Advanced Problems of

Longitudinal Dynamics
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2012
Angle-of-attack-rate aero effects
Fourth-order dynamics
Steady-state response to control
Transfer functions
Frequency response
Root locus analysis of parameter
variations
Numerical solution for trimmed
ight condition
Nichols chart
Pilot-aircraft interactions
Copyright 2012 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html
Distinction Between Angle-of-
Attack Rate and Pitch Rate

! ! = q

! ! " 0 " q; q = 0
! With no vertical motion of the
c.m., pitch rate and angle-of-
attack rate are the same
! With no pitching, vertical heaving
(or plunging) motion of the c.m.,
produces angle-of-attack rate but
no pitch rate
Vertical velocity
distribution induced
by pitch rate
Angle-of-Attack Rate
Has Two Effects
! Pressure variations at wing
convect downstream,
arriving at tail !t sec later
! Lag of the downwash
! Delayed tail-lift/pitch-
moment effect
! Vertical force opposed by a
mass of air (apparent
mass) as well as airplane
mass
! Vertical acceleration
produces added lift and
moment
Flight Dynamics, pp. 204-206, 284-285

!! q = M
q
!q+ M
"
!" + M
#E
!#E+ M
! "
! ! "
! ! " = 1$
L
q
V
N
%
&
'
(
)
*!q $
L
"
V
N
( )
!" $
L
#E
V
N
( )
!#E $
L
! "
V
N
( )
! ! "

!! q " M
! #
! ! # = M
q
!q+ M
#
!# + M
$E
!$E
! ! # +
L
! #
V
N
( )
! ! # = 1"
L
q
V
N
%
&
'
(
)
*!q "
L
#
V
N
( )
!# "
L
$E
V
N
( )
!$E

1 !M
! "
0 1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
)! q
) ! "
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
=
M
q
M
"
1!
L
q
V
N
*
+
,
-
.
/ !
L
"
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
)q
)"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
+
M
0E
!
L
0E
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
)0E
Angle-of-Attack-Rate Effects Principally
Affect the Short-Period Mode
! Lift and pitching moment proportional to angle-of-attack rate
! Bring effects to left side
! Vector-matrix form

1 !M
! "
0 1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
!1
=
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
! "
0 1
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(

!! q
! ! "
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
=
1 )M
! "
0 1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
)1
M
q
M
"
1)
L
q
V
N
*
+
,
-
.
/ )
L
"
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
!q
!"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
+
M
0E
)
L
0E
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
!0E
1
2
3
3
4
3
3
5
6
3
3
7
3
3
Angle-of-Attack-Rate Effects
! Inverse of the apparent mass matrix
! Pre-multiply both sides by inverse

!! q
! ! "
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
=
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
! "
0 1
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
q
M
"
1)
L
q
V
N
*
+
,
-
.
/ )
L
"
V
N
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
!q
!"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
+"
0
1
2
2
3
2
2
4
5
2
2
6
2
2
Angle-of-Attack-Rate Effects

!! q
! ! "
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
=
1
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
q
+ M
! "
1)
L
q
V
N
*
+
,
-
.
/
0
1
2
3
4
5
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
"
) M
! "
L
"
V
N
( )
0
1
2
3
4
5
1)
L
q
V
N
*
+
,
-
.
/ )
L
"
V
N
#
$
%
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
(
!q
!"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
+
1+
L
! "
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
M
6E
) M
! "
L
6E
V
N
( )
)
L
6E
V
N
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
!6E
0
1
7
7
7
7
7
2
7
7
7
7
7
3
4
7
7
7
7
7
5
7
7
7
7
7
! Multiply matrices
! Substitute
Simplication of Angle-of-Attack-
Rate Effects

!! q
! ! "
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
"
M
q
+ M
! " { } M
"
) M
! "
L
"
V
N
( ) { }
1 )
L
"
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
(
!q
!"
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
+
M
*E
) M
! "
L
*E
V
N
( )
)
L
*E
V
N
( )
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
!*E
! Typically

L
q
and L
! !
have small effects for large aircraft*
M
q
and M
! !
are same order of magnitude
and have more significant effects
! Neglecting

L
q
and L
! !
* but not for small aircraft, e.g.,
R/C models and micro-UAVs
2
nd
-Degree Characteristic Polynomial with
! Short-period characteristic polynomial
! Damping is increased
! Natural frequency is unaffected

! s ( ) =
s " M
q
+ M
! # ( )
$
%
&
'
" M
#
" M
! #
L
#
V
N
( )
$
%
(
&
'
)
"1 s +
L
#
V
N
( )
$
%
(
&
'
)
= s " M
q
+ M
! # ( )
$
%
&
'
s +
L
#
V
N
( )
$
%
(
&
'
)
" M
#
" M
! #
L
#
V
N
( )
$
%
(
&
'
)

! s ( ) = s
2
+
L
"
V
N
( )
# M
q
+ M
! " ( )
$
%
&
'
(
)
s + M
"
# M
q
L
"
V
N
( )
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
-
.
/
= s
2
+201
n
s +1
n
2
= 0

L
q
and L
! !
" 0

= s
2
+
L
!
V
N
( )
" M
q
+ M
! ! ( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
s + M
!
" M
q
+ M
! ! ( )
L
!
V
N
( )
#
$
%
&
'
(
+ M
! !
L
!
V
N
( )
)
*
+
,
-
.
Linear, Time-Invariant Fourth-Order
Longitudinal Model
(Neglecting angle-of-attack-rate aero)

!
!
V(t )
! ! "(t )
!! q(t )
! ! #(t )
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
=
*D
V
*g 0 *D
#
L
V
V
N
0 0
L
#
V
N
M
V
0 M
q
M
#
*
L
V
V
N
0 1 *
L
#
V
N
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
!V(t )
!"(t )
!q(t )
!#(t )
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
+
0 T
+T
0
0 0 L
+F
/ V
N
M
+E
0 0
0 0 *L
+F
/ V
N
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
!+E(t )
!+T(t )
!+F(t )
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
Stability and control derivatives are dened at a
trimmed (equilibrium) ight condition

Perturbations to the Trimmed Condition

Initial pitch rate [!q(0)] = 0.1 rad/s Elevator step input [!!E(0)] = 1 deg
Small linear and nonlinear
perturbations are virtually identical

Steady-State Response
Steady-State Response of the 4
th
-Order
LTI Longitudinal Model
!V
SS
!"
SS
!q
SS
!#
SS
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
= *
*D
V
*g 0 *D
#
L
V
V
N
0 0
L
#
V
N
M
V
0 M
q
M
#
*
L
V
V
N
0 1 *
L
#
V
N
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
*1
0 T
+T
0
0 0 L
+F
/ V
N
M
+E
0 0
0 0 *L
+F
/ V
N
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
!+E
SS
!+T
SS
!+F
SS
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
!x
SS
= "F
"1
G!u
SS
How do we calculate the equilibrium response to control?

!! x(t ) = F!x(t ) + G!u(t )
For the longitudinal model

Algebraic Equation for

Equilibrium Response
!V
SS
!"
SS
!q
SS
!#
SS
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
=
*gM
+E
L
#
V
N
$
%
&
'
(
)
0 gM
#
L
+F
/ V
N [ ]
D
V
L
#
V
N
* D
#
L
V
V
N
( )
M
+E
$
%
&
'
(
)
M
V
L
#
V
N
* M
#
L
V
V
N
( )
T
+T
$
%
&
'
(
)
D
#
M
V
* D
V
M
# ( ) L
+F
/ V
N
$
%
'
(
0 0 0
*gM
+E
L
V
V
N
$
%
&
'
(
)
0 L
+F
/ V
N [ ]
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
g M
V
L
#
V
N
* M
#
L
V
V
N
( )
!+E
SS
!+T
SS
!+F
SS
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
!V
SS
!"
SS
!q
SS
!#
SS
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
=
a 0 b
c d e
0 0 0
f 0 g
$
%
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
!*E
SS
!*T
SS
!*F
SS
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
Roles of stability and control
derivatives identied
Result is a simple equation relating
input and output

4
th
-Order Steady-State Response May
Be Counterintuitive
!V
SS
= a!"E
SS
+ 0 ( ) !"T
SS
+ b!"F
SS
!#
SS
= c!"E
SS
+ d!"T
SS
+ e!"F
SS
!q
SS
= 0 ( ) !E
SS
+ 0 ( ) !"T
SS
+ 0 ( ) !"F
SS
!$
SS
= f !"E
SS
+ 0 ( ) !"T
SS
+ g!"F
SS
Observations
Thrust command
Elevator and ap commands
Steady-state pitch rate is zero
4
th
-order model neglects air density gradient effects

!"
SS
= !#
SS
+ !$
SS
= c + f ( ) !%E
SS
+ d!%T
SS
+ e + g ( ) !%F
SS
Steady-state pitch angle

Effects of Stability Derivative

Variations on 4
th
-Order
Longitudinal Modes
Primary and Coupling Blocks of the
Fourth-Order Longitudinal Model
F
Lon
=
!D
V
!g 0 !D
"
L
V
V
N
0 0
L
"
V
N
M
V
0 M
q
M
"
!
L
V
V
N
0 1 !
L
"
V
N
#
$
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
F
Ph
F
SP
Ph
F
Ph
SP
F
SP
#
$
%
%
&
'
(
(
Some stability derivatives appear only in primary
blocks (D
V
, M
q
, M
"
)
Effects are well-described by 2
nd
-order models
Some stability derivatives appear only in coupling
blocks (M
V
, D
"
)
Effects are ignored by 2
nd
-order models
Some stability derivatives appear in both (L
V
, L
"
)
Require 4
th
-order modeling
!M
"
Effect on 4
th
-Order Roots
Short
Period
Short
Period
Phugoid
Phugoid
!
Lon
(s) = s
4
+ D
V
+
L
"
V
N
# M
q ( )
s
3
+ g # D
" ( )
L
V
V
N
+ D
V
L
"
V
N
# M
q ( )
# M
q
L
"
V
N
# M
"o
$
%
&
'
(
)
s
2
+ M
q
D
"
# g ( )
L
V
V
N
# D
V
L
"
V
N
$
%&
'
()
+ D
"
M
V
# D
V
M
"o { }
s
+ g M
V
L
"
V
N
# M
"o
L
V
V
N
( )
#!M
"
s
2
+ D
V
s + g
L
V
V
N
( )
* d(s)+ kn(s)
Group all terms multiplied by M
"
to form numerator for !M
"
!M
"
Effect on 4
th
-Order Roots
Primary effect: The same as in the approximate short-
period model
Numerator zeros
The same as the approximate phugoid mode characteristic
polynomial
Effect of M
"
variation on phugoid mode is small
Short
Period
Short
Period
Phugoid
Phugoid
Direct Thrust Effect on Speed
Stability, T
V
In steady, level ight, nominal thrust balances nominal drag
!T
!V
=
< 0, for propeller aircraft
" 0, for turbojet aircraft
> 0, for ramjet aircraft
#
$
%
&
%
!T
!V
"
!D
!V
> 0
T
N
! D
N
= C
T
N
1
2
"V
N
2
S ! C
D
N
1
2
"V
N
2
S = 0
Effect of velocity change
Small velocity perturbation grows if
Therefore
propeller is stabilizing for velocity change
turbojet has neutral effect
ramjet is destabilizing
Pitching Moment Due to Thrust, M
V
Thrust line above or below center of mass induces a pitching moment
Aerodynamic and thrust pitching moments sensitive to velocity
perturbation
Couples phugoid and short-period modes
Martin XB-51
McDonnell Douglas MD-11
Consolidated PBY
Fairchild-Republic A-10
Negative "M/"V (Pitch-down effect) tends to increase velocity
Positive "M/"V (Pitch-up effect) tends to decrease velocity
With propeller thrust line above the c.m., increased velocity
decreases thrust, producing a pitch-up moment
Tilting the thrust line can have benets
Up: Lake Amphibian, MD-11
Down: F6F, F8F, AD-1
!M
thrust
!V
"
!T
!V
# Moment Arm
Douglas AD-1
Lake Amphibian
Grumman F8F
McDonnell Douglas
MD-11
Pitching Moment Due to Thrust, M
V
M
V
Effect on 4
th
-Order
Roots
Large positive value produces
oscillatory phugoid instability
Large negative value produces
real phugoid divergence
!
Lon
(s) = s
4
+ D
V
+
L
"
V
N
# M
q ( )
s
3
+ g # D
" ( )
L
V
V
N
+ D
V
L
"
V
N
# M
q ( )
# M
q
L
"
V
N
# M
"
$
%
&
'
(
)
s
2
+ M
q
D
"
# g ( )
L
V
V
N
# D
V
L
"
V
N
$
%&
'
()
+ D
"
M
V
# D
V
M
" { }
s
gM
"
L
V
V
N
+ M
V
D
"
s + g
L
"
V
N
( )
= 0
!
D
"
= 0
Short
Period
Phugoid
L
"
/V
N
and L
V
/V
N
Effects on
Fourth-Order Roots
L
V
/V
N
: Damped natural
frequency of the phugoid
Negligible effect on the short-
period
L
"
/V
N
: Increased damping
of the short-period
Small effect on the phugoid
mode
Short
Period
Phugoid
Pitch and Thrust
Control Effects
Longitudinal Model Transfer
Function Matrix (H
x
= I, H
u
= 0)

H
Lon
(s) =
n
!E
V
(s) n
!T
V
(s) n
!F
V
(s)
n
!E
"
(s) n
!T
"
(s) n
!F
"
(s)
n
!E
q
(s) n
!T
q
(s) n
!F
q
(s)
n
!E
#
(s) n
!T
#
(s) n
!F
#
(s)
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
s
2
+ 2*
P
+
n
P
s + +
n
P
2
( )
s
2
+ 2*
SP
+
n
SP
s + +
n
SP
2
( )

!V(s)
!"(s)
!q(s)
!#(s)
$
%
&
&
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
)
)
= H
x
A s ( )G
!*E(s)
!*T(s)
!*F(s)
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
= H
Lon
(s)
!*E(s)
!*T(s)
!*F(s)
$
%
&
&
&
'
(
)
)
)
A Little More About Output Matrices
With H
x
= I and H
u
= 0

!y = !x = H
x
!x; then H
x
= I
4
and
!y
1
!y
2
!y
3
!y
4
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
!x
1
!x
2
!x
3
!x
4
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
!
!V
!(
!q
!)
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
Only output is !V
!y = !V = 1 0 0 0
"
#
$
%
!V
!&
!q
!'
"
#
(
(
(
(
(
$
%
)
)
)
)
)
!V and !" are measured
!y =
!y
1
!y
2
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
=
!V
!(
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
"
#
$
%
&
'
!V
!)
!q
!(
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
A Little More About Output Matrices
Output (measurement) of body-axis velocity and pitch rate and
angle
Transformation from [!V, !$, !q, !%] to [!u, !w, !q, !"]
!u
!w
!q
!"
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
=
cos)
N
0 0 *V
N
sin)
N
sin)
N
0 0 V
N
cos)
N
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
#
$
%
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
(
!V
!+
!q
!)
#
$
%
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
(
Separate measurement
of state and control
perturbations
!y =
!x
!u
"
#
$
%
&
'
= H
x
!x + H
u
!u
!y
1
!y
2
!y
3
!y
4
!y
5
!y
6
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
=
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!V
!(
!q
!)
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
+
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
"
#
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
!*E
!*T
"
#
$
%
&
'
Elevator-to-Normal-Velocity Numerator
(L
E
= 0)
H
x
Adj sI ! F
Lon
( )G = sin"
N
0 0 V
N
cos"
N
#
$
%
&
n
V
V
(s) n
'
V
(s) n
q
V
(s) n
"
V
(s)
n
V
'
(s) n
'
'
(s) n
q
'
(s) n
"
'
(s)
n
V
q
(s) n
'
q
(s) n
q
q
(s) n
"
q
(s)
n
V
"
(s) n
'
"
(s) n
q
"
(s) n
"
"
(s)
#
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
%
&
)
)
)
)
)
)
0
0
M
*E
0
#
$
(
(
(
(
%
&
)
)
)
)
= n
*E
w
(s)
Transform though "
N
back to body axes

n
!E
w
(s) = sin"
N
0 0 V
N
cos"
N
#
$
%
&
n
q
V
(s)
n
q
'
(s)
n
q
q
(s)
n
q
"
(s)
#
$
(
(
(
(
(
(
%
&
)
)
)
)
)
)
M
!E
= M
!E
sin"
N
( )n
q
V
(s)+ V
N
cos"
N
( )n
q
"
(s)
#
$
%
&
Scalar transfer function numerator

Elevator-to-Normal-Velocity
Transfer Function
!w(s)
!"E(s)
=
n
"E
w
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
=
M
"E
s
2
+ 2#$
n
s +$
n
2
( )
Approx Ph
s % z
3
( )
s
2
+ 2#$
n
s +$
n
2
( )
Ph
s
2
+ 2#$
n
s +$
n
2
( )
SP
Normal velocity transfer function is analogous
to angle of attack transfer function (!" # !w/V
N
)
z
3
often neglected due to high frequency

Elevator-to-Normal-
Velocity Frequency
Response
!w(s)
!"E(s)
=
n
"E
w
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
#
M
"E
s
2
+ 2$%
n
s +%
n
2
( )
Approx Ph
s & z
3
( )
s
2
+ 2$%
n
s +%
n
2
( )
Ph
s
2
+ 2$%
n
s +%
n
2
( )
SP
0 dB/dec
+40 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
40 dB/dec
20 dB/dec
(n q) = 1
Complex zero
almost (but not
quite) cancels
phugoid
response

Elevator-to-Pitch-Rate
Numerator and Transfer Function
H
x
Adj sI ! F
Lon
( )G = 0 0 1 0
"
#
$
%
n
V
V
(s) n
&
V
(s) n
q
V
(s) n
'
V
(s)
n
V
&
(s) n
&
&
(s) n
q
&
(s) n
'
&
(s)
n
V
q
(s) n
&
q
(s) n
q
q
(s) n
'
q
(s)
n
V
'
(s) n
V
'
(s) n
V
'
(s) n
V
'
(s)
"
#
(
(
(
(
(
(
$
%
)
)
)
)
)
)
0
0
M
*E
0
"
#
(
(
(
(
$
%
)
)
)
)
= n
*E
q
(s)
!q(s)
!"E(s)
=
n
"E
q
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
#
M
"E
s s $ z
1
( ) s $ z
2
( )
s
2
+ 2%&
n
s +&
n
2
( )
Ph
s
2
+ 2%&
n
s +&
n
2
( )
SP
Free s in numerator differentiates
pitch angle transfer function

Elevator-to-Pitch-
Rate Frequency
Response
+20 dB/dec
+20 dB/dec
+40 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
20 dB/dec
!q
SS
= 0 ( )!"E
SS
+ 0 ( )!"T
SS
+ 0 ( )!"F
SS
(n q) = 1
Negligible low-
frequency response,
except at phugoid
natural frequency
High-frequency
response well
predicted by 2
nd
-
order model

!q(s)
!"E(s)
=
n
"E
q
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
#
M
"E
s s $ z
1
( ) s $ z
2
( )
s
2
+ 2%&
n
s +&
n
2
( )
Ph
s
2
+ 2%&
n
s +&
n
2
( )
SP
Transfer Functions of Elevator Input
to Angle Output*
!"(s)
!#E(s)
=
n
#E
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#E
"
(s) = M
#E
s +
1
T
"
1
$
%
&
'
(
) s +
1
T
"
2
$
%
&
'
(
)
!"(s)
!#E(s)
=
n
#E
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#E
"
(s) = M
#E
s
2
+ 2$%
n
s +%
n
2
( )
Approx Ph
!"(s)
!#E(s)
=
n
#E
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#E
"
(s) = M
#E
L
$
V
N
s +
1
T
"
1
%
&
'
(
)
*
Elevator-to-Flight Path Angle transfer function

Elevator-to-Angle of Attack transfer function

Elevator-to-Pitch Angle transfer function

* Flying qualities notation for zero time constants

Frequency Response of
Angles to Elevator Input
Pitch angle frequency
response (!% = !$ + !")
Similar to ight path
angle near phugoid
natural frequency
Similar to angle of
attack near short-
period natural
frequency
!"
SS
= c!#E
SS
!$
SS
= f !#E
SS
!%
SS
= c & f ( ) !#E
SS
Transfer Functions of Thrust
Input to Angle Output
!"(s)
!#T(s)
=
n
#T
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#T
"
(s) = T
#T
s +
1
T
"
T
$
%
&
'
(
)
!"(s)
!#T(s)
=
n
#T
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#T
"
(s) = T
#T
s s +
1
T
"
T
$
%
&
'
(
)
!" (s)
!#T(s)
=
n
#T
"
(s)
!
Lon
(s)
; n
#T
"
(s) = T
#T
L
V
V
N
s
2
+ 2$%
n
s +%
n
2
( )
Approx SP
Thrust-to-Flight Path Angle transfer function

Thrust-to-Angle of Attack transfer function

Thrust-to-Pitch Angle transfer function

Frequency Response of Angles

to Thrust Input
Primarily effects ight path angle and low-frequency pitch angle
Gain and Phase Margins:
The Nichols Chart
Nichols Chart:
Gain vs. Phase Angle
Bode Plot
Two plots
Open-Loop Gain (dB) vs. log
10
&
Open-Loop Phase Angle vs. log
10
&
Nichols Chart
Single crossplot; input
frequency not shown
Open-Loop Gain (dB) vs. Open-
Loop Phase Angle
Gain and Phase Margins
Gain Margin
At the input frequency, &, for which '(j&) = 180
Difference between 0 dB and transfer function magnitude,
20 log
10
AR(j&)
Phase Margin
At the input frequency, &, for which 20 log
10
AR(j&) = 0 dB
Difference between the phase angle '(j&), and 180
Axis intercepts on the Nichols Chart identify GM
and PM
Examples of Gain and Phase Margins
Bode Plot Nichols Chart
H
blue
( j!) =
10
j! + 10 ( )
"
#
$
%
&
'
100
2
j! ( )
2
+ 2 0.1 ( ) 100 ( ) j! ( ) + 100
2
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
H
green
( j!) =
10
2
j! ( )
2
+ 2 0.1 ( ) 10 ( ) j! ( ) + 10
2
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
100
j! + 100 ( )
"
#
$
%
&
'
Gain and Phase Margins in
Pitch-Tracking Task
Elevator-to-Pitch-Angle
Bode Plot
Elevator-to-Pitch-Angle
Nichols Chart
Amplitude Ratio vs. Phase Angle
Gain Margin: Amplitude ratio below 0 dB
when phase angle = 180
Phase Margin: Phase angle above 180
when amplitude ratio = 0 dB
Pilot-Vehicle Interactions
Pilot Inputs to Control
* p. 421-425, Flight Dynamics
Effect of Pilot Dynamics on
Pitch-Angle Control Task
Pilot Transfer Function =
!u s ( )
!" s ( )
= K
P
1/ T
P
s +1/ T
P
= K
P
1/ 0.25
s +1/ 0.25
Pilot introduces neuromuscular lag while closing the control loop
Example
Model the lag by a 1
st
-order time constant, T
P
, of 0.25 s
Pilots gain, K
P
, is either 1 or 2
Open-Loop Pilot-Aircraft
Transfer Function
H(s) = K
P
1 / T
P
s + 1 / T
P
( )
!
"
#
$
%
&
M
'E
s +
1
T
(
1
)
*
+
,
-
.
s +
1
T
(
2
)
*
+
,
-
.
s
2
+ 2/0
n
s + 0
n
2
( )
Ph
s
2
+ 2/0
n
s + 0
n
2
( )
SP
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
Effect of Pilot
Dynamics on
Pitch-Angle
Control Task
Gain and phase
margins become
negative for pilot
gain between 1
and 2
Then, pilot
destabilizes the
system (PIO)
Effect of Pilot Dynamics on Elevator/Pitch-
Angle Control Root Locus
Pilot transfer function changes asymptotes of the root locus
Conguration Effects
Pitch Up
Crossplot C
L
vs. C
m

Positive break in C
m
due to forward movement
of center of pressure, decreasing static margin
F-100 crash due to tip stall
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyJkKcXYqSU&feature=related
North American F-100
Sweep Effect on Pitch Moment
Coefcient, C
L
vs. C
m
"
c/4
= 0
Low " center of pressure
(c.p.) in front of the quarter
chord
Stable break at stall (c.p.
moves aft)
"
c/4
= 15
Low " c.p. aft of the quarter-
chord
Stable break at stall (c.p.
moves aft)
"
c/4
= 30
Low " c.p. aft of the quarter-
chord
Unstable break at stall (c.p.
moves forward)
Outboard wing stalls before
inboard wing (tip stall)
C
m
(")
C
L
(")
Stall
NACA TR-1339
Stable
Break
Stall Unstable
Break
Pitch Up and Deep Stall, C
m
vs.
Possibility of 2
stable equilibrium
(trim) points with
same control
setting
Low "
High "
High-angle trim is
called deep stall
Low lift
High drag
Large control
moment required to
regain low-angle
trim
Shortal-Maggin
Longitudinal
Stability Boundary
for Swept Wings
Stable or unstable pitch
break at the stall
Stability boundary is
expressed as a function of
Aspect ratio
Sweep angle of the
quarter chord
Taper ratio
AR
"
c/4
NACA TR-1339
Next Time:
Fourth-Order Lateral-
Directional Dynamics

Reading
Flight Dynamics, 595-627
Virtual Textbook, Part 19
Supplemental
Material
Trimmed Solution of the
Equations of Motion
Flight Conditions for Steady, Level Flight

!
V = f
1
=
1
m
T cos ! + i ( ) " D " mgsin# $
%
&
'
! # = f
2
=
1
mV
T sin ! + i ( ) + L " mgcos# $
%
&
'
! q = f
3
= M / I
yy
! ! = f
4
=
!
( " ! # = q "
1
mV
T sin ! + i ( ) + L " mgcos# $
%
&
'
Nonlinear longitudinal model

Nonlinear longitudinal model in equilibrium

0 = f
1
=
1
m
T cos ! + i ( ) " D " mgsin# $
%
&
'
0 = f
2
=
1
mV
T sin ! + i ( ) + L " mgcos# $
%
&
'
0 = f
3
= M / I
yy
0 = f
4
=
!
( " ! # = q "
1
mV
T sin ! + i ( ) + L " mgcos# $
%
&
'
Numerical Solution to Estimate the
Trimmed Condition for Level Flight
Specify desired altitude and airspeed, h
N
and V
N

Guess starting values for the trim parameters, !T
0
, !E
0
, and %
0

Calculate starting values of f
1
, f
2
, and f
3

f
1
, f
2
, and f
3
= 0 in equilibrium, but not for arbitrary !T
0
, !E
0
, and %
0

Dene a scalar, positive-denite trim error cost function, e.g.,

f
1
=
1
m
T !T,!E,", h,V ( )cos # +i ( ) $ D !T,!E,", h,V ( )
%
&
'
(
f
2
=
1
mV
N
T !T,!E,", h,V ( )sin # +i ( ) + L !T,!E,", h,V ( ) $ mg
%
&
'
(
f
3
= M !T,!E,", h,V ( ) / I
yy
J !T,!E," ( ) = a f
1
2
( )
+b f
2
2
( )
+c f
3
2
( )
Minimize the Cost Function with
Respect to the Trim Parameters
Cost is minimized at bottom of bowl, i.e., when
!J
!"T
!J
!"E
!J
!#
$
%
&
'
(
) = 0
Error cost is bowl-shaped
Search to nd the minimum value of J
J !T,!E," ( ) = a f
1
2
( )
+b f
2
2
( )
+c f
3
2
( )
Example of Search for Trimmed
Condition (Fig. 3.6-9, Flight Dynamics)
In MATLAB, use fminsearch [Nelder-Mead Downhill Simplex Method]
to nd trim settings
!T*,!E*," * ( ) = fminsearch J, !T,!E," ( )
#
$
%
&
Airspeed Frequency Response to
Elevator and Thrust Inputs
Response is primarily through the lightly damped
phugoid mode
Altitude Frequency Response
to Elevator and Thrust Inputs
Altitude perturbation: Integral of the ight path angle perturbation
!z(t ) = "V
N
!# ($ )d$
0
t
%
!z(s)
!"E(s)
= #
V
N
s
$
%
&
'
(
)
!* (s)
!"E(s)
!z(s)
!"T(s)
= #
V
N
s
$
%
&
'
(
)
!* (s)
!"T(s)
High- and Low-Frequency Limits of
Frequency Response Function
!
H
ij
( j" #0) #
k
ij
j" ( )
q
+ b
q$1
j" ( )
q$1
+ ... + b
1
j" ( ) + b
0 [ ]
j" ( )
n
+ a
n$1
j" ( )
n$1
+ ... + a
1
j" ( ) + a
0 [ ]
#
k
ij
b
0
a
0
, b
0
% 0
k
ij
j(0)b
1
a
0
, b
0
= 0, b
1
% 0, etc.
&
'
(
(
)
(
(
!
H
ij
( j") = AR(") e
j#(")
!
H
ij
( j" #$) #
k
ij
j" ( )
q
+ b
q%1
j" ( )
q%1
+ ... + b
1
j" ( ) + b
0 [ ]
j" ( )
n
+ a
n%1
j" ( )
n%1
+ ... + a
1
j" ( ) + a
0 [ ]
#
k
ij
j" ( )
n%q
Feedback Control: Angles to Elevator
Variations in
control gain
Principal effect is
on short-period
roots