Geology Indonesia

A Geological Overview of Indonesia
Chapter 4
The Petroleum Geology of Indonesia
Indonesia is diverse in terms of culture, geography and geology. It is a sprawling
nation of 9.5 million km
2
and, with 80% of its area being water and more than
17,000 islands, it is the largest archipelago in the world. It traces the path of the
equator for over 5400 km east to west across three time zones and extends for over
1800 km from north to south.
I
ndonesias development as a nation has
been strongly influenced by its geography
and geology, with the interplay between
climate, rainfall and volcanic activity
shaping agricultural and population patterns
in different ways throughout the islands.
Java and Bali, for example, are endowed
with some of the most fertile volcanic soils
on Earth. For this reason they are
population and cultural centers. Out of the
total population of over 200 million, nearly
50% live on the relatively small island of
Java, which represents only 7% of the total
land area.
Other regions, such as Kalimantan and
Sumatra with their dense rain forests, or
the Nusa Tenggara (Lesser Sunda) islands
with their more arid climate, are less
densely populated.
In the nineteenth century the British
botanist Sir Alfred Russell Wallace (who
together with Darwin is credited with the
theory of evolution) determined a precise
line of demarcation that separates the flora
and fauna found throughout Asia from those
unique to Australasia. This divide is termed
the Wallace line and passes between Bali
and Lombok and then northward between
Borneo and the Celebes (Sulawesi). It is no
coincidence that the Wallace line is also a
major geological divide. The islands to the
west represent the tectonically disrupted
southeastern promontory of the continental
Asian plate (the Sunda shield or
Sundaland), whereas those to the east are
fragments of the ancient continental
Australian plate (Australian craton). These
two plates started to collide only about
8 million years ago (mybp) towards the end
of the Miocene epoch which, in geological
terms, is relatively recent. Before this time,
the flora and fauna of these two landmasses
had developed in very different directions
and remain distinct to this day.
Controlled largely by the different
geological regimes of Eastern and Western
Indonesia, the pattern of hydrocarbon
exploration and exploitation differs across
the archipelago. Indonesia contains more
than 60 sedimentary basins and inter-basin
areas in which hydrocarbon accumulations
are either proven or possible (Figure 1).
This is a significant number considering that
there are estimated to be only 600
sedimentary basins worldwide (Pattinama
and Samuel, 1992). Indonesia is also
probably the most diverse nation in the
world in terms of petroleum systems. There
are at least 50 proven and probably more
than 100 speculative (lightly explored or
unexplored) petroleum systems (Howes,
1999). These vary greatly with regard to
their age and geological characteristics. Most
of the proven and exploited hydrocarbon
systems occur in Western Indonesia and are
at a relatively mature stage of exploration.
Eastern Indonesia remains, however,
relatively underexplored and almost half of
the basins have not been drilled.
Indonesia is the fifteenth largest oil
producer in the world and the only OPEC
member in Southeast Asia, producing over
80% of all oil for this region. Indonesian oil
is in high demand on the world market
because of its low (<0.1%) sulfur content.
Indonesia is also the sixth-largest gas
producer in the world, and the largest
liquefied natural gas exporter, mainly
Overview of Indonesias oil and gas industry Geology 174
PT SCHLUMBERGER INDONESIA
Richard Netherwood
Overview of Indonesia
0 400 800 1000km
Producing (14)
Discovery (10)
No discovery (14)
Undrilled (22)
Tertiary petroleum
Pre-Tertiary petroleum
Eastern Indonesia
Indonesian sedimentary basins
Western Indonesia
NEH
EH
SEH
SW
MO SE
BT
W/W
CIJ
AK
AR
A
KT
W
C
A
B
NWS
ZOC
TI
BD
BU
B
F
SS
L
K/MS
AA/P
MU
CE
KE
Kalimantan
Irian Jaya
Java
JF
PE
BI S/A
SSF
NSF
NSB
SSB
CSB
NWJ
ME
UK
EN
WN
TA
EJ
PN
BA
SBL
S/M
B/S
GO
SM/NM
Malaysia
Malaysia
and Brunei
Singapore
Philippines
SA
TBA
S
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s
i
S
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a
Western Indonesia
(22 basins)
Eastern Indonesia
(38 basins)
38 (63.3%)
22 (36.7%)
Producing
(50.0%)
Producing
(7.9%)
Discoveries
(Non-producing)
(13.6%)
Discoveries
(Non-producing)
(15.8%)
Drilled
(No discoveries)
(22.7%)
Drilled
(No discoveries)
(26.3%)
Undrilled
(13.6%)
Undrilled
(50.0%)
Eastern Indonesia
Western Indonesia
Western Indonesia
NSB - North Sumatra
CSB - Central Sumatra
SSB - South Sumatra
NSF - North Sumatra fore arc
SSF - South Sumatra fore arc/Bengkulu
S/A - Sunda/Asri
NWJ - Northwest Java
JF - Java fore arc
EJ - East Java/Java Sea
BI - Billitong
PE - Pembuang
BA - Barito
PN - Pater Noster platform
AA/P - Asem-Asem/Pasir
UK - Upper Kutei
K/MS - Kutei/Makassar Straits
MU - Muara
TA - Tarakan
CE - Celebes
KE - Ketungau
ME - Melawai
WN - West Natuna
EN - East Natuna
Eastern Indonesia
SM/NM - South/North Minahasa
GO - Gorontalo
B/S - BanggaiSula
S/M - SalabangkaManui
BU - Buton
BD - Banda
B - Bone
F - Flores
SS - Spermonde/Selayar
L - Lariang
SBL - South BaliLombok
SA - Savu
TI - Timor
NWSZOC - Northwest Shelf zone
of cooperation
W - Weber
SE - Seram
NEH - Northeast Halmahera
EH - East Halmahera
SEH - Southeast Halmahera
SW - Salawati
BT - Bintuni
MO - Misool-Onin
TBA - Teluk BerauAjumaru
KT - Kai Tanimbar
A - Aru
AK - Akmeugah
AR - Arafura
CIJ - Central Irian Jaya
W/W - Waipoga/Waropen
W
a
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a
c
e
l
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n
e
Moluccas
TImor
Nusa Tenggara
Figure 1: Simplified map of Indonesias basins and their
exploration status (after Sujanto, 1997 and Sumantri
and Sjahbuddin, 1994).
to Japan, but also to Taiwan and Korea.
Howes (1999) estimates ultimate discovered
reserves of 55BBOE (billion barrels oil
equivalent) split approximately equally
between oil and gas. Sujanto (1997)
estimates current remaining reserves at
approximately 93BBO (billion barrels oil)
and 123TcfG (trillion cubic feet of gas).
Indonesia consumes almost 140MBO
(million barrels of oil) each year for power
generation alone and, until recently, the
power demand had been increasing by 7%
every year. The focus must obviously be on
supplementing and replacing the
dependence on oil-generated power with
cleaner and/or replenishable fuels, and also
replacing declining oil reserves to postpone
the day when Indonesia ultimately becomes
a net oil importer. Over the past decade, oil
exploration has not been successful in
replacing oil reserves. In contrast, gas
reserves have made up for this shortfall in
terms of BBOE and, at present, gas would
appear to be one of the main energy sources
of the future in Indonesia. Geothermal
energy also holds hope for the future, with
over 100 prospects recognized in the highly
volcanic areas, especially Sumatra and Java,
where energy demand is also highest.
Geological evolution of the
Indonesian archipelago
Understanding the geological evolution of the
Indonesian archipelago and how the various
sedimentary basins developed, are the keys to
understanding the petroleum systems within
the individual basins and for developing
future exploration plays and strategies.
Indonesia has a dynamic and complex
geological history, which has resulted in an
abundance of sedimentary basins with wide-
ranging geological diversity. Basins and the
nature of their sediments demonstrate close
similarities within, and to a much lesser
degree between, Western and Eastern
Indonesia. This is because many of the
regional tectonic events have extended
similar influences across wide areas of the
Indonesian archipelago, controlling basin
architecture, fills and trapping mechanisms
for hydrocarbons. Plate tectonic models for
the region have continuously been refined
since the first model was developed for
Western Indonesia by Katili (1973). Recent
notable contributions come from Longley
(1997) who compiled and synthesized a wide
range of geological data throughout
Southeast Asia (Figure 2), and Hall (1995,
1997a, b) who presents progressively refined
computer-generated models (Figure 3). The
work of these two authors forms the basis
for the discussion of Indonesian tectonics
that follows.
Since the advent of seismic and sequence
stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977), eustatic sea-
level fluctuations (e.g., Haq et al., 1988)
have been recognized as exerting a strong
influence on the evolution of Indonesian
sedimentary basin fills, including the types
and distributions of source, reservoir and
seal lithologies. Longley (1997) argues that
it is always possible to correlate apparent
eustatic events between basins because of
the large number of available correlation
options and the often significant inaccuracy
of geological dates. In general, however, the
geology of Asia supports the premise that
eustatic events have a major and observable
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Ma
Global eustatic curve
Major events
Overall
regression
Rotation of N and E
arms of Sulawesi.
Northward
movement of
Bird's Head relative
to Australia
3Ma Timor and
Banda arc collide
Transgression onto Sunda shelf.
Eustatic and tectonic
increased convergence along
Sunda arc led to inversion and
then thermal sag
Slow southern ocean
spreading. Subduction
along west Sundaland
margin
Slowed convergence leads
to second stage of rifting
along Sundaland margin
Slowed convergence leads
to rifting along Sundaland
margin
c21Ma South China Sea
spreading ends
c25Ma New Guinea
passive margin collides
with arc system to North.
Sorong fault forms.
Emplacement of
Sulawesi ophiolites
c32Ma South China Sea
spreading
c43Ma Major plate
reorganization. India and
Australia plates combine.
Subduction of India
beneath Eurasia ends
c50Ma India
Eurasia collision
commences
Increased convergence
with CCW rotation of
Sumatra and development
of Sumatra wrench fault.
Sulawesi forms
emplacement of continental
crust along Sorong fault
Middle Miocene
maximum transgression
P
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2nd order sequence
boundaries
0 +100m +200m
5Ma Luzon arc collides
with Asian plate
10Ma Australian craton
collides with Asian
Plate inversion
5.2
(5.5)
10.6
(10.5)
21.5
(21.0)
29.5
(30.0)
38.6
(39.5)
51.0
(49.5)
59.5
(58.5)
Figure 2: Chronostratigraphic summary of major geological events in the Cenozoic (events
taken from Longley, 1997 and Hall, 1997. Eustatic curve modified from Haq et al., 1998).
effect on stratigraphy, and does not prove or
disprove the detailed Haq et al. (1988)
eustatic curve.
The Indonesian archipelago is a jigsaw
puzzle of tectonically derived pieces,
including microplates, continental
fragments, mini-ocean basins, accretionary
prisms and island-arc systems, that have
been jostled and squeezed together and, in
some cases newly formed, as a result of the
complex interaction of three major tectonic
plates (Figure 4).
The continental Eurasian/Asian plate
(the southeast promontory of which is
termed the Sunda shield or Sundaland)
demonstrates a relative southeast motion
that is accommodated by the Great
Sumatra/Mentawai duplex, and the
Sulawesi and Philippine transform-fault
systems. The obliquely opposing, relative
northward motion of the Indo-Australian
plate is accommodated by right-lateral
movement along the Great
Sumatra/Mentawai fault systems, and by
subduction of oceanic crust in the west
and the Australian craton in the east,
along the SumatraJavaTimorAru
30Ma
Mid Oligocene
EURASIAN PLATE
INDIAN PLATE
Proto-South
China Sea
Australia
Bird's Head
microcontinent
PACIFIC PLATE
Opening of
Parece Vela
basin begins
Opening of
South China Sea
north of Macclesfield Bank
North
Pawalan
Extension
driven by slab-pull
and Indochina extrusion
Ophiolite approaching
Sulawesi west arm
Red River fault
Indochina
extruded to SE
Three
Pagodas
system
50Ma
End Early Eocene
EURASIAN PLATE
North
Palawan
Mindoro
Taiwan
Proto-South
China Sea
Malaysia
Sumatra
Java
South
Borneo
Zamboanga
West Sulawesi
Oki Daito
ridges
East Philippines
NORTH NEW GUINEA PLATE
Indochina
South China
INDIANAUSTRALIAN PLATE
South and East Sulawesi
PHILIPPINE SEA PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
40Ma
Middle Eocene
EURASIAN PLATE
INDIANAUSTRALIAN PLATE
Leading edge of
Bird's Head microcontinent
PACIFIC PLATE
Izu
peninsula
Celebes
Sea
West
Philippine
Sea
West Philippine Sea
spreading extends
to Celebes Sea
Subduction of
Proto-SCS begins
No rotation of
Philippine Sea
plate
Arc activity at south edge
of Philippine Sea plate
? ?
?
?
10Ma
Late Miocene
EURASIAN PLATE
INDIAN PLATE
Australia
CAROLINE PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
Subduction
at Manila trench
Sulu
Sea
Sulu arc activity
ends
Borneo
rotation
complete
Malaya blocks
rotation complete
Andaman spreading
Molucca Sea
double subduction
established
Ayu trough spreading
N Banda
Sula
Philippine
Sea plate
rotates
20Ma
Early Miocene
EURASIAN PLATE
INDIAN PLATE
Australia
CAROLINE PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
Spreading
in Shikoku
basin
Clockwise rotation
of Philippine
Sea plate
Spreading
in Parece
Vela basin
Sorong fault
system initiated
Molucca Sea forms
part of Philippine Sea plate
Continental
crust thrust
beneath
Sulawesi
Bird's Head
microcontinent
dismembered by
Sorong fault splays
Inversion
in Natuna
basins
Cagayan ridge
separates from Sulu arc
Final
spreading
of South
China Sea
Borneo
rotation
begins
Figure 3: Plate tectonic reconstructions for
Southeast Asia and Indonesia region from 50Ma
to 10Ma (after Hall, 1995 and 1997).
(Sunda) trench system. This extensive
subduction system (combined with the
Great Sumatra/Mentawai transform fault
duplex) marks the southern geological
limit of Indonesia from the western tip of
Sumatra, to near the eastern boundary of
Irian Jaya. The Pacific Ocean plate
demonstrates a westerly motion that is
accommodated by slippage along the left-
lateral transform Sorong fault system, and
the trench and transform fault system of
the eastern Philippines, which together
define the northeastern geological limit of
Indonesia. There is no obvious geological
limit to northwest Indonesia, and the
political boundary separating Malaysia and
Indonesia passes through central Borneo,
across the southern part of the South China
Sea (the relatively stable Sunda shield) and
to the northwest along the Malacca Strait
that separates peninsular Malaysia from
Sumatra. Although Indonesia is tectonically
complex, convergence of the Asian plate
(Sunda shield) with the continental part
(Australian craton) of the Australian plate
ultimately defined two major geological
provinces. Western Indonesia represents
the southeast margin of the Sunda shield
and Eastern Indonesia represents the
highly fragmented and tectonized northern
margin of the Australian craton.
0 80 160 320 480m
0 160 320 640km
PHILIPPINE SEA PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
CAROLINE PLATE
Strikeslip fault
Oceanic spreading axis
Subduction zone
Australian crust
Transitional, attenuated or sutured
Oceanic or island arc
Pre-Mesozoic continental crust
Quaternaryrecent volcano
SUNDALAND
EURASIAN PLATE
AUSTRALIAN INDIAN PLATE
AUSTRALIA CRATON
5cm/yr
7cm/yr
S
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system
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Java tren
ch
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South China Sea
Philippines
Pacific Ocean
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Sorong fault
West Melanesian trench
Seram trough
A
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Australia
Meratus suture,
Late Cretaceous
collision
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Figure 4: Simplified tectonic
elements and crustal distribution for
Indonesia (after Coffield et al., 1993
and Nugrahanto and Noble, 1997).
Tectonic evolution
The Cenozoic geological history of Indonesia
is divided into stages based on major
tectonic collision events:
1. Encroachment and collision of the Indian
and the Asian continental plates starting
at approximately 50mybp and
reorganization of the Southern, Indian and
Pacific plates at about 43mybp when
there was an end to subduction along the
Indo-Eurasian collision belt.
2. Onset of South China Sea spreading at
about 32mybp, and collision of the
northern leading edge of the Australian
craton (New Guinea passive margin) with
the PhilippineHalmaheraNew Guinea
arc system at about 25mybp (although
arguably this was not a regional event
according to Longley, pers. comm.).
3. Collision of the Australian craton with the
Asian plate starting at about 8mybp and
continuing until major collision at about
3mybp; and collision of the Luzon arc
west of the Philippines with the Asia plate
margin near Taiwan at about 5mybp.
Stage I. >5043mybp
(middle Eocene and older)
Prior to 43mybp (middle Eocene) Java,
Sumatra, Kalimantan and western Sulawesi
were part of the southeast Sunda shield
continental promontory, with northward
motion and subduction of the Indian plate
oceanic crust beneath the southern edge of
the Sunda shield continent along the
northwestsoutheast trending Sunda
trench. This trench system extended to the
west into the Indian Ocean with an element
of right-lateral slip. In the east it connected
with the Pacific Ocean intra-oceanic-arc
system. Slowing of convergence after about
50mybp, as the Indian subcontinent
approached the Asian plate and continental
collision was initiated, led to an initial stage
of rifting along the Sundaland margin.
Eastern Indonesia had not started to form
at this time. The Birds Head (present-day
western-most promontory) of Irian Jaya was
probably a microcontinental fragment on
the northwest edge of the Australia plate
(Hall, 1997a, b). New Guinea represented
the passive northern margin of the
Australian craton, which was moving
northward as oceanic crust was consumed
beneath the southern edge of the oceanic
Philippine Sea plate. The present-day
eastern island of Halmahera was still
thousands of kilometers to the east and part
of the Philippine Sea plate.
Stage II. 4325mybp
(middle Eocenelatest late
Oligocene)
In the late middle Eocene (at about
43.5mybp according to Longley, 1997 and
42mybp according to Hall, 1997a, b) there
was final collision between the Indian plate
subcontinent and the Asian plate. This
slowed the rate of convergence and also
changed the angle of subduction from an
essentially northward to a more
northnortheast vector along the Sunda
trench. This was in response to a major
reorganization of the converging Southern,
Indian and Pacific plates.
Subduction of India beneath Asia stopped
and the Indian and Australian plates were
combined. The resulting relaxation of the
compressional forces at the edge of the
Sunda shield produced further northsouth
oriented rifting. Isolated rifts in a fore-arc
setting and in East Java filled with
transgressive and then open-marine
sediments, being situated on the distal
low-lying edge of the Sunda shield. Fluvio-
lacustrine sediments developed in the
northwest Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, west
Sulawesi and Natuna Sea rifts, as the middle
Eocene sea did not extend to the west onto
the Sundaland margin (Longley, 1997).
Towards the end of this period, starting at
32mybp and continuing through to
21mybp, there was clockwise rotation
around a pole in the northern part of the
Gulf of Thailand associated with the
opening of the South China Sea. The West
Philippine basin, Celebes Sea and Makassar
Strait also opened as a single basin within
the Philippine Sea plate accompanied by
subduction of the South China Sea to the
northeast of Borneo (Hall, 1997a, b).
Spreading in the South China Sea, the West
Philippine Sea, the Celebes Sea and
Makassar Strait areas eventually stopped.
There was a return to more rapid plate
convergence and increased compression led
to inversion along the Sunda arc. The
isolated rift basins of East Kalimantan were
filled with deltaic and marine sediments
that were transgressed by post-rift marine
shales due to a combination of eustatic gain
and post-rift thermal sag.
Stage III. 258mybp
(latest late Oligocenelate
Miocene)
In the late Oligocene, at about 25mybp, the
leading edge of the New Guinea passive
margin (Australian craton) collided with the
PhilippineHalmaheraNew Guinea arc
system. This prevented any further
subduction at this plate boundary, which
developed into a listric transform (the
Sorong fault) as the Philippine Sea plate slid
westward across the northern end of the
Indo-Australian plate. The Birds Head
microcontinental fragment within the Indo-
Australian plate was close to collision with
the margin of Sundaland near west
Sulawesi. Ophiolites were emplaced along
the eastern edge of this western Sulawesi
arm. Oceanic crust trapped between
Sulawesi and Halmahera was rotated
clockwise and subducted beneath the
eastern margin of Sulawesi.
The tectonic development of the region
was further influenced by the continued
northward motion of the Indo-Australian
plate following collision. Counter-clockwise
rotation of the entire Sunda shield
promontory including peninsular Malaysia,
Sumatra, Java and Borneo occurred. The
effective increase in rate of convergence
between the Indo-Australian plate with
respect to Sumatra stimulated magmatic
activity that weakened the upper plate and
led to right-lateral dislocation along the
Great Sumatra fault system. During
rotation, a bend and half-graben developed
in the Sunda Straits separating South
Sumatra from West Java.
In northwest Borneo a delta was
established and turbidites poured into the
proto-South China Sea. Increased
subsidence east of Borneo resulted in arc
splitting and the opening of the Sulu Sea as
a back-arc basin. Halmahera and the
Philippine plate were carried towards the
subduction zone below north Sulawesi, and
fragments of the Australian continental
crust were added to the developing
Sulawesi along the Sorong fault system.
Stage IV. 80mybp
(late MiocenePresent)
In the late-middle to late Miocene (about
8mybp) gentle compression caused by the
collision of the Australian craton with the
Asian plate, accompanied by continuous
movement along the Great Sumatra fault
system, resulted in extensive inversion and
the formation of compressional anticlines.
Encroachment continued until 3mybp when
the main collision event happened (Longley,
pers. comm.).
By this time Indonesia was probably
recognizable in its present form. At about
5mybp collision of the Luzon arc with the
Asian plate near Taiwan also caused further
changes to plate motions in the region.
Along the Sorong fault zone accretion of the
Tukang Besi platform to Sulawesi locked
strands of the Sorong fault, causing new
splays to develop south of the Sula platform
and the collision of the Sula platform with
Sulawesi. Rotation of the east and north
arms of Sulawesi to their present positions
resulted in the southward subduction of the
Celebes Sea at the north Sulawesi trench.
There was also continued subduction of the
northward moving Indo-Australian plate
along the Sunda trench system, extending
from northwest Sumatra to Irian Jaya, and
also subduction north of Seram and in the
Sulu Sea.
Eustatic effects
Longley (1997) and previous authors have
observed a remarkable degree of correlation
between regional collision events and the
second-order sequence boundaries of Haq
et al. (1988). It is, however, generally
accepted that a major and progressive
late Oligocene to early Miocene
(3013mybp) transgression occurred
throughout the Indonesian basins, with
maximum transgression at 15mybp being
marked by regionally developed marine
shales. Similarly, middle Miocene to
Pliocene regression is also easily recognized.
These major eustatic cycles, along with
regionally developed sequence boundaries
at 29.5mybp, 21.5mybp, 10.5mybp and
5.5mybp, have had a strong influence on
the development of reservoir sands and
carbonate buildups, and also source rocks
and extensive sealing shales throughout
Indonesia. Third- and even fourth-order
eustatic events are often recognizable on a
basin-wide scale. These are widely
correlatable in both clastic sedimentary
packages, where they may result in
development of lowstand reservoirs, and in
carbonates where dissolution porosity zones
have, in some cases, developed. There are,
however, also many examples where
eustatic effects are not recognized because
of over-printing by intense tectonism that
has controlled the sedimentation in some
Indonesian basins.
The Indonesian basins and
their petroleum systems
The complex geological history of Indonesia
has resulted in over 60 sedimentary basins
that are the subject of petroleum
exploration today. By the end of 1996,
following nearly 130 years of drilling
activity, 38 of these basins had been widely
explored, 14 were producing oil and gas, 10
had shown promise with subeconomic
discoveries and 22 (over one-third)
remained poorly explored or unexplored
(Sujanto, 1997, see Figure 1). Of the 22
basins in Western Indonesia, only two are
undrilled. In Eastern Indonesia there are 38
basins of which 20 are undrilled.
Although large areas of Indonesia,
particularly in the west, are considered to
be mature with respect to hydrocarbon
exploration, the majority of basins in the
east remain underexplored. This reflects
both the relatively sparse knowledge of the
geology of Eastern Indonesia and its
remoteness with respect to world markets.
There are logistical difficulties and high
costs associated with the exploration of
sparsely populated wilderness areas with
little or no infrastructure and exploration in
deep (>200m) water.
The majority of explorationists, therefore,
have concentrated their efforts on the
highly productive but more mature basins of
Western Indonesia. These include the North
Sumatra, Central Sumatra (the most prolific
basin by an order of magnitude), South
Sumatra, Sunda-Asri, Northwest Java, East
Java, Barito, Kutei, Tarakan and East and
West Natuna basins. All of the most prolific
petroleum systems discovered to date are
located in Western Indonesia, with 85% of
all Indonesian recoverable oil reserves being
in the hot back-arc basins of Sumatra and
Java. Gas is more evenly distributed in fore-
land and deltaic basins and, with the recent
Tangguh gas project in western Irian Jaya,
in Eastern Indonesia.
In the east only the Salawati basin of the
Birds Head peninsula of Irian Jaya is
considered to be mature. As our knowledge
of Eastern Indonesian geology improves,
and technological and intellectual
advancements reduce the costs of
exploration in remote areas and deep water,
the exploration emphasis will move away
from the Western to the Eastern Indonesia
basins. This is already being realized. In the
1990s there were successful Mesozoic
discoveries in mountainous Seram (the
Oseil oil field); in the Bintuni basin of Irian
Jaya (the Tangguh gas project); and in deep
water of the Timor Gap zone of cooperation
(ZOC the Elang oil field and a number of
other oil, condensate and gas discoveries).
Although in a smaller league than, for
example, the Middle East, on the global scale
Indonesia is still a significant hydrocarbon
province. The Gulf area contains a blanket of
marine source facies that is extremely
prolific and mature over wide areas, with
widely developed reservoir facies, large-scale
anticlinal structures and, most importantly, a
highly effective regional salt seal.
Indonesia is extremely complicated
geologically, and source rocks, kitchens and
reservoirs are restricted in their distribution,
occurring as pods of limited areal extent
within numerous, structurally complex and
isolated basins. The more prolific petroleum
systems of Western Indonesia are products of
extrusion tectonics and widespread
Paleogene extension on the Sunda shield,
modified by later inversion. In Eastern
Indonesia the majority of petroleum systems
are pre-Tertiary. They are related to the north
Australian passive margin, which has been
affected by microplate accretion, large-scale
strike-slip faulting and collision tectonics.
The Western and Eastern Indonesian
petroleum systems together demonstrate
the extreme variability of petroleum
systems in Indonesia. Source-rock age
varies from possible Paleozoic (Eastern
Indonesia) to Pliocene (biogenic gas in
Western Indonesia). Depositional settings
include shallow- and deep-marine clastics
and carbonates, deltaic deposits including
coals, and lacustrine shales, which are the
most prolific source in Western Indonesia
and, in fact, throughout Southeast Asia.
Hydrocarbon types are also diverse,
including waxy lacustrine-sourced crudes,
light marine oils, thermogenic and biogenic
gas, asphalt deposits (e.g., Buton Island)
and even deep-marine gas.
Reservoirs are dominated by deltaic sands
and large shallow-marine Tertiary carbonate
buildups that are the main gas reservoir
types. Less common are alluvial-fan, fluvial,
shallow- and deep-marine fan sands, and
more exotic types such as fractured granite
and metamorphic basements, fractured
volcanics and, in the East Java basin, highly
porous, foraminiferal-sand contourites and
diagenetically enhanced volcaniclastic
sands. Oil and gas accumulations occur in
strike-slip, extensional, compressional fore-
arc, back-arc, passive and convergent
margin settings, in both structural and
stratigraphic traps, and may demonstrate
elements of pressure seals and hydrodynamic
effects (Howes, 1999). Geothermal gradients
range from low in cool fore-arc basins to high
in the back-arc areas, and have varied
considerably through time, influencing the
timing of expulsion and migration.
0 +100m +200m
2nd order sequence
boundaries
Age
mybp
Quaternary
Pliocene
L
a
t
e
L
a
t
e
L
a
t
e
M
i
d
d
l
e
M
i
d
d
l
e
E
a
r
l
y
E
a
r
l
y
M
i
o
c
e
n
e
O
l
i
g
o
c
e
n
e
E
o
c
e
n
e
Pre-Tertiary basement
Eustatic
curve after
Haq et al., 1988.
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
38.6
(39.5)
29.5
(30.0)
21.5
(21.0)
10.6
(10.5)
5.2
(5.5)
45
North
Alluvium Alluvium
Alluvium
Kasai
Muara Enim
Air Benakat
Gumai
Pendopo
Upper Talang
Akar
Lower
Talang
Akar
Lemat
Talang Akar
(Lower Zelda)
Banuwati
Talang Akar
(Upper Zelda)
TAF (Gita)
Batu Raja
Gumai
Air Benakat
Parigi
Cisubuh
Cisubuh
Lidah
Kawengan Karren
Wonocolo
Ngrayong
Rancak
KUI/UK
KUII/MK
KUIII/LoK
CD
Parigi
Pre-Parigi
Mid main
Unit II
Massive
Batu Raja
(M. Cibulakan)
Upper Talang Akar
(Lower Cibulakan)
Lower Talang Akar
Jati Barang
U.
Cibulakan
Lahat
(Kikim Tuffs)
Middle Kikim Sand
Lahat
Batu
Raja
Toba Tuffs
Julurayeu
Seurula
Keutapang
M B Sand
Upper Baong Shale
Lower Baong Shale
Lower Baong Sand
Peutu
(Arun)
Belumai
Bampo
Parapat
Meucampli
Pematang
Menggala
Bekasap
Duri
Bangko
Telisa
(Binio)
Petani
Minas
(Korinci)
S
i
h
a
p
a
s
Tampur
NW SE SW
Sumatra
Central
NE NW
South
Java
SE ONSH. OFFS
Northwest Northeast Sunda
Asri
Sub-basin
After Alexanders & Nellia, 1993,
Fainstein, 1996,
Riadhy et al., 1998.
After Kelsch et al., 1998,
Wain & Jackson, 1995.
After Rashid et al., 1998,
Sitompul et al., 1992,
Tamtomo, 1997.
After Aldrich et al., 1995.
After Sukamto et al., 1995,
Napitupulu et al., 1997.
After Ardhana et al., 1993,
PT Rocktech Sejahtera, 1994.
T
u
b
a
n
K
u
j
u
n
g
N
g
i
m
b
a
n
g
v v v v v
v v v v
v v v
+ + + +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
+
+
+
+ + +
v v
v
Western Indonesian basins
The petroliferous basins of Western
Indonesia occur mostly onshore, or else in
shallow water (30% of basins occur offshore
at depths <200m). They demonstrate gross
similarities in terms of both structure and
stratigraphy (Figure 5) reflecting common
regional controls throughout their Cenozoic
histories. Of particular note is their position
on the southeastern promontory of the
Sunda shield (Sundaland), their similar
tectonic histories (related primarily to the
motion of the Indo-Australian plate relative
to the Asian plate) and the influence of
global eustatic events on their sedimentary
fills. These factors have controlled:
A common middle to late Eocene timing
for initial basin rifting and associated
fluvio-lacustrine fill, including the main
source rock for the majority of Western
Indonesian basins.
Transgression from the middle Oligocene
through to the middle Miocene with fluvial
reservoirs being succeeded by the main
deltaic and carbonate reservoirs in the late
Oligocene to early Miocene, and regional
seals being deposited in the middle
Miocene at maximum transgression.
Late Miocene through Pliocene
compressional structuring events and
increased heat flow associated with the
collision of the Australian craton with the
Asian plate, 83 mybp, and collision of
the Luzon arc with the Asian plate at
about 5 mybp.
Although there are gross geological
similarities between the Western Indonesia
basins, there are also significant geological
differences. These are primarily controlled
by basin position on the Sundaland
promontory in relation to present-day and
Cenozoic subduction of the Indo-Pacific
plate northwards beneath Sundaland. Fore-
arc basins occur between the modern
volcanic arc (the northern limit of the fore-
arc basins) and the subduction-generated
accretionary prism (outer island-arc of
Sumatra and the southern limit of the fore-
arc basins). Traditionally, these have been
considered of low prospectivity because
they lack source rocks, and have low-quality
volcaniclastic reservoirs and low heat flow.
The back-arc basins are situated behind the
volcanic arc and include all the remaining
basins of Western Indonesia. Only the basins
of Sumatra, Java, the Java Sea (which
extends east to the north of Lombok) and
possibly the Pembuang basin (although
there is no information for this basin) of
South Kalimantan are considered to be
back-arc basins in the strictest sense. They
are situated within tens to hundreds of
kilometers of the present-day volcanic arc
and their histories are dominated by their
proximity to the nearby subduction zone.
More distal back-arc basins (>1000km
from the subduction) are those of East
Kalimantan (Barito, Asem-Asem, Mahakam
and Tarakan), West Kalimantan (Melawai and
Ketunggau although there is little
information for these basins) and the Natuna
Sea (East and West Natuna basins). These
basins still demonstrate subduction control
and strong similarities to the more proximal
back-arc basins, but have been affected by
their relative proximity to more localized,
smaller-scale plate tectonic events such as
seafloor spreading in the Makassar Straits and
rifting and spreading in the South China Sea.
Figure 5: Stratigraphic summary for the major basins of Western Indonesia.
The fore-arc basins
The fore-arc of Western Indonesia (the
Sunda trench system) extends from the
Andaman Sea northwest of Sumatra,
southeastward along the west coast of
Sumatra to the Sunda Straits. It then bends
eastward along the south coast of Java and
Bali, where it continues as the TimorAru
trench system all the way to Irian Jaya (see
Figure 4). The fore-arc basins represent the
subsiding, down-dragged leading edge of
the Sunda shield between the inner volcanic
arc and the outer-arc melange or
subduction-wedge (the emergent Mentawai
Islands in West Sumatra). The inner
volcanic arc is represented by the volcanic
mountain chain that extends the full length
of both Sumatra (Barisan Mountains) and
Java, and continues further eastwards
through the Lesser Sunda Islands (Figure
4). The fore-arc basins in places contain
over 6000m of sedimentary fill. The
bounding volcanic arc and accretionary
wedge in the Sumatra fore-arc system are
characterized by a regional-scale, right-
lateral, duplex transform system comprising
the Great Sumatra and the Mentawai fault
zones. The accretionary wedge itself has
been studied on the Mentawai Islands of
Nias and Simeuleu (e.g., Moore and Karig,
1980; Situmorang et al., 1987; Situmorang
and Yulihanto, 1992). It consists of Eocene
and younger shallow marine sands and
shales, reefal carbonates, younger turbidites
interpreted as accreted trench fill, and
ophiolitic gabbros and ultramafic rocks
(harzburgites). Oil seeps are known from
the accretionary prism on Nias Island but do
not necessarily indicate the presence of oil
in the fore-arc basin to the east. The
accretionary wedge and fore-arc basins,
although closely related and situated next
to each other, are known to be very
different from seismic studies. A highly
thrusted, accreted wedge becomes a steep
monocline entering the fore arc, which is
more typically defined by strike-slip faults
rather than thrusts.
Fore-arc basins have traditionally been
considered poorly prospective for
hydrocarbons for three main reasons:
It was thought that source-rock facies
were unlikely to develop in these
essentially shallow, oxygenated, open-
marine basins, and limited onshore space
between coast and mountains was not
conducive to a sufficient supply of non-
marine terrestrial plant material.
Reservoir quality was assumed to be a
problem because nearby volcanic arcs
should, in theory, have supplied a
predominance of poor reservoir-quality,
volcaniclastic sediments dominated by
labile volcanic lithic fragments and
swelling smectitic clays.
Geothermal gradients in fore-arc basins
are relatively low.
Exploration wells have been drilled in five
segments of the Western Indonesian fore-
arc system. These are south of Central Java,
the Southwest Java basin, the Bengkulu
basin (southwest Sumatra fore-arc), the
Mentawai basin (central Sumatra fore-arc)
and the Sibolga basin (west of Nias in the
northwest Sumatra fore-arc). There is little
available information regarding Central Java
fore-arc exploration, but limited material
has been published on Sumatra and
Southwest Java. This information in some
ways fuels optimism for the existence of
economic petroleum reserves in the
Western Indonesian fore-arc.
Alluvial
Mahakam
Bunyu
Tarakan
Domaring
Tabul
Meliat
Meliat
SS
Latih
Naintupo
Taballar
Tempilan
Mesaloi
Gabus SS
Gabus
Belut
Barat Shale Barat
Udang
Arang SS
Upper Arang
Upper Arang
Lower Arang
Terumbu
Muda
Muda
Seilok
Sujau
Mang
Kabua
Sembakung
Danau
Kampung Baru
Balikpapan
Landasan
Pulu
Balang
Lamaku
Bebulu
Marah
Kedango
Beriun
Kiham
Haloq
Mangkupa
Pamalusan
Dahor
U. Warukin
Middle Warukin
L. Warukin
Upper Berai
Middle Berai
Upper Tanjung
Lower Berai
Kalimantan Natuna
West East
Barito
West East
Kutai
West East
Tarakan
South North
East West
After Satyana, 1995,
Satyana & Silitonga, 1994,
Heriyanto et al., 1996.
After Courntey et al., 1991,
Kadar et al., 1996.
After Courtney et al., 1991,
Lentini & Darman, 1996.
After Fainstein &
Meyer, 1998.
After Fainstein & Meyer, 1998,
Michael & Adrian, 1996,
Phillips et al., 1997.
L.
T
a
n
j
u
n
g
A
n
t
a
n
U
j
o
h
B
i
l
a
n
g
S
e
m
b
u
l
u
(
(
Batu
Hidup
Lst.
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
v
v
v
v
v v
v
C
r
a
t
o
n
i
c
Coal
Shales and claystones
Volcanics/volcaniclastics
Reefal and platform
carbonates (and dolomites)
Sandstones
Conglomerates
Argillaceous
Volcanic input
Gas
Oil and gas
Oil
v v
v v
East Natuna
West Natuna
North
Sumatra
Central
Sumatra
South
Sumatra
Sunda
North West
Java
North East
Java
Barito
Kutai
Tarakan
0 500km
Bengkulu basin (including the
Mentawai and Sibolga basins)
The Bengkulu basin is the most widely
explored fore-arc basin in Indonesia. In the
1970s a total of 10 wells were drilled by
Amin Oil, Jenny Oil and Marathon Oil,
targeting biogenic gas in large Miocene
carbonate buildups a similar play to those
drilled by Unocal at about the same time to
the north in the Sibolga basin. Biogenic gas
in carbonates was also targeted by the 1972
Jenny Oil Mentawai A-1 and Mentawai C-1
exploration wells in the southern sector of
the central Sumatra fore-arc, the Mentawai
basin. These wells contained biogenic
methane shows (Yulihanto and Wiyanto,
1999) but all the Bengulu basin carbonate
targets proved to be water-filled. Oil shows,
however, were encountered in the Jenny Oil
well Bengkulu 1 (Howles, 1986). This well is
also close to an onshore oil seep, and good
oil shows were also described in the Arwana
1 well drilled by Fina in 1992 that also
penetrated good marine source rocks. Hall
et al. (1993) notes that in Arwana 1
OligoceneMiocene shales are within the oil
window and the geothermal gradient is
between 4.5 and 5C/100m, which is
significantly higher than would normally be
expected in this tectonic setting. The origin
of the Bengkulu basin is not strictly fore-
arc, however, which may explain these
unexpected but favorable findings.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(Eocenelate Oligocene)
An early stage of Paleogene rifting is
recognized from onshore fieldwork and
offshore seismic and gravity surveys
(Howles, 1986; Mulhadiono and Asikin,
1989; Hall et al., 1993; Yulihanto et al.,
1995). It is feasible that these grabens,
which strike northeastsouthwest,
represent an extension of the early South
Sumatra basin rift system prior to the
development of the more recent volcanic
arc. Mulhadiono and Asikin (1989) note a
similar orientation to the South Sumatra
basin Jambi-Bengkalis graben, a pull-apart
basin related to westnorthwesteastsoutheast,
right-lateral movement along the Lematang
fault trend. Howles (1986) suggest that these
two graben systems are offset by
approximately 100km along the Great
Sumatra fault system.
It has been speculated that the Bengkulu
basin may originally have been in a back-arc
setting and that a Paleogene graben fill could
include the same prolific lacustrine source
rocks that occur in the Central and South
Sumatra basins and also possible fluvio-
lacustrine reservoirs. Such source and
reservoir facies have not been penetrated in
the Bengkulu basin wells. The lower 60m of
sediments penetrated in the Arwana 1 well
are late Eocene and comprise shallow marine
volcaniclastics and shales (Hall et al., 1993).
Stage II. Syn-rift
(late Oligoceneearly Miocene)
A second stage of rifting took place in the
late Oligocene to early Miocene and marks a
change from orthogonal extension to
oblique northwestsoutheast slip.
Northsouth oriented pull-apart graben sub-
basins developed and are also recognized in
the Bose and Sipora grabens of the
Mentawai basin, and the Pini and Singkel
grabens in the Sibolga basin to the north
(Figure 6). Although it is thought that
movement on the Great Sumatra fault did
not start until middle Miocene times, it is
likely that the Sumatra fore-arc has
experienced transtensional stresses as a
result of continuous oblique subduction
since the initial development of the Sunda
arc in the pre-Tertiary.
Fieldwork in the outer-arc ridge
(Mentawai Islands) and regional seismic
demonstrate that the marine Oligocene
graben fill in the Mentawai basin has source
potential. Basin modeling suggests that
these sediments may have entered the oil
window as early as the middle Miocene
(Yulihanto and Wiyanto, 1999). These
Figure 6: Simplified map of structural elements and hydrocarbon occurrence
in the Sumatra fore arc (modified from Yulihanto et al., 1995).
0 100
5cm/year
200km
North Sumatra
basin
Central Sumatra
basin
Sibolga basin
Simeulue
Nias
Siberut
South Sumatra
basin
Pini
graben
Singapore
Singkel
graben
S
u
n
d
a
t
r
e
n
c
h
S
u
m
a
t
r
a
f
o
r
e
a
r
c
b
a
s
i
n
S
u
m
a
t
r
a
f
a
u
l
t
z
o
n
e
Pagar Jati
graben
Bengkulu
basin
M
e
n
t
a
w
a
i
f
a
u
l
t
z
o
n
e
1
2
3 4
5
6
Kedurang
graben
Arwana #1
(Fina)
Mentawai A#1
(Jenny)
Mentawai C#1
(Jenny)
Pagar Jati
graben
Bengkulu X#2
(Jenny)
Bengkulu X#1
(Jenny)
Bengkulu A#2x
(Amin Oil)
Bengkulu A#1x
(Amin Oil)
Malaysia
1. Palembak 1 Union Oil
2. Singkel 1 Union Oil
3. Telaga 1 Union Oil
4. Lakota 1 Union Oil
5. Suma 1 Union Oil
6. IbuSuma 1 Caltex
Wells
Oil seeps
Volcanoes
Volcanics
authors also recognize an early to middle
Miocene potential marine source.
Shallow marine conditions continued
through the early Miocene in the Bengkulu
basin. In Arwana 1, lower Miocene Batu
Raja formation-equivalent dolomites (see
Figure 5 South Sumatra, Sunda-Asri and
Northwest Java basin stratigraphies) are
overlain by lower Miocene clays and sands
of volcaniclastic origin. The entire
OligoceneMiocene section contains oil
shows. Mulhadiono and Asikin (1989)
describe the upper Oligocenelower
Miocene graben fill as sandstones,
conglomerates and a few limestones, and
Yulihanto et al. (1995) note a close
stratigraphic similarity to the South
Sumatra basin. Early Miocene buildups are
considered a potential reservoir target in
the Mentawai basin (Yulihanto and Wiyanto,
1999), although earlier drilled carbonate
buildups in the Bengkulu and Sibolga basins
are of middle Miocene age.
Stage III. Post-rift
(middle MiocenePliocene)
The middle to late Miocene saw the onset of
open-marine deposition within a unified fore-
arc, and sediments comprise marine shales,
silts and limestones, including some major
buildups equivalent to the Parigi formation (see
Figure 5). Such large-scale carbonate buildups
have been targeted as potential biogenic gas
reservoirs in both the Bengkulu and the Sibolga
basins. The Bengkulu basin wells were all dry
but Union Oils Suma 1 and Singkel 1 wells and,
the more recent Caltex Ibu Suma 1 well
(Figure 7), encountered subeconomic
quantities of biogenic gas (e.g. Dobson et al.,
1998). As may be expected with such large
carbonate buildups, top seal shales were
probably not deposited until after much of the
gas had been generated and escaped. Biogenic
gas was not encountered in the Bengkulu
wells possibly because of the higher
2km
Inline 1515 L-6036
Ibusuma prospect
Back lagoonal fill
Back reef storm
and talus deposits
Wave-resistant
reef facies
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
0
Figure 7: Seismic section and interpretation of the middle Miocene Ibu Suma buildup, Sibolga basin, north Sumatra fore-arc (Dobson et al., 1998).
Sumatra
Sunda basin
S
e
r
i
b
u

p
l
a
t
f
o
r
m
Tangerang
high
West Java
West
Malimping
low
Honje
high
Ujung
Kulon
high
Ujung
Kulon
low
Pull-apart
half-graben
Ujung
Kulon 1a
Bayah
high
Bayah
Ciletuh
high
DDH-2
DDH-1
Fig.9a
Fig.9b
S
u
n
d
a

s
t
r
a
i
t
Malimping block
Krakatau
0 50km
C
i
m
a
n
d
i
r
i
f
a
u
lt
(>4.5C/100m) geothermal gradient. In the
Mentawai basin Yulihanto and Wiyanto (1999)
consider middle Miocene lowstand fans to be
potential reservoirs.
Yulihanto et al. (1995) recognized the
rejuvenation of pre-existing tensional faults
in the Bengkulu basin during this period,
with accompanying deposition of shallow
marine and lagoonal sands and clays, and
coaly intercalations of potential source
rock (Lemau formation) occurring in
outcrop. During the late Miocene to
Pliocene, basin subsidence continued with
deposition of littoral sands of the
Simpangaur formation. In the Mentawai
basin southerly prograding deltaics may
provide reservoir opportunities (Yulihanto
and Wiyanto, 1999).
Stage IV. Uplift
(PliocenePleistocene)
Starting in the early Pliocene and
continuing through to the Present-day,
basin uplift and volcanism have been
prevalent accompanying the development of
the Barisan Mountain chain.
Southwest Java basin
There is very little published on the
Southwest Java basin and it was only lightly
explored by Amoco in the 1970s (Ujung
Kulon 1) and very recently by British Gas
(Malimping 1). Both wells were plugged and
abandoned as dry holes.
According to Keetley et al. (1997) the
basin comprises a series of roughly
northsouth-trending half-grabens. These
developed during Eocene to Oligocene
times and extend northward into the Sunda
Strait (Figure 8), with beds thickening to
the east in one of the half-grabens. Coastal
outcrops of middle to late Eocene Bayah
formation thick-deltaic sands (Figure 9a)
and a coaly potential source facies occur in
the Bayah area in the eastern part of the
basin. Schiller et al. (1991) describe the
thick section of middle to late Eocene
Ciletuh formation, which crops-out on the
eastern extremity of the basin, as a sand-
dominated turbidite-fan system (Figure 9b).
They speculate that in Eocene times the
left-lateral Cimandiri fault represented the
extreme limit of the Sunda shield and, that
the Bayah formation deltaic system supplied
sediment to the deeper-marine setting on
the downthrown side of the fault. The
Bayah formation and the Ciletuh formation
arenites (with some leached feldspar)
demonstrate excellent reservoir quality but,
the upper section of the Ciletuh sands
displays a change in current direction and a
new volcanic provenance with a reduction
in reservoir quality.
Keetley et al. (1997) suggest that early
Miocene post-rift sag resulted in subsidence
of the offshore area and vitrinite reflectance
results of Eocene sediments adjacent to the
Honje high indicates heating to 180C and
then uplift in the early Miocene from about
Figure 9: Potential reservoir facies in the Southwest Java basin. Eocene Bayah formation cross-bedded, fluvio-deltaic channel
sands exposed on the Bayah high (a). Eocene Ciletuh formation deep marine fan sands exposed on the Ciletuh high (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 8: Simplified
map of structural
elements in the
Southwest Java
basin (after Keetley
et al., 1997).
4km depth. The younger middle Miocene
sediments on the Honje high consequently
indicate negligible heating.
A middle to late Miocene second rifting
phase is also proposed by Keetley et al.
(1997). Apatite fission track analyses of
Eocene and Miocene sands in the eastern
part of the Southwest Java basin
(Soenandar, 1997), indicate a maximum
burial temperature of only 70 to 95C.
Significant cooling occurred in the late
Miocene to early Pliocene, with an
indication of over 3km of inversion in the
Ciletuh area east of the Cimandiri fault,
caused by deformation of an accretionary
complex when subduction was blocked by
an old magmatic arc. Soenandar (1997)
recognizes a rapid increase in geothermal
gradient in the PliocenePleistocene, which
he also recognizes in the Sunda, Asri and
Northwest Java basins.
Fore-arc basins of Western Indonesia are
poorly understood but their hydrocarbon
potential is considered to be moderate to
high. It would appear that the Bengkulu and
Southwest Java basins experienced a
history similar to that of the back-arc basins
of Western Indonesia. Rifting was initiated
in the Paleogene, structural modification
occurred in the Miocene, and inversion and
raised heat flow (the main maturation and
structuring event in the back-arc basins) in
PliocenePleistocene times. The Bengkulu
basin demonstrates mature source potential
for oil in Arwana 1, sufficient heat flow for
oil generation, and convincing oil shows in
two wells. There is also potential for the
development of early rift-fill Eocene
lacustrine source rocks and associated
reservoirs if the similarities between the
Bengkulu basin and the South Sumatra
basin are considered.
Although not of lacustrine affinity, the
Bayah formations deltaic deposits in the
Southwest Java basin provide evidence for
the development of reservoir and source
facies in the syn-rift stage of fore-arc
development. Turbidite fan sands in the
Southwest Java basin also demonstrate
excellent reservoir potential.
There is less known about the Sibolga
basin, but the presence of biogenic gas and
a low geothermal gradient still support the
tested biogenic gas play. Thick Miocene
carbonates are, however, considered too
problematical with regard to sealing.
Interbedded sand and shale units provide a
more prospective biogenic gas play
alternative, although small footprint and
focusing may limit their potential.
The back-arc basins
There are 17 Tertiary back-arc basins (and
inter-basins) in Western Indonesia and the
majority are considered submature or
mature with respect to hydrocarbon
exploration. Basins considered to be
underexplored (but probably of low
prospectivity) include the Billitong basin in
the Java Sea and the Pembuang, Asem-
Asem-Pater Noster, Muriah, Melawai and
Ketunggau basins of Kalimantan. Of all the
back-arc basins only the Pembuang basin in
southernmost Kalimantan (see Figure 1)
remains undrilled.
These back-arc basins are spread across
the southeast promontory of ancient
Sundaland and contain more than 85% of
Indonesias hydrocarbon reserves. They
demonstrate similar tectonic controls on
their evolution and their fills reveal similar,
cyclic patterns of sedimentation due to
transgression and regression throughout the
Cenozoic a feature common to the entire
Sunda shelf of Southeast Asia.
Lacustrine shales and coals are abundant
in the Eocene and Oligocene syn-rift
sequences of Southeast Asia and are
demonstrably important source rocks (e.g.
Sladen 1997). Syn-rift lacustrine shales are
often assumed to be the major source of oil
in Western Indonesia back-arc basins. In
terms of billions of barrels of oil generated,
this is true because of the extremely prolific
nature of these source rocks. The Central
Sumatra basin contains the vast majority of
Indonesias oil reserves sourced almost
exclusively from this facies, the Minas and
Duri oil fields alone accounting for
15BBOIP. Robinson (1987) developed the
first comprehensive source rock and oil-
type classification and distribution for
Indonesias petroleum basins and this has
since been refined by Ten Haven and
Schiefelbein (1995). These works indicate a
range of important organic source facies for
the Western Indonesia basins (Figure 10)
including marine, terrigenous (fluvio-deltaic
of Robinson, 1987) and lacustrine.
The major reservoirs in the Indonesian
back-arc basins are Miocene transgressive
and regressive fluvio-deltaic and shallow-
marine sands with trapping by structural
closure and in pinch-outs, and carbonate
buildups. Deeper marine sand-dominated
depositional systems are, however,
becoming a focus for the industry. The main
phase of inversion and structural
development took place in the Pliocene.
Back-arc basins are also known to be areas
of high heat flow and the Central Sumatra
basin demonstrates the highest heat flow of
any basin in Southeast Asia (Thamrin,
1987). The main phase of hydrocarbon
expulsion and migration occurred during
the PliocenePleistocene inversion event.
Legend
Marine (Cenozoic)
Marine (Mesozoic)
Lacustrine (Cenozoic)
Terrigenous (Cenozoic)
Figure 10: Oil source
characteristics for
Indonesias
petroleum systems
(Ten Haven and
Schiefelbein, 1995).
North Sumatra basin
The North Sumatra basin is extremely large
and extends from just north of Medan in
North Sumatra, northward for several
hundred kilometers into the Andaman Sea
and across the ThailandIndonesia border.
The Indonesian sector of the basin is
bordered to the west by the Barisan Mountain
thrust system and to the east by the stable
Malacca platform (Figure 11). Only about
20% of the total basin area is onshore, and in
the north, towards Thailand, water depths are
over 1000m in the basinal deeps. The basin is
notable for the first commercial oil field in
Indonesia the Telaga Said field discovered
in 1885 and the giant Arun gas field. This
was, with about 14TcfG and 700MBC
(million barrels condensate), the largest gas
field in Southeast Asia until it was superseded
by the supergiant Natuna Alpha gas field.
Stage I. Early Syn-rift
(Eocenelate Oligocene)
Direct structural evidence to support
Eocene rifting is not recognized in North
Sumatra, but the presence of late Eocene
clastics (Meucampli formation) and marine
carbonates (Tampur formation) suggest that
an Eocene basin did exist. This is further
supported by quartzites drilled offshore from
North Aceh which are assigned a middle to
late Eocene age by Tsukada et al. (1996).
Stage II. Late Syn-rift
In the late Oligocene a second stage of
rifting was characterized by a northsouth
trending series of grabens and half-grabens,
accompanied by structurally controlled
deposition of coarse-grained clastic, alluvial
and fluvial sandstones of the Parapat
formation. Kirby et al. (1994) have
suggested the existence of a lacustrine
source facies in these rift basins. This is not
supported by geochemical work (Robinson,
1987; Kjellgren and Sugiharto, 1989;
Subroto et al., 1992; Fuse et al., 1996; Ten
Haven and Schiefelbein, 1995), which
supports a mainly marine hydrocarbon
source. Parapat formation sands were
transgressed by latest Oligocene bathyal
lower Bampo formation shale, often
considered to be the main source for Peutu
formation reservoired Arun and nearby gas
fields, although Bampo shales at outcrop
and in the few subsurface penetrations are
poor in quality (Caughey, pers. comm.).
Caughey and Wahyudi (1993) consider the
thicker and richer subjacent Baong
formation shales to be a more likely source,
S
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Figure 12: 3D seismic profile across a South Lho Sukon Peutu limestone
patch-reef, onshore North Sumatra basin. The middle horizon on the reef
crest is the base of a collapsed cave zone (Sunaryo et al., 1998).
SW
1.7
2.0
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0 1 2km
NE SLS A-3 SLS A-11 ST2
Figure 11: Generalized physiography and productive hydrocarbon discoveries
of the North Sumatra basin (modified from Andreason et al., 1977, Fuse et
al., 1996 and Kjellgren and Sugiharto, 1989).
particularly as a pressure gradient from the
highly overpressured Baong into the
normally pressured Peutu is an ideal
source-reservoir arrangement commonly
associated with giant fields.
Stage III. Uplift and post-rift sag
(early Miocenemiddle Miocene)
Uplift occurred at the Oligocene-Miocene
boundary with erosion of the Bampo
shales, followed by thin basal transgressive
sands. This was succeeded by the deep
marine Belumai shales, which may be a
secondary source for gas in the Arun field.
In the western part of the basin the
Belumai shales are age equivalent to large
early Miocene Peutu formation carbonate
buildups that grew on the northsouth
trending-basement horsts (e.g., Arun,
Pase, South Lho Sukon, Alursiwah, and
Kuala Langsa gas fields Caughey and
Wahyudi, 1993; Sunaryo et al., 1998;
Barliana et al., 1999) and, to the east on
the edge of the Malacca platform, are
equivalent to Belumai formation
carbonates (e.g., NSB gas field). Peutu and
Belumai formation carbonates represent
the main play type in the North Sumatra
basin and the Peutu is volumetrically the
most important reservoir facies in the
basin. Porosity was enhanced during latest
Figure 13: Log of
fractured Peutu
limestone reservoir in
the Pase A Field, well
Pase A6, onshore North
Sumatra basin.
Fractures are defined
using the DSI* Dipole
Shear Sonic Imager
and FMI* Fullbore
Formation MicroImager
tools (Musgrove and
Sunaryo, 1998).
Gamma ray
Quartz
ELAN
Deg
Deviation
Volume
DNS T
SWF1 .FIL . Int
DSI
waveform
(us) 20440 0
Deg
Conductive fracture
True dip
Fracture
orientation
FMI
image
Conductive fracture
(sinusoid)
Orientation north
90 0
Ener
8450
8500
8550
8600
8650
8700
(dB/m)
-15 0
(V/V)
0
0
50
1
Hole shape
Peutu limestone
Belumai formation
Bruksah formation
Meta formation
Clay 1
Bound water Fracture
energy
early Miocene uplift and extensive karst
systems have been identified by 3D seismic
surveys (Figure 12). Belumai buildups are
abundant and clearly visible on seismic
shot over the Malacca platform. The
buildups are, however, generally small
(significantly less than the 300500 m of
relief developed on subsiding blocks at
Arun, Alur Siwah and Kuala Langsa) and
the overlying Baong is much sandier on the
shelf and thief zones limit fill-up of the
buildups (Caughey, pers. comm.).
Younger Baong shales most probably
source gas on the Malacca platform to the
east, and oil in the string of fields that
parallel the Barisan thrust front on the
Tampur platform (see Figure 11).
Stage IV. Episodic uplift
(latemiddle and latest Miocene)
The remainder of the Miocene was
characterized by yo-yo tectonics.
Latestmiddle to late Miocene encroachment
of the Australian craton and the Asian plate
resulted in activation of the Great Sumatra
fault and compressional uplift of the Barisan
Mountains with a change in clastic
provenance. Sediment supply switched from
an eastern Sunda shield source to a more
southern Barisan source. Compression
resulted in pressure solution and cementation
of Peutu carbonates near the Barisan thrust
front, but also created fracture porosity at
these locations (e.g., the Pase gas field see
Figure 13). Lower Baong formation sands
were rapidly transgressed by lower Baong
marine shales that represent another gas-
prone source facies and an extensive seal
over Peutu carbonate and lower Baong sand
reservoirs. The Baong shales possibly
matured in the late MiocenePliocene and
sourced both oil and gas on the Tampur
platform. In the middle Miocene, regressive
middle Baong sands were transgressed by
fine-marine clastics, the upper Baong shales.
Stage V. Uplift
(latest MiocenePleistocene)
Increased compression and major uplift in
the latest Miocene and through the
Pliocene produced the coarse clastic
Keutapang, Seurula and Julu Rayeu
formations that, along with older Baong
formation sandstones, represent the oil
reservoirs on the Tampur platform. This
compressional episode was also the main
structural event producing thrusts, flower
structures, shale diapirs and a series of
northnorthwest southsoutheast folds
above the now reactivated northsouth-
oriented, strike-slip basement faults. Late
stage faulting also created vertical
migration pathways to supply the younger
sand reservoirs.
Although the onshore sector of the
North Sumatra basin has been extensively
explored, it is possible that moderate-sized
and maybe even large, early Miocene, gas-
filled Peutu carbonate buildups sealed by
Baong shales remain. These large
buildups, however, appear to have an
associated high carbon dioxide risk
(Reaves and Sulaeman, 1994) as
illustrated by the potential giant Kuala
Langsa gas field (Caughey and Wahyudi,
1993). Smaller-scale, Peutu age-
equivalent, Belumai buildups represent a
potentially less rewarding play on the
Malacca shelf. Stratigraphic plays for the
Baong and Keutapang reservoirs have not
been made but the risk is high.
New or underdeveloped play concepts
could include lowstand turbidite-fan systems
associated with middle Miocene lowstand
(Tsukada et al., 1996; Nuraini et al., 1999),
and latest Oligocene Bampo fan systems
recognized elsewhere in the basin. Syn-rift
Parapat formation alluvial and fluvial sands
could represent an attractive reservoir target
in graben deeps where they are proximal to a
generating Bampo source. Lack of seal,
however, may be an issue. The Eocene
Tampur formation carbonates have also been
recognized as having reservoir potential and
have already tested gas beneath early Miocene
Peutu reservoirs in Alur Siwah, Peulala and on
the Malacca platform (Ryacudu and
Sjahbuddin, 1994).
The relatively underexplored northern
deepwater (>1000 m) sector of the basin
merits further investigation as deepwater
drilling technology improves.
Central Sumatra basin
The Central Sumatra basin is the most
prolific oil basin in Southeast Asia, producing
approximately 750,000BOPD, roughly half of
Indonesias production. Sujanto (1997)
provides reserves estimates for the basin of
13BBOE ultimately recoverable, of which
95% is oil, and 2.5BBO remain to be
recovered. In terms of both petroleum
systems and logistics, this basin has been
relatively simple to explore. It extends over
500km in a northwestsoutheast direction
and, at its widest point, measures about
400km between the Barisan Mountain front
and the Malacca shelf.
In contrast to the North Sumatra basin,
only 20% of the Central Sumatra basin is
offshore and water depth is generally less
than 200m. The basin is considered to be
mature with respect to hydrocarbon
exploration and, with a simple and
essentially single petroleum system
operating, new ideas are required if further
large fields are to be discovered and the
trend of declining production is to be halted.
The basin demonstrates dominant
conjugate northwest-trending thrust faults
and northsouth-trending, right-lateral
strike-slip faults (Figure 14) which follow
0 400 800km
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Zamrud
Coastal
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Beruk
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Paleogene
depocenters
Oil field
Gas field
Sumatra
Jakarta
Java
Central Sumatra Basin
Figure 14: Paleogene depocenters, generalized structure and oilfield
distribution for the Central Sumatra basin (Praptono et al., 1991).
older basement fractures. The strike-slip
faults often sole-out into the thrusts and,
with right and left doglegs, have produced
pull-apart and pop-up basins (Figure 15),
respectively. These can be the sites of large
oil accumulations.
Large northwestsoutheast trending
anticlines (e.g., the Kempas-Beruk uplift and
the Sembilan uplift Figure 15) reflect
ancient basement arches. At the surface,
locally occurring northeastsouthwest-
oriented fracture swarms represent Riedel
shears that are associated with the
northwestsoutheast-oriented, right-lateral
Great Sumatra fault system.
Oil is concentrated in two principal areas. In
the west the MinasDuriBangko trend
parallels the central deep and Balam trough in
the center of the basin. In the east the
Bengkalis trough hosts the coastal plains and
shallow offshore oil fields. These are grouped
on the Beruk high, and along the southernmost
Lirik trend. In the far north of the basin there is
reduced seal capacity and there are no oil
fields. This is due to coarsening of clastics near
the paleo-sediment source.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(middle Eocenelate Oligocene)
Rifting was initiated during middle to late
Eocene collision between the Indian and
Asian plates, and deep, northsouth- and
northwestsoutheast-oriented graben
developed, following pre-existing Mesozoic
shear lineaments (e.g., the Tapung half-
graben Soeryowibowo et al., 1999). These
grabens filled with Tertiary sediments
through the late Oligocene.
Initially the Pematang group clastics were
deposited in isolated grabens (e.g., Central
deep, Balam trough, Bengkalis trough).
Graben margin coarse fluvial and alluvial
clastics are secondary reservoir targets.
These pass laterally into a shallow, lake-
margin and coaly facies, a secondary source
rock. The prolific, deep, lacustrine Brown
Shale formation algal-rich laminites of the
graben center are thought to have been the
source of almost all the oil in the Central
Sumatra basin (Williams et al., 1985). The
kerogen assemblage of this source facies is
dominated by the highly oil-prone,
freshwater algae (Figure 16) Botryococcus,
which is responsible for the high-wax
Bengkalis
Island
Padang
Island
Melibur
Lalang
Gatam
Sabak
Pedada
Benua
Butun
Nilam
Zamrud
Idris
Bungsu
Beruk
Uplift Oil field
0 25km
Pop-up Pull-apart
Beruk
NE
D
D
U
U
Pusaka
Dusun
H
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b
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C
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Coastal
plains
block
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lift
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K
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B
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K
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Mengkapen
Figure 15: Field
distribution along
regional,
northsouth
trending dextral
transcurrent faults
in the coastal plains
block of Central
Sumatra (Heidrick
and Aulia, 1993).
A
A
FWA
A
A
Figure 16: Kerogen assemblage dominated by fluorescent amorphinite (A) and
degraded, freshwater Botryococcus algae (FWA) in the Brown Shale formation,
Central Sumatra basin (photo courtesy of S. Noon).
crudes of the Central Sumatra basin and
Cenozoic-sourced, waxy, lacustrine crudes
that are so common elsewhere in South
Asia. The Brown Shale formation also acts
as an internal seal for the limited Pematang
group reservoirs. Although it is accepted
that the Brown Shale unit is essentially the
only source rock in the Central Sumatra
basin, Schiefelbein and Cameron (1997)
note a minor contribution from type III,
fluvio-deltaic organic matter.
Stage II. Uplift and Sag
(late Oligocenemiddle Miocene)
Middle to late Oligocene arc collisions
(Longley, 1997) caused mild inversion and a
major erosional hiatus at 25.5mybp (e.g.,
Soeryowibowo, 1999). This is recognized as
a basin-wide event separating the Pematang
group syn-rift fill from the overlying Sihapas
group. Early to middle Miocene sag and
eustatic gain resulted in deposition of the
strongly transgressive Sihapas group,
representing a large tide-dominated delta
system that prograded from the north,
supplying the main reservoir sands from the
granitic Malacca platform.
The Sihapas group opens with the
superior reservoir quality Menggala
formation (Figure 17), consisting of fluvial
channel sands deposited in structural lows
and incised valleys on the truncated surface
of the Pematang group. Sediments become
progressively more marine and reservoir
quality tends to decrease as fluvial sands
are replaced by estuarine, shore-face and,
finally shaly shallow-marine sands of the
Telisa formation during the maximum
middle Miocene trangression. Reservoir
packages are demonstrably associated with
third- and fourth-order (including possibly
tectonically controlled) lowstand events on
a field to basin-wide scale, but also include
transgressive shallow-marine sheet sands.
The Sihapas contains highstand intra-
formational sealing shales, and the shale
dominated Telisa formation also acts as a
regional seal. Interestingly, the fine-grained
Sihapas group clastics were considered to
be the main source rock in the Central
Sumatra basin until 1985 when Williams et
al. identified the Pematang Brown Shale
source. Even though Sihapas deposition is
considered to have occurred during a period
of relative quiescence, northsouth right-
lateral faulting was active throughout and
produced early Miocene pull-apart basins.
M
M
M
M
M
K
K
I
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O
O
O
O
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F
F
M
Figure 17: Photomicrograph of the lower Sihapas (Menggala) reservoir sandstone, Kurau field, Central
Sumatra basin showing partly leached feldspars (F), quartz overgrowth cement (O), authigenic kaolinite (K) and
excellent primary intergranular (I) and secondary moldic (M) porosity. (Photomicrographs from Murphy, 1993.
Stage III. Uplift
(middlelate Miocene)
Westerly sourced, volcanic sediments
deposited after 16mybp are associated with
the development of the Barisan arc and
movement along the Great Sumatra fault.
This reflects increased plate convergence
and vectoral change (counter-clockwise
rotation in Western Indonesia) at the Sunda
trench. Compression led to deposition of the
regressive, fine-grained Petani formation
that locally contains reservoir facies.
Stage IV. Uplift
(late MiocenePleistocene)
During the late Miocene, compressional
forces intensified as subduction rates and
orientation changed again due to
encroachment of the Australian craton and
the Asian plate. Intense structural
development continued through the
Pliocene. Heat flow increased rapidly in the
PliocenePleistocene, possibly reflecting
the emplacement of shallow intrusives
(Eubank and Makki, 1981). Maturation of
the syn-rift Brown Shale oil source took
place and migration followed Eocene syn-
rift sand tracts, graben-bounding faults and
Sihapas sands.
In terms of exploration, the Central
Sumatra basin is considered to be mature.
Recent efforts by Caltex, the main
production sharing contract operator in the
basin, have concentrated on tertiary
recovery projects. These include large-scale
waterflood of the Minas and other oil fields
and steamflood of the Duri oil field, the
largest operation of its kind in the world
(e.g. Sulistyo et al., 1998). Recent
technological advancements in sequence
stratigraphy and 3D-seismic studies are
being applied in the hope of identifying
bypassed oil. Exploration has not ceased,
however, and smaller-scale Pematang and
fault-controlled traps are still being targeted
to help offset the declining production from
the basin.
Pematang group gas accumulations are
being sought to fuel the Duri steamflood,
since nearly one-third of produced Duri oil
is used for steam generation. Presently the
nearest gas is in the South Sumatra basin,
supplied by Gulf Oil in a gas-for-oil
exchange deal.
It would appear that there are few new
play types in the Central Sumatra basin.
Exploration of the Pematang groups coarse
clastics is considered to hold promise
although oil potential is limited by poor
reservoir quality. There is minor production
from fractured basement in the Beruk
Northeast field but this is not considered to
hold sufficient reserves to be of interest as a
primary target.
South Sumatra basin
The South Sumatra basin lies almost entirely
onshore and extends about 450km from
northwest to southeast. It is separated from
the Central Sumatra basin by the Tiga Puluh
Mountains in the north, and from the basins
of the Sunda Strait by the Lampung high in
the south. At its widest point it extends
approximately 250km from the Barisan
thrust front to the Malacca Strait in the
East, where Tertiary cover passively onlaps
basement. It comprises three main sub-
basins (Figure 18) the Jambi graben, the
central Palembang graben, and the South
Palembang or Lematang graben. The Jambi
and Lematang grabens are highly productive
with the former producing mainly oil and
the latter, being deeper and hotter, being
richer in gas.
Lampung
graben
Lampung
high
Lematang/
South Palembang graben
(sub-basin)
Palembang/
North Palembang graben
(sub-basin)
Jambi graben
(sub-basin)
Dun Belas
Mountains
Ipuh
graben
Pagar Jati
graben
Kedurang
graben
50 100km 0
Muaradua
graben
Kikim
high
C
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Figure 18:
Generalized
structural pattern of
the Southern
Sumatra region (after
Yulihanto and
Sosrowidjoyo, 1996).
The South Sumatra basin contains diverse
petroleum systems, with both oil and gas
being sourced from lacustrine and fluvio-
deltaic terrestrial facies (Figure 19). Marine
facies of the Gumai formation have been
suspected of contributing to reserves,
especially gas, and there is even speculation
of a local carbonate or calcareous shale
source (Davis, pers. comm.).
Reservoirs include fractured basement
granites (Figure 20) and metamorphics,
granite-wash, OligoceneMiocene fluvio-
deltaics (Lemat, Talang Akar, Muara Enim
and Air Benakat formations) and lower
Miocene leached and fractured carbonate
buildups (Batu Raja formation). In the
Tempino oil field one of the reservoirs is a
fractured sill (Caughey, pers. comm.),
although this is not of economic significance.
Although not strictly part of the South
Sumatra basin small intra-montane basins in
the Barisan range (e.g., the Pasemah Block
operated by Stanvac Kamal, 1999),
demonstrate a similar history and origin to
the nearby South Sumatra basin with good
Talang Akar and Batu Raja formation
reservoirs at outcrop and oil and gas seeps
with a lacustrine source indicated.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(late Cretaceouslate Oligocene)
Rifting is considered to have commenced as
early as the late Cretaceous and continued
through to the late Oligocene. Northsouth
normal faults and a northwestsoutheast-
oriented horst and graben developed in
response to tensional shear as subduction
slowed at the Sunda trench. The graben
developed along pre-existing Mesozoic
transform fractures as in the Central
Sumatra basin.
Syn-rift fill includes the Eocene Lahat
formation granite-wash, volcaniclastics, and
conglomerates and sandstones that appear
to have developed as alluvial fans and river
systems within the deep graben. These
coarse clastics fine-up into the Lemat
formation, subordinate and commonly over-
mature source facies, which include
lacustrine Botryococcus- and Pediastrum-
rich shales, and lake-margin, coaly, organic
facies. Lemat fluvial sands are also locally a
reservoir. In the Puyuh field, Lemat channel
sands host oil and are interbedded with
intra-formational, lacustrine source rocks
(Maulana et al., 1999).
C
A
A
A
A
C
Figure 19: Kerogens
extracted from source
facies in the South
Sumatra basin. Top
photograph shows
terrestrial oil-prone
source facies
dominated by cutinite
(C) and other land plant
material. Bottom
photograph shows
lacustrine oil-prone
source facies
dominated by
Botryococcus algae (A).
(Photos courtesy of
S. Noon.)
X0.5
X1.0
X1.5
X2.0 X7.5
X7.0
X6.5
X6.0
S
E
N
Major fractures -
strike
Minor fractures -
strike
W
S
E
N
W
Figure 20: Formation
MicroScanner*
images from a
fractured granite
basement reservoir,
South Sumatra basin.
Stage II. Sag
The late Oligocene to early Miocene was
marked by transgression as a result of
thermal sag and eustatic gain. Late
Oligocene Talang Akar alluvial and braided
fluvial deposits, the main reservoir sands in
the basin, were deposited in basinal lows,
and are either sealed internally or by the
overlying marine Gumai shale in
stratigraphic and anticlinal traps.
Extensive Talang Akar shallow-marine and
deltaic coals and shales are considered to
be the major source rocks in the basin.
They are dominated by mixed oil- and gas-
prone type III terrestrial kerogen
(Schiefelbein and Cameron, 1995) and,
where buried deeply enough adjacent to
basement highs, have charged fractured
basement reservoirs. This can be seen in
the Rayun, Sumpal, Dayung, Bungkal,
Bungin, Hari and Suban deep gas fields.
With continued transgression into the
early Miocene, large Batu Raja formation
carbonate buildups developed on structural
highs and are important reservoirs,
particularly where they have been solution-
enhanced (Figure 21). Bulk reservoir
properties are highly variable but often good
(e.g., Ramba, Rawa and Suban with average
permeabilities in the 500750mD range).
These buildups are thought to have
developed as low-relief, low-energy,
carbonate-mud-dominated banks
(Situmeang et al., 1993; Longman et al.,
1993) in a restricted seaway.
The Gumai shales were developed off-
bank in deeper water and, as transgression
progressed, formed a top seal to the Batu
Raja formation buildups. The Gumai shales
may also locally contribute to gas
generation where mature in basin deeps.
Mo
Mo
M
o
Vu
C
h
C
h
Vu
Figure 21: Leached
skeletal packstone
from the early Miocene
Batu Raja formation,
Air Sedang field, South
Sumatra. Porosity
includes molds (Mo),
vugs (Vu) and
channelized pores (Ch).
(Longman et al., 1993.)
Stage III. Uplift
(middlelate Miocene)
During the middle Miocene there was an
increase in subduction rates that led to
major compression. This was manifested by
the Barisan Mountain uplift, activation of
the Great Sumatra fault and the formation
of traps, which are mainly anticlines and
faulted anticlines. A regressive phase of
deposition commenced with the shallow-
marine to deltaic Air Benakat and Muara
Enim formations that are the main
reservoirs in the Jambi area (e.g., the
original Jambi discoveries such as Kenali-
Asam, Tempino, Bajubang, Pannerokan, and
the more recent North Geregai oil field).
Petroleum generation and expulsion may
have started in the early middle Miocene
and was well underway by the late Miocene.
This would suggest that a significant
amount of hydrocarbons leaked-off just
prior to the main middle to late Miocene
period of structural development.
Stage IV. Uplift
Compression continued, and thick volcanics
and volcaniclastics were deposited as the
main period of volcanic arc development got
underway. This appears to have been
accompanied by a significant increase in
heat flow, recorded in the Sunda Strait area
by apatite fission track analysis (Soenandar,
1997), which promoted the main phase of
hydrocarbon generation and migration.
The South Sumatra basin is at a relatively
mature stage of exploration, and it is likely
that most of the large oil fields have been
found. Significant gas, however, probably still
remains to be discovered. The generation of
new and adventurous plays in the 1990s
continued to produce new discoveries. Oil
was discovered by Gulf in 1993 in syn-rift
Lemat fluvial sands of the Puyuh field
(Maulana et al., 1999) and is also produced
from the young, low-resistivity Air Benakat
and Muara Enim sands that are reservoirs for
oil and gas in the Jambi area. Fractured
basement reservoirs hold proven reserves of
over 4TcfG, and are still being drilled.
More recently, deep basinal areas have
been drilled successfully targeting gas in
deeply buried, fractured Batu Raja
formation limestones (e.g., Singa 1 and 2
drilled in 1999). In addition, limited
potential still remains for the traditional
Talang Akar and Batu Raja formation plays.
Tertiary recovery projects hold further
potential, and some of the older fields are
undergoing successful waterfloods (e.g.,
Kenali-Asem and Bajubang fields).
Sunda and Asri basins
The Sunda basin and its northern extension,
the Asri sub-basin, are relatively small,
Cenozoic, back-arc depocenters. They occur
entirely offshore in the northern part of the
Sunda Strait, between the islands of
Sumatra and Java (see Figure 22). One of
the oldest production sharing contracts in
Indonesia, the offshore South Sumatra
contract was signed by IIAPCO in 1968. The
area was considered mature with little or no
prospect of further significant hydrocarbon
discoveries by the middle 1980s; particularly
with regard to the Asri sub-basin where a
large number of wells had been drilled with
no hydrocarbon shows and no proven source
rock (Wight et al., 1997). In late 1987,
however, the Intan oil field was discovered
closely followed by the large (260MMBO)
Widuri oil field, and several smaller satellite
accumulations. The Asri sub-basin remains
prospective to this day.
Stage I. Syn-rift
A series of northsouth trending extensional
half-grabens caused by northwestsoutheast
shear associated with the collision of the
Indian subcontinent with the Asian plate,
contain a thick Paleogene syn-rift sequence
that has been drilled to the lower Oligocene,
but probably extends into the Eocene
(Wight et al., 1997). These sediments
include the principal source rocks for the
area, the Banuwati formation lacustrine
shales, dominated by type I, oil-prone
kerogen. Rift margin coarse clastics are
laterally equivalent to the Banuwati shales
and form a subordinate reservoir facies.
Stage II. Sag
(late Oligocenelate Miocene)
The alluvial, fluvial (Figure 23), deltaic and
marginal-marine sandstones of the upper
part of the Talang Akar formation are the
main reservoirs in both basins, and
represent basin margin fill with marine
shales that were deposited in the basin
centers. In the Widuri oil field, the fluvial
Gita member sandstones attain
permeabilities in the range of tens of
Darcies and porosities of over 25% (Wight
et al., 1997).
Unfortunately, other oil fields are
marginalized by a high diagenetic kaolinite
content that has destroyed permeabilities
even though oil saturations may be high.
Talang Akar reservoirs are sealed intra-
formationally, and by semiregional formation
top shales.
In the more southerly Sunda basin, early
Miocene Batu Raja formation carbonates
(Figure 24) developed on basement highs
around the edge of the basin, with thick pay
zones associated with lowstand dissolution
events (Wicaksono et al., 1995). Batu Raja
reservoir quality may be poor where low-
permeability, micritic, wackestone facies
dominate. Deeper-marine Gumai shales
provide an effective seal for the Batu Raja
carbonate reservoirs.
The Banuwati shale may have entered the
oil window in the early Miocene. Lateral
migration occurred many kilometers along
the weathered sediment/basement interface,
channel sands and, in carbonates, via karst
pipes, with vertical migration via faults (Wight
et al., 1997). The latter part of the Miocene
was a period of continued quiescence with
deposition of Parigi formation carbonates and
Cisubuh formation fine marine clastics.
Maxus
Arco
Jakarta
Pertamina
Jatinegara
Tambun
RDL
MB
Cilamaya
Utara
Pasirjadi
SDS
Pagaden
PMK
Gantar
Jatibarang
Tugubarat
Randegan
Cemara
KPT
GG
XK
XM
XW OB
OM
OO
OO
OU
OW
FS
F
FN
FW
FI HZE
E
ES
UR
B
BTS
BZZ
SC
KL
L
LL
MM
MR
MX
MQ
P
APN
AA
Bima 'ZU'
Duma
Nora
Selatan
Utari
Kitty
Cint A Rama
Wanda
Gita
Farida Krisna
Nurbani
Yvonne
Sundari
Janti
Yani
Widuri
Intan
Karmila
Kartini
AV
AVS
L-Parigi
Kandang Haur
Java
S
u
m
a
t
r
a
Cirebon
Sunda platform
Seribu
platform
Vera
Cirebon
Basement
time
structure
Jakarta
Java
S
u
m
a
t
r
a
0 50 mile
Yani-Nst
South Ardjuna South Ardjuna
Tanjung
Asri
Sunda
Central Ardjuna
Ciputat Kepuh
Pasir Bunger
Cipunegara -
E 15 Graben Jatibarang
Tanjung
Asri
Sunda
Central Ardjuna
Ciputat Kepuh
Pasir Bunger
Cipunegara -
E 15 Graben Jatibarang
< 0.5 sec
TWT scale
0.5 - 1.0
1.0 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
> 3.0 sec
Figure 22: Basement time structure map of Northwest Java sub-basins
(above) and location of hydrocarbon fields (below) (after Noble et al., 1997).
5 10km 0
2360ft
2314ft
2380ft
2379ft 2359ft
Figure 23: Amplitude
map of 33 series sand
of the lower Miocene
Upper Gita member of
the Talang Akar
formation. Meandering
channel systems are
clearly visible (modified
from Armon et al.,1995).
Figure 24: Evidence
for exposure
including thin coals
(left top), shale-filled
karst pipes (middle)
and karst breccia
(right) in the early
Miocene Batu Raja
formation. Core from
well Jelita 1, Sunda
basin (Wicaksono et
al., 1995).
Stage III. Uplift
During the PliocenePleistocene, shallow-
and marginal-marine sediments and
volcaniclastics were deposited, accompanied
by a rapid increase in heat flow (Soenandar,
1997) related to development of the existing
volcanic arc. This thermal event pushed
much of the Banuwati shale into the oil
window, greatly increasing the prospectivity
of the region.
From an exploration perspective, the
SundaAsri area is relatively mature,
particularly the Sunda basin. Discovery of the
Intan, Widuri and related fields in the more
northerly Asri sub-basin in the late 1980s to
early 1990s could suggest that further Talang
Akar reservoirs remain to be discovered. The
eastern part of Asri sub-basin is sparsely
drilled. Marginal Talang Akar oil fields, such
as the Risma field, may become commercially
viable as exploitation technologies improve
and costs are reduced. Early syn-rift plays
have not been extensively tried and their
potential requires further evaluation.
Northwest Java basin
The Northwest Java basin lies roughly equally
in an onshore and shallow-offshore setting (see
Figure 22). The Northwest Java production
sharing contract (PSC) is the oldest offshore in
Indonesia, being signed by IIAPCO in 1966,
and farmed out to ARCO in 1969, after IIAPCO
obtained the offshore South Sumatra PSC.
This back-arc basin is extensive and
complicated, comprising a number of
northsouth-oriented half-graben and sub-
basins situated on the southernmost edge of
the Sunda platform (Reksalegora et al., 1996).
The three main depocenters, from west to
east, are the Ciputat, Ardjuna and Jatibarang
sub-basins, with minor onshore sub-basins
including the Kepuh, Pasir Bungur and
Cipunegara E-15. The Vera sub-basin lies
offshore in the northeast part of the basin. The
Northwest Java basin deepens towards the
Bogor trough in the south, abutting the
volcanic arc (Figure 25). In the north, younger
Tertiary cover onlaps the Sunda shield.
Hydrocarbon accumulations are
abundant, and both oil and and gas
(thermogenic and biogenic) (Noble et al.,
1997) are reservoired in stacked
volcaniclastic, carbonate and coarse
siliciclastic beds. The onshore Jatibarang oil
field contains multiple-stacked reservoirs
that include fractured Jatibarang formation
volcanics and volcaniclastics, Talang Akar
formation sands, Batu Raja formation
limestones, upper Cibulakan formation
sands and carbonates, and Parigi formation
limestones (Amril Adnan et al., 1991).
Stage I. Syn-rift
Eocene to early Oligocene tilting led to the
development of the Seribu platform and the
Northwest Java basin, which deepens towards
the Bogor trough in the south. Northsouth
block faulting, associated with dextral shear
due to the collision of the Indian subcontinent
with the Asian plate, produced the various
sub-basins and half-grabens that make up the
Northwest Java basin (Gresko et al., 1995).
The middle Eocenemiddle Oligocene
Jatibarang formation consists of interbedded
volcanics, volcaniclastic sands and lacustrine
shales, which represent the initial basin fill.
Reservoirs are commonly fractured and
lacustrine shales are the main oil source to
the east in the Jatibarang sub-basin (Noble et
al., 1997). Equivalent alluvial-fan and fluvial-
sand facies are also potentially good reservoir
targets in the western part of the basin
(Butterworth and Atkinson, 1993). Late syn-
rift fill comprises the early to late Oligocene,
fluvial lower Talang Akar formation, which
again demonstrates good reservoir potential
and represents the phase II syn-rift deposits
of Butterworth and Atkinson (1993). In the
eastern part of the basin, later syn-rift fill
fluvial-dominated deltaic-channel and delta-
front bars, and fan-deltas are starting to be
important reservoir targets (Ascaria et al.,
1999). Jatibarang and Talang Akar reservoirs
are sealed by intra-formational shales.
Stage II. Sag
(late Oligocenelate Miocene)
Late Oligocene transgression led to
deposition of the upper Talang Akar (lower
Cibulakan) formation, with greatly reduced
volcanic influence (Butterworth and
Atkinson, 1993). Thick, paralic, oil-prone
coals are of particular importance as source
rocks in the more northerly Ardjuna sub-
basin (Noble et al., 1997), whereas more gas-
prone deltaics and shallow-marine shales of
the upper Talang Akar formation represent
the major source facies for both oil and gas
elsewhere in the basin (Noble et al., 1997).
Fluvial systems supplied coarse clastics from
the north, and fluvial and shallow-marine
sands are significant reservoirs at this level.
Northsouth oriented Talang Akar and
younger, middle-Miocene, upper-Cibulakan
channels are thought to represent the main
lateral migration pathways.
Continued quiescence through the early
Miocene saw the development of fully open-
marine conditions and deposition of the
coral-rich Batu Raja formation (middle
Cibulakan). This was followed by the
Massive unit carbonate buildups developed
on basement highs and representing
another major reservoir facies, particularly
where there is significant dissolution
porosity (e.g., the Bima oil field). Laterally
equivalent marine shales provide a seal for
the Batu Raja carbonate reservoirs.
Java
Jakarta
Oil reservoir
Bogor trough
Parigi
Cisubuh
Lower
Cibulakan
Batu Raja
Jatibarang
volcanics
Continental crust
(Sunda shield/Asia plate)
Melange
Subduction of oceanic
crust (Indian plate) beneath
Sunda shield
Volcaniclastics
NE
Offshore
SW
Sea level
Fore arc basin Magmatic arc Back arc basin
Offshore
Turbidites
Figure 25: Simplified geological cross-section of West Java.
The middle Miocene upper Cibulakan
includes both carbonate and clastic
reservoir facies. The mid-Main member
carbonate buildups are, according to Isworo
et al. (1999), the main reservoir in the
Seribu shelf area. Gentle, middle Miocene
uplift of the Sunda shield to the north
resulted in a supply of upper Cibulakan
clastics, another reservoir facies, to the
marine area in the south. From 3D seismic
across the Northwest Java shelf,
Posamentier (1999) identified transgressive
tidal sand ridges in the upper section of the
Main member. These features are
potentially excellent stratigraphic traps,
being enclosed entirely in overlying, deeper-
marine shales.
Stabilization again led to deposition of
carbonates in the late Miocene, when pre-
Parigi and Parigi formations developed as
relatively low-energy, fine-grained, shaly-
lime muds, and packstones and
wackestones. Pore types are dominated by
matrix microporosity, demonstrating
solution enhancement as a result of
lowstand exposure (Bukhari et al., 1993).
These carbonates are a major reservoir for
both thermogenic and biogenic gas, the
latter being sourced from deeper-water-
equivalent marine shales. Locally, these
carbonates also form oil reservoirs in the
onshore area.
Stage III. Uplift
Late Miocene collision of the Australian
craton with the Sunda trench, far to the east
resulted in uplift and influx of coarse-grained
sand, the Cisubuh formation, which also acts
as a reservoir for biogenic gas. Cisubuh shales
form the main seal for Parigi carbonate
reservoirs. At this time, a significant increase
in heat flow (Soenandar, 1997) resulted in
the main phase of maturation and migration,
concurrent with trap formation in broad
anticlines and tilted fault blocks.
The Northwest Java basin is now
considered to be mature, with the
distribution of upper Talang Akar sands and
Miocene carbonate buildups being fully
understood. Considerable potential for
small- to medium-sized fields may remain in
the syn-rift Jatibarang formation and the
lower Talang Akar formation.
East Java basin
The East Java basin is, without dispute, the
most structurally and stratigraphically
complex of the Indonesian back-arc basins.
In terms of reservoir facies, which range
from Eocene, fractured, calcareous shales
and shaly limestones to diagenetically
enhanced, Pleistocene volcaniclastics, and
also in terms of petroleum systems, it is one
of the most diverse. The basin extends
eastwest from onshore east Central Java,
for over 1000km to the Flores back-arc
basin, and includes a number of distinct
eastwest oriented structural zones.
Branching off from this main basin trend to
the north, is a series of northeastsouthwest-
trending half-grabens downthrown to the
east. These include, from west to east, the
Muriah trough, the Tuban-Camar trough,
the central-deep depression (Masalembo
basin), and the Sakala sub-basin, which are
separated by areally extensive structural
highs (Figure 26). The basin is
predominantly offshore with water depths
reaching over 1500m in the Lombok sub-
basin, and covers a total area in the region
of 200,000km
2
.
Onshore, the structural picture is
extremely complicated, with multiple
phases resulting in all modes of faulting.
Tertiary development includes a major
inversion event, and at least two major
episodes of volcanism. The picture is
further complicated by a plethora of
lithostratigraphic schemes (see Ardhana et
al., 1993) compiled by the large number of
companies that have explored different
parts of the basin. These schemes show
significant differences and have yet to be
satisfactorily reconciled across the basin.
Historically, the East Java basin has been
significant in the quest for oil. Numerous
Sibaru platform
Sakala sub-basin
Kangean high
Lombok sub-basin
South Madura sub-basin
RMK wrench zone
Kendeng zone
Java Ge anticline
East Java
Bali
Lombok
RMK Inversion zone
North Madura platform
M
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g
h
N
o
rth
R
e
m
b
a
n
g
zo
n
e
S
outh R
em
bang zone
B
a
w
e
a
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r
c
h
T
u
b
a
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C
a
m
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r
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r
o
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C
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t
r
a
l
-
d
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p

d
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p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
Madura
Sakala fault
Lombok ridge
Kujung thrust belt
Kendeng zone
Quaternary volcanic arc
Normal fault, NE-trending separates basinal
lows from highs
Thrust structure located at inversion zone
Strike-slip movement/wrenching, located at
flank area/basinal margin
Platformal area, arch and ridge
Basinal area
Southern basin
RMK wrench zone (high)
0 100km
Figure 26: Generalized
basin configuration for
East and Northeast
Java basins (after
Manur and
Barraclough, 1994).
onshore oil fields were discovered by the
Dutch before World War II, with production
from the middle Miocene Ngrayong
formation sandstones (e.g., the Kawengan
oil field being the largest and still producing
today) or Pliocene deepwater carbonates
(e.g., the Lidah and Metatu oil fields). All
these fields were discovered on the basis of
the very obvious surface expression of
northwestsoutheast-trending (Cepu area in
the west) and eastwest-trending (near
Surabaya in the east) anticlines. Production
peaked with the war effort in the 1940s.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(middle Eocenelatest early Oligocene)
Transtensional tectonics in the early to
middle Eocene led to the onset of rifting
that continued into the early Oligocene. The
earliest syn-rift fill includes fluvial sands,
and lacustrine shales and coals. These
sediments appear to be oldest in the far
southeastern part of the basin. Offshore in
the east reservoirs occur in the pre-Ngimbang
and Ngimbang clastics (Ebanks and Cook,
1993) as the West Kangean and Pagerungan
gas fields, respectively. Similar deltaic and
shallow-marine, Eocene clastics, including
good reservoir sands (Figure 27), crop out
to the west of the basin limits in Central
Java near Nanggulan.
Late Eocene transgression deposited the
Ngimbang carbonates which are shallow-
marine, low-energy, shaly, micritic
limestones and calcareous shales occurring
in the east of the basin. These highly
indurated and fractured sediments form the
main reservoir in the West Kangean gas field
(Siemers et al., 1993b). Elsewhere offshore,
upper Eocene to lower Oligocene,
Lepidocyclina-rich, larger benthic,
foraminiferal limestones, the CD carbonates,
are reservoirs for subcommercial oil and
gas. The CD carbonates are overlain by
deep-marine shales, representing maximum
transgression, which form a seal for the
Pagerungan and West Kangean reservoirs.
Historically, it has been assumed that all
the oil and thermogenic gas of the East Java
basin has been sourced from syn-rift
lacustrine shales. This would appear to be
the case for the gas in the Pagerungan and
West Kangean fields in the eastern part of
the basin (Schiefelbein and Cameron, 1997)
but elsewhere, hydrocarbons demonstrate a
deltaic or paralic marine source with
carbonate affinities (Davis, pers. comm.). It
is possible that the pre-Ngimbang clastics in
the east of the basin have been buried deep
enough to generate oil since the late
Eocene. It has since been displaced by gas,
which is being generated to this day.
Stage II. Sag
(late Oligocenelatest early Miocene)
Following the mid-Oligocene global lowstand,
clastics were rapidly transgressed by the
shallow-marine Kujung carbonates. These
limestones are red-algae dominated, but are
also commonly coral- or larger benthic
foraminifera-rich (Figure 28). They are a
proven reservoir both onshore (e.g., Mudi oil
field) and offshore (e.g., the Ujung Pangkah
oil and gas field near Surabaya, the KE2 oil
field and the minor Camar oil field). A
number of Kujung buildups remain undrilled.
Structural activity intensified in the early
Miocene with compression in the southeast.
This led to inversion of the MaduraKangean
high forming the structures for the
Pagerungan and West Kangean gas fields
(Bransden and Matthews, 1992). In the
west, rapid deposition of the deepwater
Tuban formation shales occurred in
subsiding depressions while the Rancak
formation buildups developed on the highs.
These carbonates are reservoirs for oil and
gas in the offshore, more central part of the
basin (e.g., KE2 field). Tuban shales are a
strong candidate as a source rock for much
of the oil and gas in the western part of the
basin, although this is not proven.
Stage III. Multiple uplift
(middle MiocenePleistocene)
The remainder of the Neogene is
complicated by repeated multiple
compressional phases and is grouped under
one episode for the sake of simplicity.
Earlymiddle Miocene Ngrayong
formation sandstones were deposited in the
south during compressional fault-block
rotation, uplift and erosion. Historically, the
onshore Ngrayong sands were the main
reservoir in the East Java basin, and host
most of the oil in the westerly Cepu region.
They represent the main reservoir in the
Kawengan oil field and are interpreted as
relatively deep marine, turbidite fan
deposits (Ardhana, 1993 and Ardhana et al.,
1993), and are high-quality reservoirs (see
Figure 28). Shallow marine Ngrayong
equivalent shore-face sands crop-out to the
north of these deeper marine facies in the
uplifted North Rembang zone (see Figure
26). Ngrayong formation sands are also
recognized offshore in the Muriah trough to
the north, hosting biogenic gas sourced
from contemporaneous Ngrayong coals
(Manur and Barraclough, 1994).
Phillips et al. (1991) believe that the
Eocene Ngimbang clastics entered the oil
5
5
.
0
5
5
4
.
7
5
87.30
89.80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 27: Shallow cores from locations near Nanggulan, Central Java. These Eocene fluvio-deltaic
shallow marine (trays 1 and 2), shoreface (trays 3 and 4) and distributary channel (trays 5 to 8)
sands are potential reservoir sands (photos courtesy of Coparex BV).
Figure 28a: Pleistocene volcaniclastic sands. This volcaniclastic sandstone
reservoir in the Wunut gas field, onshore Java, is characterized by excellent
intergranular and dissolution porosity after feldspar (photo courtesy of Lapindo).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 28b: Early Pliocene Paciran limestone. This globigerine foraminiferal
limestone reservoirs biogenic gas in the East Java basin. Porosity in uncemented
examples can be as high as 70% (photo courtesy of Mobil Oil).
Figure 28c: Middle Miocene Ngrayong sandstone. These fine to medium grained
deepwater sands are interpreted as deep sea fan and/or contourite. Primary
intergranular porosity is good and reservoir potential is considered excellent.
Shallower water Ngrayong facies reservoir oil onshore East Java basin (photo
from Ardhana et al., 1993).
Figure 28d: Early Miocene Kujung limestone. The examples shown are: an algal
(possibly rhodolith) framestone (left) and larger benthic ( Lepidocyclina and
Miogypsina) grainstone (right) with poor vugular and microvugular dissolution
porosity (V).
Figure 28e: Middle-late Eocene Ngimbang clastics. These medium to coarse-
grained reservoir sands are from the Pagerungan gas field. Intergranular porosity
is excellent and is enhanced by oversized dissolution pores (photo from Ebanks
and Cook, 1993).
window during the middle Miocene. During
the middle to late Miocene, subsidence led
to deposition of the deep-marine,
Wonocolo, fine-grained clastics, interrupted
by end late Miocene compression and
inversion, with deposition of shallow marine
Karren carbonates.
Continued compression into the Pliocene
resulted in further structural changes, with
shale diapirism and the development of two
major anticlinal trends; the eastwest-
oriented Java trend and the
northeastsouthwest Kalimantan trend.
These anticlines host the vast majority of
shallow, onshore oil fields and are strongly
expressed by surface geology in East Java.
In the early Pliocene, globigerine-limestones
were deposited. They are interpreted as
possible contourites by Schiller et al. (1995)
and are reservoirs for biogenic gas in the
east Madura Straits (Figure 28, Basden et
al., 1999) and for oil in some of the older,
onshore fields (e.g., Sekarkorong, Lidah and
Metatu). These globigerine limestones were
reworked into the late Pliocene Selorejo
formation, which is also a potential minor
reservoir. Pleistocene volcaniclastics are
minor reservoirs for gas in the onshore
region of East Java (e.g., Wunut gas field
Figure 28; Kusumastuti et al., 1999).
Although the East Java basin is widely
explored, potential still remains for
significant oil and gas discoveries in the
Eocene syn-rift clastic, the deepwater-facies
Ngrayong sand and the Kujung and Rancak
limestone plays. Smaller, more esoteric
plays, such as the Pleistocene Wunut gas
field and biogenic gas plays, may
demonstrate potential purely because of the
well-developed infrastructure and nearby
industrial market in East Java.
Barito basin
The Barito basin is named after the Barito
River that flows from north to south in
Southeast Kalimantan, west of the Meratus
Mountains. It is bordered to the west by the
stable Barito shelf (Sunda shield) against
which the Neogene basin-fill onlaps
(Figures 29 and 30). The uplifted Adang
fault zone separates the Barito basin from
the upper Kutei basin to the North, and the
basin extends and shallows to the coast in
the south.
The Barito basin is subdivided into a
structurally complex northern section,
dominated by reverse-faulted anticlines, and
a southern area characterized by
undisturbed sediments dipping gently into
the axis of an asymmetric trough, with
thrusting and wrench-faulting at the eastern
margin against the Meratus Mountains
(Bonn et al., 1996; Figures 30 and 31).
The northern part of the basin contains all
the fields discovered to date, including the
large Tanjung Raya oil field (725MBOIP)
with oil hosted mainly in syn-rift alluvial
facies that highlights the potential of this
play in the Western Indonesian basins.
Subordinate Tanjung Raya reservoirs
include post-rift, fluvio-deltaic sands and
minor, fractured basement. Other reservoirs
in the basin include OligoceneMiocene
Berai formation limestones that tested gas
in the offshore Makassar 1 well, and the
early to middle Miocene sandstones of the
Warukin formation.
Basement comprises amalgamated
terranes, with continental basement to the
west and accreted zones of Mesozoic and
early Paleogene rocks in the east.
160200km
W E
Stable Barito shelf Barito basin
Barito
foredeep
Zone of
wrench
faulting
Meratus
Mountains
Tertiary sedimentary
cover up to 15,000ft thick
D
ahor
Dahor
Basement high
W
a
ru
k
in
Berai carbonates
Tanjung sandstones
Figure 30: Schematic geological cross-section
across the Northeast area of the Barito basin
(Campbell et al., 1988).
100 200km 0
Sunda shield
K
u
c
h
i
n
g

h
i
g
h
(
M
e
s
o
z
o
i
c

o
r
o
g
e
n
i
c

b
e
l
t
)
M
a
l
a
y
s
i
a
Barito
basin
Paternoster
shelf
Tarakan
basin
Sulu Sea
Semporna
fault
Maratua
fault
Java Sea
S
u
l
a
w
e
s
i
M
a
k
a
s
s
a
r

t
r
o
u
g
h
Makassar
straits
rift
Kutei
basin
M
e
r
a
t
u
s

m
o
u
n
t
a
i
n
s
(
o
p
h
i
o
l
i
t
i
c

c
o
m
p
l
e
x
)
A
s
e
m
-
A
s
e
m
b
a
s
i
n
M
elawi basin
A
ra
n
g
fa
u
lt
(
h
ig
h
)
Kerenden 1
Ketungau basin
S
a
n
g
k
u
k
ir
a
n
g
f
a
u
lt
M
a
n
g
k
a
lih
a
t
f
a
u
l
t
Figure 29:
Physiographic and
location map of
Kalimantan with
distribution of
hydrocarbon fields
(modified from
Mamuaya et al., 1995).
Figure 32: Texturally and compositionally immature Eocene alluvial pebbly sandstone reservoir from
the lower Tanjung formation, Tanjung Raya field, Barito basin. Grains shown on the left include
quartz (Q), feldspar (F) and volcanic fragments (V). Grains shown on the right are rimmed by
corrensite (mixed-layer smectite-chlorite). (Photos courtesy of JOB Pertamina Talisman.)
Didi 1
Kambitin
Bagok 1
Semuda-1
Bangkau-1
Miyawa 1
K
a
s
a
l
e
r
i
d
g
e
P
a
n
n
a
a
n
r
i
d
g
e
M
i
s
i
r
i
d
g
e
H
a
l
a
t
r
i
d
g
e
Tapian
Timur
Tanjung
Warukin
M
e
r
a
t
u
s
M
o
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n
t
a
i
n
s
S
ih
u
n
g
n
o
s
e
25 0 50km
SE Kalimantan
M
e
r
a
t
u
s
Key
Paleogene grabens
Basement massif
Oil field
Oil shows
Thrust fault, late MioceneRecent
Wrench fault, late MioceneRecent
Figure 31: Structural
map of the Northeast
Barito basin showing
Paleogene grabens and
distribution of
hydrocarbons. (After
Mason et al., 1993;
Rotinsulu et al 1993
and Satyana 1995).
V
Q
V
Q
V
V
F
Q
F
L
Corrensite
Stage I. Syn-rift
(Paleocenemiddle Eocene)
Rifting in the Barito basin started relatively
early, in the Paleocene, with the
development of a series of
northwestsoutheast-trending grabens
(Figure 31) as a result of collision between
the Indian subcontinent and the Asian plate.
Syn-rift sediments include deep lacustrine
source rocks, and alluvial and fluvial sands
of the upper Paleocene to middle Eocene
lower Tanjung formation, which comprise
the reservoir in the major Tanjung Raya oil
field (Figure 32).
Stage II. Sag
(middle Eocenemiddle
early Miocene)
Upper and lower Tanjung formation clastics,
overlain by Berai formation carbonates,
were deposited as a transgressive series
passing from fluvio-deltaic and shallow-
marine clastics, into platform limestones.
These clastics and carbonates are minor
proven reservoirs in the basin.
Stage III. Inversion
(middle MiocenePleistocene)
During the middle Miocene, South China Sea
continental fragments collided with north
Kalimantan and the Kuching high was uplifted
(see Figure 29). This event was
contemporaneous with collision to the east of
Sulawesi, which ended rifting in the Makassar
Strait and uplifted the proto-Meratus
mountains. Together, these events were
responsible for the onset of inversion that
intensified in the late Miocene when, far to the
east, the northwest Australia passive margin
collided with the Sunda trench and the Banda
fore-arc. Inversion was accommodated by
strike-slip faulting and later, in the
PliocenePleistocene, by thrusting, folding
and trap formation. Erosion resulted in the
deposition of the regressive, paralic and
deltaic Warukin formation, which includes
coals, shales and minor reservoir sands.
PliocenePleistocene reactivation of the
Meratus range against the rigid Barito
platform, shed Dahor formation tectonic
molasse westward off the mountain front
into the Barito basin. Together, these
sediments attain a thickness of several
thousand meters in the middle of the basin.
This extensive period of inversion also
buried source rocks deep enough for
maturation and expulsion of hydrocarbons
into the inversion anticlines.
The Barito basin remains prospective.
The southern part of the basin is relatively
unexplored but does not hold much
structural promise. The syn-rift sediments are
a proven large-scale reservoir in the Tanjung
Raya field, which is presently undergoing
waterflood tertiary recovery. Berai formation
limestones are a potential economic reservoir
in the far north of the basin.
Kutei and Makassar basins
The Kutei basin (Figure 33) covers an area of
about 60,000km
2
. It is arguably the deepest
basin in Indonesia, the Tertiary column alone
attaining a maximum sediment thickness of
about 14km (Allen and Chambers, 1998), and
it is 9km deep in the productive area near
Samarinda and the Mahakam River delta.
The Schwaner Mountains to the northwest
of the basin comprise Cretaceous and
Tertiary turbidites and older igneous rocks.
To the west, the basin limit is confined by the
Kalimantan central ranges (including the
Muller Mountains), the Kapuas ranges and
the Kuching uplift. To the east the Kutei
basin passes into the deep-marine Makassar
(Strait) basin. It is bounded to the south by
the Adang fault zone, a flexured sinistral
transform downthrown to the north, and also
by the Meratus Mountains. To the north the
basin is bounded by the Bangalon lineament
and the Sangkulirang fault zone, a transform
with a strong element of downthrow to the
south. Basement is interpreted by Guritno
and Chambers (1999) to comprise Jurassic to
Cretaceous oceanic crust and is covered by a
thick turbidite sequence. The basement was
deformed, metamorphosed and intruded by
granites prior to the midlate Eocene when
deposition of petroleum prospective
sediments commenced.
Although classified as a back-arc basin,
the position of the Kutei basin on the edge
of what was the passive Sunda shield margin
belies an origin closely associated with
rifting in the Makassar Straits. Basin
development throughout the Neogene was
dominated by isostatic sag as a result of
sediment loading, a mechanism observed in
other Neogene rift systems (e.g., Gulf of
Suez Sellwood and Netherwood, 1985).
As for the East Java basin, stratigraphic
nomenclature is confusing with a large
number of operators having developed their
own lithostratigraphic schemes. The scheme
used here (see Figure 5) was originally
published by the Indonesian Petroleum
Association (Courtney et al., 1991) but has
been modified. The major Neogene deltaic
petroleum system has generated over
11BBOE in proven reserves. The thick pile
of Neogene deltaics provide source rocks
(delta-top and delta-front coals and shallow-
marine coaly shales Figure 34); carrier
beds (channel sands); and MiocenePliocene
Balikpapan, Kampung Baru and Mahakam
formation reservoir facies that include
channel and mouth-bar sands and, more
recently discovered, delta-front turbidite
systems (Figure 35).
0 20km
Sangatta
Kerindingan
Melahin
Serang
Attaka
Semberah
Lampake
Pamaguan
Sanga
Sanga
Mutiara
Handil
Bekapai
NW
Peciko
Nubi
Sisi
Tunu
Badak
Nilam
Tambora
Beras
Samboja
Yakin
Sepinggan
Wailawi
Santan
Upper Miocene
Middle Miocene
Oligocene
Source kitchen
> 2000 isopach
Lower Miocene
Figure 33: Summary
geological map of the
lower Kutei basin, with
field locations and
thickest (>2000ft)
kitchen areas (from
Bates, 1996 and
Paterson et al., 1997).
Figure 34: Kerogen
dominated by vitrinite
and cutinite extracted
from Miocene oil- and
gas-prone shales in the
Kutei basin. (Photo
courtesy of S. Noon.)
B
e
d
d
i
n
g
Way-up
Coaly
shale
Coaly
shale
C
r
e
v
a
s
s
e

S
p
l
a
y
P
S
B
P
S
B
P
S
B
P
S
B
Upper channel
Shale plug
Coal
E
p
silo
n
x
-b
e
d
s
Lower channel
8443
8446.5
cm
0
1
2
3
0
1
in
cm
0
1
2
3
0
1
in
Figure 35a: Thick (10s m) coralline limestones are developed
in the Miocene Mahakam section and demonstrate reservoir
potential. These core segments are from the Serang field and
demonstrate good, visible moldic porosity (Photo from
Siemers et al., 1993a.)
Figure 35b: A thick (approximately 3m) massive and extensive
turbidite sheet sand enclosed in shale. Turbidite fans have recently
become the focus of exploration in deep water offshore from the
Mahakam Delta following Unocals Merah Besar and West Seno
oil discoveries. (Photo courtesy of J. Decker.)
Figure 35c: Four
stacked, delta-front,
coarsening upwards
parasequences. Shales
pass up into thinly
laminated and/or
bioturbated sandstone
representing mouth
bars. (Photo courtesy of
P. Montaggioni.)
Figure 35d: A thin but laterally extensive crevasse splay
sand enveloped in coaly shales. Larger crevasse splay sands
may be areally extensive, but are only minor reservoir facies
in the Mahakam Delta. (Photo courtesy P. Montaggioni.)
Figure 35e: Stacked distributary channels with
overbank shales and a 1-m thick coal seam. Large-
scale epsilon cross-beds represent lateral accretion,
and both channels display erosional bases. (Photo
courtesy of P. Montaggioni.)
(b)
(e)
(a)
(d)
(c)
These reservoir facies have analogs on
the modern Mahakam Delta (Figure 36).
All the major oil and gas fields in the
productive Samarinda area are located on
northnortheastsouthsouthwest-trending,
faulted anticlines of the Samarinda
anticlinorium (Figure 37).
The deltaic source facies are both oil-
and gas-prone; more liptinitic or drifted
coals and carbonaceous shales in estuarine
or shallow-marine settings are more oil-
prone; and upper coastal plain and pro-
delta marine shales are more likely to be
gas-prone, according to Thompson et al.
(1985). Other authors consider Miocene
Mahakam (and Tarakan) coals to be strictly
oil-prone (e.g., Schoell et al., l985; Oudin
and Picard, 1982). Ferguson and McClay
(1997) consider the gas in the Badak field
to be the product of oil cracking during
late-stage, deep burial of the reservoir into
the gas kitchen.
Work by Peters et al. (1999) classified
Mahakam source facies in sequence
stratigraphic terms and resolved the problem
of source for the deepwater West Seno,
Merah Besar and Panca 1 oil discoveries with
the identification of a deep-marine lowstand
oil group. According to Peters et al. (1999)
these lowstand fan-reservoired oils originated
from similarly deposited, deep-marine,
lowstand, coaly shales which range in age
from early to late Miocene.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(middlelate Eocene)
It is now generally agreed that the Kutei
basin was initiated in the middle Eocene
(e.g., Feriansyah et al., 1999; Moss and
Chambers, 1999), with an extensional rift
phase associated with incipient sea-floor
spreading in the Makassar Straits. The half-
grabens that developed at this time filled
with middle to late Eocene syn-rift
sediments, including conglomeratic alluvial
fans of the Kiham Haloq formation,
equivalent to the lower Tanjung formation
of the Barito basin.
Further to the east, thick, deep-marine,
Mangkupa formation shales and turbidites
are dated, on the basis of foraminifera, as
midlate Eocene. In between the alluvial
and open-marine facies, deltaic sediments of
the Berium formation were deposited and
include coals, channel sands and
carbonaceous shales.
The syn-rift sediments have long been
considered as being potentially hydrocarbon
bearing. Guritno and Chambers (1999)
proved this potential in the northern part of
the onshore Runtu PSC. Between 1997 and
1998 Tengkawang 1 was abandoned as a
gas-condensate discovery with oil shows,
and Maau 1 and Wahau 1 were plugged and
abandoned with oil shows. Hydrocarbons
are reservoired in poor-quality deltaic sands
of the upper Eocene Berium formation, and
are sourced from intra-formational coaly
sediments. The location of better quality
reservoir sands may well lead to significant
syn-rift discoveries.
Pembulan
anticline
Tenggarong
anticline
Belayan
trough
Katudu
anticline
Murung
anticline
Pembulan
anticline
Tenggarong
anticline
Sebulu
anticline
Separi
anticline
Semberah
anticline
Badak
trend
Sebulu
anticline
Semberah
anticline
Prangat
thrust
Separi
anticline
outcrops
Badak/Nilam
anticline
Present-day
Mahakam delta
Pliocene
Upper Miocene
Middle Miocene
Lower Miocene
E W
0 10km
Figure 37: Geological
cross-sections through
East Kalimantan. Top:
regional cross-section
across the Kutei basin.
Bottom: geological
cross-section of the
Samarinda
anticlinorium. (Allen
and Chambers, 1998.)
Area of lower
photograph
Distributary
channels
Tidal
channels
Mouth
bars
Tide-dominated
interdistributary
zone
Distributary
channel
Tidal channel
Sea
Distributary
channels
Mouth bar
Tidal
channels
Figure 36: Modem Mahakam Delta distributary
channel and mouth-bar reservoir analogs. (SLR
image from Allen and Chambers, 1998, photos
courtesy of P. Montaggioni.)
Stage II. Sag
(late Eoceneearly Miocene)
During the late Eocene, basin deepening
produced marine conditions throughout.
The marine Antan and Kedango formations
(also known as the Ujoh Bilang formation)
were deposited through the Oligocene and
include both turbidites and carbonates.
Renewed extension and uplift of the basin
margins occurred in the late Oligocene (e.g.
Feriansyah et al., 1999), but deep-marine
conditions persisted in the center of the
basin with turbidite and deep-marine shales
being deposited. At this time carbonates
were more widely developed on the basin
flanks and basement highs.
In the southwest corner of the basin,
these Batu Hidup formation (Berai
formation equivalent) carbonate buildups
are the gas reservoir for the subeconomic
Kerenden gas field (Van de Weerd et al.,
1987). This represents the only hydrocarbon
discovery in the upper (western) Kutei
basin. The major hinge zones to the south
(Arang fault zone) and to the north
(Bangalon lineament and the Sangkulirang
fault zone) also developed at this time.
Stage III. Deltaic
(early MioceneRecent)
Early Miocene deepwater conditions
persisted in the basin center and carbonates
continued to develop on the basin flanks
prior to the onset of lateearly Miocene
inversion, when uplifted Eocene and
Oligocene sediments were eroded and a
major delta system formed in the west and
prograded to the east. Prior to this event
the older Mahakam sands were dominated
by volcanic and meta-sedimentary material,
but recycling of the earlier Tertiary
sediments saw an increase in the
compositional maturity of the deltaics.
The lower Miocene deltaics are over
3500m thick and were buried rapidly, which
led to overpressuring. The deltaic interval is
folded and faulted by northnortheast
southsouthwest-trending anticlines that
contain bathyal shales in their cores and
shallow deltaics on their flanks, and which
may have started to form in the lateearly
Miocene (Allen and Chambers, 1998).
Chambers and Daly (1995) proposed an
inversion tectonic model for the Samarinda
anticlinorium, with anticlines representing
detachment folds (see Figure 37) over
variably uplifted and overpressured bathyal
sediments. Deltaic sedimentation continued
into the middle and late Miocene, punctuated
by compressional deformation, uplift and
erosion in response to basin inversion.
Each inversion episode led to deltaic
progradation. By the beginning of the
middle Miocene, there was initial rapid
progradation of the delta, sediment being
supplied by incision of the Mahakam River.
There was also progressive development
from west to east of syn-depositional folds,
the initial structural expression of the
present-day anticlines (Allen and Chambers,
1998). Section balancing by Ferguson and
McClay (1997) indicates a change from
extension to contraction that started at
about 14mybp, within the middle Miocene.
At the start of the late Miocene, major
outward building of the delta took place as a
result of an inversion pulse causing
increased sediment supply.
The middlelate Miocene also represents
the period when delta-plain to delta-front
coals and carbonaceous shale source rocks
(with total organic carbon of 20%70%) for
the Mahakam hydrocarbons were deposited
(Paterson et al., 1997). Paterson et al.
(1997) defined the top of the effective
kitchen as the start of significant
hydrocarbon expulsion rather than
generation, and the base as the top of the
main overpressure zone. The source kitchen
is up to 1000m thick and covers a
significant portion of the middlelate
Miocene paleo-depocenter. It is located
immediately below the stacked-channel and
shallow-marine reservoirs in the eastern
part of the Samarinda anticlinorium.
Further to the west in the Samarinda
anticlinorium there are no oil or gas
discoveries, reflecting a greater distance
from the miocene source; more significantly,
the northnortheastsouthsouthwest striking
anticlines have prevented westerly
migration of hydrocarbons.
Compressional folding continued
throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene
and formed the long, sinuous, subparallel
anticlines that have trapped hydrocarbons
in the predominantly deltaic Miocene to
Pleistocene Balikpapan, Kampung Baru and
Mahakam formations.
Tarakan
sub-basin
Vanda 1
East
Vanda
high
M
a
y
n
e
F
a
u
l
t
S
y
s
t
e
m
0 50 100km
Quaternary
Neogene
Paleogene
Oil field
Cretaceous
Pre-Tertiary sediments with some igneous rocks
Gas field
Igneous rock
Zone of shale
diaprism and
thrusting
S
e
m
p
o
r
n
a
f
a
u
l
t
Mangkalihat
Peninsula
Neogene carbonate
complex
Muara
sub-basin
2
0
0
m
1
0
0
0
m
South China Sea
Kalimantan
Latih
anticline
Berau
sub-basin
Tarakan
arch
Bunyu
arch
Semporna
Peninsula
2
0
0
m
1000 m
Ahus
arch
Tidung
sub-basin
Sebatik
arch
Sembakung
field
Bunyu Tapa
field
Bunyu field
Juata field
Pamusian
field
Bangkudulis
field
South China Sea
M
a
r
a
t
u
a
f
a
u
l
t
Intrusive
Neogene
extrusive
Figure 38: Generalized
geological map of the
Tarakan basin (from
Lentini and Darman,
1996, with
modifications from
Netherwood and
Wight, 1993).
The SamarindaMahakam area of the
Kutei basin is considered to be mature, and
all large anticlinal structures have been
drilled. There is still the possibility of
smaller stratigraphic and fault traps, but
these are notoriously difficult to find in the
Mahakam area where individual reservoir
sands may be of limited extent, and are
multiple-stacked and commonly not
interconnected.
The latest successes have been in the
pro-delta Makassar Strait area where
Miocene, lowstand, turbidite fans host
significant oil discoveries (e.g., West Seno,
Merah Besar fields). These fan systems are
easily identified on seismic (Baillie et al.,
1999) and are even more prospective with
the recognition of associated deep-marine
source facies and adjacent mature kitchen
areas (Peters et al., 1999). Large, pro-delta
carbonate buildups are known to exist and
smaller, shelfal, delta-front carbonates have
been considered as potential reservoirs in
the past (e.g., Siemers et al., 1993a). There
are also further possibilities in the syn-rift
clastics (as illustrated by Guritno and
Chambers, 1999) and in Oligocene
carbonates (e.g., Kerenden gas field)
particularly toward the basin margins.
Tarakan basin
The Tarakan basin (see Figure 38) is located
in the far northeast of the island of Borneo
and represents a passive deltaic margin
where the Sesayap and other rivers transport
fine-grained sediments into the northern
Makassar Strait. There are 14 oil and gas
fields in the basin and most of the largest
were discovered prior to World War II.
The basin is dominated by a series of
northwestsoutheast trending, sinistral
transform faults and similarly trending
anticlines that help divide the onshore and
shallow-water parts of the basin into four
sub-basins. To the northeast, magnetic
lineations indicate the opening of the Sulu
Sea (Lee and McCabe, 1986) and to the
southeast, subduction of the Celebes Sea
occurs beneath the north arm of Sulawesi.
To the northwest folding becomes more
intense, with right-lateral, strike-slip
faulting. Further to the northwest near
Sabah, there is complex overthrusting from
the north associated with obduction of
basic igneous rocks at the western end of
the Sulu island arc (Netherwood and
Wight, 1993).
The four sub-basins, from north to
south, are:
The Tidung sub-basin, bounded to the
north by the major sinistral transcurrent
Semporna fault zone and to the south by a
carbonate platform. It contains a number
of northwestsoutheast-trending anticlines
that become more severely folded to the
northwest. There are no drilled
hydrocarbon occurrences in the sub-basin.
The Tarakan sub-basin, occupying the
central area of the Tarakan basin, and
representing a series of stacked and
amalgamated PliocenePleistocene
depocenters with a thick clastic fill. The
Pliocene wedges-out against Miocene
sediments to the south and west. This
sub-basin contains the producing fields of
the Tarakan basin, which are all located on
the crests of northwestsoutheast-
trending anticlines.
The Berau sub-basin is dominated by a
series of compressional anticlines,
trending northnorthwestsouthsoutheast,
and related to the sinistral wrench faults
that have accommodated spreading in the
Makassar Strait.
The most southerly Muara sub-basin trends
northwestsoutheast and is bounded by the
Maratua (wrench) fault system at its
northern margin, and the Mangkalihat fault
to the south. The northern Maratua fault
has produced a basement high on which
the Maratua reef islands are developed.
Seismic studies and drilling indicate more
than 5000m of Oligocene to Recent
carbonates, syn-rift and passive margin
sediments resting on older volcanic rocks.
In the offshore region major northsouth
growth faults, including the main Mayne
fault system, are the dominant structural
control on sedimentation (Netherwood and
Wight, 1993). The distal, offshore
stratigraphy is dominated by abundant
deltaic clastics, and laterally equivalent,
shallow- to deep-marine basinal shales and
local carbonates that have been targets for a
number of unsuccessful wells (e.g., Vanda 1,
Figure 39). In the eastern deep there are
over 2100m of Pleistocene sediments and
1200m of Pliocene. The Pliocene is over
2500m thick in the inverted arches of
Tarakan, Bunyu and Ahus. Landward paralic
intervals contain coals and carbonaceous
shales with abundant type I and type II
kerogens. These may represent a similar
hydrocarbon source to those of the Miocene
Mahakam Delta.
The Miocene has rarely been penetrated.
However, outcrops and the few wells drilled
in the Tidung and Berau sub-basins indicate
thousands of meters of Miocene, as well as
Oligocene and Eocene sediments. The older
sediments are encountered far to the south
in the Muara sub-basin.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(middle Eoceneearly Miocene)
The basin was initiated by rifting of the
Sulawesi Sea, with middle to late Eocene
extension and subsidence and was complete
by the early Miocene. This resulted in a
series of en-echelon block faults dipping to
the east. It is speculated by Lentini and
Darman (1996) that the Eocene rift fill may
contain source rocks.
Figure 39: Vuggy
porosity (left and
middle) developed near
the top of a carbonate
buildup. Shaly platy
coral facies (right) of
the reef front. Pliocene,
Vanda 1 well, Tarakan
basin (Netherwood and
Wight, 1993).
S
e
lu
b
u
r
h
ig
h
Natuna Sea
Natuna Island
Laut Island
S
o
k
a
n
g

t
r
o
u
g
h
O
u
t
e
r

b
a
s
i
n
a
l

a
r
e
a
K
o
m
o
d
o

g
r
a
b
e
n
P
a
u
s
-
R
a
n
a
i
r
i
d
g
e
N
a
t
u
n
a
a
r
c
h
Terumbu
carbonate
platform
West Luconia
delta
Penyu
basin
S
u
n
d
a
s
h
e
lf
B
o
u
n
d
a
ry
h
ig
h
C
u
m
i
-
c
u
m
i
p
l
a
t
e
a
u
Kakap
graben
KF
KRA 1
KH
AI-IX
M
a
l
a
y

b
a
s
i
n
A
noa high
Khorat
platform
Anambas Islands
M
a
l
a
y
s
i
a
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a
T
e
n
g
g
o
l a
r
c
h
Sotong
Anding
Duyong
Central
high
A
n
a
m
b
a
s
g
r
a
b
e
n
B
a
w
a
l graben
Kepiting 1
Kelu 1
Sembilang 1
Kodok 1
Kerisi 1
Sepat 1
Forel
Bawal
Buntai
Tembong
Belida
Terubuk
CCE 1
Belut 1
Ikan Pari 1
Udang
Tabu
Guntong
Tapis
Palas
Pulai
Segili
Anoa
Tinggi
Tiong
Bekok
H
a
r
i
m
a
u
t
r
o
u
g
h
25 50km 0
Bursa 1X
AP 1X
AV 1X
Banteng
1&2
Sokang 1
'L' Structure
G
P
N
S
-
1
9
9
G
P
N
S
-
1
2
5
2
0
0
0
3
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4000
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1000
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0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Areas where depth to basement > 4000m
Areas where sediment is < 3000m thick
Oil field/discovery
Gas field/discovery
Terumbu carbonates Miocene
Figure 40: Morphological division, tectonic lineaments and
hydrocarbon occurrences, in the Natuna Sea area (after Fainstein
and Meyer, 1998 and Phillips et al., 1997).
Figure 41: Play
concepts for West
Natuna basin (after
Fainstein and Meyer,
1998).
0
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
NW SE
1000
2000
3000
4000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Muda formation
Muda formation
Arang formation
Arang formation
Gabus formation
Gabus
formation
Barat formation
Barat
formation
Pre-Gabus
West Natuna basin Line GPNS-125
Syn-rift
sediments
Syn-rift
sediments
Inverted half-grabens containing
lacustrine and marginal
marine source rocks
Inner Arang unconform
ity
Stage II. Sag
(middle MiocenePliocene)
Subsidence and the development of
northsouth listric growth faults and deltaic
fill characterize this stage.
Stage III. Inversion
(PlioceneRecent)
As with most basins in Indonesia, late
Neogene compression produced inversion
and structuring. There was reactivation of
transform movement along wrench faults
crossing the Makassar Straits, and
transpression resulted in the large
southeast-plunging anticlines that host all
the known fields. Lentini and Darman
(1996) suggest between 1000 and 1500m of
inversion during this period.
Oil was first discovered in the Tarakan
basin in 1899 (Tarakan field) and since that
time the only sizeable discoveries have been
the Pamusian oil field in 1901 (200MBO
recoverable) and the Bunyu oil field in 1923
(80MBO recoverable). The fact that no
other major fields have been discovered
must be considered surprising in such a
large basin with producing hydrocarbons,
well-defined structures, and an extremely
thick section of deltaics for both source
rocks and reservoirs. The basin has a known
Eocene rift sequence and thick Neogene
carbonates. Although information is limited,
it is thought that the hydrocarbon potential
of this basin has not been fully realized.
There is still potential for structural and
stratigraphic traps along the large Bunyu
and Tarakan arches in the Tarakan sub-
basin. One of the major problems with the
proximal deltaic sands to date, however, is
poor reservoir quality, with thin, fine-
grained sands and a poor net-to-gross ratio.
Some of the best opportunities are
considered to be basinward of large growth
faults, on rollover anticlines where
multiple-stacked carbonate buildups occur
with hydrocarbon shows (Netherwood and
Wight, 1993). Opportunities may also be
possible in the lowstand fans that spill off
the fronts of growth faults, such as those
proven to contain oil in the Makassar
Straits. Other opportunities include
possible sourcing from deeper syn-rift
sediments and possible large carbonate
reservoirs in the south of the basin.
West Natuna basin
The West Natuna basin forms the eastern
part of the largest basin system within the
Sunda shelf. This system includes the Malay
basin and the basins in the Gulf of Thailand.
The principle tectonic elements of the West
Natuna area include three subbasinal
provinces, the northwestsoutheast-
oriented extension of the Malay basin, the
northeastsouthwest-oriented Anambas
graben, and the eastwest-oriented Penyu
graben (Figure 40). These sub-basins were
initiated as early Tertiary rifts and are
separated by major structural highs,
including longstanding plateau areas such as
the Renggol arch and Cumi-Cumi high, that
were inverted in the midlate Miocene.
The majority of discoveries have been
made in the post-rift to syn-inversion
sequences (Gabus/Udang to Arang
formations). Significant discoveries have
also, however, been made in the syn-rift
pre-Gabus sequence (Figure 41). The KRA
field, brought on stream in 1995, represents
the first production in the area from
Paleogene syn-rift sediments. To date
approximately 500MMBO and 2.5TcfG have
been discovered in the basin.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(late Cretaceousearly Oligocene)
The exact timing of rift initiation is
uncertain. It may have been as early as the
late Cretaceous, although the more probable
timing is late Eocene to early Oligocene
when complex graben and half-graben
systems developed as a result of the
collision between the Indian subcontinent
and the Asian plate. The northeast
southwest-oriented Anambas graben is the
largest, but equally productive is the
smaller, northwestsoutheast-oriented KF
half-graben, located near the Indonesia
Malaysia international divide.
The rift fill sediments are continental and
include red beds, lacustrine shales and
coals, fluvial sands and stacked fan deltas
(the KRA field reservoirs) of the Belut
formation (Fainstein and Meyer, 1998). The
rift sequence in the West Natuna area is also
referred to as the Benua/Lama formation.
During rift initiation, sedimentation
probably kept pace with subsidence and the
areally restricted, incipient half-grabens
were filled with mainly fluvial deposits
(Phillips et al., 1997). As rifting progressed,
subsidence increased and deep lacustrine
shales were deposited. These are the main
source facies with an algal-dominated
kerogen assemblage including Botryococcus
and Pediastrum (Figure 42) and with total
organic carbon values in excess of 5%.
During relative lowstands, fan-deltas
episodically built-out into the lakes from
uplifted rift margins. Turbidite sands may
well be developed in front of these
fluvial/alluvial sedimentary piles. Locally, as
in the KF half-graben, the late syn-rift phase
was characterized by widespread, open-
lacustrine and lacustrine-plain
environments, resulting in the deposition of
massive, sealing shales (Benua formation).
Elsewhere, sedimentation outpaced
subsidence progressively filling the rifted
depocenters with large-scale lacustrine
deltas (Phillips et al., 1997).
Figure 42:
Chlorococcalean type
algae, Pediastrum,
typical of lacustrine
source rocks in
Western Indonesia,
Oligocene, West
Natuna basin (photo
courtesy of S. Noon).
Stage II. Post-rift
The late Oligoceneearly Miocene is
characterized by deposition of fluvio-
lacustrine sands, shales and coals of the
Gabus formation. Gabus sands are the main
reservoirs in the West Natuna basin. They
were deposited as incised-valley fill and
lowstand shoreline sands (Phillips et al.,
1997) and can attain a thickness of over
200 ft. These include rift-margin deltaic
and fluvial sands (e.g., Forel and KF oil
fields) and thicker, braid plain and braid
delta deposits (e.g., KH, KG, Belida,
Udang, Belanak and Sembilang fields).
Gabus formation shales and coals can
demonstrate good source potential,
although they only locally reach maturity
in deeper parts of the basin. In the south of
the basin the upper Gabus is known as the
Udang formation.
Towards the end of the Oligocene a major
wet or lacustrine cycle, the Barat
formation, was deposited across the basin.
It is shale-dominated and shows some
marine influence. The shales are typically
organically lean, but this unit forms an
important semi-regional seal to the
underlying Gabus formation.
Stage III. Syn-inversion
(early Miocenelate Miocene)
In the early Miocene, compression and
wrench faulting marked the initiation of
inversion. Many of the proven and
prospective structures in the area were
formed during this tectonic phase. The
change in tectonic stresses in the area,
from relative extension to compression, is
due, at least in part, to the onset of seafloor
spreading in the South China Sea. Global
eustatic rise at this time is recorded locally
by the establishment of marine and
marginally marine (paralic) environments
in the Arang formation. Sedimentation was
dominated by shales, with abundant coals
and subordinate sands. Significant
reservoirs are, however, developed, such as
the tidally influenced sands of the lower
Arang (or Pasir) formation, which are
productive in the Belida, KH and KG oil and
gas fields. The coals and shales developed
in the Arang formation are commonly oil-
and gas-prone but, like the Gabus, are
generally considered not to have been
buried deep enough to generate
hydrocarbons. The exception to this is in
the central Malay basin which has
continued to subside differentially through
the Miocene to Recent.
The last main pulse of inversion occurred
in the middle to late Miocene. Orthogonal
compression together with
northwestsoutheast-oriented, strike-slip
tectonics were accommodated by
deformation along both the major graben
bounding faults as well as a series of
northwestsoutheast striking wrench faults
that transect the area. This resulted in the
formation of structural highs where
depositional lows had previously existed,
and significant erosion of the syn-inversion
and post-rift sequences. The erosion of the
former grabenal areas created a suite of
often large, anticlinal structures across the
West Natuna basin. These structures are
referred to as Sunda folds and have been an
important exploration objective.
In the Anambas graben area, the major
anticlinorium termed the boundary high is a
product of pulsed Miocene inversions. Oil
and gas accumulations are proven in the
Sunda fold family of inversion structures
(e.g., the KF and Anoa fields). Significant
hydrocarbon accumulations are also located
in structures associated with the right
lateral wrenching (e.g., KG and KRA in the
KF half-graben, and the Udang, Forel and
Belanak fields).
Figure 43: Play
concepts for East
Natuna basin
(Fainstein and
Meyer, 1998).
SE
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0
NW
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Bursa
oil discovery
'L' structure
Natuna gas field
Muda formation
Arang formation
Arang formation
Arang
formation
Gabus formation
Gabus formation
Gabus
formation
Gabus
formation Pre-Gabus
Pre-Gabus
Pre-Gabus
Kitchen
for 'L' structure
gas
Source of hydrocarbons
probably lower Arang
and Gabus shales
Supergiant
'L' structure
45Tcf Top-oil window
Top-gas w
indow
East Natuna basin Line GPNS-199
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
Stage IV. Post-inversion
The Muda formation, a regional seal, is
dominated by marine shales that were
deposited during subsidence and
transgression from the late Miocene
onwards. Associated gas-charged sands in
the Muda formation have long been avoided
by drillers, but were upgraded from a
drilling-hazard to a potentially economic
shallow gas play by Bennett (1999).
In many areas, post-inversion subsidence
has been insufficient to reactivate the syn-
rift kitchen areas that were switched-off
due to uplift and inversion. In the Malay
basin province, however, Pliocene
Pleistocene subsidence has been substantial
and coincident with increased heat flow
(possibly due to crustal thinning), resulting
in hydrocarbon expulsion from the younger,
post-rift Gabus and Arang source rocks. At
present, heat flow remains high and the top
of the oil- and gas-windows are on average
about 2500 and 4800m, respectively
(Fainstein and Meyer, 1998).
The West Natuna basin is still considered
to be prospective with many areas relatively
underexplored. There is good potential
within the deeper syn-rift sediment package
where thick reservoirs are adjacent to
generating source rocks and may be sealed
by lacustrine and peri-lacustrine shales.
The potential of this play type is proven
in the KRA oil field. The post-rift and syn-
inversion succession contains abundant high
quality reservoir sands with associated
source rocks throughout and, with a
relatively high geothermal gradient of
3.72C/100m, the potential for expulsion
and short-range migration into inversion
related structures is high. Shallow gas in the
Muda formation is also a new play concept
that holds promise.
East Natuna basin
The offshore East Natuna basin is separated
from the West Natuna basin by the Natuna
arch (see Figure 40) and extends to the
east into the Sarawak basin off western
Borneo. Unlike the West Natuna basin, it
was not subjected to a major phase of
Miocene inversion and is, therefore,
structurally quite different (see Figure 43).
The East Natuna basin can be divided
into a number of discrete structural
elements defined by depressions and highs
in the basement of Cretaceous granites and
metasediments (Figure 44). The Sokang
trough in the southwest of the basin and
immediately to the east of Natuna Island
contains over 6000m of Tertiary sediments
and is separated from the main basin by a
structural high, the Paus ridge. To the north
of the Paus ridge the narrow northsouth
oriented Komodo graben contains over
5000m of Miocene clastics. The Terumbu
Upper
Camba/
Baturare
volcanics
Lower
Camba
Tonasa
Malawa
Langi
volcanics
Bua
volcanics
Walanae
Tacipi
Enrekang
volcanics
Buakayu
Makale
(Tonasa)
Toradja
Latimojong
Age uncertain
+
+
+
+
+
+
Celebes
molasse
Upper platform
and reefal limestones
Clastic coal unit
Lower
platform
limestone
Basal clastics
Not present
in Tomori wells
Unnamed
basement
Fufa
Wahat
Salas complex
Upper Nief
Lower Nief
Kola shale
Manusela
Saman-Saman
Kanikeh
Kobipoto Tehoru
+
+
+
+
+
+
Sele
Klasaman
Klasafet
Kais Kais
Sirga
Faumi
Imskin/Waripi
Granite?
Kembelangan
Tipuma
Ainim
Aifat
Aimau
Salawati
granite
Kemum
meta-sedimentary
K
l
a
m
o
g
u
n
?
Sele
Steen kool
Klasafet
Seka
Sago
Kais
Sirga
Onin
(Baham)
Imskin
Kembelangan
Ainim
Aifat
Aimau
Kemum
meta-sedimentary
Tipuma
Viqueque
Batu Putih
Ofu formation
Monu
Naktunu
Oe Baat
Wai Luti
Babulu
Aifulu
Niof
Cibas
Maubisso
Atehoe
Barracouta
(Woodbine group)
Oliver
Cartier
Prion & Hibernia
Grebe/Puffin
Johnson
Waingalu
Ashmore
Darwin
Flamingo
Plover
Malita
Cape Londonderry
Mount Goodwin
Hyland Bay
Fossilhead group
Kulshill group
Weaber group
Arafura group
Goulburn group
Wessel group
Woodbine group
Waingalu
Flamingo group
Kulshill group
Weaber group
Arafura group
Goulburn group
Wessel group
After Wilson et al., 1997,
Coffield et al., 1997.
Davies, 1989. Kemp, 1993, 1995.
Livingstone et al., 1993,
Fainstein, 1998a,
Lunt & Djaafar, 1991.
Lunt &
Djaafar, 1991,
Fainstein, 1998a.
After Sawyer et al., 1993, Fainstein, 1998a, 1998b,
Young et al., 1995, Sani et al., 1995.
5
15
20
30
40
50
60
65
70
80
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
Sulawesi
Seram
West Irian Jaya
Salawati Bintuni
Timor region
West Timor
(limited information)
Bonaparte
basin (ZOC)
Arafura Sea
Southwest
Quat.
Holo.
Pleist.
L
a
te
E
a
r
ly
L
a
te
M
id
d
le
E
a
r
ly
U
p
p
e
r
E
a
r
ly
L
a
te
M
id
d
le
E
a
r
ly
Paleocene
Late
Early
Late
Middle
Early
Late
T
r
ia
s
s
ic
J
u
r
a
s
s
ic
P
e
r
m
ia
n
P
a
le
o
z
o
ic
M
e
s
o
z
o
ic
C
r
e
ta
c
e
o
u
s
P
a
le
o
g
e
n
e
N
e
o
g
e
n
e
E
o
c
e
n
e
O
lig
o
c
e
n
e
M
io
c
e
n
e
P
lio
c
e
n
e
C
e
n
o
z
o
ic
Middle
Early
Late
Early
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian
West-central
Tomori
Figure 44: Summary of basin stratigraphy in Eastern Indonesia.
shelf in the north has developed between
2500 and 4000m of Neogene cover that
includes up to 1500m of Miocene to
Pliocene Terumbu formation carbonates.
The outer basin (Bunguran trough) dips
east towards Sarawak and contains over
10,000m of sediments.
The East Natuna basin is well known as
being the host for the largest gas field in
Southeast Asia, the Natuna Alpha gas field,
with 210TcfG in an isolated buildup in the
upper part of the thick, middle Miocene to
late Pliocene Terumbu carbonates.
Progressive, relative sea-level rise over a
period of nearly 2,000,000 years allowed the
build up of over 1500m of carbonates.
Episodic exposure has created and
preserved an average porosity of 15% for
the five wells drilled to date. Unfortunately
71% of the gas is carbon dioxide (Dunn et
al., 1996) and, as such, estimated
recoverable reserves are 45TcfG.
Stage I. Syn-rift
(late Cretaceous/Paleocene
early Miocene)
Northwestsoutheast-oriented rifting may
have started as early as the late Cretaceous
(Dunn et al., 1996) and continued through
the Oligocene and into Miocene times.
Seafloor spreading occurred to the north in
the South China Sea during the later
Tertiary. The specific divide between actual
rifting due to plate collision to the west, and
rapid subsidence due to seafloor spreading
to the north, was at the base of the middle
Miocene. Syn-rift lithostratigraphic
nomenclature is similar to that of the West
Natuna basin, the Gabus and Barat
formations comprising basal fluvial and then
transgressive paralic and marine deposits,
including sands, silts, shales and coals.
These sediments have been identified as a
mature source for the Natuna Alpha gas and
contain potential reservoirs of excellent
quality (Dunn et al., 1996).
Stage II. Post-rift
(middle Miocenemiddle Pliocene)
At the base of the middle Miocene, the
extensional, rift-generated fault-block
terrane started to subside due to rifting and
spreading of the Borneo margin. Terumbu
formation carbonate buildups developed on
the normal-faulted basement highs at the
eastern edge of the Natuna arch. Three
recognized cycles of carbonate growth relate
to changes in relative sea level. In deeper
water, shales were deposited coincident with
the shallow platform carbonates.
In the Natuna Alpha gas field, carbonate
growth ended at the base of the Pliocene due
to subsidence associated with loading by an
orogenic front and an accretionary prism in
northwest Borneo (Dunn et al., 1996).
Elsewhere, Terumbu carbonate growth
continued into the basal Pliocene and the top
of the carbonate sequence was exposed by
eustatic sea-level fall in the early to middle
Pliocene with resultant solution
enhancement of porosity.
Stage III. Subsidence
(middle PliocenePleistocene)
Foundering of the East Natuna basin
resulted in the sealing of the carbonate by
deep-marine shales. Elevated geothermal
gradients, as seen throughout Western
Indonesia at this time, matured the Arang
formation source rocks.
The East Natuna basin is relatively
underexplored but the potential for further
large gas discoveries in the Terumbu
carbonates is low because most buildups
have been drilled. These include the Pliocene
Bursa-1 and AP-1X subeconomic oil and gas
discoveries. The earlier syn-rift clastic plays,
however, require more serious consideration,
with proven hydrocarbon generating
capabilities and thick, high-quality sands.
Basins of Eastern Indonesia
The petroliferous basins of Eastern
Indonesia are geologically different from
those in the west of the archipelago. In fact,
in many cases they cannot strictly be
classified as basins, and include complex
fold belts and even thrust belts that are
elevated to such an extent that commercial
hydrocarbon pools at subsurface depths of
2500m may be underpressured (e.g., the
Oseil oil field in Seram).
Geological differences to the basins of
Western Indonesia include a Paleozoic and
Mesozoic sedimentary history older than the
Jurassic breakup of the Gondwana
supercontinent. Mesozoic sedimentation
resumed after continental breakup, and
there was a noticeable change in
sedimentary style starting in the Neogene
(Figure 44). These pre-Tertiary and early
Tertiary stratigraphies are near-copies of the
Northwest shelf of Australia. They prove
that the multitude of highly rotated and
deformed fragments making up many of the
islands of Eastern Indonesia, from eastern
Sulawesi to Irian Jaya, were part of the
Australian craton. Recently, pre-Tertiary
sequences have started to reveal their true
value with the discovery of commercial
hydrocarbon accumulations and also
prolific, entirely Mesozoic petroleum
systems. The only explored area of Eastern
Indonesia that does not demonstrate this
affinity is the western side of Sulawesi,
representing a fragment of the Sunda shield
(Asian plate) that has rifted away from the
edge of Sundaland. Western Sulawesi is
separated from Borneo by attenuated
continental crust in the Makassar Strait to
the south and by oceanic crust in the Celebes
Sea to the north (figures 45, 46 and 47).
In addition to an Australian plate origin,
the eastern part of Indonesia was close to
the action during the complicated collision
events that took place throughout the
Miocene. These include the collision of the
New Guinea passive margin with the
PhilippineHalmaheraNew Guinea arc
starting at the very end of the Oligocene
(approximately 25mybp) and collision of
the Australian plate with the Sunda trough
(Timor trough) and Sunda shield starting in
the late Miocene (about 8mybp). In
consequence, Eastern Indonesia is
tectonically and structurally extremely
complex, comprising slivers of continental
blocks, arc fragments and trapped ocean
basins (figures 45 and 46). Although many
potential petroleum basins are recognized,
they tend to be small, geologically poorly
understood and, usually, in deep water.
Some 86% of Eastern Indonesias basinal
areas are in water depths greater than
200m (Pattinama and Samuel, 1992) and
the onshore areas are in remote jungle.
Of the 38 Paleozoic to Tertiary-age
sedimentary basins identified in Eastern
Indonesia, 20 remain undrilled and many
that have been drilled are underexplored.
Although the basins of Eastern Indonesia
may never prove to be as prolific as the
back-arc basins of Western Indonesia, the
fact that only 5MMBOE have been
discovered to date compared with Western
Indonesias 50MMBOE is viewed as a
reflection of the explorationists reticence,
rather than the regions true potential.
Interest has only recently been rekindled
by more favorable frontier exploration terms
and a number of commercial and, in one case
giant, hydrocarbon discoveries in the
Mesozoic section of Eastern Indonesia. These
recent discoveries include the Oseil oil field
undergoing development by Kufpec in the
Jurassic of Seram; the giant (over 20TcfG)
Tangguh gas project of ARCO and British Gas
in the Paleogene and Jurassic section of the
Bintuni basin, western Irian Jaya; and a
string of oil and gas-condensate discoveries
including Elang, Kakatua, and Undan-Bayu in
Sorong fault
AUSTRALIAN PLATE
Tim
or trough
T
i
m
o
r
Sumba
Flores
Buru
Irian Jaya
Seram
Salawati
basin
EURASIAN PLATE
M
o
l
u
c
c
a

S
e
a
Sulawesi
PACIFIC
PLATE
PHILIPPINE
SEA PLATE
B
a
n
d
a
a
r
c
h
South A
r
u
t
r
o
u
g
h
S
o
r
ong fault zone
North Band
a
a
rc
h
7cm/year
Banda Sea
Bintuni
basin
Legend
Fault
Trend of volcanic inner arc
Continental crust
Subduction zone
Figure 45: Tectonic setting of East Indonesia (modified from Guritno et al., 1996 and Sani et al., 1995).
Celebes Sea
(oceanic crust)
Molluca Sea
(oceanic crust)
(
M
a
g
m
a
t
i
c

a
r
c
)
North arm
(Magmatic arc)
East arm
Sula platform
(Gondwana continental crust)
Sundaland
South arm
South East
arm
Tukang Besi platform
(Gondwana continental crust)
Banda Sea
(oceanic crust with Gondwana-
derived continental fragments)
Sulawesi
Buru
M
a
k
a
s
a
r

s
t
r
a
i
t
(
a
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
e
d

A
s
i
a
n

c
o
n
t
i
n
e
n
t
a
l

c
r
u
s
t
)
K
a
l
i
m
a
n
t
a
n
Samarinda
Palu
Ujung Pandang
Kendari
Manado
Mamasa
A
A'
M
a
s
u
p
u
?
Tiaka
field
100 200km 0
H
a
l
m
a
h
e
r
a
Oil seep
Gas seep
Legend
Ophiolite
Metamorphic rock
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Paleogene/Neogene
sediments
Figure 46: Tectonic
setting of Sulawesi
with origins of
Sulawesi fragments
indicated (from
Guritno et al., 1996).
Australian-derived
ProterozoicPaleozoic
lithosphere
Sundaland
MesozoicCenozoic
lithosphere
Scale vertical = horizontal
Makassar Strait South Sulawesi Bone Bay Southeast Sulawesi Banda Sea
East West
0
20
40
60
80
100
k
m
0
20
40
60
80
100
A A'
x
x x
Figure 47: Regional cross-
section across southern
Sulawesi continent
continent collision
(Guritno et al., 1996).
the Timor Gap zone of cooperation (ZOC)
and, Corallina and Laminaria just outside the
Timor Gap ZOC in the northern part of the
Northwest shelf of Australia.
Four of the main areas in Eastern
Indonesia that have already been targets of
hydrocarbon exploration are Sulawesi,
Seram, Western Irian Jaya and the Timor
Gap ZOC. These areas are discussed below
and although they do not provide a
complete view of the petroleum geology of
Eastern Indonesia, they go a long way
towards defining the stratigraphic and
structural complexities and habitats of
hydrocarbons discovered to date and what
may be expected in the future.
Sulawesi
Sulawesi is a tectonically complex island
with a varied history, and comprises
fragments of four separate tectonic
provinces (see Figure 46). The northern
arm of Sulawesi is a Recent, active
magmatic arc with poor petroleum
potential. The east and southeast arms
are microcontinental fragments derived
from the northern margin of the
Australian craton, which collided with
western and South Sulawesi the alienated
southeast edge of Sundaland starting in
the early Miocene (e.g., Calvert, 1999;
Sudarmono, 1999).
The petroleum potential of Sulawesi has
been suspected for a long time, with oil and
gas seeps recognized onshore in West
Sulawesi. The first successful gas well was
drilled in the Sengkang basin in southwest
Sulawesi by BPM in 1939. Further biogenic
gas was discovered in the Sengkang basin
by Gulf and BP in the 1970s with relatively
small (total 750BcfG; Wilson et al., 1997)
accumulations trapped in Miocene
carbonate buildups and now being
developed for local power generation. In
addition, significant asphalt deposits are
known from Buton Island, a
microcontinental fragment of Australoid
affinity. This area was also drilled by Gulf
and Conoco from the 1970s to 1990s.
Miocene deltaics and turbidites of the
Tondo formation were targeted,
hydrocarbon shows being sourced from
Triassic, oil-prone sediments containing
type II kerogen (Sumantri and Syahbuddin,
1994). On the eastern arm of Sulawesi in
the Banggai-Sula basin, Union Texas
discovered oil and gas in subeconomic
quantities in fractured Miocene carbonates
(Davies, 1990) during the 1980s and 1990s.
South Sulawesi
In parts of South Sulawesi (Kalosi, Lariang
and Karama basins) low-grade, Cretaceous,
metamorphic basement is exposed. This
underwent the same widespread middle
Eocene extension experienced by the rest
of Sundaland.
Rift-fill includes marine marls in the
Lariang and Karama basins (Bone Hau
formation of Calvert, 1999), volcanics and a
series of basal continental siliciclastics
including lacustrine sediments, transgressed
by deltaics including coal, and marine
siliciclastics, known as the Malawa
formation and the Kalumpan formation
(Calvert, 1999) respectively in Southwest
and west Central Sulawesi. The syn-rift fill
provides potential Eocene reservoirs, and
type II and type III kerogen-rich, oil- and
gas-prone source rocks. The Paleocene
volcanics are associated with subduction,
and with mafic to ultramafic ophiolites
obducted in the east. The syn-rift thickness
varies greatly, from less than 100m to over
1000m (Guritno et al., 1996) as a result of
basement fault block control (Garrard et al.,
1989). The rift-fill was transgressed by
shallow marine carbonate potential
reservoirs in the latest Eocene, known as
the Rantepau formation (Calvert, 1999) in
west Central Sulawesi and the Tonasa
formation in Southwest Sulawesi. These
algal and larger benthic-foraminiferal
limestones continue up into the middle
Miocene when they were drowned by deep-
marine marls (Berlian formation of Calvert,
1999) in some areas.
The middle Miocene through to the
Pleistocene saw uplift with granite
intrusion and deposition of mainly
volcaniclastics associated with the late
Miocene, continent-to-continent collision
between western (Sundaland) and eastern
(Australia craton) Sulawesi. This has
resulted in extensive overthrusting to the
west, and sinistral transform faulting in the
South Sulawesi area.
The Bone basin, located between the two
southern arms of Sulawesi, is geologically
quite different to the basins of west Central
and west South Sulawesi with their
Sundaland affinities (termed Sundawesi by
Fraser and Ichram, 1999). The Bone basin
originated as a fore-arc basin from the
Paleogene to the early Miocene during
convergence of Sundaland with Australia. At
this time coarse clastics spilled into the
basin and rotational forces led to rifting in
the southern part of the basin. The colliding
plates finally locked in the Pliocene and the
Bone basin took on its submerged intra-
montane configuration (Sudarmono, 1999).
All gas discoveries to date in South
Sulawesi have been small (<1Tcf in the
Sengkang basin) and of biogenic origin, but
the potential for larger thermogenic
discoveries cannot be ignored. Eocene coals
and carbonaceous shales provide a good
potential source for both gas and oil. Eocene
clastics and later Tertiary carbonates show
good reservoir possibilities, with known gas
in Tacipi formation reef knolls. Migration
may have taken place through Eocene
channel sands and vertically along fault
planes, with anticlinal trap development
throughout Neogene times. It is generally
thought that burial was not deep enough to
mature the Eocene source, but Miocene
magmatism and orogenesis may have raised
heat flow resulting in the expulsion of
hydrocarbons, and there are known oil seeps
in the South Sulawesi area.
East Sulawesi
Davies (1990) published findings of Union
Texas Oil from almost a decade of
exploration in the Tomori PSC of East
Sulawesi, an area referred to geologically as
the Banggai-Sula basin (Sumantri and
Sjahbuddin, 1994). The eastern arm of
Sulawesi comprises two
tectonostratigraphic units the Banggai-
Sula microcontinental block, a rotated and
extruded part of the Australian plate, and
the east Sulawesi ophiolite belt, thrust over
the former in the early Pliocene.
The pre-collision, Sulawesi, Eocene to
Miocene succession in the area comprises a
thin, basal clastic unit, only 12m thick
where penetrated, and two thick carbonate
units. The post-collision succession
comprises clastics including claystones,
conglomerates, sandstones and also some
limestones. All hydrocarbon accumulations
discovered to date are in tightly cemented
and stylolitized but fractured carbonates.
They include the small Tiaka oil field in the
EoceneOligocene Lower Carbonate unit,
and the small Minahaki and Matindok gas
fields in the Miocene, Upper Carbonate unit.
Although burial is relatively shallow, oils are
light, gas is of thermogenic origin and the
presence of an oleanane fraction from gas
chromatogram mass spectrometry analysis
indicates a Tertiary age source, considered to
be Miocene coals that generated
hydrocarbons in the PliocenePleistocene
during collision with the Sulawesi ophiolite
belt and associated thrusting. Davies (1990)
also considers that, to the north beneath the
thrust belt, Miocene sediments could be
buried as deep as 5000m.
Oil and gas are known to exist in this
compressional tectonic regime. Although
information is scarce, there are proven
fractured carbonate reservoirs. It is
possible that in the thrust belt to the north,
more extensive fractured reservoirs in a
similar setting to those found on Seram
(see below) may exist.
Seram
Seram is located on the northern rim of the
Banda arc and is a microcontinental
fragment of the Australian plate. It is
situated in a strongly compressional and
overthrusted tectonic setting, with the
Banda Sea oceanic crust and a volcanic
island arc to the south, and the Seram
subduction trough to the north where the
western Irian Jaya segment of the
Australian plate is being consumed beneath
Seram Island (figures 48 and 49). Oil has
been produced in Seram since 1896, when
the Dutch developed the Bula oil field on
the basis of oil and gas seeps in the
northeastern part of the island. Production
is from Pleistocene clastics and carbonates
of the Fufa formation. More recently
commercial quantities of oil have been
discovered by Kufpec in the Jurassic
carbonate reservoirs of the Oseil oil field
(Kemp and Mogg, 1992; Kemp, 1993;
Kemp, 1995).
Seram is composed of two stratigraphic
series. The Mesozoic to late Miocene
succession is closely related to that of the
Australian plate. The younger succession,
for which deposition was of much shorter
duration, is late Miocene to Recent and
records the sedimentary history of plate
collision and thrust belt generation that
took place over this period.
Seram trough
Australian
plate
Figure 48
Australian plate
Banda Sea
(oceanic crust)
Ambon
volcanic arc
O
c
e
a
n
i
c

c
r
u
s
t
Seram thrust belt
Thrust belt
foreland basins
Accretionary
wedge and melange
Pre-Triassic
Tria
ssic
to
u
pper Miocene
S N
+
+
V
V
V
+
+
+
+
+
Figure 48: Schematic geological cross-section through
the Seram thrust and Seram trough (Kemp, 1993).
Kais
Jurassic
N S
2286
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
6996
959
959
2286
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
6996
Line IJ97 - 0193
Figure 49: Detail of
seismic line across the
Seram trough
(Fainstein, 1998a).
Basement is the Kobipoto or Tehoru
metamorphic complex of Permian to lower
Triassic age. Middle to late Triassic
intracratonic rifting of Gondwana was
marked by deposition of the pre-rift clastic
Kanikeh formation, which contains potential
reservoir sands and coals that could be a
source of hydrocarbons. From the end of the
Triassic through the early and middle
Jurassic, reduced sediment supply and
transgression was marked by deposition of
the Saman-Saman formation, deep-marine
limestones that grade into the Manusela,
shallow-water, oolitic, limestone shoals. The
Saman-Saman calcareous shales and
argillaceous limestones are considered to be
the main source for oil and gas in the
fractured, Manusela limestone reservoirs
(Figure 50) of the Oseil oil field, and are rich
in sulfurous-type II marine algal kerogens.
Continental breakup of Gondwana
eventually occurred in the late Jurassic,
followed by deposition of the upper Jurassic
marine Kola shale. The newly formed,
passive margin sagged with deposition of
the marine limestones and claystones of the
Nief beds in a passive margin setting. This
continued from the early Cretaceous
through to the late Miocene when collision
between the PacificPhilippine plate and
the Australian plate placed Seram in a
highly compressional, plate-boundary
position. Large-scale thrusting of the pre-
Tertiary over the Nief formation formed
large anticlinal traps in mobile sheets (see
figures 48 and 49). Erosion produced coarse
clastics of the Salas olistostrome and the
PliocenePleistocene Wahat and Fufa
formations. The latter is a reservoir in the
Bula oil field, situated in the thrust front
foreland basin.
In western Irian Jaya at this time,
buckling resulted in subsidence and
deposition of marine shales. Multiphase
expulsion is considered to be quite recent
because Pliocene-Pleistocene reservoir
rocks are filled, unless earlier traps have
been breached.
The production of hydrocarbons since the
late nineteenth century, and the recent
success of innovative plays in the
overthrust, fractured Jurassic Manusela
formation limestones (Figure 51) attest to
the fact that Seram remains prospective.
Proven reservoirs also include the
Pleistocene Fufa formation of the Bula oil
field. Other formations, including the Nief
and even basement, may provide potential
reservoir where fractured.
Western Irian Jaya
Western Irian Jaya contains a number of
basins (Figure 51), two of which, the
Salawati and the Bintuni basins, are proven
hydrocarbon provinces. There is very little
released information available for other
basins in western Irian Jaya. The Salawati
and Bintuni basins have, in the past, been
described as mature because the only play
until the end of the 1980s had been Miocene
Kais formation carbonate buildups and, it
was thought that all of these prospects had
been drilled. However, starting with the
Roabiba 1 well drilled by Occidental in 1991
and culminating in the Wiriagar deep and
Vorwata wells, giant gas reserves have been
discovered in the Jurassic and Paleogene of
the Bintuni basin opening up these areas for
renewed exploration efforts. In addition,
new speculative seismic surveys (e.g.,
Fainstein, 1998a) demonstrate the
existence of further, commonly large
Miocene carbonate buildups offshore in the
Salawati basin.
Salawati and Bintuni basins
The Salawati and Bintuni basins are two
large basinal areas located predominantly
offshore in the southern and western parts
of the Birds Head peninsula area of
western Irian Jaya. Oil was first discovered
in Miocene carbonate buildups of the Kais
formation in the Salawati basin Klamono
field in 1936, and carbonates of equivalent
age in the Bintuni basin Wasian oil field in
1939. Up until the 1980s these carbonate
buildups had been the only tested play in
Figure 50: Manusela
formation carbonates
in the East Nief 1 well,
Seram. Ooid grainstone
(left) with intergranular
porosity. Dolostone
(right) with modified
vugular pores and
black residual oil
(Kemp, 1993).
0 100km
Seram Island
Wahai basin
Bula
Walio
Mogoi
Wiriagar
Wasian
Wiriagar
deep
Vorwata
Roabiba 1
Ubadari 1
Kasim
Klalin
Oseil-1
Bula basin
Misool
Salawati basin
Berau basin
Bintuni
basin
Onin
Kumawa
Sorong fault zone
Waigeo
Weda basin
Ayamaru
plateau
Aiduna fault
R
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Yapen fault
W
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Tosem block
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M
is
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Basins
Continental crust
Middle Miocene igneous rocks
Figure 51: Main structural elements and petroleum basins of Irian Jaya and Seram
(after Livingstone et al., 1993, Sutriyono et al., 1997, and Fainstein, 1998a).
the basin. Since the initial oil discoveries a
large number of similar fields in the Salawati
basin (e.g., Walio oil field Livingstone et
al., 1993) and the Bintuni basin (e.g.,
Wiriagar oil field Hendardjo and
Netherwood, 1986) have been discovered.
In 1991 Occidental drilled the Roabiba 1
well in the Bintuni basin and discovered gas
in Jurassic sandstones. This opened up a new
play that led to the discovery of the giant
Wiriagar deep-Ubadari-Vorwata gas
accumulations (collectively known as the
Tangguh gas project) in Paleocene turbidites
and Jurassic to Cretaceous Kembelangan
formation fluvio-deltaic sands. British Gas
also drilled through the existing Mogoi oil
field and discovered further gas reserves in
Permian sandstones in the Mogoi deep 1 well.
The Pre-Mesozoic section in both the
Salawati and Bintuni basins comprises a
series of highly folded and metamorphosed
Silurian and Devonian Kemum formation
turbidites separated by a major
unconformity from the Carboniferous to
Permian aged Aifam group. The Aifam
group consists of a thick transgressive
sequence of conglomerates, sands and
shales of the Aimau formation which pass
up into calcareous shales with some
limestones and sands of the Aifat formation.
These were then regressed by shales, sands
and coals of the Ainim formation. Chevallier
and Bordenave (1986) believe that the
Mogoi and Wasian oil fields are sourced
from the Permian Aifat formation shales,
although they note that the overlying Ainim
formation coals demonstrate better source
potential. Davis (pers. comm.) believes that
a Paleocenelower Eocene Waripi/Imskin
source cannot be ruled out. The Bintuni
basin Jurassic gas reserves are also probably
sourced from the Permian Ainim formation.
There may be, however, input from the
Triassic to lower Jurassic Tipuma formation
which, in the Bintuni basin comprises red
beds but in the Salawati basin is more
marine, and/or contribution from the
Jurassic to Cretaceous lower Kembelangan
group (Davis pers. comm.). The fluvio-
deltaic Kembelangan group represents the
main reservoir for gas in the Bintuni basin
but major erosion also occurred in the
Jurassic to Cretaceous as a result of rifting
during Gondwanaland breakup, and in the
Salawati basin the Kembelangan group is
only locally preserved.
During the Tertiary the Paleocene
Waripi/Imskin formation was deposited. It is
a mixture of carbonates and marine shales
but includes thick turbidite sands in the
Bintuni basin and also a major reservoir
facies for the Wiriagar deep gas field. In the
Salawati area, these sediments are not
present throughout the basin because of a
hiatus that extended from the Triassic to
the early Tertiary.
Carbonates of the New Guinea limestone
group dominate the section from the late
Paleocene to late Miocene. These
predominantly Miocene carbonates are
areally extensive, occurring throughout the
Birds Head peninsula and making up the
Figure 53: Early
Miocene carbonates,
Bintuni basin.
Dolomitized Kais
formation (left) with
excellent
intercrystalline
porosity. Mogoi
formation planktonic
foraminiferal
packstone (right) with
fracture porosity.
West Kasim
field
Shale Reef
Kasim stage
WalioJaya stage
CendrawasiaKasim Utara stage
U marker
Platform stage
Kais platform
W E
Kasim
field
Jaya
field
Cendrawash
field
Textularia II
Kasim Utara
field
Shale
Argillaceous Shelf/shoal
limestone
1
3
5
0
f
t650ft
125ft
200ft Reef
Possible earlier
reef stage
U marker
Kais platform
Reef stages
N S
Kasim
field
Walio
field
Textularia II
Figure 52: Stages in
the development of
the early Miocene
Kais formation
carbonate buildups,
Salawati basin, Irian
Jaya (Livingstone et
al., 1993).
high peaks of Central Irian Jaya. They
include a thick pile of shallow limestones
and transgressive shales that pass-up into
the main Salawati basin stratigraphic
reservoir, the late Miocene Kais formation
reefal buildups, that demonstrate a number
of stages of buildup growth as a result of
fluctuating relative sea level (Figure 52).
The Kais reservoir in the Salawati basin and
in the Wiriagar oil field in the Bintuni basin
shows good secondary vugular and mouldic
porosity as a result of leaching during sea-
level fall and exposure of the buildup tops.
The Kais locally demonstrates excellent
intercrystalline porosity associated with
dolomitization (Hendardjo and Netherwood,
1986; Figure 53). In the Mogoi and Wasian
oil fields in the Bintuni basin, matrix
porosity is low due to the shaly nature of
the limestones. In these carbonates, a
fracture porosity system (Figure 53)
developed when the anticlinal traps were
formed during the Oligocene. Dolomitization
has also enhanced porosity beneath the oil
leg in these fields.
In the late Oligocene to early Miocene
compression produced northwest
southeast-oriented folding, high-angle
faulting and reactivation of an earlier
Mesozoic fracture system. This compression
was caused by the collision of the New
Guinea passive margin with the arc system
to the north. Uplift in the north at that time
(OSullivan et al., 1995) led to an influx of
clastics represented by the Sirga formation.
Anticlinal traps developed in the Mogoi,
Wasian and Wiriagar oil fields, although the
Wiriagar field is also a stratigraphic buildup
(not to be confused with the underlying
Wiriagar deep Paleogene and Jurassic
reservoirs that demonstrate four-way dip
closure). The Oligocene folds intensify to
the east in the Lengguru fold belt where
they become thrusts and decollement
features. High oleanane biomarkers in the
Salawati oils indicate a Tertiary and
probable Klamogun, deepwater Kais-
equivalent source for these oils (Davis, pers.
comm.), unlike the probable
PaleozoicMesozoic or Paleogene Bintuni
basin hydrocarbons.
Late Miocene Klasafet and late Miocene
to Pliocene Klasaman (Salawati basin) and
Steenkool (Bintuni basin) shales act as a
seal to the Kais reservoirs. They reflect the
onset of collision with the Banda arc, which
continued into the Pliocene (Henage, 1993),
and the deepening in the basins that
occurred at this time. During the Pliocene
continued compression resulted in uplift in
the north along the Sorong fault and the
Ayamaru high in Salawati and led to further
erosion and deposition of the Sele formation
coarse clastics. Compression at this time
continued the development of anticlines
oriented northwestsoutheast and formed
the left-lateral bounding faults defining
present-day depocenters.
T
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basin
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Petrel
gas field
Tern
gas field
Petrel
sub-basin
Bonaparte
basin
Australia
Bathurst
Island
Tanimbar
Island
Darwin
shelf
Troubadour 1
Sunrise 1
Flamingo
high
Kelp
high
West Arafura
Sea
In
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East
S
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Mature sediments
Cretaceous (Bathurst
Island group)
Late Jurassic early Cretaceous
(Flamingo group)
Triassic-mid-Jurassic
Mount Goodwin and Plover
formations
Oil seep
Oil field
Gas seep
Gas field Z
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-C
Z
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-A
Z
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-B
IndonesiaAustralia
zone of cooperation
0 100 200km
Oil fields
1. Puffin
2. Skua
3. Oliver 1
4. Jabiru
5. Challis
6. Corallina
7. Laminaria
8. Kakatua
9. Elang
10. Undan/Bayu
Figure 54: Structural map and hydrocarbon occurrences in the Northwest shelf area, including the Timor Gap zone
of cooperation, Timor Island and West Arafura Sea (after Fainstein et al., 1996b and Sawyer et al., 1993).
Other basins in
Western Irian Jaya
Other areas in western Irian Jaya have been
the subjects of cursory exploration efforts
but only a minor amount has been published
concerning these basins (e.g., Sumantri and
Sjahbuddin, 1994; and more recently
McAdou and Haebig, 1999).
There has been very little exploration in
the Irian Jaya thrust fold belt to date, but a
similar geology to the Papua New Guinea
central fold belt is expected, where oil and
gas are reservoired primarily in upper
Jurassic to lower Cretaceous clastics of the
early post-rift (Gondwanaland breakup)
succession, and trapped in complex thrust
associated anticlines. Conoco reported oil and
gas shows in Kau 2 drilled in the Wasim block
of eastern Irian Jaya. Potential reservoirs also
include Kais formation-equivalent limestones
(the Darai formation in Papua New Guinea).
Potential sources include the Miocene
Kimeuhah formation shales and the Jurassic
marine shales of the Kopai formation.
The Waipogan-Waropen basin, in northern
Irian Jaya, is a hybrid fore-arc with at least
one, and possibly two accretionary prisms,
and contains a thick (in places >7000m)
Tertiary section covering the collision zone
between the Australian and the Pacific plates
(McAdou and Haebig, 1999). There are
active oil and gas seeps within this area and
out of seven wells successfully completed to
proposed target (out of a total of twelve
wells drilled), four were dry, two contained
subeconomic gas, and one showed both oil
and gas. Abundant reservoir facies include a
thick succession of MiocenePliocene
Markats formation and overlying Memberamo
formation turbidites and deltaics, the latter
also providing good potential source facies.
Large Memberamo formation carbonate
buildups provide further reservoir
opportunities, along with the Oligocene
Miocene Darante formation carbonates
positioned on shallow basement highs.
Potential source rocks include Memberamo
and Markats shales, which may be a source
of gas and condensate and should be mature
in the deeper parts of the basin, although
McAdou and Haebig (1999) note that
geothermal gradient for the basin is low, as
may be expected in this fore-arc setting.
Irian Jaya shows excellent hydrocarbon
potential. Miocene carbonate plays
previously thought to be exhausted in the
Salawati and Bintuni basins may have a
new lease of life, as regional seismic lines
indicate the presence of large and undrilled
Kais formation buildups in the offshore area
south of the Birds Head peninsula. The
recent Mesozoic gas discoveries in the
Bintuni basin open up a whole new
Mesozoic play for this basin and other areas
in Irian Jaya. The successes in Seram also
hold hope for tectonically complicated
areas that have been subjected to intense
compression. These include the Irian Jaya
fold belt that continues east into the
Papuan fold belt of Papua New Guinea
where a string of structurally complex oil
and gas accumulations was discovered in
the 1990s (Buchanan, 1996) and, the
Lengguru fold belt where deep burial may
have resulted in the maturation of even
relatively young Tertiary sources. The
Wiapogan-Waropen basin in the north also
remains relatively unexplored but shows
potential with oil and gas seeps to surface
and petroleum shows in the few wells
drilled to date (McAdou and Haebig, 1999).
Timor Gap and Arafura Sea
The Timor Gap zone of cooperation (ZOC),
until recently jointly administered by
Australia and Indonesia, is situated to the
south of the Island of Timor and on the
northern part of the Northwest shelf of
Australia (see Figure 54). Recent political
changes in Timor have stalled the treaty
between Indonesia and Australia, pending
renegotiation.
The Timor Gap ZOC is an extension of the
Bonaparte basin in Australian waters to the
south and demonstrates many stratigraphic
similarities to the rest of the Northwest shelf
and to Timor Island to the north, with its
known oil and gas seeps and minor (less
than 200BOPD) oil production since 1911.
Structurally, as for the Arafura Sea area to
the east, it is situated near the Timor trough
where the Australian plate is colliding with
the Asian plate and being subducted.
(figures 55 and 56.) It is characterized by an
abundance of northeastsouthwest-oriented
normal faults downthrown to the northwest,
with locally developed grabens and half-
graben (Figure 56.) There are a number of
distinct structural zones. These include the
Sahul platform which is a structural high
developed in the northeast of the area, and
the East Sahul syncline in the west that
trends northwestsoutheast connecting with
the Petrel sub-basin to the south and with
the Malita graben (see Figure 54) that runs
northeastsouthwest.
In the 1990s, only a few years after the
joint administration was put in place, Petroz
discovered the Elang oil field. This was
rapidly followed by a string of oil and gas
condensate discoveries including Kakatua,
Bayu-Undan, and Corallina and Laminaria
near the ZOC. The discovery of the Elang
oil field and the geology of the ZOC have
been described by Young et al. (1995) and
Arditto (1996).
The pre-Tertiary predominantly clastic
succession extends from the Cambrian, and
overlies crystalline basement. During the
late Devonian to early Carboniferous
northwestsoutheast-oriented rifting
produced the larger scale features observed
today the Sahul Syncline and the Petrel
sub-basin. This earlier phase of rifting was
followed by a second stage starting in the
Triassic and culminating in the late Jurassic,
when the breakup of Gondwana and the
development of an associated regional
unconformity took place.
Of particular interest as a reservoir is the
non-marine to marine early Jurassic section
that encompasses the main reservoir, as
well as seal and source rocks. It includes the
Plover formation and Elang formation
(Arditto, 1996 previously known as the
Montara beds). The Plover formation was
deposited prior to breakup, through the
early to middle Jurassic. It comprises a
northerly prograding fluvio-deltaic complex
including sandstones, shales and coals. The
Elang formation, which overlies the Plover
formation, is a retrogradational deltaic,
nearshore to proximal shelfal sequence that
was deposited just before the breakup
unconformity that separates the middle from
the upper Jurassic. This formation represents
the main reservoir for the majority of the
discoveries in the Timor Gap ZOC, although
the Plover formation is also a minor reservoir
(Arditto, 1996). Intra-formational seals are
possible within these formations.
The late Jurassic to early Cretaceous
Flamingo group marine sands and shales
were deposited over the Elang formation
(see Figure 57). The lower Flamingo is
thick and conformable on the Elang
formation depocenters, but absent on highs,
and is synchronous with the final phase of
rifting and continental breakup. There are a
number of sand types including highstand
progrades, lowstand fans, incised-valley fills
and proximal fans. Along with the Elang
Cretaceous Kambelangan (Flamingo) group,
and Permian clastics have also been
targeted in the past (e.g., ASM 1X). Gas-
prone source rocks may include Permian-
Carboniferous shales.
On the island of Timor, oil and gas seeps
are numerous, and early production
resulting from exploration between 1914
and 1928 was from the late Jurassic Babulu
formation sands. Potential reservoirs are
carbonates of the lower Jurassic Maubisse
formation and possibly the Tertiary
succession. Potential source rocks include
the Jurassic Wailuli shale and lower
Cretaceous sediments.
0.000
-2.67 3817.33
Line-tie
SP
Line-tie
SP
1.000
2.000
3.000
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9.000
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Plate
motion
Sea floor
Paleogene
prism
Accretionary
prism
Paleocene
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Upper mantle
Aptian
Cretaceous
Figure 56:
Southwestnorthwest
seismic line across the
northern part of the
Bonaparte basin, shelf
and slope, the Timor
trough and the Timor
accretionary wedge
(Fainstein, 1996b).
Continental
upper mantle
Present-day
earthquake
epicenters
Australian
crust
Oceanic
upper mantle
Alor
Island Timor Island
Timor
trough
Pseudo-outer
non-volcanic arc
Pleistocene to present day
Extinct (Pematian)
inner volcanic arc
Timor Sea
N S
Figure 55: Schematic
northsouth cross-
section across the
Timor Volcanic arc
and the Timor
subduction zone
(Sawyer et al., 1993).
formation, these sands represent the main
reservoir formation in the Petrel sub-basin
to the south (Killick and Robinson, 1994).
The Flamingo group marine shales form a
basin-wide seal. During the early to late
Cretaceous the mainly marine argillaceous
Bathurst group was deposited and, together
with shales of the Elang formation and
Flamingo group, are thought to represent
the algal-marine source recognized from the
oils in the area.
The Tertiary succession is thick and
unconformable and carbonates predominate.
The final structuring phase commenced in
the late Miocene as a result of the collision of
the Australian plate with the Timor trough,
and in PliocenePleistocene times collision of
the Australian and Eurasian plates formed
the Kelp high and the observed northeast
southwest-oriented faults. Compression
continues with pervasive fault reactivation
The AruArafura Sea area is thought to
be similar to the Timor Gap ZOC, with
hydrocarbon potential in the Triassic
Tipuma formation (see the Bintuni basin
stratigraphy, see Figure 44) where good
porosity was recognized in the
Kambelangan 1 well (Sumantri and
Sjahbuddin, 1994). There are also good
reservoir sands in the late Jurassic through
Geothermal energy
Indonesia is the only Southeast Asia OPEC
member but over the past decade, oil
exploration has not been successful in
replacing depleting oil reserves. Even
though gas discoveries have made up for
this shortfall in terms of BBOE the
prediction is that without significant
additions to oil reserves Indonesia will
become a net importer of oil sometime early
in the twenty first century.
Alternative sustainable sources of energy
are, therefore, required to help
compensate for declining oil reserves and
to satisfy an ever-increasing demand for
energy. Although geothermal energy will
never be the main energy source in
Indonesia, it could contribute significantly
to the energy demand and is a sustainable
green energy resource.
A chain of volcanoes the Ring of Fire
encircles the Pacific Ocean as a result of the
subduction of oceanic crustal plates at the
ocean trench subduction zones (Figure 58).
As the oceanic plate is consumed
downwards into the mantle it melts and
large intrusive bodies of magma rise towards
the surface. In some cases, these intrusive
bodies are shallow enough for volcanoes to
develop where magma breaks through to the
surface via zones of weakness and spills out
at the surface as lava.
Indonesia is situated in an ideal setting
for the development of geothermal energy,
at the western limit of the Ring of Fire, and
is the most volcanic country in the world
with 121 active volcanoes. A major
subduction zone where the northwards-
moving Indo-Australian plate is being
subducted beneath the Sunda shelf, extends
almost the full length of the country from
west to east. Volcanoes are developed along
almost the entire length of this Sunda
trench system, from the northwest tip of
Sumatra to the far east of Indonesia just
south of Irian Jaya. The major
concentrations of volcanoes associated with
this subduction trench are on Sumatra
(approximately 1.5 volcanoes for every
100km) and Java (approximately 3.5
volcanoes per 100km). Volcanic islands also
occur to the east of Java, including Bali,
Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and others
extending northeastwards into the Banda
Sea. In addition, with Indonesia being a
complex system of interacting microplates,
there are other volcanoes associated with
minor subduction zones throughout the
Moluccas and northern Sulawesi. All these
volcanic areas demonstrate the potential for
development of hydrothermal systems and
over 100 geothermal prospects have been
identified (Figure 59) by Pertamina.
M
o
n
t
a
r
a
beds
Malita
fm
Plover fm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
D
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p
t
h
,

k
m
0 50km
P
e
r
m
ia
n
Tria
s
s
ic
(undifferentiated)
Montara
beds/Elang
formation
Timor
trough
NE SW
Kelp-1 Hydra-1 Mandar-1 Elang-1 Flamingo-1 Iris-1 Garganey-1 Avocet-1A
Londonerry high Sahul syncline Flamingo high
Flamingo
syncline
Kelp high (Sahul platform)
Tertiary
carbonates
Miocene unconformity
Bathurst
Island group
Darwin fm/
Flamingo gp
T
r
ia
s
s
ic
(u
n
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iffe
re
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tia
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d
)
B
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p
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c
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fo
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ity
P
lo
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M
a
lit
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f
m
B
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kup
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c
o
n
fo
rm
ity
Base Tertiary disconformity
Base
A
p
tia
n
d
isc
o
nform
ity
Figure 57: Schematic geologic cross-section of the western zone of cooperation (ZOC) (Young et al., 1995).
Indonesia
Bougainville trench
Ryukyu trench
Philippine
trench
Japan trench
Kurile trench
Aleutian trench
Middle America
trench
Peru-Chile
trench
Tonga trench
Kermadec trench
Equator
Pacific Ocean
R
I
N
G
OF
F
I
R
E
Oceanic-continental convergence
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
Continental crust
Oceanic crust
T
r
e
n
c
h
V
o
l
c
a
n
i
c
a
r
c
Sunda
trench
system
Figure 58: The Ring of
Fire, a volcanic belt that
encircles the Pacific
Ocean is the result of
consumption of the
Pacific and Indian ocean
plates at the oceanic
trench systems
(subduction zones).
Location of main geothermal prospects
Drilled prospects
0 400 800 1000km
Irian Java
Ambon
Banda Sea
Flores Sea
Sulawesi
Kalimantan
South China Sea
Jawa Sea
Java
Bali
Sumbawa
Sumba
Flores
Timor
S
u
m
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a
M
a
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a
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s
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2
3
4
6
7
8
9
5
10
11
Sumatra
1. Sibayak
2. Tarutung
3. Pusuk Bukit
4. Ulubelu
Java
5. Salak
6. WayangWindu
7. Darajat
8. Kamojang
9. Karaha
10. Dieng
Sulawesi
11. Lahendong
Figure 59: Location of
hydrothermal prospects
in Indonesia.
The primary requirement for the
formation of a geothermal system is a heat
source, usually related to magmatic
activity. Economically viable geothermal
systems develop where a magmatic heat
source is emplaced high enough in the
Earths crust to induce convective
circulation of groundwater (Figure 60). It
must be at a depth shallow enough for this
heated water, or steam, to be exploited at
the surface for generation of electrical
energy using steam turbines.
The depth of emplacement of these
magmatic bodies is usually between about 2
and 5km. The host rock depends on the
geological province, but for hydrothermal
systems in volcanic areas such as Indonesia,
the host rock is usually either volcanic
(basalts and andesites) or volcaniclastic
(tuffs or volcanic sands and
conglomerates/breccias that were spilled
from the sides of volcanoes). The presence
of carbonates in the host rocks changes the
composition of the hydrothermal fluids and
is detrimental to the commercial
development of the system due to problems
with scaling and corrosion etc. The best
hydrothermal systems usually have high
permeabilities due to fracturing in the host
rock. Fracture zones, and also porosity and
lithology, can be determined using wireline
logs, particularly with the Formation
MicroScanner* (Figure 61). These are run
in-hole with circulating cold water to cool
the borehole environment.
The fluid circulating in the hydrothermal
system is usually meteoric water and high
rainfall in Indonesia further enhances the
prospects for the development of geothermal
systems. The composition of the geothermal
waters is usually a mild brine with a near
neutral pH, although the chemistry of the
fluids may vary depending on the proximity
to the sea or depth within the system where
hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide levels
may be high due to magmatic influence.
Temperatures may be as high as 1000C
approaching the melting temperature of the
rock, but in Indonesia this is never the case
and reservoir temperatures tend to vary
from 60C to 400C at usual reservoir depths
of between 200 and 1000m. A convective
cell is normally developed, with hot-water
up-flow in the center and cold-water
recharge from the edges of the system,
although laterally extensive out-flow zones
with hot springs may develop a number of
kilometers away from the active
hydrothermal system.
Of the hydrothermal prospects identified
by Pertamina (more than 100 as shown in
Figure 59) only 12 have been drilled to
date. There are only three geothermal
plants on-stream Gunung Salak, Kamojang
and Darajat all situated in West Java, with
a total combined rating of 305MW.
Obviously, there is significant scope for the
future development of hydrothermal power
in Indonesia.
Early venting of magmatic
volatiles; porphyry type
mineralization
Cooling intrusion
Convecting
neutral chloride
geothermal fluid
Limited boiling and gas separation on
localized vertical permeability
Recharge
Lateral
outflow
Local boiling
Sea level
Neutral chloride
springs,
possibly sinters
Sulfatebicarbonate
springs
Piezometric surface of
deep, single-phase reservoir
Lateral outflow and water rock interaction
Acid sulfate
springs
Rainfall
Weak fumeroles and
gas heated features
Eroded
stratovolcano
Vadose zone
Limited boiling
Acid sulfate aquifer
Zone of fluid mixing and
mineral deposition
Figure 60: Schematic hydrothermal system
associated with an andesitic stratovolcano
(Giggenback, 1992).
The future
Indonesia will have to diversify its energy
resources over the next few years to keep
pace with a growing population and an
escalating demand for energy. Hydrocarbons
remain an attractive energy source and
exploration will continue, but a shift in
focus regarding play types and the arenas of
exploration, and also a change from oil
consumption to gas consumption are both
expected and required. This shift is
necessary for environmental reasons, to
slow the depletion of oil resources and the
time when Indonesia becomes a net
importer of oil.
Western Indonesia
Western Indonesian basins are considered
for the most part to be relatively mature
with regard to hydrocarbon exploration.
There are, however, a few back-arc basins
that can be considered to be underexplored
including the Pembuang basin in South
Kalimantan that has not yet been drilled.
The back-arc basins of Sumatra and Java,
and the deltaic basins of East Kalimantan,
which have been the object of such
intensive exploration over the last century,
may also reveal missed opportunities.
Post-rift sequences
The conventional or traditional Western
Indonesian play types early Miocene
carbonate buildups and post-rift Miocene
(mainly) transgressive sands are largely
exhausted. In the East Java basin, however,
there are a number of Miocene Kujung and
Rancak buildups that have not yet been
drilled. Production from the Kujung and
Rancak buildups is established (e.g., the
Mudi, KE, and Camar oil fields). There
have been some very recent discoveries in
the Kujung buildups (e.g., the Ujung
Pangkah oil and gas field offshore from
Surabaya). This play demonstrates the
remaining potential in East Java. Similar
buildups are also recognized in the delta-
front areas of the Mahakam and Tarakan
deltas of East Kalimantan.
Relatively small-scale buildups of
equivalent age also remain to be drilled on
the Malacca platform of the North Sumatra
basin and in the Batu Raja of South
Sumatra. Further large Peutu limestone
buildups (such as the Arun gas-field) also
cannot be ruled out in the North Sumatra
basin, and there may remain further oil and
gas potential in the extensive Terumbu
carbonates of the East Natuna basin. Fluvio-
deltaic and shallow-marine Miocene sands
demonstrate very limited remaining
potential for structural traps in the onshore
area, with smaller and more subtle fault-
and stratigraphically controlled
accumulations remaining to be discovered.
In the Natuna Sea, however, both the
East and the West Natuna basins
demonstrate excellent potential with thick
post-rift sands being developed. Manur and
Barraclough (1994) also recognized a
middle Miocene Ngrayong deltaic biogenic
gas play in the Muriah trough extension of
the East Java basin.
A relatively untested play, which is only
just beginning to show its potential,
comprises deepwater Miocene lowstand
fans. Turbidite plays have been drilled in
the past, but they have only recently
become a major focus with the discovery of
the Merah Besar and West Seno oil fields
offshore from the Mahakam Delta. Large
turbidite systems have been revealed on
seismic in the North Sumatra basin
(Tsukada et al., 1996) and similar Ngrayong
formation turbidite and contourite sands
have been drilled with some success by
Santa Fe in the East Java basin (Ardhana,
1993; Ardhana et al., 1993).
N
S
Fracture dip
azimuth
W E
Figure 61: Formation
MicroScanner image
of a fractured
hydrothermal
reservoir showing
fracture orientations.
Syn-rift sequence
The syn-rift sequence has largely been
neglected throughout the back-arc basins of
Western Indonesia. Thick alluvial fan
systems, fan deltas, fluvial sands and
lacustrine deltas of Eocene to Oligocene age
may be reservoirs for substantial volumes of
hydrocarbons throughout the Western
Indonesian basins. They are coupled directly
with the most prolific source facies including
deep-lacustrine and marginal shallow-
lacustrine earlier syn-rift, and later syn-rift
transgressive, coals and shales. This
sourcereservoir combination has been
recognized for the Northwest Java basin
(Butterworth and Atkinson, 1993), and
realized elsewhere.
ARCO produces gas from syn-rift Eocene
clastics and carbonates in the Pagerungan
and West Kangean gas fields in the offshore
East Java basin. Caltex has minor production
from Pematang formation syn-rift sands in
the Central Sumatra basin but they are
starting to explore the Pematang more
vigorously, in particular for gas to power the
giant Duri oil field steamflood project and
others. The Tanjung Raya oil field of the
Barito basin in Southeast Kalimantan has
produced nearly 125MMBO since 1938,
mainly from Eocene syn-rift alluvial fan
deposits. More recently developed, the KRA
field in the West Natuna basin produces oil
from Oligocene Belut lacustrine-deltaic
sands. The potential of the back-arc basin
syn-rift sequence has, therefore, been
demonstrated but exhaustive exploration has
not yet started, as the post-rift prospects
remain easier to identify on seismic and are
better understood.
Other play types
Depending on infrastructure and the degree
of industrialization in specific areas, smaller
and more esoteric plays may be attractive.
Pliocene globigerinid limestones and
diagenetically enhanced volcaniclastics are
reservoirs for the small biogenic and
thermogenic gas deposits of the Terang-
Sirasun and Wunut gas fields in East Java,
respectively. They will supply gas to the
industrialized area around Surabaya. Gulfs
gas in fractured basement in the South
Sumatra basin is being traded for oil with
Caltex. This latter play may prove to be
large, with reserves of over 4TcfG already
realized. In a similar manner, the fractured
pre-riftearly syn-rift Eocene Tampur
limestone in the North Sumatra basin has
demonstrated some potential as a gas
reservoir (Ryacudu and Sjahbuddin, 1994).
Many of the oil fields in Western
Indonesia are approaching old age. As such,
numerous enhanced oil recovery projects
are underway and offer further potential for
retaining oil production from the more
depleted fields. Some of these include the
Duri steamflood (the largest of its kind in
the world), the Minas waterflood (and pilot
light-oil steamflood) and the Melibur
steamflood in Central Sumatra; the Kakap
gas injection in the Natuna Sea; the Kenali
Asem waterflood in South Sumatra; the
Krisna lower Batu Raja waterflood in the
Sunda basin; the Handil chemical waterflood
in the Mahakam Delta; and the Tanjung
Raya waterflood in the Barito basin. In
addition, there is an increasing interest in
exploring for missed or bypassed reserves in
largely depleted fields. An example is the
Pertamina-owned Rantau oil field in the
North Sumatra basin that has already been
subjected to waterflood. Pertamina and
Schlumberger have formed a results-based
business alliance for this field to find and
tap bypassed oil using mainly the RFT*
Repeat Formation Tester tool.
Frontier areas in Western
Indonesia
Attractive PSC terms have been offered by
Pertamina for exploration in frontier areas
in Western Indonesia. These include pre-
Tertiary plays (e.g., Gulfs basement gas in
South Sumatra), intermontane basins, and
deepwater (over 200 m) areas and fore-arc
basins. Unocal has demonstrated the value
of deepwater exploration with the
discovery of the West Seno and Merah
Besar oil fields. Other deepwater acreage
exists in Western Indonesia, particularly in
the offshore Tarakan basin in front of the
Mayne fault system. Here there is
potential for the trapping of oil in deep
water sands and in carbonates developed
on structural highs (Netherwood and
Wight, 1993). The Andaman Sea in the
northern sector of the North Sumatra
basin is also deep water acreage.
Fore-arc basins have been tested
including the Sibolga basin offshore
northwest Sumatra, the Bengkulu basin
offshore southwest Sumatra, the Southwest
Java basin and the South Java basin. The
validity of biogenic gas plays has been
demonstrated in the Sibolga basin, although
no commercial discoveries have been
realized in large lower and middle Miocene
buildups because of sealing problems
caused by early gas generation. However, it
is thought that interbedded sands and
shales may show better prospects for
biogenic gas. The Bengkulu basin has a
proven petroleum system for oil generation.
It demonstrates a similar geology to the
south Sumatra basin, with an undrilled
Paleogene rift system that could feasibly
contain lacustrine source rocks, and proven
post-rift reservoir facies. Post-rift Miocene
shales and even some coals are proven
source facies. The Southwest Java basin had
a complicated post-rift Neogene tectonic
history. It contains mature inverted Eocene
source facies and plentiful potential
reservoir sands including EoceneMiocene
fluvio-deltaic, shallow-marine and even
turbidite fans.
Eastern Indonesia
Eastern Indonesia is considered to be
underexplored, with half of the basins (20)
not yet drilled. This is because of deep water,
poor infrastructure, remote onshore location,
and a poor understanding of the geology.
Eastern Indonesia, with the exception of
the Tertiary in Seram, Salawati and Bintuni
basins, has been designated a frontier area
with improved PSC terms. For this reason,
coupled with recent commercial
hydrocarbon discoveries, the basins of
Eastern Indonesia are much more attractive
to the explorationist than in the past. One of
the greatest barriers to exploration in
Eastern Indonesia, is the complex and
widely different structural regimes that may
make and destroy plays. Thrust and fold
belts abound (e.g., the eastern arm of
Sulawesi, Davies 1990; Seram, Kemp 1993,
1995; and the Lengguru and Central Irian
Jaya fold belts), as do subduction troughs. In
addition, many of the potential hydrocarbon
provinces and/or basins are small, and have
been rotated or extruded. Until recently, the
Pre-Tertiary was poorly understood and,
apart from in the Salawati and Bintuni
basins and southern Sulawesi, the Tertiary
has largely been considered unprospective.
Pre-Tertiary plays
With the initiation of the recent giant
Tangguh gas project in the Bintuni basin, the
discovery of commercial oil in fractured
Jurassic carbonates in Seram and the
discovery of oil and gas in the Timor Gap
ZOC, the Mesozoic has come to the
foreground as the preferred exploration play
in Eastern Indonesia. Prior to the breakup of
Gondwana, early Jurassic and older, and also
the post-breakup late Jurassic to Cretaceous
sedimentary sections, demonstrate excellent
oil and gas source potential. Deltaic coaly and
shallow-marine source facies are developed at
various stratigraphic levels. Thick fluvio-
deltaic and shallow-marine reservoir sands of
the post-breakup succession provide the main
reservoirs in the Timor Gap ZOC and the
Bintuni basin. The Arafura Sea to the east of
the Timor Gap and the Indonesian Northwest
shelf margin to the west are stratigraphically
and structurally similar to the ZOC. These
areas are essentially virgin territory, with very
few wells and great promise.
In Seram the Mesozoic potential has been
proven with the fractured Jurassic Manusela
formation reservoir in the Oseil oil field.
Elsewhere in Seram, Triassic potential
source and reservoir rocks are recognized
(Kemp, 1995). The Triassic and older plays
need to be considered. British Gas also
tested gas from Permian sands in the Mogoi
deep well in the Bintuni basin.
Tertiary plays
Western Sulawesi is unique in that it is a
part of the Sunda shield and not, as in most
potential Eastern Indonesia hydrocarbon
provinces, a fragment of the Australian
craton. Western Sulawesi, therefore,
demonstrates a syn-rift sequence similar to
Western Indonesia basins with known
potential lacustrine and deltaic source rocks
and reservoirs. It also has proven Miocene
carbonate reservoirs with small, but
commercial gas reserves to be used for local
power generation.
Elsewhere in Eastern Indonesia, the
Tertiary is largely considered to be either
played out (e.g., Kais formation carbonates
in the Salawati and Bintuni basins), or non-
prospective because of extreme tectonism
or poor seals over a predominantly
carbonate section with high potential for
breaching and poorly understood petroleum
systems. Untested Kais formation buildups
have, however, been recognized offshore in
the Salawati basin (Fainstein 1998a). The
Banggai-Sula basin contains a thick
Paleocene to late Miocene carbonate
succession highly tectonized and thrust over
both younger and older rocks. This intense
tectonism, however, has been responsible
for the maturation of middle Miocene
sources that may normally not be buried
deeply enough to generate hydrocarbons. It
has also been responsible for the formation
of fracture porosity for the subcommercial,
but geologically significant, Tiaka, Minahaka
and Matindok oil and gas discoveries
(Davies, 1990). Although of a different age,
this is geologically a very similar situation to
the commercial Mesozoic Oseil oil field
carbonate play in Seram.
Neogene carbonates may also
demonstrate potential in the Lengguru and
central Irian Jaya fold belts, which are
tectonically complex but similar in many
respects to the Banggai-Sula basin, the
Seram, and the Papua fold belt of Papua
New Guinea to the east. Interestingly, these
areas may also promote maturation of
Neogene source rocks through burial in the
cores of deep synclines or under thick
thrust piles. There is oil in the
PliocenePleistocene clastics and
carbonates of the Fufa formation in the
small Bula oilfield in northeast Seram.
Similar shallow plays may exist in other
basins where there has been late Neogene
shedding of tectonic molasse.
Other energy sources
The potential for geothermal energy to
supplement hydrocarbons is strong, with
about 100 prospects recognized and three
hydrothermal projects already supplying
about 305MW of power.
Thick gas hydrate layers, a combination
of frozen methane and water, have been
recognized on the sea floor in various parts
of Indonesia, including the Celebes Sea and
in the Seram trough (e.g., Fainstein 1998b).
The technology to exploit these gas deposits
does not yet exist but this situation is likely
to change in the future.
Acknowledgements
Thanks need to go in particular to those people who
took it on themselves to critically proof the various
sections of the text. These include Bob Davis,
consultant geochemist for proofing a large part of
the text and commenting on geochemistry, and
Chuck Caughey of Gulf for wading through the
entire document, Deidre Brooks of Woodside in Perth
for covering the Timor gap section, and Tony Dixon
for the West Natuna section. I would also like to
thank Herman Darman of Shell, Rob Barraclough of
Kufpec, Ian Longley of Woodside in Perth, and John
Decker of Unocal for their comments and suggestions
on various parts of the text.

Geology Indonesia

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A Geological Overview of Indonesia

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