide payroll
information, daily attendance tracks, history information, leave inquiries, leave balances, provident fund,
mobile invoices, RTA request forms, and others. These functions enables the company to reach employees
remotely, enhance the employee relationship management, respond to employees queries and to provide with
several following up activities. In addition, the portal delivers information about RJ learning issues and rules
that control employee-to-company and employee-to-employee relationships, which in turn govern the RJs
human capital with the companys assets, the thing that is considered a big challenge for many companies
locally and globally.
However, although RJ has created a B2E system to overcome such challenges, the benefits of employee portal
seems to be unforeseen yet. This could be justified by either the poor capabilities of the website, or the poor
usage and interaction by the employees. Firstly, we conducted a general initial assessment of the technical
capabilities of the portal by using a free web analytical tool called goingup (available at
http://www.goingup.com/analyzer), and analysed RJ staff portal. Analysis indicated that RJ staff portal URL
is difficult to remember since it has more than 26 characters. In addition, RJ staff portal has passed W3C
XHTML and CSS tests. This indicates a well-developed portal in term of W3C standards, and facilitates
website development and accessibility by disable people. Moreover, in term of search engine optimization
(SEO) test, two measures of (a) backlines: how sites link to us in the search engines, and (b) number of pages
that major search engines have on the portal. Furthermore, the RJ staff portal test has shown that the portal
lacks regular content publishing and social web marks, indicating the poor usage and importance that portal
has.
Overall, results indicated that RJ staff is considered sufficient for conducting the main business processes, but
experiences poor options and beneficial features, such as indexing, backlinks to Google, yahoo and MSN with
zero pages on them as well. On the other hand, RJ B2E portal has shown some sufficient technical and
security characteristics.
To get more into the case of employees interaction with the portal, we tried to investigate this phenomena by
using pilot unstructured interviews and observations with 30 RJ employees in three main departments (Human
resource, customer service, and IT). Surprisingly, we discovered a notable low usage rate of current RJ B2E
portal. Around 26% of the interviewed employees revealed that they do not use the portal. Moreover, around
63% of them declared that they use the portal to benefit from only one benefit (payroll information), while
only 11% identified themselves as a regular users for most the services provided by the portal. Some
concerning issued were raised by the employees against using the portal services; such as the characteristics of
the portal itself and the companys official support of usage.
In addition, we noticed through these interviews and observations that some demographic variables such as
age, education and computer skills maybe important factors that affect the usage and utilization of these
services. However, we believe that other factors may also play a role. Therefore, this study aims to achieve a
better understanding of the current usage models of B2E portals and exploring the effect of user

79

characteristics and other factors that determine the usage of such systems. In addition, this work seeks to
provide some suggestions for better using the portal that benefits both employees and the company from the
B2E portals utilities. Consequently, this study comes to explore the factors that influence the current usage in
RJ B2E portal, and to develop a comprehensive conceptual model of these factors that can help in
understating the differences of portal usage among different staff members. Next section (2) presents relevant
literature of B2E Portals adoptions and usage, through which hypotheses and a conceptual model were
developed. Sections 3 and 4 demonstrate testing the model, the research methodology and findings
consequently. Last section (5) rounds off with conclusions, recommendations for future research and practice
into B2E portals.
3. Literature Review and Hypotheses development
Previous related work to B2E portals adoption discussed different factors that affected the adoption of B2E
portals and its effect on the usage of such portals. Based on this literature review, we were able to identify a
four-construct theoretical model. These constructs are: user characteristics, portal characteristics, usefulness,
and organization support. This section identifies each construct and give some evidence about their influence
on portals adoption.
3.1 User characteristics
User characteristics or demographics were identified and discussed by many researchers as a key set of factors
in human-computer interaction generally, and in using B2E portals in specific. For example, Rahim (2008)
examined the age and gender variables in his study and found that age have a significant effect on young
employees usage of a companys portal. Moreover, Tojib et al. (2008) found that age and job categories affect
the employees satisfaction in using the portal. Furthermore, Urbach (2010) in his study An empirical
investigation of employee portal success found that gender plays a significant role in portal usage where
male users had more usage rates than female users. On the other hand, Rahim et al. (2009) in their study found
that education level is a key factor that affects the usage of the portal, as staff members with higher
qualifications are most likely to use the portal more than the staff with lower qualifications. Lai & Chen
(2009) studied age, gender and education level and propose the important role of these characteristics on
portal usage. Therefore, we hypothesize that:
H1: User characteristics has a significant positive influence on intention to use B2E portals.
3.2 Portal Characteristics
Portal characteristics are the features that describe the principles of the portal which fundamentally includes:
navigation, search, function, access, compatible, help, and language (Fuangvut, 2005; Lai & Chen, 2009;
Tojib et al., 2008). This category can also include information quality which is a key factor of user satisfaction
(Tojib et al., 2008), as well as accessibility and reports quality which were also identified as important
characteristics of all portals (Lai & Chen, 2009). Based on this discussion, it is hypothesized that:
H2: Portal characteristics has a significant positive influence on intention to use B2E portals.
3.3 Perceived Usefulness
Originally developed by Davis (1986) in his popular technology acceptance model (TAM), many scholars
stressed the importance of the perceived usefulness as a determinant factor in B2E portals. Perceived
usefulness of the portal includes: convenience access, easy service, flexibility, time saving and news service
(Rahim et al., 2009; Rahim, 2007; Tatnall, 2005) . Portal services can save response time to business queries
and instructions, and can also provide high flexibility and adaptability for employees responsibilities and job
duties (Tatnall, 2005). In the B2E portal adoption literature, usefulness is perceived in several ways. For
instance, Rahim et al. (2009) and Rahim (2007) perceive usefulness as the benefits gained from dealing with
the portal, while Sugianto and Tojib (2006) see usefulness as the easy access to organizations information,
whereas Rahim & Singh (2006) relate usefulness to how helpfulness the portal is for meeting the employees
information needs. However, all the mentioned dimensions of usefulness could be identified as key factors for
portals usage. Thus, a hypothesis of the influence of usefulness on B2E portals is presented below.
H3: Perceived usefulness has a significant positive influence on intention to use B2E portals.
3.4 Organizational Support
Several studies indicated that organizational support such as organizational training, help desk and
management encouragement are valuable factors that can have effect on portal usage (McCausland, 2005;
Rahim et al., 2007; Rahim, 2007). Moreover, top management motivations such as leadership tangible and
intangible incentives are seen important and suggested to have a significant impact on the use of employee
portal and employees satisfaction (Urbach et al., 2011). Therefore, we hypothesize that:
H4: Organizational support has a significant positive influence on intention to use B2E portals.

80

From the above discussed literature and the pilot interviews and observations, we can conclude that user
characteristics, portal characteristics, perceived usefulness, and organizational support can affect employees
usage of B2E portals, and consequently a conceptual model is developed (See figure 2).
Figure 2: A conceptual model of factors affecting the usage of B2E portals.

Source: developed for this study.

4. Methodology
This study followed a quantitative methodology, by using the questionnaire instrument to survey respondents
in RJ. Both descriptive and empirical analyses were employed. Descriptive studies include data collected from
previous related works and literature review, and were used to develop the theoretical model of this study.
Furthermore, some statistical techniques were employed for empirical analysis. The following two sections
illustrate the data collection approach, and the measurement and scaling of the instrument.
4.1 Data collection
In order to empirically test the hypotheses developed in the previous section, data were collected using a
convenience sampling approach via paper-based survey. A convenient random sample was taken from the
population to represent all different companys departments while considering the relative weight of each
department. During a six-week period, A total of 450 surveys were distributed to the population of the study
and 327 surveys (72.6%) were retrieved and valid for analysis. The population of the study is all ground staff
in Royal Jordanian from different departments and divisions.
4.2 Measurement and scaling
The conceptualization and development of the questionnaire was based on the existing literature, resulted in
total of 29 items. The first four items were included for capturing demographic information (gender, age,
educational level, and income), followed by two more items for specifying the technological capabilities.
Specific three items were embraced to discover the usage rate, usage frequency, and employee satisfaction on
the portal. All items were constructed in Arabic language for its convenience and appropriateness to the
targeted sample. To measure these items, a typical 5-point Likert scale was used to measure the constructs
presented in the proposed model (scores were ranged from 1=strongly agree to 5=strongly disagree with
neutral score=3). The survey instrument was refined during a pre-test to ensure the internal consistency of
the measured instrument, with the involvement of 16 respondents. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS
version 18.0. Part of this analysis was descriptive, while the inferential part of the statistical analysis examined
the factors that impact employee usage of RJ B2E portal. Analysis is shown in the scenario below.
5. Findings and Analysis

81

Based on previous research model, the results of the statistical analysis for the research hypotheses presented
and described. The data analysis included a descriptive analysis using frequencies, means and standard
deviations for the questions of the study. Further empirical tests included Cronbachs Alpha reliability test and
multiple regression analysis were used to test the relationships between the independent variables and the
dependent variable.
The descriptive analysis of user characteristics variables demonstrated in Table 1 below shows that 58.7% of
the respondents are males while 41.3% are females. On the other hand, it is clear that 34.6% of the study
sample ranged between (28 32) years old which represents the majority of the respondents. Educational
level results show that most of the sample (76.1%) has bachelor degree. Computers and the internet skill
results show that 58.1% of the respondents are with intermediate use of computers, and 74.9% have been
using the internet for more than 6 years. Salary wise, statistics shows that 50.2% of the sample is paid more
than 500JDs.
Table 1. Sample profile
No.
Variables
Categorization
Percent
Male
58.7%
Gender
1
Female
41.3%
18 22
1.5%
23 27
32.7%
Age
2
28 32
34.6%
33 & above
31.2%
High school
4.9%
Diploma
10.4%
Education
3
Bachelor
76.1%
Graduate studies
8.6%
Less than 300
2.1%
301 400
15.9%
Salary
4
401 500
31.8%
More than 501
50.2%
Do not use computer
0.3%
Basic use
1.5%
Computer Skills
5
Intermediate use
58.1%
Professional use
40.1%
Do not use internet
0.3%
12
4.3%
Internet Skills
6
35
20.5%
6 & Above
74.9%
Regarding the usage rate, usage frequency, and employees satisfaction on using the portal, other descriptive
statistics revealed that more than 54% of the sample are far away from the comprehensive usage of the portal
(37.2% of the sample rarely use the portal, whereas 17.1% never used it). On the other hand, only 3.7% of the
sample use the portal always to support his/her duties. Additionally, the highest percentage of the usage
frequency (32.7%) belongs to employees who use the portal once a month, whereas only 19.9% of the sample
use the portal five times a month or more. Furthermore, employees satisfaction rates are sorted descending as
follows: 36.4% were dissatisfied, 31.8% were neutral, 19% were satisfied, 7.3% were very satisfied, and 5.5%
were very dissatisfied.
As for the empirical tests, reliability testing using Cronbachs Alpha found all constructs to be reliable at the
acceptable lower limit of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2008; Nunnally, 1978). Multiple regression analysis was used to test
the relationships between the independent variables including customer characteristics, portal characteristics,
perceived usefulness, organizational support, and the dependent variable (intention to usage B2E portal). The
four constructs accounted for 63.1% of the variance of consumer attitude towards SMS advertising as shown
in Table 2.

Model

82

Table 2 Model Summary

R Square
Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the

.825a

.631

.589

Estimate
2.341

Table 3 includes the regression coefficients and calculated significance value in order to measure the
relationship between the four construct and the dependent variable within a confidence interval = 95%, and a
proposed significance level = 0.05. The table indicates that a significant positive relationship between
customer characteristics and B2E portal usage was found (Sig. = 0.000, = 0.210), indicating Hypothesis 1 is
supported. Next, a positive significant relationship between portal characteristics and B2E portal usage was
found (Sig. = 0.047, = 0.152), thereby, supporting hypothesis 2. Thirdly, a significant positive relationship
between perceived usefulness and B2E portal usage was found (Sig. = 0.000, = 0.150), indicating that
hypothesis 3 is supported. The result for H4 indicates that organizational support has a significant positive
effect on employees usage of B2E portal (Sig. = .016, = 0.120), thus, the more the organizational support to
use the portal, the more favorable the use of this portal by the employees. Thus, this finding supports H4.
Table 3 Coefficients of the regression analysis
Standardized
Coefficients
Model
T
Sig.
Beta
User characteristics
.210
1.981
.000
Portal characteristics
.152
2.104
.047
Perceived usefulness
.150
3.421
.000
.016
Organizational support
.120
1.137
6. Discussion and Conclusion
In this study, the researcher aimed to verify the factors that influence employees usage intention of B2E
portal, by examining the case of Royal Jordanian companys online portal. For this purpose, a conceptual
model consists of four constructs: user characteristics, portal characteristics, perceived usefulness, and
organizational support was developed and tested as influential factors on employees usage of RJs B2E portal
and came out with their significant effect on adopting B2E portals from employees perspectives. This model
includes the main integrated aspects from the investigational RJ B2E portals adoption, together with
exploratory, empirical, and conceptual literature conducted in the immediate discipline of B2E portals
adoption. Thus, the proposed model was theoretically and practically based. The set of hypotheses, derived
from the current studys mode, were developed based on the relevant literature and the case of RJ, and were
tested quantitatively using a paper-based survey as a mean for data gathering.
The quantitative results, to a high sort of convergence, justify the observations gained from the pilot
interviews conducted. The results reveal useful findings for this type of employee self-services which can
contribute to improve B2E portals usage in RJ and other companies inside and outside the aviation industry in
Jordan, where no similar studies have been found yet on such systems.
The analysis of the first finding in the study indicated that user characteristics (gender, age, educational level,
and income) has a significant positive influence on the usage of B2E portals. However, some other user
characteristics such as communication abilities and confidentiality could have the potential to influence the
portal usage. The analysis of the second finding indicated that portal characteristics (portal navigation, portal
functions, portal access, and portal language) has a significant positive influence on the usage of B2E portals.
By assessing and empirically testing the usage of RJ B2E portal, it was noted that some functions and features
suggested to be available in the portal, such as providing collaborative and interactivity options supported by
web 2.0 technologies. These features would enable the employees to best interact and respond to management
online instructions, and accordingly enable many employees to act and react efficiently to the portal updates,
as recommended by Turban et al. (2010). In addition, the portal could be enriched through the Rich Internet
application (RIA) techniques based on Ajax, Adobe Flash, Flex and Java in order to improve the user
experience in browser-based applications. RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds from news sites, blogs,
wikis and enterprise applications send information where it's wanted, mobile devices, e-mail clients and
desktops are also useful and affective features for increasing portals richness and employees reachness.
This study also found that perceived usefulness has a positive significant influence on employees intention to
use B2E portals. These portals should contain several functions required to support employees with their
business tasks and responsibilities, and accordingly, increase their productivity and work efficiency. The last

83

finding indicated that organizational support significantly influence the intention to use B2E portals, by
providing training courses, incentives and rewards, and knowledge sharing tools. From a managerial
perspective, managements can create and organize supportive portfolios to ensure the best implementation of
practicing, controlling and reporting outcomes associated with the support processes. These services can be
facilitated through the organizational support panel that delivers value for the entire business.
This study suffered from some limitations such as the location limitation, as RJ stations are spread all over the
destinations they reach including the base station in Amman. Another limitation is related to the sample as
only ground staff in Royal Jordanian Airlines were able to participate in this study.
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Talent Management in the Organization

Al-hroot, Abdelhafeez. H

Al-hroot, Hadeel. A

Al-Zaytoonah Private University of Jordan

Al-Zaytoonah Private University of Jordan

Jordan

Jordan

Abstract:
Talent Management is an increasingly noticed concept by academics and practitioners (Preeceet,
2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009). Evidently, Talent Management as a phrase had been searched
over 2,700,000 times at 2004 and 8,000,000 times at 2005 by internet users (Lewis and Heckman,
2006). However, many holes and lapses are detected in the concept researches particularly, in respect
of the definition, boundaries and comprehensive objectives of talent management (Preeceet, 2010;
Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).
This paper examines literary work of academics and practitioners to:(a) determine an abbreviated
and explicit definition for "Talent management";(b) Differentiate between talent management and
conventional human resource management in respect of practices and perspective.(c) Build up
theoretical framework that helps researcher to recognize four different approaches of talent
management: Traditional human resource management; Organizational needs evaluation; Talent
classification; and competitive advantage approaches.
Keywords: Talent Management; Human Resource Management; Talent with Performance; Training/
Replacement

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Introduction:
Talent management has augmented organizational human capital during economic depression of this decade.
The human capital expanded firms through product differentiation and organizational competitive advantages
(Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Frank and Taylor, 2004; Schweyer, 2003). Nevertheless, intellectuals were not
able to determine a precise definition, range and general objectives of the concept (Collings and Mellahi,
2009). Consequently, this paper had been conducted to achieve the following objectives: defining strategic
talent management, differentiating strategic talent management and strategic human resource management,
and correlating strategy and talent management of a firm. Therefore, this paper had been structured as follow:
Firstly, researcher will be discussing different talent management schools of thoughts / perspectives, which
are: traditional human resource management perspective, organizational needs evaluation perspective, talent
classification perspective, and competitive advantages perspective. Secondly, researcher will be distinguishing
strategic talent management from traditional strategic human resource management in an elaborative manner.
Furthermore, researcher made distinction to build up a theoretical definition for talent management. Thirdly,
researcher will be correlating talent management and firm strategy. Moreover, talent-strategy correlation will
be discussed to show implications of talent management on organization performance. Afterward, researcher
methodological approach will be explained. Finally, researcher remarks and conclusion will be outlined.
Literature Review:
Human resource scholars have been debating over clear and exact definition of talent management. In details,
scholars argue that talent management is a set of human resource functions that guarantees high performance
of firm employees (Khatri et al, 2010; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). The functions include: detection, staffing,
administration, evaluation, and progression of organizational present and potential employees (e.g. highranking managers) (Cannon and McGee, 2011; Preece et al, 2010; Khatri et al, 2010). As can be seen, talent
management as a concept suffers from ambiguity in regard of range. As a result, scholars suggested three
different schools of thought where each school has defined the concept in an independent manner (Preece et
al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). Subsequently, talent management schools
will be examined.
Mainly, scholars of traditional human resource management school argue that talent management is a
replacement for traditional human resource management. In other word, talent management is a new identity
for the old human resource management (Ibraiz and Schuler,2010). This school scholars include within the
new identity the following actions, applications, and roles of human resource, such as: staffing, assortment,
succession planning, management and career development (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009;
Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006; Frank and Taylor, 2004). The main advantage of this
perspective is human resource roles exploitation to catch and preserve talent of organization. By contrast,
implementation of this perspective at enterprise level will cause roles ineffectiveness and failure (Lewis and
Heckman, 2006). Later, organizational needs evaluation school will be discussed.
Primarily, scholars of school of organizational needs evaluation argue that talent management is a process of
assessing organizational needs for talent, recruiting new employees, and advancing current staff into
organizational positions. The perspective maintain a satisfactory "supply" of "Talent" within the organization
at any time to increase organizational outputs and enhance employees creativity (Collings and Mellahi, 2009;
Lewis and Heckman, 2006 ; Schweyer, 2003). As a result, this perspective has the following advantages:
Firstly, this perspective creates more jobs than other human resource planning tools. Secondly, this
perspective overcomes shortage of labor market through internal staffing and assortment. Thirdly, this
perspective distinguishes human resource from talent management where the latter is stemmed from
manpower planning (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). Next, talent
classification school will be explained.
Essentially, scholars of the talent classification school argue that talent management is classification process
of talent into two categories which are: low performing staff and good performing staff (McDonnell et al,
2010). Additionally, talent management is replacement process of low performing staff with good performing
staff. Remarkably, this perspective ignores firm demands (i.e. firm pool), hierarchical structure, and job
requirements to manage talent pool (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). In addition, this
perspective faces the following problems: Firstly, performance assessment programs are inaccurate. Secondly,
performance assessment procedures are inhuman because of wrong excommunication of good performing
staff. Thirdly, firm strategies are inefficient because of hardships in classifying talents. Fourthly, firm
strategies are threatened by filling specific positions with high performing staff rather than average as required
(Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). Finally, this perspective cannot distinguish between talent

88

management and human resource management because both emphasize on high performing staff and
excommunicating poor performing staff (Collings and Mellahi, 2009). Later, competitive advantage school
will be studied.
Principally, scholars of competitive advantage school argue that talent management is matching process of top
jobs and top talents in an organization to satisfy firm demands and achieve competitive advantage (Collings
and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Sizler, 2003). This perspective has the following advantages: Firstly, this
perspective avoids unnecessary spending through differentiating between key positions and non-key positions
(Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Sizler, 2003). Secondly, this perspective boosts organizational performance
through differentiating top performing staff from low performing staff to match the latter with key-positions
(Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006) . Thirdly, this perspective avoids undesirable costs
through reduce spending over poor performing staff and non-key positions. Fourthly, this perspective is a
practical one because it invests money on high potential performing staff and key-jobs. Therefore, this
perspective exploits organizational resources in a complete manner (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Silzer,
2003). Conversely, this perspective cannot survive instable strategy and surrounding of firm (Silzer, 2003).
Please examine Talent management identification schools (See Figure 1). Subsequently, talent management
and human resource management will be distinguished.

Organizational
Needs
Evaluation

Traditional
Human Resource
Management
Talent
Classification

Competitive
Advantage

Figure 1: (Talent Management Identification Schools).

Distinguishing Talent Management from Human Resource Management:
As had been explained above, researchers of traditional human resource management school argued that
talent management is only a new identity for traditional human resource management (Preece et al, 2010;
Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). By contrast, researchers of talent classification
school distinguished between both concepts. As a result, researchers suggested two perspectives correlating
strategic talent management and strategic human resource management, which are: pro-correlation and
against-correlation perspectives (De Meus et al, 2012). The pro-correlation researchers have suggested a
framework of a relationship among firm strategy, human resource functions and talent (Preece et al, 2010;
Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006; Frank and Taylor, 2004). The
framework presents a relationship between spending (i.e. over human resource functions) and staff returns.
However, the framework did not specify the implications, extent, and power of the relationship among human
resource functions and talent management. In other word, the framework did not determine processes of

89

human resource division that lead for sophisticated talent management (Preece et al, 2010; Lewis and
Heckman, 2006, p.5). By contrast, against-correlation researchers have suggested that strategic talent
management and strategic human resource management can be distinguished by the targeted staff and
positions for progression (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). In
depth, the former concept concentrates on key employees of firm in contrasted way with the latter which
concentrates on the total working force. In addition, the former focuses on key positions while the latter
focuses on total employees regardless of members organizational roles (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and
Mellahi, 2009). Next, correlation of organization strategy and talent management will be discussed.
Linking Organizational Strategy and Talent Management:
Essentially, scholars have built a correlation that matches talent pool, strategies and competitive surroundings
of a firm. Furthermore, such correlation effect long term financial performance of an organization in an
incremental manner (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Silzer, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). In addition, such
correlation ensures responsiveness of organizational talent pool to changes in firm strategies, such as:
developing operations, enhancing technological systems, and altering information structure (Collings and
Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).The response of talent pool will be either by implementing training
programs or replacement programs for employees. Moreover, training programs are implemented because of
the following reasons: Firstly, talent job is of high specialization or high value to organization (Collings and
Mellahi, 2009; Silzer, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). Secondly, shortage of talent supply
in the labor market. Thirdly, customer devotion to talent which makes replacement programs implementation
harder (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). On the contrary, replacement programs are
implemented because of the following reasons: Firstly, talent with jobs sensitive to time - (i.e. No time for
implementing training programs). Secondly, positions with high supply of talent. As a result, managers
excommunicate talent when replacement programs are implemented without problems in contrasted way with
training programs (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Silzer, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).
Methodology and Sampling
This paper objective is to define talent management as a concept in the organization. Therefore, this paper
researcher has obtained two types of population: Human resource management scholars and talents with
performance. Subsequently, researcher has chosen a sample size consisted of 720 questionnaires in the year
2012.
A total of 720 questionnaires were sent by postal and electronic mail to the representatives to achieve the
largest possible response. One hundred and twenty questionnaires were returned uncompleted. Thus, of the
remaining 600 questionnaires, 120 usable questionnaires were completed and returned, representing a 20%
response rate overall; the sample size involved in this study is split between 40 talents with performance and
80 human resources management scholars. Next, talent management identification schools will be discussed
in an methodological manner.
The Talent Management Identification schools:
1- Traditional Human Resource Management Perspective:
The aim of the strategic of human resource perspective through human resource scholars and talent with
performance is to add best value to the talent experience at the organization. The critical areas agreed and
identified for talent management are human resource scholars and talents with performance (Deery, 2008).
However, the correlation relationship between human resource scholarsand the performers is the strongest
relationship; in other words, it shows that human resource scholarsand the performers are the most critical
factors in measuring the talent management.
2- Organizational Needs Evaluation Perspective:
This reflects the building up actions of the talent management that must be undertaken to meet long-term
organizational needs and demands. Furthermore, organizational needs evaluation perspective contains the
following critical factor categories: assessing needs, recruitment process of new employees, and advancement
of current staff.
All the assessment and recruitment components correlate strongly with each other. Development process of
organization present correlates with administrators, potential employees and people development which
indicates that availability of the unique administrators, potential employees and people development and
reasonable process of organization present will increase talent management. In addition, development process
of organization present correlates with human resource scholars and the performers which means that the

90

availability of development process of organization present with high quality of services and the
professionalism of the people who are working in the organization will enhance talent management.
People development correlates with human resource scholars and the performers; in other words, this means
that the well trained and qualified people with high quality of performance and stable internal and external
factors will support each other to accomplish the talent management image in the eyes of the organizations.
3- The Talent Classification Perspective:
This perspective refers to the process that can enhance the appeal of the organization, has the impact on talent
management and can directly contribute to manage the assessment process. The respondents agreed and
identified the following critical factors: needs and demands, recruiting new employees and advancing current
staff. Organizational needs and demands for talent correlates with recruiting new employees and advancing
current staff into organizational positions which means that a reasonable needs and demand with high quality
of organizational positions as tangible evidence will boost the advancing talent management process.
Recruiting new employees and advancing current staff correlates with human resource scholarsand the
performers for the assessment management process. This indicates that employing and utilizing organizational
as a supply to maintain a satisfactory supply of talent management.
4- The Organization Performance Perspective:
This perspective is a process of determining top jobs that achieve competitive advantages for organization and
fill such jobs with top talent. The talent must be developed continuously by human resource to fill such jobs.
Competitive advantage, determining top jobs, key positions and differentiating top performers are identified
and agreed by respondents to be critical factors of organizational performance perspective (Berger,2010).

Figure (2): Talent Management Perspectives

Conclusion:
As a conclusion, scholars, researchers and practitioners in the human resource discipline, have presented four
different definitions of Talent management. In details, talent management can be defined as:
1- The new identity for traditional human resource management.
2- An evaluation and response process for organizational needs.
3- Talent classification and replacement process.
4- A driver of competitive advantage and better organizational performance.
Many researchers argue that talent management is a replacement for traditional human resource actions,
applications, and roles, such as: staffing, assortment, succession planning, management and career
development (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006;
Frank and Taylor, 2004). However, other researchers had criticized strategy of pro-correlation researchers
which correlates firm strategy, human resource functions and talent (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi,
2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006; Frank and Taylor, 2004). Moreover, against- correlation
researchers argue that strategic talent management concentrates on key employees of firm in contrasted way

91

with strategic human resource management which concentrates on the total working force. Besides, the former
focuses on key positions while the latter focuses on total employees regardless of members organizational
roles (Preece et al, 2010; Collings and Mellahi, 2009). Therefore, this paper will not adopt the previous
definition.
Other researchers defined talent management as a process of assessing organizational needs for talent,
recruiting new employees, and advancing current staff into organizational positions (Collings and Mellahi,
2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006, p140; Schweyer, 2003). This definition recognizes talent management as an
evaluation tool for organizational pool rather than strategy for managing the talent pool. Therefore, this paper
will not adopt the previous definition.
The third definition argues that talent management is a classification process of talent into two categories
which are: low performing staff and good performing staff. Then, managers conducts a replacement process of
low performing staff with good performing staff (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).
This definition will not lead for organizational competitive advantage because of the high costs of such
approach for talent management. Therefore, this paper will not adopt the previous definition.
Finally, talent management has been defined by the organizational performance allies as the matching process
of top jobs and top talents in an organization to satisfy firm demands and achieve competitive advantage
(Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Sizler, 2003). As a result, this paper supports such definition
because it is correlate firm strategy with talent pool. Therefore, organizational responsiveness will increase
either by training programs or by replacement programs. The training programs are implemented because of
the following changes: job specialization, low labor market supply, and customer devotion (Collings and
Mellahi, 2009; Silzer, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006). On the contrary, replacement
programs are implemented because of the following reasons: lack of time and high supply of talent (Collings
and Mellahi, 2009; Silzer, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).
Future Suggestions:
In this paper, researchers have drew a clear and precise definition of talent management. The definition has
approached talent management as a concept and an impact factor over organizational performance (Collings
and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Sizler, 2003). Therefore, researcher recommends conducting studies over
the following topics for more clarity in the definition: Firstly, Scholars should study role of talent management
in the establishment of firm strategy. Secondly, Scholars should study role of talent as a valuable, unique and
unduplicated resource that differentiates organization from competitors. Thirdly, Scholars should study role of
talent as a driver to strategic decisions (Collings and Mellahi, 2009; Bhatnagar, 2007; Sizler, 2003).
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Recruitment, Retention and Workforce Planning - 04 Editions. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Silzer, Rob.( 2009). Strategy-Driven Talent Management: A Leadership Imperative - 10 edition. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.

93

Implementation of National Broadband Network

in Various Sectors in Jordan
Dr. Qeethara Al-Shayea
Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Dr. Muna Al-Samarae

Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan
Jordan

Abstract:
The paper focuses on national broadband network project in Jordan. In this context, His Majesty
King Abdullah II has pointed Jordan in the direction of becoming a knowledge-based economy and
society. So the Jordanian government constructs and operates a national broadband network. The
success in the knowledge economy demands increasingly higher skill levels, especially greater
facility with information and communications technologies. Accordingly, the government of Jordan
decided to reform the national education system to foster more creative, critical thinking and
collaborative capacities in its students and graduates as well as its adult learners. Increasing
opportunities to learn with computers and networks is a central part of this transformation. In order
for the Jordanian citizen to have ready access to Information and Communications Technologies
(ICT), Jordans schools, universities and colleges need to be connected via networks at a level and
speed that can support the rapid growth of network traffic demand over the long term. Equally
important, the knowledge stations, which provide convenient and affordable public access to
computers and the Internet, need improved network support. As a result the need for a broadband
fiber network was determined as a major requirement for the success of the "Connecting Jordanians
Initiative CJI initiative.
Keywords: Broadband Network, Human Capital, Economics, Information Technology.

94

1. Introduction
The global economy is increasingly, more open and competitive. Countries that are more innovative and
productive are capturing a greater share of the worlds trade, investment and jobs. In this context, His Majesty
King Abdullah II has pointed Jordan in the direction of becoming a knowledge-based economy and society. In
line with this vision, MoICT started doing its due-diligence to explore the potential means of establishing the
required connectivity in early 2001. As a result, the Jordanian Government, at the September 2002 ICT forum
launched the Connecting Jordanians Initiative (CJI) which aims to deliver the governments drive to make
computers and networks more widely available to the public [1].
Sivaraman, Russell, Collings and Radford [2] discussed the challenges faced when building a national optical
access network that is ubiquitous (i.e., reaches all households nationwide) and open access (i.e., allows any
provider to offer their services over it). Their work is inspired by a public fiber access network being built in
Australia called the National Broadband Network (NBN) that will deploy fiber to 93 percent of premises,
providing broadband access at potential data rates of 100 Mb/s and above.
Seymour [3] discussed the emergence of fiber optics industry in Qatar. With the nation's lack of capacity and
reliability in terms of high-speed broadband, Gulf Bridge International (GBI) aims to provide Qatar with a
more robust network which is capable of carrying more information.
2. Broadband Network
Broadband refers to high-speed data transmission in which a single cable can carry a large amount of data at
once. The most common types of Internet broadband connections are cable modems (which use the same
connection as cable TV) and DSL modems (which use your existing phone line). Because of its multiple
channel capacity, broadband has started to replace baseband, the single-channel technology originally used in
most computer networks. So now when you see companies like AT&T and SBC pushing those fancy
"broadband" ads in your face, you'll at least know what they are talking about.
2.1 Types of Broadband
Broadband is a transmission medium which enables high speed Internet access. Broadband service is always
on, and much faster than dial-up access. The speed of transmission is defined by the FCC, who categorizes
broadband into various service tiers based on these speeds. Basic broadband service is defined as data
transmission speeds of at least 4 megabits per second in the download direction, and 1 megabit per second in
the ulpoad direction. Broadband is transmitted by various technologies, including: DSL, Cable Modem, Fiber
Optics, Wireless, Satellite, WiMax, and White Space [4].
1- DSL and Cable Modem Broadband
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) broadband service leverages existing copper telephone lines already installed in
most businesses and homes to deliver broadband. Likewise, cable modem broadband service allows cable
providers to deliver broadband using coaxial cables which deliver cable TV service to many consumers.
2- Fiber Optic Broadband
Fiber optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and sends the light through very
narrow transparent glass fibers. The main advantage to fiber data transmissions is the speed at which it travels.
Fiber optic broadband speeds far exceed current DSL or cable modem speeds. The actual speeds users
experience is dependent on many factors, including proximity to the service provider, and how the connection
is configured. Fiber optic technology is more expensive than other broadband delivery methods. The various
kinds of fiber optic technology available depend on how far the fiber is installed. (FTTH) runs the fiber all the
way to the customer's home or business. Fiber to the node (FTTN) runs fiber to a neighborhood, where preexisting copper telephone deliver broadband service to the customer's home or business.
3- Wireless Broadband
Wireless broadband uses a radio link between the user's location and the service provider's facility. Wireless
technologies are beneficial in providing broadband service in rural or sparsely populated areas where DSL,
cable modem, or fiber broadband service would be too costly to provide. Wireless broadband speeds are very
similar to DSL and cable modem. Wireless broadband Internet providers can provide permanent Internet
access solutions to customers (often in rural areas) who do not have access to wireline services. They can also
extend the reach of other "last-mile" wireline broadband connections. This type of wireless broadband access
is provided by Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), and is often used for public Internet access at "hot
spots" in hotels, airports, convention centers, and city parks.
4- WiMAX Broadband
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, (WiMAX) service is another form of wireless broadband
technology designed primarily as an alternative to satellite, or for mobile broadband applications. The range of

95

WiMAX is much longer than WiFi, providing broadband wireless access up to 30 miles using fixed and
mobile base stations.
5- Satellite Broadband
Satellite broadband service is useful in rural areas where wired service would be difficult to install. Satellite
service is generally more expensive than other means, and does experience problems with latency which can
affect speed. Weather conditions can also affect the delivery of service and connection speeds. However,
speeds are often much higher than those with dial-up access, and satellite is sometimes the only way to deliver
broadband to extremely remote areas.
6- White Space
Since wireless spectrum is a limited resource, broadband service providers have been exploring innovative
ways to wring more bandwidth from existing spectrum. One way to accomplish this is by using the "white
space" in between television broadcast channels. Proponents of this technology say that this will bring
affordable broadband to users who need it the most. With the transition from analog to digital television
devices much of the spectrum previously used for television broadcast stations now remains unused.
2.2 What Are the Economic Benefits of Broadband?
There is little debate that increasing broadband access spurs economic development, but can this be
quantified? There have been numerous studies by economic and telecommunications analysts which study the
correlation between broadband access and number of jobs created, as well as measuring the economic impact
of broadband. There are multiple economic factors that could affect the results, as well many facets of
providing broadband Internet access, which have the potential to significantly affect the results [5,6].
For example, what is the economic impact of increased broadband adoption?
At what levels of broadband availability do local communities realize the highest rate of new jobs?
Does the type or speed of the broadband connection affect the economic impact?
These questions all have even more as significant As national broadband policies are driven from the nations
Capital, State and local leaders try to close gaps in broadband availability and adoption. When deciding where
to invest broadband dollars, broadband providers try to prove where funding would provide the most benefits.
With the state of the economy the lowest it has been in years and unemployment rates in double digits, putting
money into broadband projects can definitely spur economic development and increase jobs. The only
question is quantifying how much, and how many jobs does each broadband dollar add.
There have been numerous studies completed on the economic effects of broadband. The following formulas
and statistics represent a compilation of some of the leading research:
ITIF Estimates A $10 Billion Investment In Broadband Would Produce Nearly 500,000 New Jobs. "These
investments will create new jobs up and down the economic food chain, said Robert Atkinson, president of the
Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. Those include the construction workers and
telecommunications technicians who must dig up streets, lay down fiber-optic lines and install wireless
towers, as well as the engineers and factory workers at companies that make the fiber, electronics and
computer equipment needed to build the networks. Much of that equipment is made overseas now, but
Atkinsons projections exclude jobs that would go abroad.
For every one percentage point increase in broadband penetration in a state, employment is projected to
increase by 0.2 to 0.3 percent per year.
3. National Broadband Network (NBN) Program Scope
3.1 University Broadband Network
On January 14th, 2003 the Government of Jordan has approved the implementation of the University
Broadband Network. MoICT was mandated to implement the network and hand it over to JUNET, a non
profit organization that represents the Jordans public universities, that is responsible to operate and maintain
the network.
3.2 School Broadband Network
On June 25th, 2003 the Government of Jordan has approved the implementation of the School Broadband
Network. MoICT was mandated to implement and operate the network
3.3 Government Entities Network
In the Year 2007 it was decided to utilize the efforts and use the Infrastructure of the broadband network to
connect government entities and support the build out of the secure government network.
3.4 Medical Entities Network
In the Year 2008 it was decided to utilize the efforts and use the Infrastructure of the broadband network to
connect medical entities.

96

4. NBN Program Objectives

1- Contributing to development of the Jordanian Educational System:
Promote the usage of ICT for learning purposes at universities, schools, community colleges and learning
resources Kingdom wide through a fiber optics broadband network.
2- Contributing to development of the Jordanian Social System:
a- Support the knowledge stations in developing the ICT capabilities of communities through broadband
access
to
applications
and
the
internet.
b- Enhance the deployment of ICT throughout the Kingdom by laying the foundation for new services.
c- Support the build out of the secure government network by providing a broadband connectivity that will
enable better services to citizens and government.
3- Contributing to development of the Jordanian economic system:
Stimulate economic development by subcontracting the build up of the network to local and foreign
contractors.
4- Contributing to development of the Jordanian health system:
Support the build out of a network linking the health entities in Jordan to the broadband network to increase
the efficiency of the medical system and to prevent wasting the medical materials which will enhance the
efficiency of the public sector
5. NBN Program Accomplishments
5.1 University Broadband Network
1- Constructed a Broadband Network connecting all 8 public Universities and the network is operational since
June 30th, 2004 and was officially launched on September 13th under the Royal Patronage of HM King
Abdullah II (The operation and maintenance of the network is now the responsibility of JUNET).
2- Constructed the network through utilization contract to use dark fiber cables from National Electric Power
Company (Nepco) as a backbone for this network. The connection of universities sites with Nepcos sites was
done through civil works, fiber cables and equipments through MoICT and Nepco.
3- Signed an indefeasible right of use agreement with JUNET and Nepco.
4- Connected the Ministry of Higher Education to the University Network.
5- Connected the University Network through a consolidated internet gateway.
6- Connected the University Network to the European educational network GEANT- Eumedconnect.
7- Connected Jordan University of Aqaba to the University Network
5.2 School Broadband Network
1- Completed the connection of 227 schools in Amman (including civil works, fiber cabling, and equipment
installation).
2- Completed the civil works and fiber cabling for 56 schools in Aqaba under the Aqaba Special Economic
Zone Authority (ASEZA), equipment installation has been completed.
3- Completed the connection of 372 schools within the first stage of the north area to the schools broadband
network and the equipment installation has been completed
4- Signed a poles rental agreement with Electricity Distribution Company (Edco) to install aerial fiber
cables on their poles in the companys coverage area.
5- Signed a poles rental agreement with Irbid District Electricity Company (Ideco) to install aerial fiber
cables on their poles in the companys coverage area.
6- Signed a strategic partnership agreement with Cisco Systems that aim to help in increasing Jordanian
capacities in several managerial and technical areas, the agreement has been renewed for 3 years in 2008.
7- Signed an agreement with Public Security Department (PSD) for the utilization of the NBN Program
infrastructure and network maintenance in Amman to serve military entities.
8- Signed an agreement with Batelco Jordan for the utilization of the NBN Program infrastructure in Amman.
9- Created the NBN Operations Center which was located in the Ministry of Information and Communication
Technology.
10- Signed an agreement with the Royal Jordanian Air Force to participate in the completion of the network.
11- Completed the civil work and fiber laying for the overlay network between Amman and Aqaba cities
under the supervision of the Royal Jordanian Air Force and completed the installation of equipment in 4
aggregate points within this route.
12- Completed the connection of 4 schools in Al-Jafer area (including civil works, fiber cabling, and
equipment installation.

97

13- Completed the connection of 2 schools in Al-Azraq area ,2 schools in Al-salt and one school in Al-mafraq
/al -dafyaneh using wireless equipment to the schools network .
14- Completed equipment installation to upgrade the network control system of the network operation center
(NOC).
15- Signed a rental agreement with Orange and The Blue Zone for the rental of a sub duct on Amman- Aqaba
route.
16- Finished the preparation of Aggregates sites in schools of MoE.
17- Completed the preparation of the aggregate points in QRC-NEPCO project.
5.3 Secured Government Network
1- Finished the connection of 95 government entities in Amman city to support the e-Government Program.
2- Connected 34 governmental entities in the north (Irbid and Ramtha and Mafraq) to build a secure
government network to support e-Government Program.
3- Connected the private network of the security authorities (Ministry of Interior, Public Security Directorate,
and General Intelligence Department).
4- Working on the connection of new governmental entities to the network through the Directorate of Public
Security using the agreement signed with them.
5- Completed the Supervising the supply and installation of network equipment for the Prime Ministry
Network Upgrade project.
6- Completed supervising the installation testing and commissioning of computer room preparation for
orphans fund development corporation (OFDC).
7- Completed the preparation of the Ombudsman Bureau Network.
8- Completed the preparation of cabling system in Ombudsman Bureau Network Aggregate sites management
switches (MGMT).
9- Completed the connection of 28 governmental entities in Aqaba.
10- Completed the upgrade of the network of Ministry of information and communication technology
(MoICT).
11- Supervised the Supply and installation of network equipment of the Labor Network Project (MoL).
12- Supervised the execution of supply & installation of network equipment of the civil service bureau new
network project.
13- Supervised the work on the connection of OMB on e-gov secured network.
5.4 Medical Entities Network
1- Completed the connection of 4 medical entities in Amman.
2- Completed the connection of 74 medical entities in the north area.
3- Completed the installation of equipment to prepare the site of the main building of the Ministry of Health
and connect it to the fiber Broadband Network.
4- Completed the connection of 10 health entities in Aqaba.
5- Completed the connection of Queen Rania Hospital in Petra and Ma'an Public Hospital.
6. Conclusions
Countries that are more innovative and productive are capturing a greater share of the worlds trade,
investment and jobs. As a result, the Jordanian Government, at the September 2002 ICT forum launched the
Connecting Jordanians Initiative (CJI) which aims to deliver the governments drive to make computers and
networks more widely available to the public.
References
[1]
http://www.moict.gov.jo/arjo/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9
%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9.aspx
[2] V. Sivaraman, C. Russell, I. Collings, A. Radford, Architecting a national optical fiber open-access
network: The Australian Challenge, IEEE Network, Vol. 26, Issue 4, 2012, pp. 4-10.
[3] R. Seymour, The rise and rise of fiber optics, Middle East, Issue 425, 2011, pp42-43.
[4] Economic Impact of Broadband: An Empirical Study, February 22nd, 2009
[5] Measuring Economic Impact of Broadband Does Speed Matter.htm
http://ad.doubleclick.net/N479/adi/abt.b2b/b2b_broadband
[6] The economic impact of broadband in The Philippines May 2012
[7] ESTIMATING BROADBAND DEMAND AND ITS ECONOMIC IMPACT IN LATIN AMERICA, Prof.
Raul L. Katz, Columbia Business School

98

Absorptive Capacity of Human Capital and

International R&D Spillover
on Labour Productivity in Egypt
Dr.Eman Elish
The British University
Egypt

Dr. Hany Elshamy

The British University
Egypt

Abstract:
This paper investigates the relationship between labour productivity, human capital and international
R&D spillover over the period 1982-2011. It estimates a single equation model which employs long
run cointegration analysis and short run analysis (ECM). It is based on annual data collected from the
World Bank and the Ministry of Planning in Egypt and OECD database for the period 1982-2011.
We find a conventional result for international R&D and human capital. We infer from the
significant positive role played by International R&D and human capital that on labour productivity.
The implication of this study on policy decision making is significant in stressing the idea that,
Human capital absorptive capacity enhanced by the Quality of education intensifies the positive
effect of R&D spillover on Labour productivity. This was determined by our survey of literature and
empirical model.
Keywords: Labour Productivity, Human Capital, International R&D, Cointegration, Error
Correction Model
JEL Classification: J24, C36, O32

99

1. Introduction:
Several theoretical and empirical economic literatures provided evidence of knowledge transfer that is
transmitted between countries or regions, which has contributed to the productivity growth of other
geographic areas. (See Coe and Helpman 1995 ; Coe,Elhanan & Alexander, 2009; Kao, Minttsien & Bangtin
,1999; Litchtenberg & Brouno ,1997 ).
In addition, empirical evidence has been also produced with respect to the direction, the magnitude and the
effectiveness of different channels through which such spillover effect is transmitted.
However, few literatures examined the effect of International R&D spillover transmission from Industrial
countries to developing countries. The ones that were conducted on this respect were focusing on the Macro
level and the overall effect on Total factor productivity. Very little empirical studies were conducted on how
the International R&D spillover affects Labour productivity in developing countries.
The main objective of this current study is to survey the literature on International R&D spillovers
transmitted from industrial countries to developing countries and its effect on Labour productivity. Then
building a model whose basic assumption suggests that although there might be enough evidence that,
technology and innovation can be transmitted to the Egyptian manufacturing industries through, various
channels .However, International R&D spillover, magnitude can be insignificant to enhancing labour
productivity, if there is a low absorptive capacity of Human capital.
Hence, the study will be examining the relationship between, Labour productivity of the Egyptian
manufacturing industries, relative to International R&D capital stock and Human Capital.
The paper will be organized as follows; second section will discuss all the literature that was conducted on
the International R&D spillover and how it affects productivity in developing countries. Section three outlines
the methodology and model application, using time series analysis to examine the effect of International R&D
spillover and school enrollment on Labour productivity in the Egyptian manufacturing industries. Section four
will analyse estimation results and interpretations .The final section will conclude the main findings and
recommendations of the research.
2. Literature Review
International R&D was originally introduced in several studies the most significant is for Coe and
Helpman (1995) (as cited from Coe, Elhanan & Alexander 2009). They have contributed new estimates of
R&D spillovers, which are different from other research studies conducted before, which were only
examining spillover across sectors or Industries for a single country.
Their estimates of R&D spillovers used a pool of macroeconomic data for 21 OECD countries plus Israel
over the 1971-1990 time periods. They estimated the relation of a countrys total factor productivity as a
function of the domestic Research and development capital stock and foreign R&D capital stock as a proxy
for the stock of knowledge embodied in countries trade position. All the measures of foreign and domestic
research and development capital were constructed from the business sectors research and development
activities.
The model used the estimated elasticity of Total Factor Productivity in relation to domestic and foreign
R&D capital stock. In an another study Coe,Elhanan & Alexander ,(1997) estimated elasticity of total
production function in relations to change in foreign research and development capital stock, imports of
machinery and equipments and secondary school enrollment ratio were used. Another contribution of Coe &
Helpman model (1995) is using this function as empirical evidence that research and development spending in
industrial countries can be transmitted to developing countries and increases these countries' total
productivity.
Many studies were advocating this model, however using advance statistical techniques. Coe et al. (2009)
adopted the modern panel coentigration method that was not available in the early 1990's.In addition they did
an expansion of panel to the same model.
Another study Kao,et al. (1999) used the same model and adopted methods of OLS, FM and DOLS
estimators in panel data. The study concluded that the estimated coefficients in the Coe& Helpman model
(1995) are subject to estimation bias, but they have correct signs. However the results support the argument of
International R&D spillover.
Litchtenberg, et al. (1997) examined two important characteristics of the Coe & Helpman model (1995)
.First characteristic of foreign R&D weighting scheme they argued that it suffers from "aggregation bias", and
suggested a less biased weighting scheme. They corrected an indexation bias and found that the more a
country enjoys trade openness the more probability of gains from R&D spillover.

100

Muller& Michaela (1998) argued that the choice of an appropriate model for behavior of panel data can
affect the results of Coe & Helpman model (1995) .In other words the choice between fixed coefficient
methods previously used in the model, and the use of a Random coefficient model in this study. Applying the
model using fixed regression gave unreliable results if compared to random coefficient analysis results.
The channel through which the International R&D is transmitted was debated on several studies on the
Macro level(across borders of countries ) and on the Micro level (across firms or industries in the same
country).Cincera & Bruno(2001),distinguished between Rent spillover of technology transfer that occurs from
trading transactions of factor imports and machinery that embodies innovative technology on one hand, and
International Knowledge spillover across countries via foreign direct investment, international research
collaboration, scientific publications or brain drain. Both are difficult to measure due to high collinearity
between them. Wolf & Ishraq (1993) depicted a channel of R&D spillover embodied in new investments that
enters a sector in the economy.
The absorptive capacity of a recipient country for International R&D spillover was taken in consideration
when analysing the magnitude of impact on productivity. Several determinants of absorptive capacity were
suggested, in various studies.
First priority is the quality of Human capital as an important catalyst for absorption. Sunkwark & Young
(2006). They built their assumption on the idea that domestic human capital is an important factor in
understanding the foreign high technology embodied in imported goods and absorbing it for domestic use.
McNeil (2007) specified the quality of labour force and capital accumulation as two vital determinants of
absorptive capacity of spillover.
Second, is the technology gap between countries, where studies questioned the impact of International
R&D on total factor productivity with a wide technology gap in developing countries (Blomstrom & Kokko as
cited from Bouoiyour, 2005).
Zhu & Bang (2007) proved that innovation in Information technology has played a significant role in
facilitating the transmission of International R&D spillovers among OECD countries and Israel and
consequently improving its productivity growth.
Finally, Coe et al (2009) added a group of Institutional determinants which impacts the absorptive
capacity of International research and development spillover, in recipient countries. Ease of doing business
and quality of tertiary education systems, the strength of patent protection laws in the country and their
effectiveness in copy right protection, and the origin of the countries legal systems. All these determinants
found to be highly correlated to the improvement of total factor productivity through enhancing the absorptive
capacity of spillovers.
Other contributions were made to the literature of International R&D spillover by examining its impact on
other economic variables. Costa &Stefano (2004), focused on the effect of technology innovation spillover on
economic growth. They made use of the dynamic growth model, which facilitated the evaluation of regional
convergence and innovation on the long run labour productivity, without technology index that is usually used
in the technology gap model for developing countries.
Borras ,Serrano & Simarro, (2011),examined the intersectoral direct and indirect Knowledge spillover on a
sector's labour productivity on a disaggregated level. Their interpretation of Knowledge included innovation,
research and development, and tacit Knowledge.
Gera,Wulong &. Frank (1999) presented an empirical model that estimates the effect of information
technology investments and R&D spillovers from information technology sector on labour productivity,
between Canadian and USA industries. They relied on Coe & Helpman (1995) model on estimating foreign
research and development capital and domestic research and development capital .They have agreed on the
transmission channels introduced in this model. However they have regressed the annual average Labour
productivity rate of an industry on the information technology and non information technology investments
for five sub periods from 1971 till 1993.They have regressed the mean values of the research and development
variables over the same results.
Their result showed a significance effect of International R&D spillover from information technology
sectors on labour productivity for both sectors, with low significance from non Information technology
sectors.
The application of International R&D on the Middle East countries an Egypt was conducted but with a
narrow scope. McNeil (2007) examined the effect of International R&D spillover on total factor productivity,
through its diffusion in the imported intermediate products from OECD countries to the Egyptian and
Moroccan manufacturing sector. Using the same Coe &Helpman model (1995), the study concluded the
significance of cross border research and development spillover on total factor productivity, and

101

Human Capital as mentioned earlier is a determinant of the magnitude of spillover in the model.
Bouoiyour,(2005),conducted his study on the Moroccan manufacturing industries, indicating that the channel
of spillover is Foreign direct investment, which has a significant effect on labour productivity adding the
dimension if technology gap as a ratio between total factor productivity of foreign firms to the total factor
productivity of domestic firms.
The final outcome of this literature survey, from which this paper builds on its basic assumptions, that
International R&D can be transmitted from Industrial countries to developing countries through different
mechanisms. It can significantly affect total factor productivity given the presence of high absorptive capacity.
The main catalyst of this capacity is the quality of human capital, a narrow technology gap and innovation in
information technology.
Our study will contribute a different approach from literature by examining the effect of International R&D
spillover and Human capital on labour productivity on the Egyptian manufacturing industries. Other studies
were conducted by examining these variables effect either on Total factor productivity or gross domestic
product of recipient countries. This study was rarely conducted on Egypt with the adopted research method
used in this paper and with emphasis on Human capital.
3. Methodology
In this section, we first present the empirical model used to estimate the effect of R&D spillovers and
human capital on labour productivity growth in the Egyptian manufacturing sector in section 3.1. We then
discuss the methodology used to construct the international R&D spillover and capital stock in section 3.2 and
3.3 respectively.
3.1 Empirical Model
The empirical model depends on Cobb- Douglas production function. This model developed by Corves
(1997) and Gera et al (1999)
(1)
Where 1, 2, 3, and 4 are the output elasticties of labour input, human capital, capital stock and international
R&D capital respectively. 4 represents the rate of exogenous technical change. All of the other variables are
explained in table 1.
From equation (1), we can derive the following equation that expresses the labour productivity growth rate of
the manufacturing sector in Egypt.

( )

( )

( )

( )

(2)

Where ( ) is the labour productivity growth; ( ) is growth rate of the human capital; ( ) is the growth rate
of the capital stock and (
Variable
Y
L
H
K
RD

102

) is the growth rate of the international R&D.

Table 1 Sources and descriptions of data
Expected sign
description

Labour Productivity in manufacturing

sector in Egypt. Y= GDP in
manufacturing sector divided by
employment.
Employment level in manufacturing
sector in Egypt.
Years of primary schooling
Capital stock. It is calculated from the
investment data by using PIM technique
which explained in this section.
International R&D, which calculated
from the R&D expenditure data by using
PIM technique which explained in this
section.

Dependent
Variable

Source of data
Ministry of planning
in Egypt, annual
series.
Ministry of planning
in Egypt, annual
series.
World Bank

Ministry of planning
in Egypt, annual
series.

STAN dataset,
OECD.

3.2 Measurement of R&D spillovers

We calculate the international R&D as follows:
First, we calculated R&D expenditures for the G7 countries (USA, UK, German, France, Italy, Japan and
Canada) by using the STAN dataset.
Second, we calculated the values of R&D at constant prices.
Third, we transferred these data from flows to stock by using Perpetual Inventory Method (PIM) 1 by applying
equation 3 for the benchmark year and equation 4 for the rest of the years.
(3)
(

(4)

3.3 Measurement of Capital Stock in Egypt

We calculate the international R&D as follows:
First, we collected the investment data for the manufacturing sector in Egypt during the period 1982/832010/11.
Second, we calculated the values of investments at constant prices.
Third, we transferred these data from flows to stock by using Perpetual Inventory Method (PIM) by applying
equation 5 for the benchmark year and equation 6 for the rest of the years.
(5)
(

(6)

4. Empirical Results
This section discusses the estimated results of equation (2). Regression was performed on a time series data
consisting of 29 years (1982/83-2010/11) for the manufacturing sector in Egypt. First we conduct the co
integration analysis. Table 2 shows the results of the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test on the first
difference based upon the Mackinnon P values at various lag lengths. The preferred lag length based upon the
Akaike information Criterion (AIC) These indicate that cointegration is generally accepted.
Table 2 shows the estimation results using co integration analysis. We find that the labour productivity has a
positive and significant relationship with the growth rate of human capital; capital stock and international
R&D. However, the relationship between the labour productivity and the growth rate of the employment is
negative and significant. All of these results are correct according to the economic theory.
Details of these findings can be interpreted as follows; in the Egyptian manufacturing sector, International
R&D has a positive influence on Labour productivity, with a 1% rise in international R&D increasing labour
productivity by 5.6 %. Moreover, in the Egyptian manufacturing sector, human capital has a positive influence
on Labour productivity, with a 1% rise in human capital increasing labour productivity by 1.2 %.
Table 3 shows the Error Correction Mechanism (ECM). It indicates the same results like co integration
results. Most importantly of course the lagged error is negative and significant. This confirms the acceptance
of the longrun relationship; which is further validated given there are no problems with any of the diagnostic
tests presented (the AR(1) test for first order residual autocorrelation, the ARCH(1) test for autogressive
conditional hetroscedasticity and the Jarque-Beta test for normality).
Table 2. Co integration Analysis
Dependent Variable ( Growth of Labour Productivity)
Coefficients
Significant
Independent Variables
Constant
0.007
*
Growth of labour input
-0.411
***
Growth of human Capital
0.012
**
Growth of capital input
0.019
*
International R&D spillover
***
0.056
CDRW
1.75
Favoured lag
ADF Tests
Favoured lag Length=2
Length=2
1

For more details about this method, see Elshamy (2009)

103

ADF(0)
ADF(1)
ADF(2)
ADF(3)
***=significant at 1%
**=significant at 5%
*=significant at 10%
ADF figures show the Mackinnon approx P-value

0.004
0.052
0.041
0.031

Table 3 Error Correction Mechanism (ECM)

Dependent Variable ( LFDI)
Coefficients
Independent Variables
Constant
0.006
Growth of labour input
-0.366
Growth of human capital
0.009
Growth of capital input
0.
International R&D spillover
0.048
Lagged Error
0.116No . of observation
29
F- statistics
8.33
Adjusted R2
0.76
DW
2.15
AR(1)
1.42
ARCH(1)
1.82
Normality
2.12
***=significant at 1%
**=significant at 5%
*=significant at 10%

0.003
0.022
0.006
0.004

Significant
*
**
**
*
**
***

***

5. Conclusions
This paper empirically analyses the relationship between labour productivity, human capital and international
R&D spillover over the period 1982-2011.,by estimating a single model equation which employs long run co
integration analysis and short run analysis (ECM). The analysis uses annual data from 1982-2011.
Conventional result for International R&D and human capital are found. It is inferred from the significant role
played by International R&D and human capital has strongly shaped labour productivity. These results is
consistent with all literature surveyed in this research paper which supports the basic assumption that there is
International research and development spillover which is transmitted from Industrial countries to developing
countries like Egypt. In addition this spillover affects Labour productivity given, the quality of Human capital
formation in Egypt.
The more developed the educational level of Human capital in the industrial sector the more significant role it
would play in absorbing international research and development spillover and benefiting labour productivity.
References:
Borras ,B.,G.Serrano,D.&R.Simarro, P.(2011) Direct and Indirect Intersectoral Knowledge
and labour Productivity in the Spanish economy University of Valencia. Retrieved from
www.webmeets.com/SAEe/2011/prog/getpdf.asp?p:d
Bouoiyour, J. (2005) Labour Productivity, Technological Gap and Spillovers. Evidence from
Moroccan Manufacturing Industries African Finance Journal, 7(2) PP 1-17
Cincera ,M.& Bruno, P.(2001) International R&D spillovers: A survey. Cahier Economiques de
Bruxells 69(1), pp.169-180.
Coe D.& Elhanan, H. (1995) International R&D Spillovers. European Economic
Review, 39(5),pp 859-887.
Coe,D.,Elhanan H. & Alexander ,H.(1997) North-South R&D Spillovers. The Economic Journal 107(440),
pp 134-149.
Coe ,D.,Elhanan H. & Alexander, H.( 2009) International R&D Spillovers and Institutions.

104

European Economic Review, 53(7), pp 723-741.

Costa,M.&Stefano,I. (2004) Technology spillover and Regional Convergence Process: A
statistical analysis of the Italian case. Statistical Methods and application,13(3),PP 375- 398.
Covers F.(1997) The Impact of Human Capital on Labour Productivity in Manufacturing sectors of the
European Union. Applied Economic, 29,pp 975-987. RePEc:dgr:umaror:1996001
Elshamy H.(2009) Productivity Growth in the manufacturing sector in Egypt Conference of the Scottish
Economic Society, held from 22/4/2009 to 24/4/2009, Perth-Scotland.
Gera,S.,Wulong , G. &. Frank, L. (1999) Information Technology and Labour Productivity
Growth: An Empirical analysis for Canada and the USA. The Canadian Journal of
Economics, Working paper series (Canada. Industry Canada), 32(20), pp384-407.
Kao ,C., Minttsien ,C. & Bangtin ,C.(1999) International R&D Spillovers: An application of
estimation Inference in panel cointegrationCenter for policy Research working Paper(4)
RePEc:max:cprwps:4
Litchtenberg ,F. & Brouno ,P.(1998 ).International R&D Spillovers : A comment. European.
Economic Review, 42(8), pp 1483-1491.
McNeil, L. (2007).The International Diffusion of Technological Knowledge: Industry level
Evidence from Egypt and Morocco. Howard University. Retrieved from
www.unidep.org/Release3/.../IDEP-AFEA-07-12.pd...
Muller, W. & Michaela, N. (1998) A panel Data Analysis: Research and Development spillover.Economics
Letter, 64 (1)pp 39-41.
Sunkwark, N. & Young, S. (2006) International R&D Spillovers Revisited: Human Capital as an Absorptive
Capacity for Foreign Technology. International Economic Journal 20(2) PP
179-196.
Wolf, E. & M.Ishraq, N. (1993) Spillover Effects, Linkage Structure, and Research and
Development. Structural Change and Economic dynamics 4 (2), pp 315-331.
Zhu ,L.& Bang ,J.(2007) International R&D Spillovers: Trade, FDI and Information Technology as Spillover
Channels. Review of International Economics, 15(5), pp 955-976.

105

Talent management: Strategic Workforce

Planning
Mrs. Nermeen Sayyad
Al-Quds University
Palestine

:Abstract
The past decades have shown how companies, businesses and organizations have struggled for top
quality in their operations of products and services. Many have turned to many modern means such
as sophisticated management systems, upgraded production equipment and materials, and more
efficient manufacturing methods.
Despite such efforts, many companies find that there is still a key missing factor. Better product
quality, system efficiency resolutions to problems, and innovation for growth can only be best
achieved when the human factor in companies are best managed. This is why human capital is a
major asset worth attention and investment in the corporate or organizational set up. Talent
management is one approach to maximizing this human capital.
In this short paper, I will take a glance at the definition of Talent Management, the significance and
value of Talent Management, stages of Talent Management, applying Talent Management to talent
marketplace, technological advancement in talent management, promoting Talent Management, and
then the future of Talent Management.
I would like to present this paper to the audience of the Twelfth Scientific Annual International
Conference for Business Human Capital in Knowlegde Economy, to have a quick view on Talent
Management and get the audience to dicuss and give their feedback about Talent management.

106

Talent management
Talent management is that aspect of company operations that pertains to the people factor, that is, the leaders
and workforce members that run the operations. It involves company planning to attain quality human talents
and skills and to get a process to make that human resource methodology efficient and rewarded for the
companies ultimate good need and skills and setting a process to make that human resource both highly
efficient and rewarded in meeting the companys needs. The process involves locating, selecting, training, and
developing, retaining, managing, promoting, compensating, and rewarding employees.
In effect, talent management means finding the right leaders and personnel and then managing their ability
and competence to serve the purpose of the company as well as the personal and the career satisfaction of the
employees.
Talent management process is not just for the human resource department but must be engaged at all levels of
the company. The development which will lead to the retention and promotion must also be the responsibility
of department management and division heads of the company. The talent management process should gear
toward finding the right employee, maximizing the employee performance and developing maximum potential
with proper compensation. The talent management process is intended to benefit both the company and the
employee.
The right pool of talents can surely be the prime factor in distinguishing any business; this paper will detail
these aspects of talent management. Although Talent management enhances the makeup and function of a
company, the concept of human capital management as a major consideration is still in the process of being
fully appreciated and developed. On the other hand, major companies and some national governments have
already progressed to the level of undertaking and innovating talent management to the technological and
global levels.2
The significance and value of Talent Management
Talent is considered the most critical source of success in an organization and to avoid executive arguments
e.g.; how did it get this way? How critical is it now? How critical will it be in the future?
There are several major reasons why talent is so important and will be even more critical in the future.
Below are the ten reasons why talent is critical to success:
1. We cannot be successful without talent.
2. Talent adds to the market value.
3. Talent executes the idea.
4. Talent is the last source of competitive advantage.
5. Great workplaces attract and retain talent.
6. The most successful and admired companies have great talent.
7. The cost of competent talent is high.
8. The cost of turnover of talent is high.
9. The competitive environment has created to retention crisis
10. Retention can be managed.3

Benefits of Talent Management

Efficient application of the talent management plan and process benefits the company in the following
aspects:
1. Company revenue.
2. Quality of work and product.
3. Employee productivity.
4. Overall productivity.
5. Cost efficiency which ultimately brings favorable cost of product or service.
2 Talent management - Wikipedia Feb. 2013
3 Institute for Science, Technology & Education

107

6. Customer satisfaction.
7. Cycle time.
8. Market capitalization. 4
It is important to hire the most qualified employees and also to retain these employees to the company so that
the above benefits can be achieved.
In the current global business environment, with the ever growing challenge of a rapidly changing workforce,
requires a well-planned, precise approach to talent management. Fortunately, both HR and business leaders
recognize that talent is a critical factor of business performance. No surprise that talent management practices
are often cited as a key strategic priority. However, the execution of these practices is where companies often
fall short.
To understand the state of talent management, current practices were examined in five specific areas: Talent
Strategy; Workforce Planning and Talent Acquisition; Capability Development & Performance; Using this
framework, the talent management examined the practices holistically from initial strategy through
measurement practices. All major areas related to how organizations acquire, develop, retain, and reward
employees had been looked at. 5
Current status of Talent Management
In fact with the current global economic difficulties, large businesses especially must switch from defensive to
offensive talent management. Talent management is arising as a major company tool in the competitive global
market.
Innovative and creative measures which are outside the box are among the new trends of talent management.
Some examples that represent the role and application of talent management are done by several companies:
1. The global IT Company Syntel maximized in the use of technology to address specific human resource
management thus making it highly innovative and effective in human resource management.
2. Another example is the Google Company the most innovative idea of Google and to encourage the
employees is to spend 20% of their productive time on their creative ideas and value addition initiatives.
3. Larsen & Toubro: applies rigid and continuous training in general management, technical disciplines and
business policy. According to resources this made L&T one of the top companies with most innovative human
resource management practices INFOSYS BBO LTD is another multi awarded company. It applied
innovative talent searching, recruitment and retention process.
Although talent management enhances the makeup and function of a company, the concept of human capital
management as a major consideration still in the process of being fully appreciated and developed.
Stages of Talent Management
People are the best resources of an organization. Today, sourcing the best people from the industry has
become the top most priority of the organizations. Talent management has become the key strategy to identify
and filling the skill gap in a company by recruiting the high-worth individuals from the industry. It is a neverending process that starts from aiming to people. The process regulates the entry and exit of talented people in
an organization. Talent management cannot be unnoticed. In order to understand the concept in depth, let us
discuss the stages included in talent management process:
1. Understanding the Requirement: It is the preparatory stage and plays a crucial role in success of the whole
process. The main objective is to determine the requirement of talent. The main activities of this stage are
developing job description and job specifications.
2. Sourcing the Talent: This is the second stage of talent management process that involves targeting the best
talent of the industry. Searching for people according to the requirement is the main activity.
3. Attracting the Talent: it is important to attract the talented people to work with you as the whole process
revolves around this only. After all the main aim of talent management process is to hire the best people from
the industry.

4 Talent management - Wikipedia Feb. 2013

5 Training and HR Conferences - October 2008 Page5

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4. Recruiting the Talent: The actual process of hiring starts from here. This is the stage when people are
invited to join the organization.
Recruitment is the process of selecting the best employee for a specific job or range of functions in the
company when recruiting the standards or qualification for employees must include knowledge , skills,
experience, personal trades, education , special experience and achievement , loyalty and tenure with previous
employers (if previously employed) , other factors related to the culture and requirements of the company.
Depending on the size and culture of the organization recruitment may be undertaken in-house by managers,
human resource generalists and/ or recruitment specialists. Alternatively parts of all of the process might be
undertaken by either public sector employment agencies, or commercial recruitment agencies or specialistresearch consultancies.
The stages of recruitment process include job analysis and developing a person special specification; the
sourcing of candidates by networking, advertising, or other search methods; matching candidate the job
requirements and screening individuals using testing(skills or personality assessment); assessment of
candidates, motivations and their fit with organizational requirements by interviewing and other assessment
techniques. The recruitment process also includes the making and finalizing of job offers and induction and on
boarding of new employees. 6
5. Selecting the Talent: This involves meeting with different people having same or different qualifications
and skill sets as mentioned in job description. Candidates who qualify this round are invited to join the
organization.
6. Training and Development: After recruiting the best people, they are trained and developed to get the
desired output.
Development: the stage of development in talent management equates to the broad process of incorporating
the employees lifecycle in the company together with activities functions and further learning. It is therefore
a stage that begins from the time of the requirement of the employee until the end of the employees tenure
with the company.
7. Retention: Certainly, it is the sole purpose of talent management process. Hiring them does not serve the
purpose completely. Retention depends on various factors such as pay package, job specification, challenges
involved in a job, designation, personal development of an employee, recognition, culture and the fit between
job and talent.
Retention: the meaning of talent retention has defined by the work force planning for Wisconsin state
Government (2005) resource states a systematic effort by employers to recreate and foster an environment
that encourages current employees to remain at the same employer having policies and practices in place that
address their divers needs in effect sources a good staff and maintaining , promoting, maximizing them within
the company is the process of talent retention.
Managing employees should inculcate loyalty and efficiency as well as development and benefits for the
employee. To achieve this there should be a healthy relationship between an employee and manager. Also, the
work involved should be meaningful to both the employee and the employer
The result of talent management retention should be the willingness of the employee to stay in the company
where the employee receives fair treatment opportunity for growth and personal appreciation of the employee
to stay in the company where the employee receives fair treatment opportunity for growth and personal
appreciation
Talent retention is critically important for all organizations for two main reasons:
1. Turnover is expensive.
2. Top performers drive business performance.
Managing talent retention includes effective ways to address these issues:
a. Organize the turnover data: illustrate specific methods for organizing and monitoring turnover data so the
turnover problem can clearly illustrated to senior management.
b. Monetize the turnover costs show how to accurately monetize the turnover cost and clearly demonstrate the
negative financial impact of turnover to the organization.
c. Analyze the cause of turnover provides an effective methodology to accurately pinpoint the cause of
turnover.
d. Actualize the retention solution: demonstrates many retention solutions and helps to identify and
implement the right solution for any organization.
6 Talent management - Wikipedia Feb. 2013

109

e. Realize the impact and ROI: offers tools needed to accurately measure the financial impact of the retention
solution and calculate ROI( Return On Investment)
8. Promotion: No one can work in an organization at the same designation with same job responsibilities. Job
enrichment plays an important role.
9. Competency Mapping: Assessing employees skills, development, ability and competency is the next step.
If required, also focus on behavior, attitude, knowledge and future possibilities of improvement. It gives you a
brief idea if the person is fir for promoting further.
10. Performance Appraisal: Measuring the actual performance of an employee is necessary to identify his or
her true potential. It is to check whether the person can be loaded with extra responsibilities or not.
11. Rewards and performance incentives: This benefits are broad ranged, benefits can be short term or long
term this may include employee assistance program, life insurance plans, health maintains, leaves of absences,
paid holidays, disability insurance, differed compensation, wellness programs, and other flexible benefits
program.
Compensation modes can include salary benefits, bonuses, merits salary plans, overtime pay and special
projects fees, sponsorships for further education and training may also be a form of compensation or benefit.
Corporate rewards may also be expressed by way of employee surveys recognition awards. 7
Career Planning: If the individual can handle the work pressure and extra responsibilities well, the
management needs to plan his or her career so that he or she feels rewarded. It is good to recognize their
efforts to retain them for a longer period of time.
12. Succession Planning: Succession planning is all about who will replace whom in near future. The
employee who has given his best to the organization and has been serving it for a very long time definitely
deserves to hold the top position. Management needs to plan about when and how succession will take place.
Exit: The process ends when an individual gets retired or is no more a part of the organization.8
Applying Talent Management to Talent Marketplace
The efforts of the company should be supported to develop formal organizational structures, processes and
technologies in which the employees are participant. This way, employees are aware and enabled in every step
the company undertakes to forward its product as service to its public.
Every employee should understand how their job functions and contributes to business success. The
companys leadership team should integrate the work force to the daily activities that are geared to achieve the
corporate goals.
The secret to aligning talent management strategy to business strategy is to efficiently share information and
knowledge capital to the companys human resource capital. From the starting point, the company applies the
talent management elements of developments, Education rewards and incentives; these will support the
corporate effort to align the talent resources with the business goals.
Business strategy is granted on the corporate goals, financial targets; and the proper promotion, status
placement and sales achievement of a companys product or services. It is vital that the work force apply does
its role in this aspect work force each employee must be fully learned and motivated toward this goal and its
financial and customer objectives.
The current economic conditions demand a reduction in the expenses. In wake of the economic recession
human resource professionals are under significant pressure to cut costs. Logically this is best time to validate
the importance of talent management. Hiring and compensating the best talent in the industry optimally and
ensuring performance at the same time. The question that remains is what exactly is the relevance in the
current economic conditions? Before trying to answer lets ponder on certain key issues.
As per industry statistics only five percent of organizations possess a talent management strategy that is

operational! In another ten percent the concept has just begun to develop.
Aging workforce is another area of concern that has created vacuums in organizations leadership positions.
Organizations also report shortage of talent business line managers.
All this has opened up ways for HR professionals for justify their stand on talent management and once
organizations understand that they need an integrated approach to talent management, the involvement of a
top executive is important for driving success.
7 The Virginia Department of Human Resource Management
8 Talent Management Process

110

The top executive who now heads the talent management function is responsible for activities like succession
planning, leadership development, career development, performance management, learning and development,
recruitment etc. Having said this we again arrive upon the question of relevance.
Developing Leadership Pool: Succession planning and leadership development are two issues that have felt a
sense of urgency after the recent economic downturn. Organizations have been seeking leadership positions to
rescue them out of crisis.
Performance Management: After succession planning and leadership development, performance management
comes next on the list. Without a thorough and standard way to measure performance it is not possible to
promote right people to right positions and motivate them to perform for organizational growth and
development.
Recruitment assumes significance: Recruitment becomes strategic so to say. Recruitment practices determine
organizational effectiveness. In a tight labor market it a daunting task to attract the brightest talent towards
your organization and then getting them onboard. Internet has become an important source of external
recruiting. Systems and standards have been laid down for the same. Here building an employer brand is
important. Those who do, get right people onboard.
Skill based Manpower Planning: Manpower planning is a strategic HR process these days. Instead of a mere
headcount based hiring; manpower planning now extends to the locating critical skills, roles and
responsibilities and then ascertaining current and future talent needs for those roles.
These are vital processes that optimize the performance of the human capital management. What is required is
to ensure that they are consistent in order to ascertain they meet the business objectives.
Talent management is in its nascent stage, there are still more processes that will be added in due course of
time as organizations opt for more initiatives in the direction.9
Technological advancement of talent management.
The challenging arena of talent management is being upgraded in various ways. And with those things from
the late twentieth to twenty first centuries, the combined trend of globalization and technological infusion has
become a driving and source in the field of human resources.
Herewith are cited two areas in talent management where significant strides in technological advancement
have come to fore.
These are in the use of Cyber tools and technological devices and software:
Cyber tools to facilitate talent management
Cyber tools can greatly enhance the Talent management process in many ways. The tools make available
information and methods already studied, tried, applied, and even upgraded by human resource experts from
all over the world. The accessibility, speed, and system of these tools make them not only valuable but
essential.
1- For example, the Dundee group, LTD offers companies a range of cyber- based products, the first being
what they call Cyber recruiter. This product helps recruiters and applicants communicate during the recruiting
process to help get possessions filled in faster and more efficiency .
2- Another Web- based tool of the Dundee group, LTD is the Cyber train. This device offers a system that
managers employee training requirements easing still another browser- based tool is the performance which
serves as an employee performance appraisal tool. Other Examples:
3- Webinars: In very simple terms, a Webinar is a Seminar conducted on the internet. It is the short term
which means Web- Based Seminar. It may take the form of a presentation, lecture, workshop on seminar that
is transmitted over the Web Webinars are interactive thus allowing the giving, receiving and discussion of
information. 10
Webinars can focus on a range of topics such as how to recruit quality employees, defining and managing
competitive salaries, training and development, performance management processes and retention programs.
11

This instruct-on-line Cyber tool can also be accessed by using a telephone.12

9 Students and Entrepreneurs
10 Employee Centered Solution - Dundee group
11 Webopedia: Online Computer Dictionary for Internet Terms and Technical Support

111

Broad audiences can participate in webinars from anywhere, at anytime. This technological product provides a
way for both individuals and organizations to create a network on Face book where they can post jobs,
referrals and career connections. The website and the service it offers are free of charge. 13
Brass Ring a company that provides talent management solutions, won the 2005 Codie Award for its web
base, product called the Enterprise by integrating new technology with recruitment expertise. The enterprise
helps companies to stream line recruitment processes, secure employee tenure and build a competitive
workforce. 14
Innovative HR Technology in various areas of talent management
New technologies are emerging an impacting the global workplace. The field of human resources is among
those that have ventured in utilizing technology to facilitate the talent management process and to obtain
positive results.
Examples:
1- Smartphone and I pads can now be used to facilitate interviews of job candidates anytime and from
anywhere. Employees share a universal link to which job applicants can hooked up to the interview process by
using their I phone, I pad or android devices. The interview process allows employers to access video
responses from applicant who respond to multiple choice and essay questions. The technological device that
enables this is the HIREVUE MOBILE APP.
2- Recruiting and training employees for customer relation attitudes, and skills by using high-end graphics
and virtual customer simulation. The graphic material situates the applicants or employee in various
hypothetical venues where they encounter different types of customers. Applicants or employees abilities are
gauged according to how they regard each customer. This training material provides a way by which to assess
and rate each applicants or employees friendliness, conscientiousness and problem solving abilities. This
technological product is called easy simulation virtual customer simulation.
Promoting Talent Management
In the current business environment strange rates of change are driving the evolution of talent management
from being a strategy that deals with skills shortages to a more comprehensive one that represents a radically
different way of managing people and organizations. In The Value of Talent, Janice Caplan proposes a brand
new inclusive approach to talent management which recognizes that to survive and prosper in this world,
organizations require strategies that develop strengths, value diversity and encourage creativity across all
levels of the organization. By applying the principles set out by the author, organizations will be able to help
individuals achieve their aspirations whilst also addressing the gap between what the organization's
capabilities are now and what will be required in the foreseeable future. The author emphasizes the
importance of spotting changes on the horizon, formulating appropriate business strategies and indentifying
the capabilities required to achieve them. She examines methods for developing organizational capabilities,
individual development, performance enhancement, leadership development, and succession planning. The
approach links all parts of the HR agenda, especially recruitment, development, reward and employee
engagement - integrating these with business strategy to create consistency and clarity. The book offers sound,
practical advice and innovative solutions supported by examples and case studies from a broad range of
international organizations leading the development of talent, including Standard Chartered, Guardian Media
Group, BBC, KPMG, and Burson Marsteller. 15
Future of Talent Management
The next generation of talent management practices and solutions will largely be driven by economic
evolution, demographic changes, and technology advancements. These factors are dramatically influencing
the way people work, the way companies are organized, and the way talent is managed.
12 Instruct online
13 BrassRing Wins 2004 SIIA Codie Award
14 Human Resources Social Network - Brassring

15 The Value of Talent - By Janice Caplan

112

The key economic factors driving changes in talent management are

The knowledge economy. The transition to a knowledge economy has transformed the way we value
companies. Talent is now a required strategic asset. Key changes in the future include a continued blurring of
the line between inside and outside talent that will result in an expansion of the talent management scope.
Globalization. European expansion is well-known; the top expansion prospects for global companies now
include China, Russia and Eastern Europe, Mexico and South America, and the rest of Asianot the usual
suspects. This continued expansion provides both challenges and opportunities around talent utilization,
diversity, and risk management.
Skills gaps and structural unemployment. An ever-increasing pace of change means organizations will face
more structural unemployment challenges and skill gap issues. As a result, continuous peer-to-peer learning
cultures will become increasingly important, as will the ability to rapidly and accurately identify current skills
and talent in the organization.
The key demographic factors driving changes in talent management are:
o Generational geographies. Although Baby Boomer retirement has been top-of-mind for many years in the
U.S., even more significant demographic changes are happening outside the U.S., where population growth
rates and aging populations are poised to stifle local economies. The ability for organizations to successfully
tap into global talent or effectively move talent from areas of abundance to scarcity is becoming a strategic
issue.
o Longer lifespans. The aging of the global workforce is only half of the story. Increased health and
longevity mean that seniors are working longer, enabling organizations to keep experienced team members
into their retirement years. But it also complicates workforce planning and raises generational challenges
related to long-term succession planning.
o Workplace diversity. Workplace and team diversity is increasing, principally fueled by globalization and
demographic changes. A more diverse pool of talent affords new opportunities such as hiring workers who are
underrepresented in the workforce of a particular country to gain competitive advantage. For all the benefits of
diversity, it also can carry risks related to team cohesion, cultural bias, and initial productivity. The key
technology factors driving changes in talent management are
o Increased expectations. Technology advances are increasing exponentially. As candidates and employees
adopt new gadgets and technology in their personal lives, they will increasingly expect similar tools and levels
of empowerment in their professional lives. They will judge employers by their commitment to employee
enablement and the companys ability to quickly transition consumer tech to enterprise tech. The Future of
Talent Management: Underlying Drivers of Change
o Digitization. Over the past decade, employee talent data has been digitized and integrated into
comprehensive talent profiles. Techniques such as attribute matching and recommendation technologies can
be applied in talent management to find and match candidate or employee profiles that meet business needs.
o Telecommunications. With the increase in the market penetration of smart phones and tablet devices, a
significant portion of the worlds human potential will have access to rich Web and application experiences
from anywhere. This enables organizations to source and collaborate on knowledge work with any part of the
world, tapping into a global talent pool. 16
Now the question come as, what do you foresee as the future of talent management in the context of the
changing workforce and the emergence of the next generation?
Talent Management will become more important than ever. Supply-demand gaps will mean it will become
a competitive differentiator, even more so than before, and it will be high up on the CEOs agenda. Evolved
companies already have boards focusing on key talent issues such as Leadership Pipeline, Talent Depth,
Talent Development and Capability building for arrival leadership.
Talent Acquisition will become a specialist area.
Talent Assessment at recruitment and promotion stages will become more important than ever as
companies will realize the importance of getting the right fit.
We will see more multi-cultural workplaces with talent migration moving in the other direction. For
example, Indian consulates in Germany, France, USA and China have seen a 100% increase in Indian work

16 The Future of Talent Management: Underlying Drivers of Change - June 2012

113

visas in the last 3 years. The ability to manage expats will be a key issue. Government policies will need to be
modified.
Analytics will play a greater role. Some companies are already using algorithms to identify which
employees are likely to click or to quit.
Social media will play a large role since it democratic communication and allows for one-to-many, manyto-one and many-to-many channels of communication. Rapid shifts in a dynamic marketplace will require this
ability to rapidly connect across various stakeholders.
Conclusion
The composite end of hiring the most qualified people, developing effective company leaders , training and
maximizing employees , retaining top performers and undertaking the continued process for future talent
needs and requirements is a highly well running company. This efficiently functioning company can then best
achieve its goals and targeted profits. Such profits translates not only to financial gains but also to good
customer and public relations. It also translates to the further enhancement of the companys future products
and services.
This cycle of enhancement grows as employees who thrive in such a corporate atmosphere will most likely
also grow even more in productivity and loyalty towards the company.
There is an important bottom line that should not be overlooked when referring to talent management. We
have discussed strategies, the different stages of talent management, and even high technological
methodologies for talent management. But the foundational consideration is that the fundamental factor to
corporate success is the primacy of people in quality management. Despite the type of industry, region or
company size, it is the quality of the human factor that largely determines the quality of the corporate culture,
company operations, product, and service and customer satisfaction. It is the quality of the human factor that
largely determines even the future course of a company.
Therefore, establishing right human factors in the corporate set up, primarily a strong management team and
workforce is vital. Their strength can be premised on the tenets of talent management, basic ones of which
have been presented in this report.
References 17
Caplan, Janice. The value of talent promoting talent management across the organization. London, UK:
Kogan Page, 2011. Print.
"Employee Centered Solution." www.dundeegroup.com . N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <
www.dundeegroup.com >.
"Home." Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.instruct-online.com>.
"Home-International Institute for Science, Technology & Education." Home-International Institute for
Science, Technology & Education. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.iiste.org>.
"Strategic HR Training and HR Conferences | Human Capital Institute." Strategic HR Training and HR
Conferences | Human Capital Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.hci.org>.
"Talent Management Process." Management Study Guide - Free Training Guide for Students and
Entrepreneurs.. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.managementstudyguide.com/talent-managementprocess.htm>.
"Talent management - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 2
Mar. 2013. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent_management>.
"The Future of Talent Management: Underlying Drivers of Change." www.oracle.com . N.p., 18 June 2012.
Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <www.oracle.com >.
"The Virginia Department of Human Resource Management." The Virginia Department of Human Resource
Management. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.dhrm.virginia.gov>.
"Webopedia: Online Computer Dictionary for Internet Terms and Technical Support." Webopedia: Online
Computer Dictionary for Computer and Internet Terms and Definitions. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013.
<http://www.webopedia.com/term/w/Webinar.htm>.
"BrassRing Wins 2004 SIIA Codie Award: HR Human Resources." HR.COM - The Human Resources Social

17 Bibliography: MLA (Modern Language Association) format is used

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Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Mar. 2013. <http://www.hr.com/en/0/brassring-wins-2004-siia-codieaward_eaj5zr8w.html>.

115

The Three Major Aspects of the Economic Risks

of Human Capital Accumulation and Efficiency:
Poverty, Poor Environmental Conditions, & the
Filtration from Education
Dr. Karim Badr El-Din Attia Hassanien
The British University In Egypt (BUE)
Egypt

Abstract:
There are three major challenges which need to be considered to provide the socio-economic meaning of
development of human capital. The absence of these factors constitutes an ultimate economic risk. These three
major risk factors are poverty, the poor environmental conditions, and the relevant problems of the filtration
from education at early age. Egypt back rank in the Human Development Index (HDI) - 2011 Rankings, is
113 among 187 countries listed. The choice of Al-Salam District in Cairo as a case study to represent the
human capital economic risks is based on several reasons. The area is highly populated and represents the
interaction between poverty, poor environmental conditions, and the problem of the filtration from education
at early age at a massive level. The research work was a combination of a desk study and a field study. At the
end of the field study, the data collected from the questionnaires and the observation lists were sorted and
analyzed in a statistical manner by using the SPSS statistical package. The field study was conducted with the
purpose of collecting primary data from three random samples. The first sample represented the population of
the families living in Al-Salam District. The second sample represented a population of the children working
in the workshops. The third sample represented a population of the workshops owners in the Craftsmen City
in Al-Salam District in specific and in Al-Salam District in general. The case study of Al-Salam District in
Cairo served as a prototype model for the extent of the problem in poor societies. It adds to the literature a
missing link between the three main edges of human capital economic risks and underdevelopment within an
empirical framework. The data collected and analyzed all through this research paper provided a clear
understanding of the human capital economic risks and underdevelopment in its dynamic link with poverty,
poor environmental conditions, and the filtration from education. The findings explored the clearly poor
environmental deterioration, the lack of public awareness, the lack of education, the early enrollment of
children in the labor force as the major provider of income for their families, and the early exit of children
from the education system. The study made a set of recommendations to reduce the exposure to the human
capital economic risks.

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I. Introduction
During the second half of the twentieth century, the world witnessed several substantial changes. Such crucial
changes were evident in the special emphasis given to the issue of development of human capital. In
economics the three main factors of production are labor (human capital), capital (physical capital), and land.
Development of human capital became the cornerstone of economic cooperation, and a motive for global
political changes as a vehicle for the international flow of funds and investments.
Development of human capital shifts any economy to a better, i.e. developed, position. It is a dynamic that
helps poor societies to overcome their problems. It is more practical to evaluate the process of development as
a socio-economic process. The economic aspect and the social aspect are integrated and of mutual effect,
which could never be ignored.
There are three major challenges which need to be considered to provide the socio-economic meaning of
development of human capital. The absence of these factors constitutes an ultimate economic risk. These three
major risk factors are poverty, the poor environmental conditions, and the relevant problems of the filtration
from education at early age. The study of these problems are not only limited to the lack of basic needs but
also covers illiteracy, and even the deprivation from any good quality of life.
Egypt back rank in the Human Development Index (HDI) - 2011 Rankings, is 113 among 187 countries listed.
The choice of Al-Salam District in Cairo as a case study to represent the human capital economic risks is
based on several reasons. The area is highly populated and represents the interaction between poverty, poor
environmental conditions, and the problem of the filtration from education at early age at a massive level. AlSalam District is divided into four poor sections. Three sections are mainly residential areas, and the fourth
section is the Craftsmen City which hosts both housing and workshops, whereas the apartments are located
above the workshops. The average number of family members is high of 7 individuals living in a small
apartment of 63m2. The average family income is EGP 1,197/month which is less than the poverty line EGP
1,771/month for 7 members according to the UNDP poverty line of USD 1.25/day per person. The UNDP
targeted poverty line is to be USD 2/day per person which will increase the family poverty line to EGP
2,835/month for 7 members. (INP, 2012; ILO, 2012; UNDP 2012).
Pollution exists in Al-Salam district because of the workshops, poultry farm, and the garbage. This research
paper in its coming chapters shows that child labor is a major problem in Al-Salam District. Across the
sampled families in the study, the total number of children was 324, 16% of them withdrew from the
education system to financially support their families.
II. Literature Review
In fact, when we study the three main elements of this proposed research, we discover that these three main
elements are poverty, environmental quality, and childhood. This research provides a link between them. Such
link has not been subject to any previous literature.
The previous literature is concerned with poverty, environment, and childhood as separate topics. Very few
writings provide a link between two of them, but no previous writings formulated the link between the three of
them. This is the main gap in previous literature. Accordingly, no case study was chosen to provide the link
between the said three edges.
Poverty is a subject covered by economists, social scientists, and socio-economic researchers. The Egypts
Human Development Report 2012 shows that the figures of 2011/12 verify that 28% of the Egyptian
population lived below the poverty line. Nagi (2012) explained how the slow adaptation of economic,
political, educational, family and health institutions in developing societies is hampering reform measures.
Nagi examined the change in income distribution and the strength of poverty by using historical and
comparative analysis. The conclusion was that there are central to understanding the problems of poverty in
Egypt and elsewhere. The UNDP (2012) set down a new image for the issue of poverty. The Human
Development Report 2012 purposes bold new approaches to political and economic role that deliver social
justice. The Report underlined the importance of the equality in socioeconomic and social rights. This
includes fair pay, education and health care. The ILO (2012) examined the relation between poverty in one
hand and both employment growth and better quality of life in the other hand as a tool for reinforcing the
human capital development agenda. The Report showed that about 500 million workers are unable to earn
enough to keep their families above the US$ 2 a day poverty line. Hakimian (2012) discussed the relation
between poverty and the accumulation of efficient human capital within the context of the Middle East and
North Africa attempts of liberalization, and economic reform. This provided for a transition period in the past
two decades. This gives rise to the need to examine poverty as a hidden cost when studying the rationale and

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strategies for reform of human capital. The World Bank (2012) discussed the importance of studying the
indicators of well being as multidimensional rather than as simple measures of income and consumption. The
Report showed that of the worlds 7.5 billion people, 3.2 billion live on less than $ 2 a day, and 1.8 billion less
than $1 a day. In rich countries, less than 1 child in 100 does not reach its fifth birthday. In the poorest
countries, as many as fifth of children do not, and as many as 50 percent of children are mal-nourished. The
average income in the richest 20 countries is 37 times the average in the poorest 20 a gap that has doubled
over the past 40 years. The world population will grow up by some 2 billion over the next 25 years, with 97
percent of this increase in developing countries. This requires ensuring universal primary education, reducing
infant and child mortality and eliminating gender disparity. The Institute of National Planning-INP (2012)
emphasized that the achievement of human capital development necessitate solving the problem of poverty.
The Reports showed that economic growth is a tool, while human development is an end. The Reports
emphasized that the problem of accumulating human capital requires advancing efforts to basic needs, safety
nets, and provide high quality of educational and health services. Silva (2012) discussed economic
development projects and NGOs participation in developing countries with special emphasis to poor
segments. Wilber and Jameson (2012) discussed poverty with respect to supply- side economics policies, free
enterprises, and business cycles. El-Ghonemy (2012.) discussed poverty in the Middle East with respect to the
prevailing-economic situations, and income distribution. Bromely (2012) discussed casual labor among the
poor people in developing countries. Gilbert (2012)) discussed urbanization in developing countries with
special emphasis to poor housing conditions, disparities among social classes, and the prevailing economic
conditions. Rugh (2012) discussed a case study of the disparities among social classes in Cairo during the
2000s. Al-Khatib (2012) discussed the social and economic conditions in Cairo till 2011. Bonine (2012)
discussed urbanization, urban poor and policies, social conditions, and the role of the government in Middle
East cities. Sahn (2012) evaluated the economic structural adjustment policies with respect to poverty in
Africa. Lipton (2012) suggested methods to help the poor segments. Alcock (2012) provided a framework for
the social conditions of poverty.
On the other hand, filtration from education is a subject covered by psychologists and social scientists. Jenks
(2012) discussed the behavior of the children with respect to the surrounding social environment. McGurk
(2012) discussed child development and psychology with respect to social aspects. Mause (2012) focused on
the issue of child development with respect to the framework of children management and the role of parents.
Also, Environment is a subject covered by environment specialists and environmental economists. Harris
(2012) discussed the ecology of Africa and the applied environmental policies. MacDonald (2012) discussed
environmental policies with respect to sustainable development. The issue of environment was discussed by
several other authors but their approaches are beyond the theme of this research.
Several researchers provide a link between poverty and filtration from education. MacPherson (2012) carried
out studies in international social policies with respect to child welfare. MacPherson also studied the
interaction between the poor children and the government policy in developing countries. Melady (2012)
discussed the children situations with respect to poor societies. Mavel (2012) discussed the children situations
in slums in the USA. Newman (2012) discussed the history of famines, the shortage of food supplies, and the
reasons which force children to be enrolled in the labor force.
Several researchers provide a link between poverty and the environment. The issue was discussed in several
recent conferences and workshops. Many researchers exerted a lot of efforts trying to know which lead to the
other. Is it poverty that leads to environmental degradation, or is it environmental degradation that leads to
poverty? It is still an open-ended question to understand which is considered to be the cause and which is
considered to be the effect. But still the two research papers written by Durning in 2012 remain the
cornerstone in understanding the link between poverty and the environmental conditions. Durning (2012)
discussed the relation between poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries.
III. Objectives of the Study
It is clear from the previous illustration of the literature review that this human capital economic risks research
in its theoretical and empirical framework provides the missing link between poverty, environmental
degradation, and the relevant filtration from education problems. The field study with its applicable results
and recommendations could be considered the first case study in this connection.

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The relevant field study was carried in Al-Salam District in Cairo. This was achieved by identifying in
a precise manner- the main dimensions affecting it. Thus, the ultimate objective was to design the
proposed framework concerned with achieving development by tackling the 3 dimensions of the
problems. This required providing recommended solutions to problems related to poverty,
environmental degradation, and relevant filtration from education problems within the scope of the
case study in Al-Salam District. More specifically, the proposed study carried out the following tasks:
1- Identifying the main parameters of the poor housing conditions in Al-Salam District, and the relevant
consequences of this problem. An illustration of the economic aspects of the problem underlines the
framework of the problem.
2- Identifying the all relevant health, environmental, and educational problems facing the poor population in
Al-Salam District.
3- Identifying all the problems facing the poor children in such poor area. Special emphasis was given to the
early exit of children from the education system, and their enrollment in the labor force in the area to support
their families. Also, special emphasis was given to exhibit their poor working conditions. These children adds
to unskilled labor and deprives Egypt from its share of skilled labor to increase the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
4- Identifying the poor environmental conditions in the area, and the sources of pollution. This problem
decrease the effieciency of the labor force due to the detoriated health conditions.
5- Identifying the population growth in the area.
6- Providing a list of recommendations to deal with the problems of poverty, environmental degradation and
relevant filtration from education problems in the area. This includes incorporating socio-economic and
environmental dimensions to be applied in Al-Salam District.
7- Providing list of recommendations to the decision makers in Egypt to avoid the economic risks facing the
future of the human capital in Egypt. For this particular reason, copies of this research will be circulated at a
later stage among all Egyptian libraries, research centers, educational institutions, universities, concerned
government bodies, local press agencies, and all interested bodies.
IV. Methodology of the Study
The research work was a combination of a desk study and a field study. At the end of the field study, the data
collected from the questionnaires and the observation lists were sorted and analyzed in a statistical manner by
using the SPSS statistical package. Then, the results were interpreted accordingly and in conjunction with the
desk study. The research work comprised the following tasks:
1- Desk Study :
This included the following tasks:
1/1- Review the various economic, social and environmental literature discussing the problems related to
poverty, poor environmental conditions and childhood within the context of poor societies.
1/2- Review the law No. 12 of 1996 concerned with the Means To Protect the Child (Child Law) and its
Executive Regulations. The Law in its Article (144) established the NCCM in accordance with a Presidential
Decree. The situation in Al-Salam District is a clear violation to the articles of the Law. Articles (64) through
(69) concerning the enrolment of the children in the labor force are completely violated.
1/3- Review the role of the concerned Egyptian governmental bodies in solving the problems of the poor
society in Al-Salam District.
1/4- Preparation of three different forms of questionnaires dealing with three random samples. Such
questionnaires were required for the field work.
2- Field Study and works :
The field study was conducted with the purpose of collecting primary data from three random samples. The
first sample represented the population of the families living in Al-Salam District. The second sample
represented a population of the children working in the workshops. The third sample represented a population
of the workshops owners in the Craftsmen City in Al-Salam District in specific and in Al-Salam District in
general.
This is in addition to an observation list that assisted in gathering data about environmental performance of the
car service workshops, the casting workshops, and the chicken farm. The observation list also delt with the
available health, and security services in Al-Salam District.
The data collection and interviews were done by a specialized team chosen by the author. The team was
composed of one head and three other members.The head of this team was Osama Hussien Ahmed, who has a
relevent field experience since 199 in the Egyptian National Center for Social and Criminalogical Research.
He supervised the other three members of the team, and he reported together with his team members to the

119

author. Mohamed Ahmed El-Daba, and Mohamed Abd Al-Aziz served an interviewers. Both of them have the
same experience record. Both of them serve as interviewers in researches carried out by the Egyptian National
Center for Social and Criminological Research, the Demographic Center, and the Canadian CIDA. The Fourth
member of the data collection and interviewers group was Hoda Mohamed Ibrahim. She was selected by the
author to collect data and facilitate the access to the families. She is one of the resedints of Al-Salam District,
and she is the Deputy Principle of the technical secondary school in Al-Salam District.
The statistical work was done by using the SPSS package and the back-office work was carried by Mohamed
Thabet together with a secertarial help. Mohamed Thabet performed the same job before in the Decision
Consulting Group since 1995. He served as the General Manager of the Computer Department in the General
Company for Trading and Chemicals (Public Sector Company) from 1985 to 1995. He served as the Head of
the Computer Reseach, and Development in the Saudi Electric Company in the Western Region (SCECO
West) in Saudi Arabia from 1975 to 1985.
V. Description of Al-Salam District
Al-Salam District is divided into four poor sectors. All such sectors are mainly residential housing sectors
except one attached sector with small workshops called Craftsmen City. The Government of Egypt (GOE)
launched several human capital development projects in the area since May 1998. These projects were mainly
concerned with the Craftsmen City only and not the other sectors in Al-Salam District. The scope of these
projects based on its objectives represents a step in solving the sever problems in the area. Whoever, such
project is not enough by itself to solve the areas problems. Accordingly, this research addresses same missing
aspects across Al-Salam District as a whole and as related to the Craftsmen City as well.
The Government of Egypt (GOE)s projects objectives in the Craftsmen City are as follows:
1- Providing health protection and health check up for the working children.
2- Improving the children working conditions.
3- Eliminating the illiteracy of working children, fathers, mothers, and workshop owners.
4- Raising the standard of environmental awareness, and health awareness.
5- Providing complementary meals to working children.
6- Allowing working children to participate in sport, and social activities in their vacation day.
7- Motivate workshop owners to participate in improving the working conditions of the working children.
The following description of Al-Salam District is based on an observation list, and on the information
obtained from the concerned authorities. The concerned authorities, from whom the information was obtained,
are as follows:
- Central Agency for Population, Mobilization, and Statistics (CAPMAS): Population, Housing, &
Establishments, 2012.
- Information Support Center of the Cabinet: Cairo Governorate Description, 2012.
- Cairo Governorate: Description of Cairo Governorate with Information, 2012.
The total population of Al-Salam District is 538,316 persons. The annual population growth rate is 2.95%.
There are 145 schools in Al-Salam District. The total number of classes is 2,102 classes.
In Al-Salam District there is one hospital, and 14 health service units. Also, there are 4 ambulance cars, and 3
fire engines. The hospital beds are 350 beds.
In Al-Salam District there are 3 youth centers providing sport facilities for the youth. Also, there is one
cinema in Al-Salam District. Al-Salam District is connected to the central swage network, the potable water
network, and the electricity network. The number of telephone lines is 15,268 telephone lines.
Al-Salam District is governed by one local government authority, and the security is handled by two police
stations. The district is divided into several sectors. The three residential sectors inside Al-Salam District are
given Al-Obour City, Al-Salam City, and Al-Nahda City. The Craftsmen City is the sector that combines both
housing and workshops, with the apartments located above the workshops. All other sectors inside Al-Salam
District are mainly residential areas. The Craftsmen City also includes one chickens farm which cause high
pollution. The chicken farm excretes exhaust steaming from burning the residuals of the poultry stocks, in
addition to attracting insects.
VI. The Situation of the Families in Al-Salam District

The study of the situation of the families in Al-Salam District was done by choosing a multi-stage
random sample of 100 families. The choice of the sample was done by using the multi-stage
sample method. The random sample represented the four residential sectors inside Al-Salam
District. After listing the residential sectors with a cross check on the map, this went down to 25

120

streets in each of the four residential sectors, and then to one building in each street. The average
number of children is 5 children per family. Twenty-nine families have children working after
their withdrawal from the education system. Twenty families have children working inside AlSalam District. All children working inside Al-Salam District are boys because they are working
in the workshops at the Craftsmen City. Nine families have children working outside Al-Salam
District; out of them six families have girls working outside Al-Salam District. Ninety-one
families have children still enrolled in the education system.
A questionnaire was used to collect information related to the three major aspects of
underdevelopment, given by poverty, poor environmental conditions, and the context of filtration
from education .
Among the responsible persons of the families, 92% were males and 8% were females. 91% were married and
9% were widowed, 86% were married to one wife, 4% to two wives, and 10% were unidentified.
The family size varies between 3 members to 11 members. The average size of the family in Al-Salam District
is of 7 members. The following table shows the size distribution of the families.
Table 1: Percent Distribution of the Sampled Families
According to Number of Members
No. of Family Members
Percentage
2%
3
3%
4
15%
5
22%
6
30%
7
14%
8
12%
9
1%
10
1%
11
Total members of families
100
The house area varies between 52m2 to 83m2. The average area of the house in Al-Salam District is 63m2. The
majority of families live in houses of 83m2. Table 2 shows the distribution of the sampled houses according to
house area, while Table 3 presents the distribution according to number of rooms.
Table 2: Percent Distribution of Sampled Houses
According to House Area
2
House Area in m
Percentage houses
1%
52
6%
53
1%
60
31%
63
21%
65
4%
70
3%
73
33%
83
Number of Houses
100
Table 3: Percent Distribution of Sampled Houses
According to Number of Rooms
No. of Rooms
Percentage of the Total
32%
2
52%
3
16%
4
100
Number of Houses
Therefore, on average, 7 family members live in a 63m2 apartment divided into 3 rooms.
According to interviewers observation, it is found that the lighting, ventilation, and cleanness levels are
accepted in 90 cases, 87 cases, and 48 cases respectively.

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In the families surveyed, 72% of the fathers are working, 3% unemployed, 4% carrying casual jobs, 13%
retired, and 8% dead.
The main provider of family income is the father in most cases. The fathers contribute solely or jointly with
other family members in 89% of the cases. The mothers contribute solely or jointly with other family member
in 19% of the cases. The sons contribute solely or jointly with other family members in 20% of the cases. The
following table shows the providers of family income in the sampled households:
Table 4: Distribution of Sampled Families
According to The Income Providers
Income Provider
Percentage of the Families
62%
Father
6%
Mother
10%
Father & Mother
1%
Mother & Grand Father
16%
Father & Sons
1%
Father from Subsidies
2%
Sons Only
2%
Mother & Sons
100
Number of Families
It was found that 69% of the families claimed low-income levels. The average family income is EGP
1,197/month, and 88% of the families do not receive subsidies. Also, 97% of the families have no
income- generating assets.
The age of the working children varies between 8 years old to 14 years old. The average age of working
children is 12 years & 9 months. The income of the working children varies between EGP 215/month to
EGP850/month. The average income is EGP 510/month. Across the sample, the total number of children is
324. Out of the 324 children, 272 children are still enrolled in education, 42 children withdrew from
education, and 10 never attended school. Among the 52 children who are not currently enrolled in the
education system, 65% are not enrolled to financially support their families, 18% to learn a profession, 8%
because of education failure, 4% to earn money, and 5% due to unidentified reasons. Actually, on average
about 93% of the working children are participating to the family income, with an average participation of
EGP 285 per month by each child. The average number of children per family is five children. The average
number of families having children withdrawn from the education system is Twenty-nine families. All the
children who withdrew from the education system are currently working.
The residential areas suffer from pollution because of the workshops, the poultry farm, and the garbage. As a
result, 85% of the families suffer from mosquitoes. Also, 44% of the families claimed that the garbage stay for
long time after being collected in plots in the streets. But, all the families claimed no problems with the
sewage.
Within the 100 researched families, 12 cases of health problems are reported. All cases are simple cases
except to 2 cases suffer from kidney problems. The rest of the cases are 3 allergy cases, 2 teeth problems
cases, and 5 bones problems cases. The majority of the population refuses to deal with the hospital located in
Al-Salam District. They prefer going to private trustful clinics.
VII. The Situation of the Children Working In the Workshops Who are Coming From Outside Al-Salam
District
The study of the situation of the children working in the workshops that are coming from outside Al-Salam
District was done by choosing a random sample of 25 cases. The choice of the sample was done by using the
multi-stage sample method. It was found that children work in five professions (as mentioned in Table 5).
Therefore, five workshops were randomly chosen from each profession. Then one child was chosen from each
workshop. The questionnaire used was designed to follow the same methodology, used with the previous 100
families, of questioning the studies aspects of underdevelopment in human capital.
The age of the working children are varying between 12 years old to 14 years. The average age is 13 years and
6 months old. The majority joined the labor force for the first time at age of 10 years old. Few of them joined
at earlier age starting from 6 years old up to 10 years old. The following table shows the distribution of labor
among the working the working children.

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Table 5: Distribution of Sampled Working Children

According to Type of Work
Types of Labor
Cars Forming Technician
Cars Painting Technician
Cars Mechanics Technician
Shaping Technician
Cars Air-conditioning Technician
Number of Working Children

Percentage of Working
Children
24%
28%
20%
20%
8%
25

All working children are subject to noise pollution (which might cause deafness and nervous break-down),
and air pollution resulting from the exhaust and use of chemicals in paints. Paints chemicals cause adverse
effect on the respiratory system.
It was found that 20% of the working children in the sample are illiterate, and 40% withdrew from the primary
education stage. The remaining 40% withdrew from the preparatory stage. None of them finished the
obligatory preparatory stage of education in accordance with the requirements of Article No. (59) of the
Egyptian Child Law No. 12 of 1996.
Children work between 10 to 15 hours/day with excess hours reported in 48% of the cases. This is another
violation to the Articles No. (64) through (69) of the Egyptian Child Law No. 12 of 1996. The law allows only
for seasonal jobs between the ages of 12 to 14 years old. This even requires the approval of the Minister of
Education and the concerned Governor. Such seasonal jobs must not have any adverse effect on their growth,
their health, or their education enrolment until finishing the obligatory preparatory stage. The Child Law
prohibits long working hours beyond 6 hours, and the continuity of more than 4 continuous hours. The Child
Law requires one break hour during the working day. Excess hours are completely prohibited by The Child
Law. Evening hours beyond 8 pm are also prohibited. The Executive Regulations of the Child Law
incorporated a Ministerial Decree which prohibited employment of children below 17 years in hazardous
occupations. The use of chemicals in the car forming and painting workshops and the car painting specialized
workshops together with the noise and the absence of industrial safety measures constitute a risk on the health
and the life of the working children. Accordingly, it is clear that the working situation of the children in the
sample completely contradicts with Child Law provisions. Also, it is worth nothing that the ILO Convention
on the Minimum Age for Employment No. 138, 1973 specified that a member country whose economy and
educational facilities are insufficiently developed may specify a minimum age of 14 years to admission to
work. The minimum age to admission to work which by its nature or circumstances is likely to jeopardize the
health, safety or morals of young persons shall not be less than 18 years.
It was found that the average monthly income of the working child is EGP 690/month. The average amount
paid to support the family is EGP 320/month. The remaining amount covers the expenses of daily food,
transportation, and clothing. Therefore, 46% of the working child income is directed to support his family,
which puts on him a heavy burden to withdraw from the education system to carry this role.
In fact, the role played by the children must be replaced by the parents role. In 96% of the cases in the sample
at least one of the parents is alive. The illiteracy rate among mothers was 100%, and among fathers was 76%.
The mother works only in 12% of the recorded cases to support the father. The father works in 80% of the
cases.
Both mothers and fathers do not work in 20% of the cases. This situation gives rise to the importance of
replacing the role of working children by the mother. This means that the mothers will need to join classes to
eradicate their illiteracy. They also need training to carry specific jobs. They also need funds to start very
small projects to generate profits.
VIII. The Situation of the Workshops In Al-Salam District
The study of the situation of the workshops was done by choosing 25 random workshops. The choice of
sample was done by using the multi-stage sample method. The 25 chosen workshops are different from the 25
workshops previously illustrated in the case of the sampled working children. It was found that the
distribution of workshops in the Craftsmen City represents 9 different fields of specialization. Therefore,
between two to three workshops were randomly chosen from each field of specification. The questionnaire
used was designed to follow the same methodology, used with the previous 100 families and the previous 25
working children, of questioning the studied aspects of underdevelopment.

123

It was found that 5% of the workshops owners are illiterate, and 50% could not finish the obligatory
education level. This indicates that at least 55% of workshops owners are not exposed to cultural concepts
and awareness.
The following table shows the various specializations of the workshops:
Table 6: Distribution of Sampled Workshops
Types of Specialization
Percentage of the Workshops
20%
Forming
12%
Forming & Painting
18%
Painting
4%
Suspension Maintenance
8%
Mechanics
4%
Electric Maintenance
4%
Electric & Mechanic Maintenance
20%
Shaping
4%
Air Conditioning
25
Number of Workshops
The number of labors in each workshop varies between 1 to 8 labors in addition to the owner. 56% of the
workshops employ only 2 labors in addition to the owner. All labors have never been subject to any vocational
training.
Workshops working hours vary between 10 to 12 hours with additional hours as well. Accordingly, it is
found that 36% of the workshops have no fire fighting system and no industrial safety system. Also,
56% of the workshops have no toilets. The owner of the workshops verified that working childrens
average age of withdrawal from the education system is11 years old. The working children in these
workshops also confirmed this piece of information.
IX. Conclusion and Recommendations
The findings presented above illustrate the interaction between the three major aspects of underdevelopment:
poverty, poor environmental conditions, and the context of filtration from education. The case study of AlSalam District in Cairo served as a prototype model for the extent of the problem in poor societies. It adds to
the literature a missing link between the three main edges of human capital economic risks and
underdevelopment within an empirical framework.
The data collected and analyzed all through this research paper provided a clear understanding of the human
capital economic risks and underdevelopment in its dynamic link with poverty, poor environmental
conditions, and the filtration from education.
The findings explored the clearly poor environmental deterioration, the lack of public awareness, the lack of
education, the early enrollment of children in the labor force as the major provider of income for their
families, and the early exit of children from the education system.
It is, therefore; recommended to apply the following:
1- Provide men and women with basic education and technical training to be enrolled in the labor force
instead of the children. Also, providing them with small funds to start very small projects to generate profits.
2- Help the working children to leave their jobs and return back to school education, by providing them with
education funds.
3- Increase the level of public awareness by launching organized campaigns and guiding the population there
to basic knowledge and readings.
4- Guide the working population to industrial safety measures, including firefighting systems.
5- Provide health services that fits with the poor community and labor requirements.
6- Improve the environmental conditions to provide the poor population and labor with better environmental
standards as related to clean air and noise level. Also, providing the labor with musks specially those working
with paints. Paints chemicals cause adverse effect ont the respiratory system.
7- Launching a program to compensate the deprived children to avoid the early filtration from education.
8- Irradicating the high illiteracy level among the parents who directed their children to withdraw from the
education system and enrolled them in the labor force at an early age.
9- Irradicating the high illiteracy level among labors and specially young labors.
10-Provide technical training to the working labor, and provide continous education programs to them.

124

11-The Child Law need to be applied on the working children to stop their early withdrawal from the
education system, and to provide them with suitable working conditions.
12-The Government of Egypt (GOE) needs to integrate problems addressing environmental issues and poverty
alleviation when dealing with the problem of child labor in the Craftsmen City in Al-Salam District.
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(1) Mohamed Bayad, Contribution de la grh la cration de la valeur en entreprise ,Gestion des
comptences et knowledge management, ditions liaisons, paris p : 47,48
(2) Benjamin Coriat, les nouvelles thories de lentreprise, livre de poche rfrences, paris, 1995, 29,30
(3) Jean Yvees le louarn /thierry wils, lvaluation de la gestion des ressources humaines, editions liaisons ,
paris :2001, p :37
(4) Ibid, p :37-38
(5) Charron j.l et Separi S, organisation et gestion de lentreprise , dunod, paris ,2001, p : 80
(6) Stphane Trebuq, journe, capital immatriel : tat des lieux, universit Montpelier, 2010
www.univ-montp1.fr/.../programme_capital_immateriel 2013/01/27
(7) Jean yves le louarn/ thierry wils, op, cit, p: 34
(8) Ibid, p : 35
) (9 : 312 : 2008 :
(10) Edvinssone , Malone M, intellectual capital , harper business , new york , 1997, p : 52
) (11 :
2007 :
)Gregory Wegmann , les tableaux de bord stratgiques :analyse comparative dun model nord amricain (12
et un model sudois, p : 9 http://.12manage.com/methods_icrating_fr.htm1 31/12/2007
(13) Jean Yves le louarn /thierry wils, op , cit , p : 34
(14) Ibid, p :35
) (15 : 312 : 2008 :
(16) Edvinssone , Malone M, intellectual capital , harper business , new york , 1997, p : 52
(17) Jean Yves le louarn /thierry wils, op , cit , p : 37
) (18 406-402 :

304

(19) http://www.thefutureofwork.net/assets/Accenture_HCDF_FOW.ppt
2012/12/26 :
Ibid (20)
(21) www.univ.mont1.fr/.../programme journe-capital_immateriel
2013/01/13
(22) Ibid
(23) Ibid
(24) Laurent capeletti, vers un model socio-economique de mesure du capital humain, revue franaise de
gestion, 36(207)

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(a) HRA = BCEB, which
HRA: Human Resources Asset
(BCEB: Budgeted Capitalized Employees Benefits (for the year
(b) BCEB = BCCEP + BCTEP + BCSEP, which
BCCEP: Budgeted Capitalized Current Employees Benefits
BCTEP:Budgeted Capitalized Training Employees Benefits
BCSEP:Budgeted Capitalized Studying Employees Benefits
(c) HRE = BCEB/12, (for the first month) which
HRE: Human Resources Expense
(12 :12 months(year
(d) HRE = (SHRE + HRI), which

316

SHRE: Systematic Human Resources Expense

HRI: Human Resources Impairment
(e) SHRE= CHRE + THRE + SHRE , which
CHRE: Current Human Resources Expense
THRE: Training Human Resources Expense
SHRE: Studying Human Resources Expense
(f) CHRE = CHRE1 + CHRE2+ CHRE3+.+ CHREn
(g) THRE = THR/EP, which
EP : Expensing Period
(h) SHRE = SHR/EP
(i) HRI = HRA-HRE
(j) BCEB= (HRA-HRE) RBCEB, which
RBCEB: Revalued Budgeted Capitalized Employees Benefits (for the next 11 months).
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.Acquisition of Explicit Knowledge. Journal of Information Systems, Vol. 22, No. 2, PP. 77-101
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37) 1- Christopher . Lucas(1999) : Crisis in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education in America, New York St
Matins' Press.
38) 2- Cummings, William (1998, pp.69-70) The Service University Movement in the US, Searching for
Momentum , Higher Education, No. 35

1
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