CHAPTER 2- WATER POLLUTION

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTION SOURCES

Point sources pollution
Point source pollution is contamination that enters the environment through any
discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance, such as a smokestack, pipe, ditch,
tunnel, or conduit.
Point source pollution remains a major cause of pollution to both air and water.
Point sources are differentiated from non-point sources, which are those that spread
out over a large area and have no specific outlet or discharge point.
Example point source of water pollution: municipal sewage treatment plant
discharges, industrial plant discharges.
Example point source of air pollution : power plants, smelters, industrial and
commercial boilers, wood and pulp processors













Dispersed pollution
Dispersed sources are broad, unconfined areas from which pollutants enter a body of
water.
The characterization of a source as either a point or a distributed source can depend
on how one choose to aggregate the individual emissions that compose the source
and on the spatial scales of the interest.
Example of water pollution : Surface runoff from farms
Example of air pollution : all cars in a city for evaluation of city air quality



Thermal Pollution

harmful increase in water temperature in streams, rivers, lakes, or occasionally,
coastal ocean waters
Cause :
i. dumping hot water from factories and power plants
ii. removing trees and vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to
raise the temperature of these waters
Major sources:
i. electric power plants and industrial factories
In most electric power plants, heat is produced when coal, oil, or
natural gas is burned or nuclear fuels undergo fission to release huge
amounts of energy.
This heat turns water to steam, which in turn spins turbines to
produce electricity.
After doing its work, the spent steam must be cooled and condensed
back into water.
To condense the steam, cool water is brought into the plant and
circulated next to the hot steam.
In this process, the water used for cooling warms 5 to 10 Celsius
degrees (9 to 18 Fahrenheit degrees), after which it may be dumped
back into the lake, river, or ocean from which it came.
Similarly, factories contribute to thermal pollution when they dump
water used to cool their machinery
ii. removing vegetation
Streams and small lakes are naturally kept cool by trees and other tall
plants that block sunlight
People often remove this shading vegetation in order to harvest the
wood in the trees
Left unshaded, the water warms by as much as 10 Celsius degrees (18
Fahrenheit degrees)
Even the removal of vegetation far away from a stream or lake can
contribute to thermal pollution by speeding up the erosion of soil into
the water, making it muddy.
Muddy water absorbs more energy from the sun than clear water does,
resulting in further heating
Impact to aquatic life :
can kill native fish, shellfish, and plants. When water in an area warms
more than they can tolerate, species that cannot move, such as rooted
plants and shellfish, will die
Algae and other plants grow more rapidly in warm water than in cold
the bacteria that decompose their dead tissue use up oxygen, further
reducing the amount available for animals

Soil erosion and its impact
Soil erosion is a gradual process that occurs when the impact of water or wind
detaches and removes soil particles, causing the soil to deteriorate.
Soil erosion by water, and the impact of sediment-attached nutrients (i.e.,
phosphorus) on lakes and streams, creates problems for both agricultural land and
water quality.
Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may
occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from
farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water
quality and damaged drainage networks.
Sediment deposition in a waterway makes the water more turbid and does not allow
as much light to penetrate the water. This causes problems for aquatic plants that
need sunlight in order to perform photosynthesis
Furthermore, suspended sediments in the water have the potential of clogging the
gills of aquatic organisms and covering the stream bottom
Also, with an increased amount of particles in the water, dissolved oxygen levels are
reduced because of higher water temperatures.
Controlling erosion
Controlling soil erosion will:
sustain or improve crop yields
reduce drainage costs
retain nutrients and chemicals where applied
reduce hazards when working on eroding soil, and
help improve water quality.
Management of soil for water and wind erosion control is based on sensible soil
conservation practices. The majority of these practices are recognized components of
good soil, crop, and water management. For effective erosion control:
a. Maintain good soil structure
I. Maintaining good soil structure on your property is a great soil erosion
control method.
II. It is also a great management plan to keep your property soil erosion
free.
III. Improving soil structure frequently is one step to maintaining it.
IV. Relying organic matter and manure are 2 simple ways to controlling soil
erosion and maintaining soil structure.
V. Watering and residues are also 2 methods which help control erosion.
VI. Tillage practices which avoid unnecessary breakdown of soil structure
are another way to control soil erosion.
b. Protect the soil surface by adequate crop and residue cover
I. Residue and crop covers are 2 ideally ways for soil erosion control.
II. The benefits of proper crops on all types of soils is vitally important as
they act as shields to the soil and the intercept the force of water and rain
delicately and therefore the soil will be protected against soil erosion from
these natural forces.
III. Root systems of the crop covers will help stabilize the underlying soil
which will control the soils erosion.
c. Use special structural erosion control practices where necessary.
Matting is a great soil erosion control product. There are various types of matting
which are all made from different components and suit different types of soils. Some
of the commonly known forms of matting used for soil erosion control are:
Grass Matting
Fiber Matting
Mulch Matting
Wood Matting
The 4 mentioned matting types are deigned the same.
The matting will sit directly on top of the soil.
It then acts like a shelter for the soil and will prevent the harsh impact of wind and
water on the soils surface.
The matting allows the soil to breathe and retain moisture.
Matting is recommended to be used for long terms of 12 months. Once the 12
months is up your soil should be controlled and free of soil erosion.



Self purification on river
Self purification exists in form of a biological cycle which is able to adjust itself,
within limits, to change in environmental condition.








Self purification Cycle
Purification of water in liquid form ultimately depends on natural filtration, chemical
absorption and adsorption by soil particles and organic matter, living organism
uptake of nutrients, and living organism decomposition processes in soil and water
environments.
Soils, especially in wetland and riparian areas, along with vegetation and
microorganisms play very important roles in natural water purification.
Microorganisms in soils, wetlands and riparian areas either utilize or breakdown
numerous chemical and biological contaminants in water.
Wetlands serve as ecological kidneys and can remove 20 to 60 percent of metals in
water, trap and retain 80 to 90 percent of sediment from runoff, and eliminate 70 to
90 percent of the nitrogen in water.
Riparian (streamside) forests also act as living filters that intercept sediments,
absorb and store excess nutrients, and transform and remediate the effects of many
water contaminants and pollutants carried in runoff from adjacent lands.
Riparian areas can reduce the nitrogen concentration in storm water runoff by up to
90%, and can reduce phosphorus levels by as much as 50 percent.
Self purification involves one or more following process:
1. Sedimentation possibly assisted by biological and mechanical
flocculation. The deposited solid will form benthic deposit which if
organic will decay anaerobically and which if resuspended by flood
flow can exert sudden high oxygen demand on the system.
2. Chemical Oxidation reducing agent such as sulphides.
Wastewater
Algae
Protozoa
Fish
Man
Natural
Organic/
Inorganic
3. Bacterial Decay due to inhospitable environment for enteric and
pathogenic bacteria in natural water.
4. Biochemical oxidation most important process to maintain aerobic
condition, this mean that the balance between oxygen consumed by
BOD and the supplied by reaction from the atmosphere is not
drastically disturbed.
The processes of oxidation give rise to deoxygenating of the river-water, and the
extent of deoxygenating depends on the strength of the sewage, the degree of
dilution afforded by admixture with the river-water, and the velocity of the river.
If the concentration of oxidisable material be excessive, the river-water will suffer
considerable or complete deoxygenating, and a nuisance will result owing to the
septic condition caused by the anaerobic decomposition of the organic matter.
In the other hand, if there be sufficient dilution, the organic matter can be oxidized
and thus destroyed without depriving the river-water of oxygen to any appreciable
degree. The suspended matter will also be sediment in the form of a thin film
distributed over a considerable area of river-bed, and no nuisance will thus result
through the formation of foul mud-banks.

Mass balance on liquid
To assess the effect of particular polluting discharge on receiving water in
quantitative term, we have to utilize a mass balance approach.
Figure below shows a river receiving pollutant discharge and it is possible to
determine downstream concentration of pollutant, assuming instantaneous mixing
with conservation of mass
(Q
1
X C
1
) + (Q
2
X C
2
) = (Q
3
X C
3
)






Since the assume of the flows arriving and leaving the discharge point must be equal
(i.e Q
3
=Q
1
+Q
2
) the downstream concentration is easily calculated. Depending upon
the nature of pollutant it will then be possible to calculate the concentrations at point
River
Flow Q
1

Concentration C
1
Flow Q
2

Concentration C
2
Discharge

Flow Q
3

Concentration C
3
further downstream from discharge, knowing the velocity of flow and hence the time
travel between the point.
Example calculation of mass balance:
A stream with flow of 0.1 m
3
/s and chloride concentration 0f 52 mg/l receives a
discharge of mine drainage water with a flow of 0.025 m
3
/s and chloride
concentration is 1250mg/l. Find downstream concentration.
Solution:
Q
1
X C
1
= (0.1 X52) =5.2
Q
2
X C
2
= (0.025 X1250) =31.25
Q3 =Q
1
+ Q
2
= (0.1 +0.025) =0.125
Hence Downstream concentration = (5.2 + 31.25)/0.125 = 291.6 mg/l.
Chloride is a conservative pollutant so that the concentration will be only reducing
below 291.6 mg/l if additional water with lower chloride concentration enters the
stream below the drainage discharge.
In case of non-conservative pollutants the initial concentration will decrease
downstream due to decay reaction.

Dissolved Oxygen
The concentration of dissolved oxygen [DO, units of milligram per liter (mgL
-1
)] is
perhaps the single most important feature of water quality. It is an important
regulator of chemical processes and biological activity.
Most forms of aquatic life require oxygen (DO). For example, certain combinations
of low temperature and high DO concentrations are required for the maintenance of
a cold water sport fishery (such as trout and salmon).
Plant photosynthesis produces oxygen within the region below the water surface
with adequate light (photic zone).
Carbon dioxide + Water --------------> Oxygen + Carbon-rich foods
CO
2


H
2
O

O
2


C
6
H
12
O
6

Microbial (for example, bacteria) respiratory and organic decay processes consume
oxygen. Near the reservoir surface, oxygen can move between the water and air.
The rate and direction of this exchange is dependent on the wind speed and status
of the surface waters with respect to the equilibrium or saturation concentration.
Dissolved oxygen is measured using a DO probe. The DO probe consists of small
silver anodes and a gold cathode. These electrodes are separated from the
surrounding lake water by a Teflon membrane. Dissolved oxygen diffuses across
the membrane and is reduced to OH- ions at the cathode and AgCl is formed at the
anode. The current associated with this process is proportional to the DO in the
surrounding water
Oxygen is moderately soluble in water. The solubility limit, or saturation
concentration of DO is largely regulated by temperature. Concentrations that
exceed the saturation value are described as supersaturated. Such conditions
reflect high photosynthetic activity (i.e. during an algal bloom). Undersaturated
conditions prevail when the DO concentration is less than the saturation value,
indicating oxygen-demanding processes exceed the sources of DO.


Dissolved oxygen is one of many measures of water quality, but an important one for
aquatic life. Like land animals, fish and shellfish require oxygen to survive. When
oxygen levels fall below 5 mg/l, fish are stressed. At oxygen levels of 12 mg/l, fish
die.
The amount of oxygen that can dissolve in water (i.e., the saturating concentration
of oxygen) depends on water temperature. Colder water can hold more oxygen than
warmer water.


The above graph shows the maximum amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in
water at various temperatures. Assuming a constant atmospheric pressure, water of
low temperatures can hold more oxygen than water of high temperatures.
One unit of measure of dissolved oxygen in water is parts per million (ppm), which is
the number of oxygen (O
2
) molecules per million total molecules in a sample.
Calculating the percent saturation is another way to analyze dissolved oxygen levels.
Percent saturation is the measured dissolved oxygen level divided by the greatest
amount of oxygen that the water can hold at that particular temperature and
atmospheric pressure, then multiplied by 100.
Fish growth and activity usually require 5-6 ppm of dissolved oxygen. Dissolved
oxygen levels below 3 ppm are stressful to most aquatic organisms. Levels below 2
ppm will not support fish at all.

DO will decrease while the time (in min) increase
Show that DO consumption will increase every minute
The adjacent figure illustrates some of the factors that drive the eutrophication
process in an impoundment.




The Process of Eutrophication
In nature, eutrophication is a common phenomenon in freshwater ecosystems and is
really a part of the normal aging process of many lakes and ponds
Over time, these bodies of freshwater change in terms of how productive or fertile
they are.
While this is different for each lake or pond, those that are naturally fed rich
nutrients from a stream or river or some other natural source are described as
"eutrophic," meaning they are nutrient-rich and therefore abundant in plant and
animal life.
Natural eutrophication is usually a fairly slow and gradual process, occurring over a
period of many centuries.
Human activities almost always result in the creation of waste, and many of these
waste products often contain nitrates and phosphates.
Nitrates are a compound of nitrogen, and most are produced by bacteria.
Phosphates are phosphorous compounds. Both nitrates and phosphates are absorbed
by plants and are needed for growth
However, the human use of detergents and chemical fertilizers has greatly increased
the amount of nitrates and phosphates that are washed into our lakes and ponds.
When this occurs in a sufficient quantity, they act like fertilizer for plants and algae
and speed up their rate of growth.
Algae are a group of plantlike organisms that live in water and can make their own
food through photosynthesis When additional phosphates are added to a body of
water, the plants begin to grow explosively and algae takes off or "blooms."
In the process, the plants and algae consume greater amounts of oxygen in the
water, robbing fish and other species of necessary oxygen.
All algae eventually die, and when they do, oxygen is required by bacteria in order
for them to decompose or break down the dead algae.
A cycle then begins in which more bacteria decompose more dead algae, consuming
even more oxygen in the process.
The bacteria then release more phosphates back into the water, which feed more
algae.
As levels of oxygen in the body of water become lower, species such as fish and
mollusks literally suffocate to death.
Eventually, the lake or pond begins to fill in and starts to be choked with plant
growth.
Example of Dead Lake :
In the 1960s and 1970s, Lake Erie was the most publicized example of
eutrophication. Called a "dead lake," the smallest and shallowest of the five Great
Lakes was swamped for decades with nutrients from heavily developed agricultural
and urban lands.
As a result, plant and algae growth choked out most other species living in the lake,
and left the beaches unusable due to the smell of decaying algae that washed up on
the shores.
New pollution controls for sewage treatment plants and agricultural methods by the
United States and Canada led to drastic reductions in the amount of nutrients
entering the lake.
Forty years later, while still not totally free of pollutants and nutrients, Lake Erie is
again a biologically thriving lake.
Summary:
1. Nitrate and Phosphate from human activity (e.g. use of detergents and
chemical fertilizers) can become fertilizer and increase plant growth.
2. Result:
plant and algae consume greater amounts of oxygen in the water
When algae die, bacteria consume oxygen to decompose algae,
decompose algae will release more phosphate.
3. Effect:
a. Algae become bloom all water surface will covered by algae
b. species such as fish and mollusks literally suffocate to death.
c. dead lake.
How to control eutrophication :
1. planting vegetation along streambeds to slow erosion and absorb
nutrients
2. Controlling application amount and timing of fertilizer
3. Controlling runoff from feedlots
4. Researching use of biological controls; for example, the process of
denitrification uses specialized bacteria that convert nitrates to harmless
molecular nitrogen
5. Aeration system
Sources of groundwater pollution
1. From Industrial
Manufacturing and other chemical industries require water for processing and
cleaning purposes.
These used water is recycled back to water sources without proper treatment, which
in turn, results in groundwater pollution.
It is also to be noted that solid industrial wastes that are dumped in certain areas
also contribute to groundwater pollution. When rainwater seeps downwards, it
dissolves some of these harmful substances and contaminates groundwater.

2. From Domestic waste
Residential wastewater systems can be a source of many categories of contaminants,
including bacteria, viruses, nitrates from human waste, and organic compounds.
Injection wells used for domestic wastewater disposal (septic systems, cesspools,
drainage wells for storm water runoff, groundwater recharge wells) are of particular
concern to groundwater quality if located close to drinking water wells
Improperly storing or disposing of household chemicals such as paints, synthetic
detergents, solvents, oils, medicines, disinfectants, pool chemicals, pesticides,
batteries, gasoline and diesel fuel can lead to groundwater contamination. When
stored in garages or basements with floor drains, spills and flooding may introduce
such contaminants into the groundwater.
When thrown in the household trash, the products will eventually be carried into the
groundwater because community landfills are not equipped to handle hazardous
materials. Similarly, wastes dumped or buried in the ground can contaminate the soil
and leach into the groundwater.
3. Municipal Landfill
Landfills contaminate groundwater when rain water leaks into aquifers below the
landfill. Many early landfills did not have liners to trap rainwater that percolates
through the landfill, and some newer landfills have liners that leak.
The percolating water leaches toxic chemicals from batteries, broken fluorescent
bulbs, electronic equipment, discarded household chemicals, and paints and
solvents. Although landfills now prohibit toxic waste, and they are carefully regulated
to prevent leakage to groundwater, many older sites are unlined and leak.
4.Waste from petroleum and mining
Mining wastes include waste generated during the extraction, beneficiation, and
processing of minerals.
Extraction is the first phase of hard rock mining which consists of the initial removal
of ore from the earth. Beneficiation is the initial attempt at liberating and
concentrating the valuable mineral from the extracted ore.
This is typically performed by employing various crushing, grinding and froth
flotation techniques.
Mineral processing operations generally follow beneficiation and include techniques
that often change the chemical composition of the ore or mineral, such as smelting
(iron and steel), electrolytic refining (aluminum) and acid attack or digestion.
Coal mines are another major source of contaminants. When pyrite rocks associated
with coal mining are exposed to oxygen they are oxidized to generate acid mine
drainage. The waste then flows into streams and infiltrates into aquifers.


5. Agriculture
Pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and animal waste are agricultural sources of
groundwater contamination.
The agricultural contamination sources are varied and numerous: spillage of
fertilizers and pesticides during handling, runoff from the loading and washing of
pesticide sprayers or other application equipment, using chemicals uphill from or
within a few hundred feet of a well.
Agricultural land that lacks sufficient drainage is considered by many farmers to be
lost income land. So they may install drain tiles or drainage wells to make the land
more productive. The drainage well then serves as a direct conduit to groundwater
for agricultural wastes which are washed down with the runoff.
Storage of agricultural chemicals near conduits to groundwater, such as open and
abandoned wells, sink holes, or surface depressions where ponded water is likely to
accumulate.
Contamination may also occur when chemicals are stored in uncovered areas,
unprotected from wind and rain, or are stored in locations where the groundwater
flows from the direction of the chemical storage to the well.
6. Saltwater intrusion
Saltwater intrusion is a major problem in coastal regions all over the world, as it
threatens the health and possibly lives of many people who live in these areas.
It increases the salinity of groundwater and water may become unsuitable for human
use.
Salinization of groundwater is considered a special category of pollution that
threatens groundwater resources, because mixing a small quantity of saltwater in
the groundwater makes freshwater unsuitable and can result in abandonment of
freshwater supply
Due to the high population growth rate in coastal regions inhabited by about two-
thirds of the world population, water demands have increased, leading to excessive
abstraction from the aquifers and hence the migration of saltwater toward the
aquifers.
In coastal areas the aquifers are in hydraulic contact with the sea, and under normal
conditions freshwater flows into the sea.
However, over-pumping may result in inversion of the groundwater flow from the
sea towards the interior, causing saltwater intrusion.
Furthermore, the rise in sea levels accelerates saltwater intrusion into the aquifers,
thus further reducing the fresh groundwater resources.
With the combined impact of sea level rise and over-pumping, the problem becomes
very serious and requires practical measures to protect available water resources
from pollution.
Summary:
Place of origin
Potential groundwater contamination source
Municipal Industrial Agricultural Individual Saltwater
At or near the
land surface



air pollution
municipal waste
land spreading
salt for de-icing
streets

streets & parking
lots





air pollution
chemicals: storage
& spills
fuels: storage &
spills
mine tailing piles





air pollution
chemical spills
fertilizers
livestock waste
storage facilities &
land spreading
pesticides



air pollution
fertilizers
homes
cleaners
detergents
motor oil
paints
pesticides






Over pumping

Rise of sea level

Cause of marine pollution
1. Domestic and industrial waste
Solid garbage also makes its way to the ocean. Plastic bags, balloons, glass bottles,
shoes, packaging material - if not disposed of correctly, almost everything we throw
away can reach the sea.
Plastic garbage, which decomposes very slowly, is often mistaken for food by marine
animals.
High concentrations of plastic material, particularly plastic bags, have been found
blocking the breathing passages and stomachs of many marine species, including
whales, dolphins, seals, puffins, and turtles. Plastic six-pack rings for drink bottles
can also choke marine animals.
This garbage can also come back to shore, where it pollutes beaches and other
coastal habitats. Dumping of industrial wastes into ocean is another reason for
marine pollution.
The wastes often contain toxic materials such as mercury, dioxin, PCBs, PAHs and
radioactive materials, which contaminate the water of ocean.
Toxic waste gets into seas and oceans by the leaking of landfills, dumps, mines, and
farms. Farm chemicals and heavy metals from factories can have a very harmful
effect on marine life and humans.
Many fishermen believe that the toxic chemicals in the ocean are killing much of the
fish population. One of the most harmful chemicals in the ocean is lead. Lead can
cause many health problems.
It can damage the brain, kidneys, and reproductive system. Lead can also cause
birth defects for people. It has been shown to cause low IQ scores, slow growth, and
hearing problems for small children. House and car paint and manufacturing lead
batteries, fishing lures, certain parts of bullets, some ceramic ware, water pipes, and
fixtures all give off lead.
2.Disposal of Sludge
Coastal waters receive a variety of land-based water pollutants, ranging from
petroleum wastes to pesticides to excess sediments.
Marine waters also receive wastes directly from offshore activities, such as ocean-
based dumping (e.g., from ships and offshore oil and gas operations).
One pollutant in the ocean is sewage. Human sewage largely consists of excrement
from toilet-flushing; wastewater from bathing, laundry, and dishwashing; and animal
and vegetable matter from food preparation that is disposed through an in-sink
garbage disposal.
Because coasts are densely populated, the amount of sewage reaching seas and
oceans is of particular concern because some substances it contains can harm
ecosystems and pose a significant public health threat.
In addition to the nutrients which can cause over enrichment of receiving water
bodies, sewage carries an array of potentially disease-causing microbes known as
pathogens.
Animal wastes from feedlots and other agricultural operations (e.g., manure-
spreading on cropland) pose concerns similar to those of human wastes by virtue of
their microbial composition.
Just as inland rivers, lakes, and groundwater can be contaminated by pathogenic
microbes, so can coastal waters.
Runoff from agricultural areas also contains nutrients such as phosphorus and
nitrogen, which can cause over enrichment in coastal regions that ultimately receive
the runoff.
3. Oil Spillage
Oil wastes that enter the ocean come from many sources, some being accidental
spills or leaks, and some being the results of chronic and careless habits in the use of
oil and oil products.
Most waste oil in the ocean consists of oily storm water drainage from cities and
farms, untreated waste disposal from factories and industrial facilities, and
unregulated recreational boating.
It is estimated that approximately 706 million gallons of waste oil enter the ocean
every year, with over half coming from land drainage and waste disposal; for
example, from the improper disposal of used motor oil.
Offshore drilling and production operations and spills or leaks from ships or tankers
typically contribute less than 8 percent of the total.
The remainder comes from routine maintenance of ships (nearly 20 percent),
hydrocarbon particles from onshore air pollution (about 13 percent), and natural
seepage from the seafloor (over 8 percent).
Oil spills present the potential for enormous harm to Deep Ocean and coastal fishing
and fisheries.
The immediate effects of toxic and smothering oil waste may be mass mortality and
contamination of fish and other food species, but long-term ecological effects may be
worse.
Oil waste poisons the sensitive marine and coastal organic substrate, interrupting the
food chain on which fish and sea creatures depend, and on which their reproductive
success is based. Commercial fishing enterprises may be affected permanently.