A Local Ecosystem

1.1 Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments

An ecosystem includes all the organisms in a particular area and the interactions of these organisms with
biotic and abiotic factors.
Abiotic features: The non-living factors or features of an environment (physical and chemical properties i.e.
temperature, pH level, rainfall)
Biotic features: The living components or biological features (plants/animals and other organisms)

Both abiotic (physical) and biotic (living) factors affect the organisms in a community, influencing their
distribution and their survival, growth and reproduction (abundance).

An aquatic environment is in the ocean, a terrestrial environment is on land


Abiotic factors found both in aquatic and terrestrial environments:
- Viscosity: Degree of difficulty experienced by an organism to pass through a medium
- Buoyancy: Support offered by a substance, such as a liquid or gas, to an organism
- Variation in temperature: Temperature can vary enormously in terrestrial environments. It is more stable
in aquatic environments
- Availability of gases, water and ions: Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are found in the atmosphere and in
water. Less availability of gases and water higher in the atmosphere so organisms stay low for gases, water
and ions as ions are dissolved in the water
- Light Penetration: Without light, plants cannot photosynthesis




Abiotic Factor Comparison of Terrestrial and Aquatic Explanation
Viscosity Difficult to move in aquatic
environments, easier to move in air
Water is more viscous than air. More
difficult to move in water because of
higher particle numbers
Buoyancy Easier to be supported in water than in
air
Water has more density than air. Its
easier to be less dense in water and
thus easier to be buoyant
Temperature Little difference in temperature in the
water, large temperature range in the
air
Sun and rain have more effect in air
than in water. More particles in
water, takes longer for temperatures
to penetrate
Availability of gases,
water and ions
Harder to get gases in water, but ample
water and ions. Easy to get gases in air,
but must need a water source for water
and ions
Gases= can be dissolved in water
Water= More water in aquatic
environments
Ions= Dissolve easily in water
Light penetration Little light penetrates deep water.
Copious light available on land
throughout the year, except in dark
rainforest and at night
More particles in water, harder for
light to penetrate
Pressure variation Organisms exposed to more pressure at
deeper levels. Less pressure higher up
More particles pushing down from all
directions in aquatic environments
compared with less in the air
Physical Forces Storms cause high tides, strong
currents, huge waves and strong winds
in the water. On land, exposure to
extreme wind and rain could cause
death

Shelter/Space Organisms may need shelter from
predators and to establish a territory
with sufficient food and mates both in
water and terrestrial environments



1.2 Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment.

Distribution: refers to where within an ecosystem the individuals of a species are located. (Where you find
it). Gives clues to how a species is interacting with the environment.
Abundance: Refers to how many individuals are in the population of a species in the ecosystem. (How
many you find in a measured area).

Distribution
Transect Study: Is like a cross-section through a study area. The study is done by moving along the line and
noting and recording which species are located at each point. Often plants are the main subjects as they do
not move.

Factors that affect distribution:
- Food supplies: they need to be near.
- Predators: they need to avoid.
- Wave Action: Most of the organisms along the sea-shore are well adapted to withstand the pounding of
waves.
- Exposure to Air: Sea-shore animals are all sea creatures which can with-stand being exposed for a while at
low tide. How well they cope with this often determines their exact distribution.
Abundance
Quadrat Sampling:
A simple frame which is dropped onto the ground at random throughout the study area. Each quadrats
number of species of interest is counted. The average number of organisms per quadrat is calculated.
Estimated population = Average count per quadrat x Study area / Quadrat area
Capture-Recapture Sampling
1. Capture a number of the species being studied.
2. Mark or tag the animals.
3. Release animals back where they were captured.
4. Carry out a second capture program.
5. Count how many of the 2
nd
capture are marked from the 1
st
capture.
Total population = number of animals tagged x number of animals recaptured
Average number of tagged animals recaptured




Problems
- Sometimes tagged individuals dont mix randomly back into the population. (May learn to avoid traps, may
harm the organism)

1.3 Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems.
1.5 Identify uses of energy by organisms.
1.6 Identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of a chain of
biochemical reactions
Photosynthesis is the process by which plant cells capture energy from sunlight and use it to combine
carbon dioxide and water to make sugars (glucose) and oxygen. All living things ultimately depend on this
process. Plants use chlorophyll to capture the suns energy.

Carbon Dioxide + Water Oxygen + Glucose + Water

- Energy in an ecosystem is used in various ways, such as movement, making sound, carrying out
chemical reactions as part of cellular metabolism, producing heat and, in some organisms,
producing light. Organisms need energy for all the life processes such as moving around, grow and
repair and reproducing.
- Original source of energy in ecosystems is light
- Plants absorb some light energy from the sun, which is converted into glucose via photosynthesis
- Half of this is broken down in respiration to make energy
- Photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of plant cells
- The more light a plant has, the faster it can photosynthesise

Respiration is the process by which cells obtain energy. In this process, organic molecules (sugars) are
broken down to produce carbon dioxide and water and energy is released (in form ATP).
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)

- Glucose is broken down by respiration to provide energy for plants and animals
- This energy is transferred through animals and plants when they are eaten and digested by other
plants and animals
- Some energy is lost as heat
- Process occurs in all living cells in the mitochondria
- Involves a series of about 50 different chemical reactions.

- Autotrophs Make their own food
- Heterotrophs Gather food from other sources











2.1 Examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species within an ecosystem

Populations of organisms do not remain at a constant level within an ecosystem. Population explosion is
when the population increases dramatically. Population number may also decline due to disease,
predation, competition and human impacts.
Population size is effected by:
- Birth and death rates
- Migration
2.2 Outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the area studied.
Population size of an organism can also be affected by the population of another organism. If there are
more predators than prey, the prey population will be wiped out and eventually the predator population
also due to insufficient food.
If predators are absent, the prey population will increase exponentially but eventually crash due to
limited food resources.
The numbers of predators and prey in an ecosystem depend on a number of factors:
- Size of ecosystem
- Availability of preys food determines number of prey present
- Reproductive cycles (large number of prey may be followed by increase in predators)
- Diseases and pathogens present
- Migration
Predator: The animal that hunts and kills other animals for food
Prey: The animal that is eaten

An example of a predator/prey relationship is the Lion which eats zebras.

2.3 Identify examples of Allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and the
role of organisms in each type of relationship.
Beneficial:
Mutualism: when two organisms both benefit from each other (eg. Cleaner cling-fish eating
parasites off sharks)
Commensalism: a relationship which benefits one species but does not affect the other (eg.
Epiphytes on tree trunks, supported by tree, do not obtain food from it)
Detrimental:
Competition: the struggle between organisms for the same resource (eg. Feral goats use rock shelter and
food needed by rock wallaby)
Predation: feeding relationship where one animal obtains food by killing another (eg. Lion eating a zebra)
Parasitism: parasite obtains food from host (living organism), organism is harmed but doesnt usually die.
(eg. Mosquitoes sucking blood of human)

Beneficial/Detrimental:
Allelopathy: production of a plant of specific chemicals (allele-chemical) which can be both beneficial,
or detrimental to another plant. (eg. Some pines produce a chemical which prevents seedling from
germinating close to parent plant)
2.4 Describe the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.
Decomposers absorb nutrients from dead tissue or waste products of organisms and return the
organic material to the soil, by causing wastes to decay and be broken down into very simple
chemicals such as carbon dioxide and nitrate and phosphate ions.
This is essential to the recycling of the chemicals in an ecosystem, ensuring that vital chemicals are
recycled into the air or soil for re-use by the plants.
Bacteria and fungi are the main decomposers in an ecosystem.
2.5 Explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem using food chains, food webs and
pyramids of biomass and energy.
Trophic interactions (feeding relationships) in an ecosystem can be explained using food chains and webs
and biomass pyramids. The feeding level of an organism is its trophic level. The role that on organism
plays is called its niche (eg. Carnivore)
Food chain: represent one flow of energy from one organism to another. Some energy is lost as heat at
each step. Original source of energy is sun. Food chains always begin with producer organisms.

- Producer: Autotrophs that either photosynthesise or chemosynthesis by using energy to make
complex inorganic material from simple inorganic material
- Consumer: An organism that eats plant or other animals or both
- First-order consumer: Animals that eat plants (producers) herbivores
- Second-order consumer: Organisms that eat primary consumers carnivores
- Decomposer: Organisms (e.g. Bacteria and Fungi) that break down dead plants or animals into
simpler compounds

Food web: represents a more complex and complete energy flow. Changes to numbers of organisms in one
part of the web, may affect other organisms in the web.
- Try to keep members of the same trophic level in-line in the diagram. Note: the direction of the
arrow used in food chains/webs means is eaten by (flow of energy)

Biomass pyramid:
Biomass - the total quantity or weight of organisms in a given area or volume.
Biomass is the measure of the mass of all organisms at a particular trophic level. A biomass pyramid shows
the total weight (biomass) of organisms at each level for a particular habitat


levels; biomass
decreases
3
rd
order (tertiary)
Consumer
2
nd
order (secondary)
Consumer
1
st
order (primary)
Consumer

Producer

- At each level only 10% of the biomass and energy is available to be eaten by tht net trophic
level organisms resulting in 90% of energy lost through heat.

2.6 Define the term adaptation and discuss the problem associated with inferring characteristics of
organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat.
Adaptation: Special features or behaviours that make an organism particularly suited to its environment.
Adaptations are inherited characteristics, a result of natural selection.
Adaptations increase an organisms chance of survival and so increase its chance of reproducing.
Types of adaptation:
- Structural: shape and size of body or structures (eg. Kangaroos forlegs have dense network
of blood vessels close to surface)

- Physiological: the way the organisms structural features function (eg. The dense network of
blood vessels allow increased blood flow to the area during heat stress, helps cool down)

- Behavioural: how an organism responds to its environment, how it behaves. (eg. The
kangaroo licks its forelegs to cool down)

2.7 Identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their environment.
Adaption Type Examples
Structural - Streamlining of many aquatic animals to deal with
the high viscosity of water.
- Large, broad, chlorophyll-packed leaves of plants
living on the rainforest floor, to cope with the low
light levels.
- The bony skeleton of most terrestrial animals
needed to support the animal against gravity.
Physiological - Animals shivering when cold, and sweating when too
hot.
- Freshwater fish excreting water constantly to
remove excess water from their bodies. This is
controlled by the functioning of their kidneys.
Behavioural - Most reptiles sunbake when too cool and seek
shelter when too hot.

2.8 Identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from the local ecosystem
Mangroves
Structural: They have stilt roots which lift the plant out of water. They are anchored by complex root
systems to protect from the shifting mudflat environment.
Physiological: Pneumatophores (aerial roots) push upwards through mud, their tips (lenticels) have pores
through which gaseous exchange can occur
Behavioural: Mangroves have flowers, following fertilisation and pollination, fruits containing one seed
develop. Due to the harsh environment of the mudflats, the seeds begin to germinate before they drop.
Also, the leaves can turn away from the sun to prevent water loss due to overheating.
Kangaroos
Structural: Has well-muscled large hind legs, large tail is used as counterweight when hopping and to help
stay upright. Has large molars for grazing.
Physiological: Have lungs as internal respiratory surface. Have very short gestation period. Have
binocular vision.
Behavioural: Sweat only during exercise to reduce water loss. Seek shade and shelter to protect from
heat. Lick forearms where blood vessels run close to surface to cool down, the evaporating saliva
creates a cooling effect.
2.9 Describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the ecosystem of species
competing for resources.
Competition occurs when members of the same or different species need the same limited
resource. Competition occurs mostly in organisms with similar niches.
Short term effects: availability of resources will decrease, and then the growth of the
population may slow or decrease. If population decreases there will be less pressure on
available resources.
Long term effects:
- Degradation of the environment; resources become depleated
- Diversity of organisms may be reduced
- Extinction of an organism; as a result of survival of the fittest
- Evolution; two competing species may minimise competition by evolving under strong
selection pressure to occupy different niches.

2.10 Identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied
Wanda Sand Dunes
- Vegetation cleared and burnt. Land clearing over the years resulting in a degraded
landscape.
- Since 1920s sand mining operations have commenced until 1990 with over 70
million tonnes of sand being removed. Reduced to just a few remnant dunes.
- Coastal development and alteration of sediment flows resulting in reduce in flow
and sediment and ultimately affecting the volume of sand available for the
development and growth of the dunes.
- Recreational activity and development of paths have caused considerable damage.
The overall vegetation cover has been lost, causing the sand to become increasingly
mobile and allowing wind to create blow outs.
- Vehicle activity also destroys vegetation. Weight of vehicles lead to soil compaction
which reduces the amount of oxygen in the soil and therefore reduces plant growth.