Grammar Guide

PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

Use the present simple for:
statements of fact and general statements
Example:
Marco works for a publishing company.
habitual or repeated actions
Example:
He takes the bus to work every day.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
Use the present progressive for:
continuing actions
Example:
Yoko is taking a marketing class this semester.
actions in progress at the moment you're speaking
Example:
Right now she is working on a marketing campaign.
future actions that are planned or definitely intended.
Example:
She is presenting the campaign next week.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE VS. PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
Use the present simple for:
statements of fact and general statements
Example:
Marco works for a publishing company.
habitual or repeated actions
Example:
He takes the bus to work every day.
Use the present progressive for:
continuing actions
Example:
Yoko is taking a marketing class this semester.
actions in progress
Example:
Right now she is working on a marketing campaign.
future actions that are planned or definitely intended.
Example:
She is presenting the campaign next week.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Use the present perfect tense:
to talk about activities that began in the past but continue in the
present, especially with expressions of time beginning with
for or since
Example:
Marco has worked for a publishing company for more than ten
years/since I've known him. (he still works there)
to emphasize the fact of completing a task or activity.
Example:
Have you finished the report? I'm still waiting to see it.
to say that something took place more than once or repeatedly right
up to the present.
Example:
Mr. Weiss has gone to the same dry cleaner for years.
when a past event is relevant in the present
Example:
I've sold the house, and now I have to move.
together with words indicating ever or never
Example:
I've never been to Prague. Have you ever gone there?
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
Use the simple past tense:
to talk about activities that began and ended in the past.
Example:
Marco worked for a publishing company. (he no longer does)
with expressions indicating finished periods or specific moments
in the past, e.g. yesterday, two days/weeks/years ago, last
month, in 2002, etc.
Example:
We went to Brazil six years ago.
in story-telling.
Example:
Once upon a time, there lived a beautiful princess.
PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE
Use the past progressive tense:
to talk about an activity that was in progress, taking place
at a specific moment in the past.
Example:
What were you doing last night around 8?

I was watching the soccer match on TV.
to describe a "background" action, something that was happening
when another action took place.
Example:
I was explaining the theory of relativity when the bell rang
and the students got up and left.
to emphasize the duration of an action.
Example:
I was calling you all night last night, but you were out.
SIMPLE PAST VS. PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE
When these tenses are used together, use the simple past to describe a single event that took
place at a given moment in the past, and use the past progressive tense to describe an on-
going or background action.
Example:
I was watching the game on TV when you called.
SIMPLE PAST VS. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
The present perfect is used whenever an event or action has relevance or continues in the
present. However, when an event or action belongs wholly in the past, you should use the simple
past. Compare:
Example:
Have you ever seen a tennis match at the Australian Open?
Did you see the Agassi-Federer match last night?
Example:
My new boyfriend has written me so many letters; my old
boyfriend wrote only oneto say goodbye.
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The present perfect progressive is used to express how long an action has been going on. It is
often used together with for and since.
Example:
I have been sitting here waiting for you for 45 minutes!
I have been playing tennis since I was a kid.
PRESENT PERFECT VS. PRESENT PERFECT
PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The present perfect is used to express repeated actions in the past, while the present perfect
progressive is used to emphasize the duration of an action.
Example:
I have waited for you many times. You are always late!
I have been sitting here waiting for you for 45 minutes!
The present perfect focuses on the results or the completion of an action, while the present
perfect progressive focuses on the action itself. Compare:
Example:
I have been studying English grammar all morning.
I have learned how to use the present perfect.
PAST PERFECT TENSE
The past perfect is used to express an action that took place before another action or moment in
the past.
Example:
By the time we arrived at the theater, the movie had
already sold out.
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The past perfect progressive is used to express an action that was going on before another
action or moment in the past.
Example:
By the time I started working on the project, the others
had already been working on it for weeks!
HABITUAL PAST ("USED TO")
The habitual past expresses an action that took place repeatedly in the past. It is often used to
talk about past habits.
Example:
When I was in college, I used to sleep late all the time. Now I
wake up at 7 AM every day.
GERUND (-ING FORM OF VERBS)
The gerund is a verb form that functions as a noun and refers to the act of doing something.
Example:
I enjoy reading, going to the movies, and surfing the Net. I don't
like playing sports.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (-ING FORM OF VERBS)
The present participle is a verb form that functions as:
an adjective.
Example:
You can study the remaining lessons on your own.
an adverb.
Example:
He asked for the car keys pleading.
a reduced relative clause.
Example:
The man [who is] walking across the campus is my
History professor.
INFINITIVE ("TO" FORM OF VERBS)
The infinitive is the form of a verb that you'll find in a dictionary it hasn't been changed to
reflect when an action is taking place or who is performing the action, e.g. to go, to read, etc.
The infinitivecan also be used as a noun, much like the gerund, to refer to the action itself.
Example:
I like to go shopping on the weekends.
To err is human, to forgive divine.
GERUND VS. INFINITIVE
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or the infinitive. The
most common include: begin, start, continue, like, love, hate.
Example:
I like to go shopping on the weekends. I also like going
to the movies.
Some verbs must be followed by the gerund, not the infinitive. The
most common include: enjoy, finish, stop, keep, consider, think
about, discuss, and talk about.
Example:
I enjoy reading the Sunday paper over coffee.
Some verbs must be followed by the infinitive, not the gerund. The
most common include: want, need, would like, would love, hope,
expect, promise, plan, mean, decide, offer, agree, forget, and try.
Example:
I agreed to go to the conference, only after my company
promised to pay for it.


PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.
A subject pronoun takes the place of the subject:
Example:
Peter gave Emma a present. > He gave Emma a present.
A direct object pronoun takes the place of the direct object.
Example:
Peter gave Emma a present. > Peter gave it to Emma.
An indirect object pronoun takes the place of the indirect object.
Example:
Peter gave Emma a present. > Peter gave her a present.
When the direct object pronoun and the indirect object pronoun appear together, the direct
object pronoun comes first.
Example:
Peter gave Emma a present. > Peter gave it to her.
A possessive pronoun shows ownership or belonging.
Example:
The present is Emma's. > The present is hers.
A reflexive pronoun shows that the subject is also the object of an action.
Example:
Emma is looking at herself in the mirror.
It can also be used for emphasis.
Example:
I don't need your help. I can paint the house myself.
The pronouns in English are:
SUBJECT
DIRECT
OBJECT
INDIRECT
OBJECT
POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE
I me to/for me mine myself
you (sg.) you to/for you yours yourself
he him to/for him his himself
she her to/for her hers herself
we us to/for us ours ourselves
you (pl.) you to/for you yours yourselves
they them to/for them theirs themselves

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
The comparative is used when you compare one person, thing, idea
or action to another. The superlative is used when comparing one
member or part of a group to the group as a whole.
-

+
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-est -er as ... as -er -est
least less than

more than most
not as


Example:
Jessie drives faster than Helga. She's the fastest driver I know.
Maria is less interested in the opera than Natasha, but Steve is
the least interested of the group.
This restaurant is not as good as I expected.
There are some irregular comparatives:
good/well better best
bad/badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest

ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that describes verbs, adjectives, and
otheradverbs. It is used to describe the nature of an action or a quality.
Most adverbs in English end in -ly, such as quickly, pleasantly, etc.
Example:
Michael drives slowly. He is a very slow driver. He very rarely
drives over 55 mph.
There are special adverbs of time which express how oftensomething
happens:
never rarely sometimes often usually always
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FUTURE TENSE
The future tense can be formed in two ways: will (or shall in British English) + simple infinitive or
"be going to" + infinitive. The two forms have the same meaning when they are used to make
general predictions about the future.
Example:
Jason will call you tomorrow about the picnic. Maria is going to
come as well.
However be going to is more commonly used when talking about an already existing plan or
intention, while will/shall is more commonly used to show readiness to do something.
Example:
I want to learn Japanese, so I'm going to sign up for a class. Don't
worry about the homework assignments. I'll help you.
Note that the present progressive is often used to talk about a future event, especially when
there is a definite intention or specific time, or when you want to add emphasis to your statement.
Example:
It's definite! I'm buying the red car tomorrow! Then we're all
driving down to the shore.
Note that the simple present can also be used to talk about the future event, especially with
verbs such as begin, start, finish, open, close, arrive, leave, depart, be, and in reference to a
schedule or timetable.
Example:
We arrive tomorrow on the 8:45 bus from Cambridge.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE
Use the future progressive tense (will/shall + be + -ing) to indicate that an action or event will
be in progress at a given time in the future.
Example:
This time tomorrow, I'll be driving to the beach in my new
sports car.
or simply to refer to fixed future events or those which do not involve the idea of personal intent.
Example:
One of our Customer Service representatives will be contacting
you regarding your reservation.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Use the future perfect tense to indicate an action or event that will have taken place before
another action or moment in the future.
Example:
By the time you read this letter, I will already have reached
Toronto.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE
The future perfect progressive tense indicates how long an action will have been going on by
the time another action or moment in the future arrives.
Example:
By the time you get to the beach, I will have been enjoying the
sand and sun for a week!
CONDITIONAL AND "IF" CLAUSES
The conditional is often used with "if" clauses to talk about certain conditions and their desired
consequences and outcomes.
The simple conditional is used to express the consequences of an action or state.
Example:
If I have enough money, I will buy a car and drive to the shore.
(Situation: I may or may not have enough money.)
If you take the subway, you'll get there faster.
The habitual conditional is used to express typical actions and their associated consequences.
Example:
If it rains, I always bring an umbrella.
The unreal conditional is used to express a condition and its desired consequences, knowing
that it is unlikely for this outcome to occur.
Example:
If I had enough money, I would buy a car and I could drive
to the beach. (Situation: I don't have enough money.)
The past unreal conditional conditional is used to express a condition in the past and the
consequences had this condition been met (but it wasn't).
Example:
If I had had enough money, I would have bought a car and I
could have driven to the beach. (Situation: I didn't have enough
money.)
SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive is often used in "that" clauses following words or phrases that stress importance,
such as demand that, insist that, suggest that, advise that, it is important that, it is essential that,
it is necessary that, etc.
Example:
In many cultures it is acceptable to arrive at a meeting 15
minutes late. In the United States, it is expected that you be
on time.
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs generally express the speaker's feelings about an action. They can express:
probability
certain possible probable
theoretically
possible
impossible
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
will/shall may/might should/would/could can
will not/
shall not
Example:
The new design will be ready tomorrow. We may be able to
present it to the client next week. The client should be pleased,
even though new clients can often be difficult to please.
We will not miss this opportunity!
obligation
strong obligation recommendation willingness no obligation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
must/need/have to should/had better will/shall need not

Example:
In order to impress the new client, we must come up with a good
campaign, which should be creative and cutting-edge. I will
work on putting together the presentation. The rest of you need
not worry about this. Just do your job as well as you can.
permission, with can, may and might
Example:
Can I ask you a question? May I use your pen?
Might I close the window? It's cool in here.
advice, with should
Example:
You should call the doctor if you still have a fever tomorrow.
PAST MODALS
To express obligation, permission, advice, etc. in the past, use a modal verb followed by have +
past participle.
Example:
You should have called the doctor if you had a fever.
PASSIVE VOICE
In the passive voice, subject and object switch places. It is used
to place emphasis on the passive subject
Example:
This chair was built by my grandfather, but that one was bought
at a flea market.
when the subject of an action is unknown, not important, or general ("people", "they", etc.)
Example:
German is spoken here.
The school was built in 1923.
The staff was invited to a holiday dinner.
Note that only verbs that can take an object can appear in the passive, and that when a verb has
both a direct and an indirect object, either of them may become the subject of the passive
sentence.
Example:
active: Amy gave me a book.
passive: I was given a book by Amy.
passive: A book was given to me by Amy.
The agent of the action, when mentioned, is introduced by the preposition by.
Example:
The school was built in 1983 by the town of Greenhill.
PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verbs are "compound" verbs that consist of a verb and a preposition. The
verb+preposition combination has a different meaning from the verb alone, e.g. to call off (to
cancel), to give up(to surrender), to hand in (to submit), to go over (to review). Phrasal verbs can
be:
separable, meaning that an object can come between the verb and the preposition, and an
object pronoun must come between the verb and the preposition.
Example:
We had to call off the meeting. = We had to call the meeting off.
We had to call it off.
inseparable, meaning that nothing can come between the verb and the preposition.
Example:
Let's go over the report one more time before we hand it in.
CAUSATIVE
The causative uses the verbs have, get, and make to express the idea of one person getting
another person to do something.
Example:
We're trying to get the kids to brush their teeth every night. We
have to make them understand why this is important. So,
we're having my brother, a dentist, explain it to them tomorrow.
Note that have and make are followed by the simple infinitive form.Get is followed by the infinitive
with "to".
COMMANDS/IMPERATIVE
The imperative or command form consists of the simple infinitive and is used:
to give directions
Example:
Go straight for three blocks, then turn right at the traffic light.
to give orders
Example:
Be on time for this meeting. Our general manager will be there!!
to make requests, together with the word please
Example:
Please turn the radio down.
For added emphasis, add "do" before the imperative.
Example:
Do come in.
When referring to yourself or a group of you, the imperative is formed with the verb "let" + object
pronoun + infinitive.
Example:
Let me see the paper.... OK, let's go to the 8:00 show.
DETERMINERS
Determiners help describe or identify nouns as known or unknown, near or far, but they are not
adjectives. Determiners can be:
articles (indefinite or definite)
Example:
I went into the store you recommended, but I couldn't find
a pair of linen pants.
demonstratives (this or that)
Example:
This coffee shop is great, but that one over there is awful.
possessives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)
Example:
I love my new car!
Note that articles, demonstratives, and possessives are never used together with the same noun.
QUESTIONS
Questions can be used:
to ask if a statement is true (simple, yes/no questions):
Example:
Are you going to the game on Saturday?
to ask for specific information (wh-questions), using questions words like who, when, where,
why, how:
Example:
When are you going to the game? Who are you going with?
Where are your seats?
to ask for confirmation of a statement (tag questions). Note that the tag question is negative
when the statement is affirmative, and vice versa.
Example:
You're going to the game on Saturday, aren't you?
You're not going to the game on Saturday, are you?
REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is used to communicate what someone said without using a direct quotation. It
usually involves changes in pronoun and tense. In most cases, verbs are shifted one tense further
into the past. Note that will changes to would, and can tocould.
Example:
Marta said, "You lost weight!" --> Marta said I had lost weight.
Raul said, "I can't speak German." --> Raul said that he couldn't
speak German.
REPORTED COMMANDS
Commands are often reported using an (object +) infinitive. This structure does not work,
however, following the verbs say orsuggested. The verbs tell, order, or instruct are commonly
used in this scenario.
Example:
Marta said, "Lose weight!" --> Marta told me to lose weight.
Raul instructed the class, "Speak German!" --> Raul instructed us
to speak German.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses are clauses that begin with question words (who, which, where, when, how)
or that and are used to give describe or give more information about people or things. There are
two types of relative clauses:
Essential relative clauses provide information that is necessary to identify a noun.
Example:
This is the report that we have to read for the meeting.
The man who is crossing the street is my boss.
Non-essential relative clauses simply provide additional information about a noun.
Example:
Mark Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn, which was banned in
many schools.
This is my friend Eduardo, who just flew in from Mexico City.
COUNT NOUNS
Count nouns, as the name suggests, refers to nouns which name separate objects or ideas and
can literally be counted, i.e. in front of which you can place a number, such as five people, a
dozen apples,a hundred trees, etc.
When talking about quantities, with count nouns you can use numbers, indefinite articles, and the
quantifiers few or many.
Example:
They served us too few potatoes.
Last month I received four letters from my friend, but this month I
haven't received many.
MASS NOUNS
Mass nouns cannot be counted. They usually refer to materials, liquids, abstract qualities, or
groups of things without clear boundaries. You cannot place a number directly in front of a mass
noun, and most mass nouns do not have a plural form.
When talking about quantities, with mass nouns use little or much.
Example:
They served us too much rice.
I've had little news from my friend this month.
COUNT VS. MASS NOUNS
When talking about quantities, with count nouns you can use numbers, indefinite articles, and the
quantifiers few or many; with mass nouns use little or much.
Example:
They served us too much rice and too few potatoes.
Last month I received many letters from my friend, but this month
I've had little news.
Note that nouns with the same meaning can be considered count nouns in one language and mass
nouns in another. For example, hairis considered a mass noun in English (My hairdresser cut off
too much hair this time.), but its a countable noun in Italian (Devo tagliarmi i capelli. Lit. I have
to cut my hairs.).
SHORT ANSWERS
Short answers are used to avoid unnecessarily repeating all of the information that was included
in a question. Short answers typically consist of just the subject and the auxiliary verb
or do when there is no auxiliary verb. Note that the contracted form I'm cannot be used in short
answers.
Example:
Is she happy living in Europe?
Yes, she is./No, she isn't.

Tom Walsh works in production, right?
Yes, he does./No, he doesn't.
EXCLAMATIONS
Exclamations are statements made to express strong emotions or reactions. The most common
types of exclamations are formed withhow or what:
Exclamations with how: how + adjective/adverb (+ subject + verb)
Example:
Chocolate ice cream! How delicious!
Exclamations with what: what (a/an) (+ adjective ) + noun
Example:
What luck! What a great watch! And it's on sale!
CONTRACTIONS
Two words that very often appear together are sometimes shortened and combined into a single
form. This usually happens with nouns/pronouns and auxiliary verbs (I am = I'm; I have = I've)
or with auxiliary verbs and not (is not = isn't; can not = can't).
Example:
She's so happy living in Japan, I doubt she'll ever move back
to the States.
I wouldn't want to pry, but I don't understand why she left.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used to combine two or more sentences/clauses. The most basic
conjunctions are and, but, and or. Other common conjunctions include because, although, yet, so,
and all the relative pronouns. Note that you generally use only one conjunction to join two clauses
(except and so or and yet).
Example:
She's happy living in Japan, but she misses the United States.
Although I would prefer to go to your party, I have to go to
an office party instead.
-EVER WORDS
Adding -ever to a question word gives the idea of "any", e.g.whoever (=any person), however (=
in any way), whenever (= at any time), etc.
Example:
Wherever they are, I'm sure they're thinking of you.
Whoever broke into my apartment was only interested in my
electronic equipment.