HistoryofChina:

TableofContents
HistoricalSetting
TheAncientDynasties
DawnofHistory
ZhouPeriod
HundredSchoolsofThought
TheImperialEra
FirstImperialPeriod
EraofDisunity
RestorationofEmpire
MongolianInterlude
ChineseRegainPower
RiseoftheManchus
EmergenceOfModernChina
WesternPowersArriveFirstModernPeriod
OpiumWar,1839-42EraofDisunity
TaipingRebellion,1851-64
Self-StrengtheningMovement
HundredDays'ReformandAftermath
RepublicanRevolutionof1911
RepublicanChina
NationalismandCommunism
OpposingtheWarlords
ConsolidationundertheGuomindang
RiseoftheCommunists
Anti-JapaneseWar
ReturntoCivilWar
People'sRepublicOfChina
TransitiontoSocialism,1953-57
GreatLeapForward,1958-60
ReadjustmentandRecovery,1961-65
CulturalRevolutionDecade,1966-76
MilitantPhase,1966-68
NinthNationalPartyCongress
totheDemiseofLinBiao,1969-71
EndoftheEraofMaoZedong,1972-76
Post-MaoPeriod,1976-78
ChinaandtheFourModernizations,1979-82
Reforms,1980-88
ReferencesforHistoryofChina
[HistoryofChina][Timeline]
HistoricalSetting
The History Of China,asdocumentedinancientwritings,datesbacksome3,300years.Modern
archaeologicalstudiesprovideevidenceofstillmoreancientoriginsinaculturethatflourishedbetween
2500and2000B.C.inwhatisnowcentralChinaandthelowerHuangHe( orYellowRiver)
ValleyofnorthChina.Centuriesofmigration,amalgamation,anddevelopmentbroughtabouta
distinctivesystemofwriting,philosophy,art,andpoliticalorganizationthatcametoberecognizableas
Chinesecivilization.Whatmakesthecivilizationuniqueinworldhistoryisitscontinuitythroughover
4,000yearstothepresentcentury.
TheChinesehavedevelopedastrongsenseoftheirrealandmythologicaloriginsandhavekept
voluminousrecordssinceveryearlytimes.Itislargelyasaresultoftheserecordsthatknowledge
concerningtheancientpast,notonlyofChinabutalsoofitsneighbors,hassurvived.
Chinesehistory,untilthetwentiethcentury,waswrittenmostlybymembersoftherulingscholar-official
classandwasmeanttoprovidetherulerwithprecedentstoguideorjustifyhispolicies.Theseaccounts
focusedondynasticpoliticsandcolorfulcourthistoriesandincludeddevelopmentsamongthe
commonersonlyasbackdrops.ThehistoriansdescribedaChinesepoliticalpatternofdynasties,one
followinganotherinacycleofascent,achievement,decay,andrebirthunderanewfamily.
Oftheconsistenttraitsidentifiedbyindependenthistorians,asalientonehasbeenthecapacityofthe
Chinesetoabsorbthepeopleofsurroundingareasintotheirowncivilization.Theirsuccesscanbe
attributedtothesuperiorityoftheirideographicwrittenlanguage,theirtechnology,andtheirpolitical
institutions;therefinementoftheirartisticandintellectualcreativity;andthesheerweightoftheir
numbers.Theprocessofassimilationcontinuedoverthecenturiesthroughconquestandcolonization
untilwhatisnowknownasChinaProperwasbroughtunderunifiedrule.TheChinesealsoleftan
enduringmarkonpeoplebeyondtheirborders,especiallytheKoreans,Japanese,andVietnamese.
AnotherrecurrenthistoricalthemehasbeentheunceasingstruggleofthesedentaryChineseagainstthe
threatposedtotheirsafetyandwayoflifebynon-Chinesepeoplesonthemarginsoftheirterritoryinthe
north,northeast,andnorthwest.Inthethirteenthcentury,theMongolsfromthenorthernsteppesbecame
thefirstalienpeopletoconquerallChina.AlthoughnotasculturallydevelopedastheChinese,theyleft
someimprintonChinesecivilizationwhileheighteningChineseperceptionsofthreatfromthenorth.
Chinacameunderalienruleforthesecondtimeinthemid-seventeenthcentury;theconquerors--the
Manchus--cameagainfromthenorthandnortheast.
ForcenturiesvirtuallyalltheforeignersthatChineserulerssawcamefromthelessdevelopedsocieties
alongtheirlandborders.ThiscircumstanceconditionedtheChineseviewoftheoutsideworld.The
Chinesesawtheirdomainastheself-sufficientcenteroftheuniverseandderivedfromthisimagethe
traditional(andstillused)Chinesenamefortheircountry--Zhongguo(),literally,MiddleKingdomor
CentralNation.Chinasawitselfsurroundedonallsidesbyso-calledbarbarianpeopleswhosecultures
weredemonstrablyinferiorbyChinesestandards.ThisChina-centered("sinocentric")viewoftheworld
wasstillundisturbedinthenineteenthcentury,atthetimeofthefirstseriousconfrontationwiththe
West.ChinahadtakenitforgrantedthatitsrelationswithEuropeanswouldbeconductedaccordingto
thetributarysystemthathadevolvedoverthecenturiesbetweentheemperorandrepresentativesofthe
lesserstatesonChina'sbordersaswellasbetweentheemperorandsomeearlierEuropeanvisitors.But
bythemid-nineteenthcentury,humiliatedmilitarilybysuperiorWesternweaponryandtechnologyand
facedwithimminentterritorialdismemberment,Chinabegantoreassessitspositionwithrespectto
Westerncivilization.By1911thetwo-millennia-olddynasticsystemofimperialgovernmentwas
broughtdownbyitsinabilitytomakethisadjustmentsuccessfully.
Becauseofitslengthandcomplexity,thehistoryoftheMiddleKingdomlendsitselftovaried
interpretation.Afterthecommunisttakeoverin1949,historiansinmainlandChinawrotetheirown
versionofthepast--ahistoryofChinabuiltonaMarxistmodelofprogressionfromprimitive
communismtoslavery,feudalism,capitalism,andfinallysocialism.Theeventsofhistorycametobe
presentedasafunctionoftheclassstruggle.Historiographybecamesubordinatedtoproletarianpolitics
fashionedanddirectedbytheChineseCommunistParty.Aseriesofthought-reformandantirightist
campaignsweredirectedagainstintellectualsinthearts,sciences,andacademiccommunity.The
CulturalRevolution(1966-76)furtheralteredtheobjectivityofhistorians.Intheyearsafterthedeathof
MaoZedongin1976,however,interestgrewwithintheparty,andoutsideitaswell,inrestoringthe
integrityofhistoricalinquiry.Thistrendwasconsistentwiththeparty'scommitmentto"seekingtruth
fromfacts."Asaresult,historiansandsocialscientistsraisedprobingquestionsconcerningthestateof
historiographyinChina.TheirinvestigationsincludednotonlyhistoricalstudyoftraditionalChinabut
penetratinginquiriesintomodernChinesehistoryandthehistoryoftheChineseCommunistParty.
Inpost-MaoChina,thedisciplineofhistoriographyhasnotbeenseparatedfrompolitics,althougha
muchgreaterrangeofhistoricaltopicshasbeendiscussed.FiguresfromConfucius--whowasbitterly
excoriatedforhis"feudal"outlookbyCulturalRevolution-erahistorians--toMaohimselfhavebeen
evaluatedwithincreasingflexibility.AmongthecriticismsmadebyChinesesocialscientistsisthat
Maoist-erahistoriographydistortedMarxistandLeninistinterpretations.Thismeantthatconsiderable
revisionofhistoricaltextswasinorderinthe1980s,althoughnosubstantivechangeawayfromthe
conventionalMarxistapproachwaslikely.HistoricalinstituteswererestoredwithintheChinese
AcademyofSocialSciences,andagrowingcorpsoftrainedhistorians,ininstitutesandacademiaalike,
returnedtotheirworkwiththeblessingoftheChineseCommunistParty.Thisinitselfwasapotentially
significantdevelopment.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|AncientDynasties:I]
TheAncientDynasties
Chinesecivilization,asdescribedinmythology,beginswithPangu( ),the
creatoroftheuniverse,andasuccessionoflegendarysage-emperorsandcultureheroes(amongthemare
HuangDi ,Yao,andShun)whotaughttheancientChinesetocommunicateandtofindsustenance,
clothing,andshelter.
ThefirstprehistoricdynastyissaidtobeXia( ),fromaboutthetwenty-firsttothesixteenthcentury
B.C.Untilscientificexcavationsweremadeatearlybronze-agesitesatAnyang( ),Henan( )
Province,in1928,itwasdifficulttoseparatemythfromrealityinregardtotheXia.Butsincethen,and
especiallyinthe1960sand1970s,archaeologistshaveuncoveredurbansites,bronzeimplements,and
tombsthatpointtotheexistenceofXiacivilizationinthesamelocationscitedinancientChinese
historicaltexts.Atminimum,theXiaperiodmarkedanevolutionarystagebetweenthelateneolithic
culturesandthetypicalChineseurbancivilizationoftheShangdynasty.
TheDawnofHistory
ThousandsofarchaeologicalfindsintheHuangHe( ),HenanValley( )--theapparentcradle
ofChinesecivilization--provideevidenceabouttheShang( )dynasty,whichenduredroughlyfrom
1700to1027B.C.TheShangdynasty(alsocalledtheYin( )dynastyinitslaterstages)isbelievedto
havebeenfoundedbyarebelleaderwhooverthrewthelastXiaruler.Itscivilizationwasbasedon
agriculture,augmentedbyhuntingandanimalhusbandry.Twoimportanteventsoftheperiodwerethe
developmentofawritingsystem,asrevealedinarchaicChineseinscriptionsfoundontortoiseshellsand
flatcattlebones(commonlycalledoraclebonesor ),andtheuseofbronze
metallurgy.Anumberofceremonialbronzevesselswithinscriptionsdatefromthe
Shangperiod;theworkmanshiponthebronzesatteststoahighlevelof
civilization.
AlineofhereditaryShangkingsruledovermuchofnorthern
China,andShangtroopsfoughtfrequentwarswithneighboring
settlementsandnomadicherdsmenfromtheinnerAsiansteppes.
Thecapitals,oneofwhichwasatthesiteofthemoderncityof
Anyang,werecentersofglitteringcourtlife.Courtritualsto
propitiatespiritsandtohonorsacredancestorswerehighly
developed.Inadditiontohissecularposition,thekingwastheheadoftheancestor-and
spirit-worshipcult.Evidencefromtheroyaltombsindicatesthatroyalpersonageswereburiedwith
articlesofvalue,presumablyforuseintheafterlife.Perhapsforthesamereason,hundredsof
commoners,whomayhavebeenslaves,wereburiedalivewiththeroyalcorpse.
TheZhouPeriod
ThelastShangruler,adespotaccordingtostandard
Chineseaccounts,wasoverthrownbyachieftainofa
frontiertribecalledZhou( ),whichhadsettledinthe
Wei( )ValleyinmodernShaanxi( )Province.The
ZhoudynastyhaditscapitalatHao( ),nearthecityof
Xi'an( ),orChang'an( ),asitwasknowninits
heydayintheimperialperiod.Sharingthelanguageand
cultureoftheShang,theearlyZhourulers,through
conquestandcolonization,graduallysinicized,thatis,
extendedShangculturethroughmuchofChinaProper
northoftheChangJiang( orYangtzeRiver).The
Zhoudynastylastedlongerthananyother,from1027to
221B.C.Itwasphilosophersofthisperiodwhofirst
enunciatedthedoctrineofthe"mandateofheaven"
(tianmingor ),thenotionthattheruler(the"sonof
heaven"or )governedbydivinerightbutthathisdethronementwouldprovethathehadlostthe
mandate.Thedoctrineexplainedandjustifiedthedemiseofthetwoearlierdynastiesandatthesame
timesupportedthelegitimacyofpresentandfuturerulers.
ThetermfeudalhasoftenbeenappliedtotheZhouperiodbecausetheZhou'searlydecentralizedrule
invitescomparisonwithmedievalruleinEurope.Atmost,however,theearlyZhousystemwasproto-
feudal( ),beingamoresophisticatedversionofearliertribalorganization,inwhicheffective
controldependedmoreonfamilialtiesthanonfeudallegalbonds.Whateverfeudalelementstheremay
havebeendecreasedastimewenton.TheZhouamalgamofcity-statesbecameprogressivelycentralized
andestablishedincreasinglyimpersonalpoliticalandeconomicinstitutions.Thesedevelopments,which
probablyoccurredinthelatterZhouperiod,weremanifestedingreatercentralcontroloverlocal
governmentsandamoreroutinizedagriculturaltaxation.
In771B.C.theZhoucourtwassacked,anditskingwaskilledbyinvadingbarbarianswhowereallied
withrebellords.ThecapitalwasmovedeastwardtoLuoyang( )inpresent-dayHenan( )
Province.Becauseofthisshift,historiansdividetheZhoueraintoWesternZhou(1027-771B.C.)and
EasternZhou(770-221B.C.).Withtheroyallinebroken,thepoweroftheZhoucourtgradually
diminished;thefragmentationofthekingdomaccelerated.EasternZhoudividesintotwosubperiods.
Thefirst,from770to476B.C.,iscalledtheSpringandAutumnPeriod( ),afterafamous
historicalchronicleofthetime;thesecondisknownastheWarringStatesPeriod(475-221B.C.
).
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|HistoricalSetting]AncientDynasties:II]
TheAncientDynasties:II
TheHundredSchoolsofThought
TheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods,thoughmarkedbydisunityandcivilstrife,
witnessedanunprecedentederaofculturalprosperity--the"goldenage"( )ofChina.The
atmosphereofreformandnewideaswasattributedtothestruggleforsurvivalamongwarringregional
lordswhocompetedinbuildingstrongandloyalarmiesandinincreasingeconomicproductiontoensure
abroaderbasefortaxcollection.Toeffecttheseeconomic,military,andculturaldevelopments,the
regionallordsneededever-increasingnumbersofskilled,literateofficialsandteachers,therecruitment
ofwhomwasbasedonmerit.Alsoduringthistime,commercewasstimulatedthroughtheintroduction
ofcoinageandtechnologicalimprovements.Ironcameintogeneraluse,makingpossiblenotonlythe
forgingofweaponsofwarbutalsothemanufactureoffarmimplements.Publicworksonagrandscale--
suchasfloodcontrol,irrigationprojects,andcanaldigging--wereexecuted.Enormouswallswerebuilt
aroundcitiesandalongthebroadstretchesofthenorthernfrontier.
SomanydifferentphilosophiesdevelopedduringthelateSpringandAutumnandearlyWarringStates
periodsthattheeraisoftenknownasthatoftheHundredSchoolsofThought( ).Fromthe
HundredSchoolsofThoughtcamemanyofthegreatclassicalwritingsonwhichChinesepracticeswere
tobebasedforthenexttwoandone-halfmillennia.Manyofthethinkerswereitinerantintellectuals
who,besidesteachingtheirdisciples,wereemployedasadviserstooneoranotherofthevariousstate
rulersonthemethodsofgovernment,war,anddiplomacy.
ThebodyofthoughtthathadthemostenduringeffectonsubsequentChineselifewasthatoftheSchool
ofLiterati(ruor ),oftencalledtheConfucianschoolintheWest.ThewrittenlegacyoftheSchoolof
LiteratiisembodiedintheConfucianClassics( -- , , , ,and from
whichtheperiodderiveditsname),whichweretobecomethebasisfortheorderoftraditionalsociety.
Confucius(551-479B.C.),alsocalledKongZi,( )orMasterKong,lookedtotheearlydaysof
Zhouruleforanidealsocialandpoliticalorder.Hebelievedthattheonlywaysuchasystemcouldbe
madetoworkproperlywasforeachpersontoactaccordingtoprescribedrelationships."Lettherulerbe
arulerandthesubjectasubject,"( )hesaid,butheaddedthattoruleproperlyakingmustbe
virtuous.ToConfucius,thefunctionsofgovernmentandsocialstratificationwerefactsoflifetobe
sustainedbyethicalvalues.Hisidealwasthejunzi( orruler'sson),whichcametomeangentleman
inthesenseofacultivatedorsuperiorman.
Mencius(372-289B.C.),orMengZi( ),wasaConfuciandisciplewhomademajorcontributionsto
thehumanismofConfucianthought.Menciusdeclaredthatmanwasbynaturegood.Heexpostulatedthe
ideathatarulercouldnotgovernwithoutthepeople'stacitconsentandthatthepenaltyforunpopular,
despoticrulewasthelossofthe"mandateofheaven."
TheeffectofthecombinedworkofConfucius,thecodifierandinterpreterofasystemofrelationships
basedonethicalbehavior,andMencius,thesynthesizeranddeveloperofappliedConfucianthought,was
toprovidetraditionalChinesesocietywithacomprehensiveframeworkonwhichtoordervirtuallyevery
aspectoflife
ThereweretobeaccretionstothecorpusofConfucianthought,bothimmediatelyandoverthemillennia,
andfromwithinandoutsidetheConfucianschool.Interpretationsmadetosuitorinfluence
contemporarysocietymadeConfucianismdynamicwhilepreservingafundamentalsystemofmodel
behaviorbasedonancienttexts.
DiametricallyopposedtoMencius,forexample,wastheinterpretationofXunZi( ca.300-237
B.C.),anotherConfucianfollower.XunZipreachedthatmanisinnatelyselfishandevilandthat
goodnessisattainableonlythrougheducationandconductbefittingone'sstatus.Healsoarguedthatthe
bestgovernmentisonebasedonauthoritariancontrol,notethicalormoralpersuasion.
XunZi'sunsentimentalandauthoritarianinclinationsweredevelopedintothedoctrineembodiedinthe
SchoolofLaw( orfa),orLegalism.ThedoctrinewasformulatedbyHanFeiZi( d.233
B.C.)andLiSi( d.208B.C.),whomaintainedthathumannaturewasincorrigiblyselfishand
thereforetheonlywaytopreservethesocialorderwastoimposedisciplinefromaboveandtoenforce
lawsstrictly.TheLegalistsexaltedthestateandsoughtitsprosperityandmartialprowessabovethe
welfareofthecommonpeople.Legalismbecamethephilosophicbasisfortheimperialformof
government.WhenthemostpracticalandusefulaspectsofConfucianismandLegalismweresynthesized
intheHanperiod(206B.C.-A.D.220),asystemofgovernancecameintoexistencethatwastosurvive
largelyintactuntilthelatenineteenthcentury.Taoism( ),thesecondmostimportantstreamof
Chinesethought,alsodevelopedduringtheZhouperiod.Itsformulationisattributedtothelegendary
sageLaoZi( orOldMaster),saidtopredateConfucius,andZhuangZi( )(369-286B.C.).
ThefocusofTaoismistheindividualinnatureratherthantheindividualinsociety.Itholdsthatthegoal
oflifeforeachindividualistofindone'sownpersonaladjustmenttotherhythmofthenatural(and
supernatural)world,tofollowtheWay(dao)oftheuniverse.Inmanywaystheoppositeofrigid
Confucianmoralism,Taoismservedmanyofitsadherentsasacomplementtotheirordereddailylives.
AscholarondutyasanofficialwouldusuallyfollowConfucianteachingsbutatleisureorinretirement
mightseekharmonywithnatureasaTaoistrecluse.TheTaoistapproachtolifeisembodiedinthe
classicDaoDeJing(
AnotherstrainofthoughtdatingtotheWarringStatesPeriodistheschoolofyin-yang( )andthe
fiveelements.Thetheoriesofthisschoolattemptedtoexplaintheuniverseintermsofbasicforcesin
nature,thecomplementaryagentsofyin(dark,cold,female,negative)andyang(light,hot,male,
positive)andthefiveelements(water,fire,wood,metal,andearth).Inlaterperiodsthesetheoriescame
tohaveimportancebothinphilosophyandinpopularbelief.
).
StillanotherschoolofthoughtwasbasedonthedoctrineofMoZi( 470-391B.C.?),orMoDi.Mo
Zibelievedthat"allmenareequalbeforeGod"andthatmankindshouldfollowheavenbypracticing
universallove.Advocatingthatallactionmustbeutilitarian,MoZicondemnedtheConfucianemphasis
onritualandmusic.Heregardedwarfareaswastefulandadvocatedpacificism.MoZialsobelievedthat
unityofthoughtandactionwerenecessarytoachievesocialgoals.Hemaintainedthatthepeopleshould
obeytheirleadersandthattheleadersshouldfollowthewillofheaven.AlthoughMoismfailedto
establishitselfasamajorschoolofthought,itsviewsaresaidtobe"stronglyechoed"inLegalist
thought.Ingeneral,theteachingsofMoZileftanindelibleimpressionontheChinesemind.
AnothergoodsourceofinformationaboutChinesephilosophyonthewebcanbefoundintheChinese
PhilosophypagebySuTzu.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|AncientDynasties|ImperialEra]
TheImperialEra
TheFirstImperialPeriod
Muchofwhatcameto
constituteChinaProper
wasunifiedforthefirst
timein221B.C.Inthat
yearthewesternfrontier
stateofQin,themost
aggressiveoftheWarring
States,subjugatedthelast
ofitsrivalstates.(QininWade-GilesromanizationisCh'in,
fromwhichtheEnglishChinaprobablyderived.)Oncethe
kingofQinconsolidatedhispower,hetookthetitleShi
Huangdi( FirstEmperor),aformulation
previouslyreservedfordeitiesandthemythologicalsage-
emperors,andimposedQin'scentralized,nonhereditary
bureaucraticsystemonhisnewempire.Insubjugatingthe
sixothermajorstatesofEasternZhou,theQinkingshadreliedheavilyonLegalistscholar-advisers.
Centralization,achievedbyruthlessmethods,wasfocusedonstandardizinglegalcodesandbureaucratic
procedures,theformsofwritingandcoinage,andthepatternofthoughtandscholarship.Tosilence
criticismofimperialrule,thekingsbanishedorputtodeathmanydissentingConfucianscholarsand
confiscatedandburnedtheirbooks( ).Qinaggrandizementwasaidedbyfrequentmilitary
expeditionspushingforwardthefrontiersinthenorthandsouth.Tofendoffbarbarianintrusion,the
fortificationwallsbuiltbythevariouswarringstateswereconnectedtomakea5,000-kilometer-long
greatwall( ).WhatiscommonlyreferredtoastheGreatWallisactuallyfourgreatwalls
rebuiltorextendedduringtheWesternHan,Sui,Jin,andMingperiods,rather
thanasingle,continuouswall.Atitsextremities,theGreatWallreachesfrom
northeasternHeilongjiang( )ProvincetonorthwesternGansu( ).A
numberofpublicworksprojectswerealsoundertakentoconsolidateand
strengthenimperialrule.Theseactivitiesrequiredenormousleviesofmanpower
andresources,nottomentionrepressivemeasures.Revoltsbrokeoutassoonas
thefirstQinemperordiedin210B.C.Hisdynastywasextinguishedlessthan
twentyyearsafteritstriumph.TheimperialsysteminitiatedduringtheQindynasty,however,seta
patternthatwasdevelopedoverthenexttwomillennia.
Afterashortcivilwar,anewdynasty,calledHan(206
B.C.-A.D.220),emergedwithitscapitalatChang'an(
).ThenewempireretainedmuchoftheQin
administrativestructurebutretreatedabitfrom
centralizedrulebyestablishingvassalprincipalitiesin
someareasforthesakeofpoliticalconvenience.TheHan
rulersmodifiedsomeoftheharsheraspectsofthe
previousdynasty;Confucianidealsofgovernment,outof
favorduringtheQinperiod,wereadoptedasthecreedof
theHanempire,andConfucianscholarsgainedprominent
statusasthecoreofthecivilservice.Acivilservice
examinationsystemalsowasinitiated.Intellectual,
literary,andartisticendeavorsrevivedandflourished.The
HanperiodproducedChina'smostfamoushistorian,Sima
Qian( 145-87B.C.?),whoseShiji(
HistoricalRecords)providesadetailedchroniclefromthetimeofalegendaryXiaemperortothatofthe
HanemperorWuDi( 141-87B.C.).Technologicaladvancesalsomarkedthisperiod.Twoofthe
greatChineseinventions,paperandporcelain,datefromHantimes.
TheHandynasty,afterwhichthemembersoftheethnicmajorityinChina,the"peopleofHan,"are
named,wasnotablealsoforitsmilitaryprowess.Theempireexpandedwestwardasfarastherimofthe
TarimBasin(inmodernXinjiang-UyghurAutonomousRegion),makingpossiblerelativelysecure
caravantrafficacrossCentralAsiatoAntioch,Baghdad,andAlexandria.Thepathsofcaravantrafficare
oftencalledthe"silkroute"( )becausetheroutewasusedtoexportChinesesilktotheRoman
Empire.ChinesearmiesalsoinvadedandannexedpartsofnorthernVietnamandnorthernKoreatoward
theendofthesecondcenturyB.C.Hancontrolofperipheralregionswasgenerallyinsecure,however.
Toensurepeacewithnon-Chineselocalpowers,theHancourtdevelopedamutuallybeneficial"tributary
system"( ).Non-Chinesestateswereallowedtoremainautonomousinexchangeforsymbolic
acceptanceofHanoverlordship.Tributarytieswereconfirmedandstrengthenedthroughintermarriages
attherulinglevelandperiodicexchangesofgiftsandgoods.
After200years,Hanrulewasinterruptedbriefly(inA.D.9-24byWangMangor ,areformer),and
thenrestoredforanother200years.TheHanrulers,however,wereunabletoadjusttowhat
centralizationhadwrought:agrowingpopulation,increasingwealthandresultantfinancialdifficulties
andrivalries,andever-morecomplexpoliticalinstitutions.Riddledwiththecorruptioncharacteristicof
thedynasticcycle,byA.D.220theHanempirecollapsed.
EraofDisunity
ThecollapseoftheHandynastywasfollowedbynearlyfourcenturiesofrulebywarlords.Theageof
civilwarsanddisunitybeganwiththeeraoftheThreeKingdoms(Wei,Shu,andWu,whichhad
overlappingreignsduringtheperiodA.D.220-80).Inlatertimes,fictionanddramagreatlyromanticized
thereputedchivalryofthisperiod.UnitywasrestoredbrieflyintheearlyyearsoftheJindynasty(A.D.
265-420),buttheJincouldnotlongcontaintheinvasionsofthenomadicpeoples.InA.D.317theJin
courtwasforcedtofleefromLuoyangandreestablished
itselfatNanjingtothesouth.ThetransferofthecapitalcoincidedwithChina'spoliticalfragmentation
intoasuccessionofdynastiesthatwastolastfromA.D.304to589.Duringthisperiodtheprocessof
sinicizationacceleratedamongthenon-Chinesearrivalsinthenorthandamongtheaboriginaltribesmen
inthesouth.ThisprocesswasalsoaccompaniedbytheincreasingpopularityofBuddhism(introduced
intoChinainthefirstcenturyA.D.)inbothnorthandsouthChina.Despitethepoliticaldisunityofthe
times,therewerenotabletechnologicaladvances.Theinventionofgunpowder(atthattimeforuseonly
infireworks)andthewheelbarrowisbelievedtodatefromthesixthorseventhcentury.Advancesin
medicine,astronomy,andcartographyarealsonotedbyhistorians.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|AncientDynasties|ImperialEras:II]
TheImperialEra:II
RestorationofEmpire
ChinawasreunifiedinA.D.589bytheshort-livedSuidynasty(A.D.581-617),whichhasoftenbeen
comparedtotheearlierQindynastyintenureandtheruthlessnessofitsaccomplishments.TheSui
dynasty'searlydemisewasattributedtothegovernment'styrannicaldemandsonthepeople,whobore
thecrushingburdenoftaxesandcompulsorylabor.Theseresourceswereoverstrainedinthecompletion
oftheGrandCanal( )--amonumentalengineeringfeat--andintheundertakingofother
constructionprojects,includingthereconstructionoftheGreatWall.Weakenedbycostlyanddisastrous
militarycampaignsagainstKorea( )intheearlyseventhcentury,thedynastydisintegratedthrougha
combinationofpopularrevolts,disloyalty,andassassination.
TheTangdynasty(A.D.618-907),withitscapitalat
Chang'an( ),isregardedbyhistoriansasahighpoint
inChinesecivilization--equal,orevensuperior,totheHan
period.Itsterritory,acquiredthroughthemilitaryexploits
ofitsearlyrulers,wasgreaterthanthatoftheHan.
StimulatedbycontactwithIndia( )andtheMiddle
East,theempiresawafloweringofcreativityinmany
fields.Buddhism( ),originatinginIndiaaroundthe
timeofConfucius,flourishedduringtheTangperiod,
becomingthoroughlysinicizedandapermanentpartof
Chinesetraditionalculture.Blockprintingwasinvented,
makingthewrittenwordavailabletovastlygreater
audiences.TheTangperiodwasthegoldenageof
literatureandart.Agovernmentsystemsupportedbya
largeclassofConfucianliteratiselectedthroughcivil
serviceexaminations( )wasperfectedunderTangrule.Thiscompetitiveprocedurewasdesignedto
drawthebesttalentsintogovernment.ButperhapsanevengreaterconsiderationfortheTangrulers,
awarethatimperialdependenceonpowerfularistocraticfamiliesandwarlordswouldhavedestabilizing
consequences,wastocreateabodyofcareerofficialshavingnoautonomousterritorialorfunctional
powerbase.Asitturnedout,thesescholar-officialsacquiredstatusintheirlocalcommunities,family
ties,andsharedvaluesthatconnectedthemtotheimperialcourt.FromTangtimesuntiltheclosingdays
oftheQingempirein1911,scholar-officialsfunctionedoftenasintermediariesbetweenthegrass-roots
levelandthegovernment.
BythemiddleoftheeighthcenturyA.D.,Tangpowerhadebbed.Domesticeconomicinstabilityand
militarydefeatin751byArabsatTalas,inCentralAsia,markedthebeginningoffivecenturiesof
steadymilitarydeclinefortheChineseempire.Misrule,courtintrigues,economicexploitation,and
popularrebellionsweakenedtheempire,makingitpossiblefornortherninvaderstoterminatethe
dynastyin907.Thenexthalf-centurysawthefragmentationofChinaintofivenortherndynastiesand
tensouthernkingdoms.
Butin960anewpower,Song(960-1279),reunifiedmost
ofChinaProper.TheSongperioddividesintotwophases:
NorthernSong(960-1127)andSouthernSong(1127-
1279).Thedivisionwascausedbytheforced
abandonmentofnorthChinain1127bytheSongcourt,
whichcouldnotpushbackthenomadicinvaders.
ThefoundersoftheSongdynastybuiltaneffective
centralizedbureaucracystaffedwithcivilianscholar-
officials.Regionalmilitarygovernorsandtheirsupporters
werereplacedbycentrallyappointedofficials.This
systemofcivilianruleledtoagreaterconcentrationof
powerintheemperorandhispalacebureaucracythanhad
beenachievedinthepreviousdynasties.
TheSongdynastyisnotableforthedevelopmentofcitiesnotonlyforadministrativepurposesbutalso
ascentersoftrade,industry,andmaritimecommerce.Thelandedscholar-officials,sometimes
collectivelyreferredtoasthegentry,livedintheprovincialcentersalongsidetheshopkeepers,artisans,
andmerchants.Anewgroupofwealthycommoners--themercantileclass--aroseasprintingand
educationspread,privatetradegrew,andamarketeconomybegantolinkthecoastalprovincesandthe
interior.Landholdingandgovernmentemploymentwerenolongertheonlymeansofgainingwealthand
prestige.
Culturally,theSongrefinedmanyofthedevelopmentsofthepreviouscenturies.Includedinthese
refinementswerenotonlytheTangidealoftheuniversalman,whocombinedthequalitiesofscholar,
poet,painter,andstatesman,butalsohistoricalwritings,painting,calligraphy,andhard-glazedporcelain.
SongintellectualssoughtanswerstoallphilosophicalandpoliticalquestionsintheConfucianClassics.
ThisrenewedinterestintheConfucianidealsandsocietyofancienttimescoincidedwiththedeclineof
Buddhism,whichtheChineseregardedasforeignandofferingfewpracticalguidelinesforthesolution
ofpoliticalandothermundaneproblems.
TheSongNeo-Confucianphilosophers,findingacertainpurityintheoriginalityoftheancientclassical
texts,wrotecommentariesonthem.ThemostinfluentialofthesephilosopherswasZhuXi( b1130-
1200),whosesynthesisofConfucianthoughtandBuddhist,Taoist,andotherideasbecametheofficial
imperialideologyfromlateSongtimestothelatenineteenthcentury.Asincorporatedintothe
examinationsystem,ZhuXi'sphilosophyevolvedintoarigidofficialcreed,whichstressedtheone-sided
obligationsofobedienceandcomplianceofsubjecttoruler,childtofather,wifetohusband,andyounger
brothertoelderbrother.TheeffectwastoinhibitthesocietaldevelopmentofpremodernChina,resulting
bothinmanygenerationsofpolitical,social,andspiritualstabilityandinaslownessofculturaland
institutionalchangeuptothenineteenthcentury.Neo-Confuciandoctrinesalsocametoplaythe
dominantroleintheintellectuallifeofKorea,Vietnam,andJapan.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|ImperialEra|ImperialEra:III]
TheImperialEra:III
MongolianInterlude
Bythemid-thirteenthcentury,theMongolshadsubjugatednorthChina,Korea,andtheMuslim
kingdomsofCentralAsiaandhadtwicepenetratedEurope.Withtheresourcesofhisvastempire,Kublai
Khan( 1215-94),agrandsonofGenghisKhan( 1167?-1227)andthesupremeleader
ofallMongoltribes,beganhisdriveagainsttheSouthernSong.EvenbeforetheextinctionoftheSong
dynasty,KublaiKhanhadestablishedthefirstaliendynastytoruleallChina--theYuan(1279-1368).
AlthoughtheMongolssoughttogovernChinathroughtraditionalinstitutions,usingChinese(Han)
bureaucrats,theywerenotuptothetask.TheHanwerediscriminatedagainstsociallyandpolitically.All
importantcentralandregionalpostsweremonopolizedbyMongols,whoalsopreferredemployingnon-
ChinesefromotherpartsoftheMongoldomain--CentralAsia,theMiddleEast,andevenEurope--in
thosepositionsforwhichnoMongolcouldbefound.Chineseweremoreoftenemployedinnon-Chinese
regionsoftheempire.
AsinotherperiodsofaliendynasticruleofChina,arichculturaldiversitydevelopedduringtheYuan
dynasty.Themajorculturalachievementswerethedevelopmentofdramaandthenovelandthe
increaseduseofthewrittenvernacular.TheMongols'extensiveWestAsianandEuropeancontacts
producedafairamountofculturalexchange.Westernmusicalinstrumentswereintroducedtoenrichthe
Chineseperformingarts.FromthisperioddatestheconversiontoIslam,byMuslimsofCentralAsia,of
growingnumbersofChineseinthenorthwestandsouthwest.NestorianismandRomanCatholicismalso
enjoyedaperiodoftoleration.Lamaism(TibetanBuddhism)flourished,althoughnativeTaoismendured
Mongolpersecutions.ConfuciangovernmentalpracticesandexaminationsbasedontheClassics,which
hadfallenintodisuseinnorthChinaduringtheperiodofdisunity,werereinstatedbytheMongolsinthe
hopeofmaintainingorderoverHansociety.Advanceswererealizedinthefieldsoftravelliterature,
cartographyandgeography,andscientificeducation.CertainkeyChineseinnovations,suchasprinting
techniques,porcelainproduction,playingcards,andmedicalliterature,wereintroducedinEurope,while
theproductionofthinglassandcloisonnebecamepopularinChina.Thefirstrecordsoftravelby
Westernersdatefromthistime.ThemostfamoustraveleroftheperiodwastheVenetianMarcoPolo,
whoseaccountofhistripto"Cambaluc,"theGreatKhan'scapital(nowBeijing),andoflifethere
astoundedthepeopleofEurope.TheMongolsundertookextensivepublicworks.Roadandwater
communicationswerereorganizedandimproved.Toprovideagainstpossiblefamines,granarieswere
orderedbuiltthroughouttheempire.ThecityofBeijingwasrebuiltwithnewpalacegroundsthat
includedartificiallakes,hillsandmountains,andparks.DuringtheYuanperiod,Beijingbecamethe
terminusoftheGrandCanal,whichwascompletelyrenovated.Thesecommerciallyoriented
improvementsencouragedoverlandaswellasmaritimecommercethroughoutAsiaandfacilitatedthe
firstdirectChinesecontactswithEurope.ChineseandMongoltravelerstotheWestwereabletoprovide
assistanceinsuchareasashydraulicengineering,whilebringingbacktotheMiddleKingdomnew
scientificdiscoveriesandarchitecturalinnovations.ContactswiththeWestalsobroughttheintroduction
toChinaofamajornewfoodcrop--sorghum--alongwithotherforeignfoodproductsandmethodsof
preparation.
TheChineseRegainPower
RivalryamongtheMongolimperialheirs,natural
disasters,andnumerouspeasantuprisingsledtothe
collapseoftheYuandynasty.TheMingdynasty(1368-
1644)wasfoundedbyaHanChinesepeasantandformer
Buddhistmonkturnedrebelarmyleader( ).
HavingitscapitalfirstatNanjing( whichmeans
SouthernCapital)andlateratBeijing( orNorthern
Capital),theMingreachedthezenithofpowerduringthe
firstquarterofthefifteenthcentury.TheChinesearmies
reconqueredAnnam( ),asnorthernVietnamwas
thenknown,inSoutheastAsiaandkeptbacktheMongols,
whiletheChinesefleetsailedtheChinaseasandthe
IndianOcean,cruisingasfarastheeastcoastofAfrica.
ThemaritimeAsiannationssentenvoyswithtributefor
theChineseemperor.Internally,theGrandCanalwas
expandedtoitsfarthestlimitsandprovedtobeastimulustodomestictrade.
TheMingmaritimeexpeditionsstoppedrathersuddenlyafter1433,thedateofthelastvoyage.
Historianshavegivenasoneofthereasonsthegreatexpenseoflarge-scaleexpeditionsatatimeof
preoccupationwithnortherndefensesagainsttheMongols.Oppositionatcourtalsomayhavebeena
contributingfactor,asconservativeofficialsfoundtheconceptofexpansionandcommercialventures
alientoChineseideasofgovernment.PressurefromthepowerfulNeo-Confucianbureaucracyledtoa
revivalofstrictagrarian-centeredsociety.ThestabilityoftheMingdynasty,whichwaswithoutmajor
disruptionsofthepopulation(thenaround100million),economy,arts,society,orpolitics,promoteda
beliefamongtheChinesethattheyhadachievedthemostsatisfactorycivilizationonearthandthat
nothingforeignwasneededorwelcome.
LongwarswiththeMongols,incursionsbytheJapaneseintoKorea,andharassmentofChinesecoastal
citiesbytheJapaneseinthesixteenthcenturyweakenedMingrule,whichbecame,asearlierChinese
dynastieshad,ripeforanalientakeover.In1644theManchus( )tookBeijingfromthenorth
andbecamemastersofnorthChina,establishingthelastimperialdynasty,theQing(1644-1911).
TheRiseoftheManchus
AlthoughtheManchuswerenotHanChineseandwere
stronglyresisted,especiallyinthesouth,theyhad
assimilatedagreatdealofChineseculturebefore
conqueringChinaProper.Realizingthattodominatethe
empiretheywouldhavetodothingstheChineseway,the
ManchusretainedmanyinstitutionsofMingandearlier
Chinesederivation.TheycontinuedtheConfuciancourt
practicesandtemplerituals,overwhichtheemperorshad
traditionallypresided.
TheManchuscontinuedtheConfuciancivilservice
system.AlthoughChinesewerebarredfromthehighest
offices,ChineseofficialspredominatedoverManchu
officeholdersoutsidethecapital,exceptinmilitary
positions.TheNeo-Confucianphilosophy,emphasizing
theobedienceofsubjecttoruler,wasenforcedasthestate
creed.TheManchuemperorsalsosupportedChineseliteraryandhistoricalprojectsofenormousscope;
thesurvivalofmuchofChina'sancientliteratureisattributedtotheseprojects.
EversuspiciousofHanChinese,theQingrulersputintoeffectmeasuresaimedatpreventingthe
absorptionoftheManchusintothedominantHanChinesepopulation.HanChinesewereprohibited
frommigratingintotheManchuhomeland,andManchuswereforbiddentoengageintradeormanual
labor.Intermarriagebetweenthetwogroupswasforbidden.Inmanygovernmentpositionsasystemof
dualappointmentswasused--theChineseappointeewasrequiredtodothesubstantiveworkandthe
ManchutoensureHanloyaltytoQingrule.
TheQingregimewasdeterminedtoprotectitselfnotonlyfrominternalrebellionbutalsofromforeign
invasion.AfterChinaProperhadbeensubdued,theManchusconqueredOuterMongolia(nowthe
MongolianPeople'sRepublic)inthelateseventeenthcentury.Intheeighteenthcenturytheygained
controlofCentralAsiaasfarasthePamirMountainsandestablishedaprotectorateovertheareathe
ChinesecallXizang( )butcommonlyknownintheWestasTibet.TheQingthusbecamethefirst
dynastytoeliminatesuccessfullyalldangertoChinaProperfromacrossitslandborders.UnderManchu
ruletheempiregrewtoincludealargerareathanbeforeorsince;Taiwan,thelastoutpostofanti-
Manchuresistance,wasalsoincorporatedintoChinaforthefirsttime.Inaddition,Qingemperors
receivedtributefromthevariousborderstates.
ThechiefthreattoChina'sintegritydidnotcomeoverland,asithadsoofteninthepast,butbysea,
reachingthesoutherncoastalareafirst.Westerntraders,missionaries,andsoldiersoffortunebeganto
arriveinlargenumbersevenbeforetheQing,inthesixteenthcentury.Theempire'sinabilitytoevaluate
correctlythenatureofthenewchallengeortorespondflexiblytoitresultedinthedemiseoftheQing
andthecollapseoftheentiremillennia-oldframeworkofdynasticrule.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|ImperialEra:II|ModernChina]
EmergenceOfModernChina
ThesuccessoftheQingdynastyinmaintainingtheoldorderprovedaliabilitywhentheempirewas
confrontedwithgrowingchallengesfromseafaringWesternpowers.Thecenturiesofpeaceandself-
satisfactiondatingbacktoMingtimeshadencouragedlittlechangeintheattitudesoftherulingelite.
TheimperialNeo-ConfucianscholarsacceptedasaxiomatictheculturalsuperiorityofChinese
civilizationandthepositionoftheempireatthehuboftheirperceivedworld.Toquestionthis
assumption,tosuggestinnovation,ortopromotetheadoptionofforeignideaswasviewedastantamount
toheresy.Imperialpurgesdealtseverelywiththosewhodeviatedfromorthodoxy.
Bythenineteenthcentury,Chinawasexperiencinggrowinginternalpressuresofeconomicorigin.Bythe
startofthecentury,therewereover300millionChinese,buttherewasnoindustryortradeofsufficient
scopetoabsorbthesurpluslabor.Moreover,thescarcityoflandledtowidespreadruraldiscontentanda
breakdowninlawandorder.Theweakeningthroughcorruptionofthebureaucraticandmilitarysystems
andmountingurbanpauperismalsocontributedtothesedisturbances.Localizedrevoltseruptedin
variouspartsoftheempireintheearlynineteenthcentury.Secretsocieties,suchastheWhiteLotussect
( )inthenorthandtheTriadSociety( )inthesouth,gainedground,combininganti-
Manchusubversionwithbanditry.
TheWesternPowersArrive
AselsewhereinAsia,inChinathePortuguesewerethepioneers,establishingafootholdatMacao(
orAomeninpinyin),fromwhichtheymonopolizedforeigntradeattheChineseportofGuangzhou(
orCanton).SoontheSpanisharrived,followedbytheBritishandtheFrench.
TradebetweenChinaandtheWestwascarriedonintheguiseoftribute:foreignerswereobligedto
followtheelaborate,centuries-oldritualimposedonenvoysfromChina'stributarystates.Therewasno
conceptionattheimperialcourtthattheEuropeanswouldexpectordeservetobetreatedasculturalor
politicalequals.ThesoleexceptionwasRussia,themostpowerfulinlandneighbor.
TheManchusweresensitivetotheneedforsecurityalongthenorthernlandfrontierandthereforewere
preparedtoberealisticindealingwithRussia.TheTreatyofNerchinsk(1689)withtheRussians,drafted
tobringtoanendaseriesofborderincidentsandtoestablishaborderbetweenSiberiaandManchuria
(northeastChina)alongtheHeilongJiang( orAmurRiver),wasChina'sfirstbilateral
agreementwithaEuropeanpower.In1727theTreatyofKiakhtadelimitedtheremainderoftheeastern
portionoftheSino-Russianborder.Westerndiplomaticeffortstoexpandtradeonequaltermswere
rebuffed,theofficialChineseassumptionbeingthattheempirewasnotinneedofforeign--andthus
inferior--products.Despitethisattitude,tradeflourished,eventhoughafter1760allforeigntradewas
confinedtoGuangzhou,wheretheforeigntradershadtolimittheirdealingstoadozenofficiallylicensed
Chinesemerchantfirms.
TradewasnotthesolebasisofcontactwiththeWest.Sincethethirteenthcentury,RomanCatholic
missionarieshadbeenattemptingtoestablishtheirchurchinChina.Althoughby1800onlyafew
hundredthousandChinesehadbeenconverted,themissionaries--mostlyJesuits--contributedgreatlyto
Chineseknowledgeinsuchfieldsascannoncasting,calendarmaking,geography,mathematics,
cartography,music,art,andarchitecture.TheJesuitswereespeciallyadeptatfittingChristianityintoa
Chineseframeworkandwerecondemnedbyapapaldecisionin1704forhavingtoleratedthe
continuanceofConfucianancestorritesamongChristianconverts.Thepapaldecisionquicklyweakened
theChristianmovement,whichitproscribedasheterodoxanddisloyal.
TheOpiumWar,1839-42
Duringtheeighteenthcentury,themarketinEuropeandAmericafortea,anewdrinkintheWest,
expandedgreatly.Additionally,therewasacontinuingdemandforChinesesilkandporcelain.But
China,stillinitspreindustrialstage,wantedlittlethattheWesthadtooffer,causingtheWesterners,
mostlyBritish,toincuranunfavorablebalanceoftrade.Toremedythesituation,theforeigners
developedathird-partytrade,exchangingtheirmerchandiseinIndiaandSoutheastAsiaforraw
materialsandsemiprocessedgoods,whichfoundareadymarketinGuangzhou.Bytheearlynineteenth
century,rawcottonandopium( )fromIndiahadbecomethestapleBritishimportsintoChina,in
spiteofthefactthatopiumwasprohibitedentrybyimperialdecree.Theopiumtrafficwasmadepossible
throughtheconnivanceofprofit-seekingmerchantsandacorruptbureaucracy.
In1839theQinggovernment,afteradecadeofunsuccessfulanti-opiumcampaigns,adopteddrastic
prohibitorylawsagainsttheopiumtrade.Theemperordispatchedacommissioner,LinZexu(
1785-1850),toGuangzhoutosuppressillicitopiumtraffic.Linseizedillegalstocksofopiumownedby
Chinesedealersandthendetainedtheentireforeigncommunityandconfiscatedanddestroyedsome
20,000chestsofillicitBritishopium.TheBritishretaliatedwithapunitiveexpedition,thusinitiatingthe
firstAnglo-Chinesewar,betterknownastheOpiumWar(1839-42).Unpreparedforwarandgrossly
underestimatingthecapabilitiesoftheenemy,theChineseweredisastrouslydefeated,andtheirimageof
theirownimperialpowerwastarnishedbeyondrepair.TheTreatyofNanjing(1842),signedonboarda
BritishwarshipbytwoManchuimperialcommissionersandtheBritishplenipotentiary,wasthefirstofa
seriesofagreementswiththeWesterntradingnationslatercalledbytheChinesethe"unequaltreaties."
UndertheTreatyofNanjing,ChinacededtheislandofHongKong( orXiangganginpinyin)tothe
British;abolishedthelicensedmonopolysystemoftrade;opened5portstoBritishresidenceandforeign
trade;limitedthetariffontradeto5percentadvalorem;grantedBritishnationalsextraterritoriality
(exemptionfromChineselaws);andpaidalargeindemnity.Inaddition,Britainwastohavemost-
favored-nationtreatment,thatis,itwouldreceivewhatevertradingconcessionstheChinesegranted
otherpowersthenorlater.TheTreatyofNanjingsetthescopeandcharacterofanunequalrelationship
fortheensuingcenturyofwhattheChinesewouldcall"nationalhumiliations."Thetreatywasfollowed
byotherincursions,wars,andtreatiesthatgrantednewconcessionsandaddednewprivilegesforthe
foreigners.
ForpeopleinterestedinknowingmoreaboutthehistoryofopiuminChinaanditseffectontheopium
user,pleasecheckoutCliffSchaffer'sOpiatespagewhichincludesabriefhistoryoftheOpiumWars.
YoumightalsobeinterestedinaBriefHistoryofHongKong.TomGlasoealsomaintainsanicepageon
thehistoryofHongKong
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|ImperialEra:III|ModernChina:II]
EmergenceOfModernChina:II
TheTaipingRebellion,1851-64
Duringthemid-nineteenthcentury,China'sproblemswerecompoundedbynaturalcalamitiesof
unprecedentedproportions,includingdroughts,famines,andfloods.Governmentneglectofpublicworks
wasinpartresponsibleforthisandotherdisasters,andtheQingadministrationdidlittletorelievethe
widespreadmiserycausedbythem.Economictensions,militarydefeatsatWesternhands,andanti-
Manchusentimentsallcombinedtoproducewidespreadunrest,especiallyinthesouth.SouthChinahad
beenthelastareatoyieldtotheQingconquerorsandthefirsttobeexposedtoWesterninfluence.It
providedalikelysettingforthelargestuprisinginmodernChinesehistory--theTaipingRebellion.
TheTaipingrebelswereledbyHongXiuquan( 1814-64),avillageteacherandunsuccessful
imperialexaminationcandidate.Hongformulatedaneclecticideologycombiningtheidealsofpre-
ConfucianutopianismwithProtestantbeliefs.Hesoonhadafollowinginthethousandswhowereheavily
anti-Manchuandanti-establishment.Hong'sfollowersformedamilitaryorganizationtoprotectagainst
banditsandrecruitedtroopsnotonlyamongbelieversbutalsofromamongotherarmedpeasantgroups
andsecretsocieties.In1851HongXiuquanandotherslaunchedanuprisinginGuizhou( )Province.
HongproclaimedtheHeavenlyKingdomofGreatPeace( orTaipingTianguo)withhimself
asking.Theneworderwastoreconstitutealegendaryancientstateinwhichthepeasantryownedand
tilledthelandincommon;slavery,concubinage,arrangedmarriage,opiumsmoking,footbinding,judicial
torture,andtheworshipofidolswerealltobeeliminated.TheTaipingtoleranceoftheesotericrituals
andquasi-religioussocietiesofsouthChina--themselvesathreattoQingstability--andtheirrelentless
attacksonConfucianism--stillwidelyacceptedasthemoralfoundationofChinesebehavior--contributed
totheultimatedefeatoftherebellion.ItsadvocacyofradicalsocialreformsalienatedtheHanChinese
scholar-gentryclass.TheTaipingarmy,althoughithadcapturedNanjinganddrivenasfarnorthas
Tianjin( ),failedtoestablishstablebaseareas.Themovement'sleadersfoundthemselvesinanetof
internalfeuds,defections,andcorruption.Additionally,BritishandFrenchforces,beingmorewillingto
dealwiththeweakQingadministrationthancontendwiththeuncertaintiesofaTaipingregime,cameto
theassistanceoftheimperialarmy.BeforetheChinesearmysucceededincrushingtherevolt,however,
14yearshadpassed,andwellover30millionpeoplewerereportedkilled.
Todefeattherebellion,theQingcourtneeded,besidesWesternhelp,anarmystrongerandmorepopular
thanthedemoralizedimperialforces.In1860,scholar-officialZengGuofan( 1811-72),from
Hunan( )Province,wasappointedimperialcommissionerandgovernor-generaloftheTaiping-
controlledterritoriesandplacedincommandofthewaragainsttherebels.Zeng'sHunanarmy,created
andpaidforbylocaltaxes,becameapowerfulnewfightingforceunderthecommandofeminentscholar-
generals.Zeng'ssuccessgavenewpowertoanemergingHanChineseeliteanderodedQingauthority.
SimultaneousuprisingsinnorthChina(theNian Rebellion)andsouthwestChina(theMuslim
Rebellion)furtherdemonstratedQingweakness.
TheSelf-StrengtheningMovement
TheruderealitiesoftheOpiumWar,theunequaltreaties,andthemid-centurymassuprisingscaused
QingcourtiersandofficialstorecognizetheneedtostrengthenChina.Chinesescholarsandofficialshad
beenexaminingandtranslating"Westernlearning"sincethe1840s.Underthedirectionofmodern-
thinkingHanofficials,Westernscienceandlanguageswerestudied,specialschoolswereopenedinthe
largercities,andarsenals,factories,andshipyardswereestablishedaccordingtoWesternmodels.
WesterndiplomaticpracticeswereadoptedbytheQing,andstudentsweresentabroadbythegovernment
andonindividualorcommunityinitiativeinthehopethatnationalregenerationcouldbeachieved
throughtheapplicationofWesternpracticalmethods.
Amidtheseactivitiescameanattempttoarrestthedynasticdeclinebyrestoringthetraditionalorder.The
effortwasknownastheTongzhiRestoration,namedfortheTongzhi( )Emperor(1862-74),andwas
engineeredbytheyoungemperor'smother,theEmpressDowagerCiXi( 1835-1908).The
restoration,however,whichapplied"practicalknowledge"whilereaffirmingtheoldmentality,wasnota
genuineprogramofmodernization.
TheefforttograftWesterntechnologyontoChineseinstitutionsbecameknownastheSelf-Strengthening
Movement( ).Themovementwaschampionedbyscholar-generalslikeLiHongzhang(
1823-1901)andZuoZongtang( 1812-85),whohadfoughtwiththegovernmentforces
intheTaipingRebellion.From1861to1894,leaderssuchasthese,nowturnedscholar-administrators,
wereresponsibleforestablishingmoderninstitutions,developingbasicindustries,communications,and
transportation,andmodernizingthemilitary.Butdespiteitsleaders'accomplishments,theSelf-
StrengtheningMovementdidnotrecognizethesignificanceofthepoliticalinstitutionsandsocialtheories
thathadfosteredWesternadvancesandinnovations.Thisweaknessledtothemovement'sfailure.
Modernizationduringthisperiodwouldhavebeendifficultunderthebestofcircumstances.The
bureaucracywasstilldeeplyinfluencedbyNeo-Confucianorthodoxy.Chinesesocietywasstillreeling
fromtheravagesoftheTaipingandotherrebellions,andforeignencroachmentscontinuedtothreatenthe
integrityofChina.
Thefirststepintheforeignpowers'efforttocarveuptheempirewastakenbyRussia,whichhadbeen
expandingintoCentralAsia.Bythe1850s,tsaristtroopsalsohadinvadedtheHeilongJiangwatershedof
Manchuria,fromwhichtheircountrymenhadbeenejectedundertheTreatyofNerchinsk.TheRussians
usedthesuperiorknowledgeofChinatheyhadacquiredthroughtheircentury-longresidenceinBeijing
tofurthertheiraggrandizement.In1860RussiandiplomatssecuredthesecessionofallofManchuria
northoftheHeilongJiangandeastoftheWusuliJiang(UssuriRiver).Foreignencroachmentsincreased
after1860bymeansofaseriesoftreatiesimposedonChinaononepretextoranother.Theforeign
strangleholdonthevitalsectorsoftheChineseeconomywasreinforcedthroughalengtheninglistof
concessions.Foreignsettlementsinthetreatyportsbecameextraterritorial--sovereignpocketsof
territoriesoverwhichChinahadnojurisdiction.Thesafetyoftheseforeignsettlementswasensuredby
themenacingpresenceofwarshipsandgunboats.
AtthistimetheforeignpowersalsotookovertheperipheralstatesthathadacknowledgedChinese
suzeraintyandgiventributetotheemperor.FrancecolonizedCochinChina,assouthernVietnamwas
thencalled,andby1864establishedaprotectorateoverCambodia.Followingavictoriouswaragainst
Chinain1884-85,FrancealsotookAnnam.BritaingainedcontroloverBurma.Russiapenetratedinto
ChineseTurkestan(themodern-dayXinjiang-UyghurAutonomousRegion).Japan,havingemergedfrom
itscentury-and-a-half-longseclusionandhavinggonethroughitsownmodernizationmovement,defeated
Chinainthewarof1894-95.TheTreatyofShimonosekiforcedChinatocedeTaiwanandthePenghu
IslandstoJapan,payahugeindemnity,permittheestablishmentofJapaneseindustriesinfourtreaty
ports,andrecognizeJapanesehegemonyoverKorea.In1898theBritishacquiredaninety-nine-yearlease
overtheso-calledNewTerritoriesofKowloon( orJiulonginpinyin),whichincreasedthesizeof
theirHongKongcolony.Britain,Japan,Russia,Germany,France,andBelgiumeachgainedspheresof
influenceinChina.TheUnitedStates,whichhadnotacquiredanyterritorialcessions,proposedin1899
thattherebean"opendoor"policyinChina,wherebyallforeigncountrieswouldhaveequaldutiesand
privilegesinalltreatyportswithinandoutsidethevariousspheresofinfluence.AllbutRussiaagreedto
theUnitedStatesoverture.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|ModernChina|ModernChina:III]
EmergenceOfModernChina:III
TheHundredDays'ReformandtheAftermath
Inthe103daysfromJune11toSeptember21,1898,theQingemperor,Guangxu( 1875-1908),
orderedaseriesofreformsaimedatmakingsweepingsocialandinstitutionalchanges.Thiseffort
reflectedthethinkingofagroupofprogressivescholar-reformerswhohadimpressedthecourtwiththe
urgencyofmakinginnovationsforthenation'ssurvival.InfluencedbytheJapanesesuccesswith
modernization,thereformersdeclaredthatChinaneededmorethan"self-strengthening"andthat
innovationmustbeaccompaniedbyinstitutionalandideologicalchange.
Theimperialedictsforreformcoveredabroadrangeofsubjects,includingstampingoutcorruptionand
remaking,amongotherthings,theacademicandcivil-serviceexaminationsystems,legalsystem,
governmentalstructure,defenseestablishment,andpostalservices.Theedictsattemptedtomodernize
agriculture,medicine,andminingandtopromotepracticalstudiesinsteadofNeo-Confucianorthodoxy.
Thecourtalsoplannedtosendstudentsabroadforfirsthandobservationandtechnicalstudies.Allthese
changesweretobebroughtaboutunderadefactoconstitutionalmonarchy.
Oppositiontothereformwasintenseamongtheconservativerulingelite,especiallytheManchus,who,
incondemningtheannouncedreformastooradical,proposedinsteadamoremoderateandgradualist
courseofchange.Supportedbyultraconservativesandwiththetacitsupportofthepoliticalopportunist
YuanShikai( 1859-1916),EmpressDowagerCiXi( )engineeredacoupd'taton
September21,1898,forcingtheyoungreform-mindedGuangxuintoseclusion.CiXitookoverthe
governmentasregent.TheHundredDays'Reform( )endedwiththerescindmentofthenew
edictsandtheexecutionofsixofthereform'schiefadvocates.Thetwoprincipalleaders,KangYouwei(
1858-1927)andLiangQichao( 1873-1929),fledabroadtofoundtheBaohuangHui(
orProtecttheEmperorSociety)andtowork,unsuccessfully,foraconstitutionalmonarchyin
China.
Theconservativesthengaveclandestinebackingtotheantiforeignandanti-Christianmovementofsecret
societiesknownasYihetuan( orSocietyofRighteousnessandHarmony).Themovementhas
beenbetterknownintheWestastheBoxers(fromanearliername--Yihequan, or
RighteousnessandHarmonyBoxers).In1900BoxerbandsspreadoverthenorthChinacountryside,
burningmissionaryfacilitiesandkillingChineseChristians.Finally,inJune1900,theBoxersbesieged
theforeignconcessionsinBeijingandTianjin,anactionthatprovokedanalliedreliefexpeditionbythe
offendednations.TheQingdeclaredwaragainsttheinvaders,whoeasilycrushedtheiroppositionand
occupiednorthChina.UndertheProtocolof1901,thecourtwasmadetoconsenttotheexecutionoften
highofficialsandthepunishmentofhundredsofothers,expansionoftheLegationQuarter,paymentof
warreparations,stationingofforeigntroopsinChina,andrazingofsomeChinesefortifications.
Inthedecadethatfollowed,thecourtbelatedlyputintoeffectsomereformmeasures.Theseincludedthe
abolitionofthemoribundConfucian-basedexamination,educationalandmilitarymodernization
patternedafterthemodelofJapan,andanexperiment,ifhalf-hearted,inconstitutionalandparliamentary
government.Thesuddennessandambitiousnessofthereformeffortactuallyhindereditssuccess.One
effect,tobefeltfordecadestocome,wastheestablishmentofnewarmies,which,inturn,gaveriseto
warlordism.
TheRepublicanRevolutionof1911
FailureofreformfromthetopandthefiascooftheBoxerUprisingconvincedmanyChinesethatthe
onlyrealsolutionlayinoutrightrevolution,insweepingawaytheoldorderanderectinganewone
patternedpreferablyaftertheexampleofJapan.TherevolutionaryleaderwasSunYat-sen(
SunYixianinpinyin,1866-1925),arepublicanandanti-Qingactivistwhobecameincreasinglypopular
amongtheoverseasChineseandChinesestudentsabroad,especiallyinJapan.In1905Sunfoundedthe
TongmengHui( orUnitedLeague)inTokyowithHuangXing( 1874-1916),apopular
leaderoftheChineserevolutionarymovementinJapan,ashisdeputy.Thismovement,generously
supportedbyoverseasChinesefunds,alsogainedpoliticalsupportwithregionalmilitaryofficersand
someofthereformerswhohadfledChinaaftertheHundredDays'Reform.Sun'spoliticalphilosophy
wasconceptualizedin1897,firstenunciatedinTokyoin1905,andmodifiedthroughtheearly1920s.It
centeredontheThreePrinciplesofthePeople( orsanminzhuyi):"nationalism,democracy,
andpeople'slivelihood."TheprincipleofnationalismcalledforoverthrowingtheManchusandending
foreignhegemonyoverChina.Thesecondprinciple,democracy,wasusedtodescribeSun'sgoalofa
popularlyelectedrepublicanformofgovernment.People'slivelihood,oftenreferredtoassocialism,was
aimedathelpingthecommonpeoplethroughregulationoftheownershipofthemeansofproductionand
land.
TherepublicanrevolutionbrokeoutonOctober10,1911,inWuchang( ),thecapitalofHubei(
)Province,amongdiscontentedmodernizedarmyunitswhoseanti-Qingplothadbeenuncovered.
IthadbeenprecededbynumerousabortiveuprisingsandorganizedprotestsinsideChina.Therevolt
quicklyspreadtoneighboringcities,andTongmengHuimembersthroughoutthecountryrosein
immediatesupportoftheWuchangrevolutionaryforces.BylateNovember,fifteenofthetwenty-four
provinceshaddeclaredtheirindependenceoftheQingempire.Amonthlater,SunYat-senreturnedto
ChinafromtheUnitedStates,wherehehadbeenraisingfundsamongoverseasChineseandAmerican
sympathizers.OnJanuary1,1912,SunwasinauguratedinNanjingastheprovisionalpresidentofthe
newChineserepublic.ButpowerinBeijingalreadyhadpassedtothecommander-in-chiefofthe
imperialarmy,YuanShikai,thestrongestregionalmilitaryleaderatthetime.Topreventcivilwarand
possibleforeigninterventionfromunderminingtheinfantrepublic,SunagreedtoYuan'sdemandthat
ChinabeunitedunderaBeijinggovernmentheadedbyYuan.OnFebruary12,1912,thelastManchu
emperor,thechildPuyi( ),abdicated.OnMarch10,inBeijing,YuanShikaiwassworninas
provisionalpresidentoftheRepublicofChina.
or
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|ModernEra:II|RepublicanChina]
RepublicanChina
TherepublicthatSunYat-sen( )andhisassociatesenvisionedevolvedslowly.Therevolutionists
lackedanarmy,andthepowerofYuanShikai( )begantooutstripthatofparliament.Yuan
revisedtheconstitutionatwillandbecamedictatorial.InAugust1912anewpoliticalpartywasfounded
bySongJiaoren( 1882-1913),oneofSun'sassociates.Theparty,theGuomindang(
KuomintangorKMT--theNationalPeople'sParty,frequentlyreferredtoastheNationalistParty),wasan
amalgamationofsmallpoliticalgroups,includingSun'sTongmengHui( ).Inthenational
electionsheldinFebruary1913forthenewbicameralparliament,SongcampaignedagainsttheYuan
administration,andhispartywonamajorityofseats.YuanhadSongassassinatedinMarch;hehad
alreadyarrangedtheassassinationofseveralpro-revolutionistgenerals.AnimositytowardYuangrew.In
thesummerof1913sevensouthernprovincesrebelledagainstYuan.Whentherebellionwassuppressed,
SunandotherinstigatorsfledtoJapan.InOctober1913anintimidatedparliamentformallyelectedYuan
presidentoftheRepublicofChina,andthemajorpowersextendedrecognitiontohisgovernment.To
achieveinternationalrecognition,YuanShikaihadtoagreetoautonomyforOuterMongoliaandXizang(
).Chinawasstilltobesuzerain,butitwouldhavetoallowRussiaafreehandinOuterMongolia
andBritaincontinuanceofitsinfluenceinXizang.
InNovemberYuanShikai,legallypresident,orderedtheGuomindangdissolvedanditsmembers
removedfromparliament.Withinafewmonths,hesuspendedparliamentandtheprovincialassemblies
andforcedthepromulgationofanewconstitution,which,ineffect,madehimpresidentforlife.Yuan's
ambitionsstillwerenotsatisfied,and,bytheendof1915,itwasannouncedthathewouldreestablishthe
monarchy.Widespreadrebellionsensued,andnumerousprovincesdeclaredindependence.With
oppositionateveryquarterandthenationbreakingupintowarlordfactions,YuanShikaidiedofnatural
causesinJune1916,desertedbyhislieutenants.
NationalismandCommunism
AfterYuanShikai'sdeath,shiftingalliancesofregionalwarlordsfoughtforcontroloftheBeijing
government.ThenationalsowasthreatenedfromwithoutbytheJapanese.WhenWorldWarIbrokeout
in1914,JapanfoughtontheAlliedsideandseizedGermanholdingsinShandong( )Province.In
1915theJapanesesetbeforethewarlordgovernmentinBeijingtheso-calledTwenty-OneDemands,
whichwouldhavemadeChinaaJapaneseprotectorate.TheBeijinggovernmentrejectedsomeofthese
demandsbutyieldedtotheJapaneseinsistenceonkeepingtheShandongterritoryalreadyinits
possession.BeijingalsorecognizedTokyo'sauthorityoversouthernManchuriaandeasternInner
Mongolia.In1917,insecretcommuniques,Britain,France,andItalyassentedtotheJapaneseclaimin
exchangefortheJapan'snavalactionagainstGermany.
In1917ChinadeclaredwaronGermanyinthehopeofrecoveringitslostprovince,thenunderJapanese
control.Butin1918theBeijinggovernmentsignedasecretdealwithJapanacceptingthelatter'sclaimto
Shandong.WhentheParispeaceconferenceof1919confirmedtheJapaneseclaimtoShandongand
Beijing'sselloutbecamepublic,internalreactionwasshattering.OnMay4,1919,thereweremassive
studentdemonstrationsagainsttheBeijinggovernmentandJapan.Thepoliticalfervor,studentactivism,
andiconoclasticandreformistintellectualcurrentssetinmotionbythepatrioticstudentprotestdeveloped
intoanationalawakeningknownastheMayFourthMovement( ).Theintellectualmilieuin
whichtheMayFourthMovementdevelopedwasknownastheNewCultureMovementandoccupiedthe
periodfrom1917to1923.ThestudentdemonstrationsofMay4,1919werethehighpointoftheNew
CultureMovement,andthetermsareoftenusedsynonymously.Studentsreturnedfromabroad
advocatingsocialandpoliticaltheoriesrangingfromcompleteWesternizationofChinatothesocialism
thatonedaywouldbeadoptedbyChina'scommunistrulers.
OpposingtheWarlords
TheMayFourthMovementhelpedtorekindlethethen-fadingcauseofrepublicanrevolution.In1917
SunYat-senhadbecomecommander-in-chiefofarivalmilitarygovernmentinGuangzhou( )in
collaborationwithsouthernwarlords.InOctober1919SunreestablishedtheGuomindangtocounterthe
governmentinBeijing.Thelatter,underasuccessionofwarlords,stillmaintaineditsfacadeoflegitimacy
anditsrelationswiththeWest.By1921Sunhadbecomepresidentofthesoutherngovernment.Hespent
hisremainingyearstryingtoconsolidatehisregimeandachieveunitywiththenorth.Hiseffortstoobtain
aidfromtheWesterndemocracieswereignored,however,andin1921heturnedtotheSovietUnion,
whichhadrecentlyachieveditsownrevolution.TheSovietssoughttobefriendtheChineserevolutionists
byofferingscathingattackson"Westernimperialism."Butforpoliticalexpediency,theSovietleadership
initiatedadualpolicyofsupportforbothSunandthenewlyestablishedChineseCommunistParty(
CCP).TheSovietshopedforconsolidationbutwerepreparedforeithersidetoemerge
victorious.InthiswaythestruggleforpowerinChinabeganbetweentheNationalistsandthe
Communists.In1922theGuomindang-warlordallianceinGuangzhouwasruptured,andSunfledto
Shanghai( ).BythenSunsawtheneedtoseekSovietsupportforhiscause.In1923ajoint
statementbySunandaSovietrepresentativeinShanghaipledgedSovietassistanceforChina'snational
unification.Sovietadvisers--themostprominentofwhomwasanagentoftheComintern,Mikhail
Borodin--begantoarriveinChinain1923toaidinthereorganizationandconsolidationofthe
GuomindangalongthelinesoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion.TheCCPwasunderComintern
instructionstocooperatewiththeGuomindang,anditsmemberswereencouragedtojoinwhile
maintainingtheirpartyidentities.TheCCPwasstillsmallatthetime,havingamembershipof300in
1922andonly1,500by1925.TheGuomindangin1922alreadyhad150,000members.Sovietadvisers
alsohelpedtheNationalistssetupapoliticalinstitutetotrainpropagandistsinmassmobilization
techniquesandin1923sentChiangKai-shek( JiangJieshiinpinyin),oneofSun'slieutenants
fromTongmengHuidays,forseveralmonths'militaryandpoliticalstudyinMoscow.AfterChiang's
returninlate1923,heparticipatedintheestablishmentoftheWhampoa( Huangpuinpinyin)
MilitaryAcademyoutsideGuangzhou,whichwastheseatofgovernmentundertheGuomindang-CCP
alliance.In1924Chiangbecameheadoftheacademyandbegantherisetoprominencethatwouldmake
himSun'ssuccessorasheadoftheGuomindangandtheunifierofallChinaundertheright-wing
nationalistgovernment.
SunYat-sendiedofcancerinBeijinginMarch1925,buttheNationalistmovementhehadhelpedto
initiatewasgainingmomentum.Duringthesummerof1925,Chiang,ascommander-in-chiefofthe
NationalRevolutionaryArmy,setoutonthelong-delayedNorthernExpeditionagainstthenorthern
warlords.Withinninemonths,halfofChinahadbeenconquered.By1926,however,theGuomindang
haddividedintoleft-andright-wingfactions,andtheCommunistblocwithinitwasalsogrowing.In
March1926,afterthwartingakidnappingattemptagainsthim,ChiangabruptlydismissedhisSoviet
advisers,imposedrestrictionsonCCPmembers'participationinthetopleadership,andemergedasthe
preeminentGuomindangleader.TheSovietUnion,stillhopingtopreventasplitbetweenChiangandthe
CCP,orderedCommunistundergroundactivitiestofacilitatetheNorthernExpedition,whichwasfinally
launchedbyChiangfromGuangzhouinJuly1926.
Inearly1927theGuomindang-CCPrivalryledtoasplitintherevolutionaryranks.TheCCPandtheleft
wingoftheGuomindanghaddecidedtomovetheseatoftheNationalistgovernmentfromGuangzhouto
Wuhan.ButChiang,whoseNorthernExpeditionwasprovingsuccessful,sethisforcestodestroyingthe
ShanghaiCCPapparatusandestablishedananti-CommunistgovernmentatNanjinginApril1927.There
nowwerethreecapitalsinChina:theinternationallyrecognizedwarlordregimeinBeijing;the
Communistandleft-wingGuomindangregimeatWuhan( );andtheright-wingcivilian-military
regimeatNanjing,whichwouldremaintheNationalistcapitalforthenextdecade.
TheCominterncauseappearedbankrupt.AnewpolicywasinstitutedcallingontheCCPtofoment
armedinsurrectionsinbothurbanandruralareasinpreparationforanexpectedrisingtideofrevolution.
UnsuccessfulattemptsweremadebyCommuniststotakecitiessuchasNanchang( ),Changsha(
),Shantou( ),andGuangzhou,andanarmedruralinsurrection,knownastheAutumnHarvest
Uprising,wasstagedbypeasantsinHunanProvince.TheinsurrectionwasledbyMaoZedong(
1893-1976),whowouldlaterbecomechairmanoftheCCPandheadofstateofthePeople'sRepublicof
China.MaowasofpeasantoriginsandwasoneofthefoundersoftheCCP.
Butinmid-1927theCCPwasatalowebb.TheCommunistshadbeenexpelledfromWuhanbytheirleft-
wingGuomindangallies,whointurnweretoppledbyamilitaryregime.By1928allofChinawasatleast
nominallyunderChiang'scontrol,andtheNanjinggovernmentreceivedpromptinternationalrecognition
asthesolelegitimategovernmentofChina.TheNationalistgovernmentannouncedthatinconformity
withSunYat-sen'sformulaforthethreestagesofrevolution--militaryunification,politicaltutelage,and
constitutionaldemocracy--Chinahadreachedtheendofthefirstphaseandwouldembarkonthesecond,
whichwouldbeunderGuomindangdirection.
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RepublicanChina:II
).
ConsolidationundertheGuomindang
Thedecadeof1928-37wasoneofconsolidationandaccomplishmentbytheGuomindang(
SomeoftheharshaspectsofforeignconcessionsandprivilegesinChinaweremoderatedthrough
diplomacy.Thegovernmentactedenergeticallytomodernizethelegalandpenalsystems,stabilize
prices,amortizedebts,reformthebankingandcurrencysystems,buildrailroadsandhighways,improve
publichealthfacilities,legislateagainsttrafficinnarcotics,andaugmentindustrialandagricultural
production.Greatstridesalsoweremadeineducationand,inanefforttohelpunifyChinesesociety,ina
programtopopularizethenationallanguageandovercomedialectalvariations.Thewidespread
establishmentofcommunicationsfacilitiesfurtherencouragedasenseofunityandprideamongthe
people.
RiseoftheCommunists
TherewereforcesatworkduringthisperiodofprogressthatwouldeventuallyunderminetheChiang
Kai-shekgovernment.ThefirstwasthegradualriseoftheCommunists.
MaoZedong( ),whohadbecomeaMarxistatthetimeoftheemergenceoftheMayFourth
Movement(hewasworkingasalibrarianatBeijingUniversity),hadboundlessfaithintherevolutionary
potentialofthepeasantry.HeadvocatedthatrevolutioninChinafocusonthemratherthanontheurban
proletariat,asprescribedbyorthodoxMarxist-Leninisttheoreticians.DespitethefailureoftheAutumn
HarvestUprisingof1927,MaocontinuedtoworkamongthepeasantsofHunanProvince.Without
waitingforthesanctionoftheCCPcenter,theninShanghai,hebeganestablishingpeasant-basedsoviets
(Communist-runlocalgovernments)alongtheborderbetweenHunanandJiangxi( )provinces.In
collaborationwithmilitarycommanderZhuDe( 1886-1976),Maoturnedthelocalpeasantsintoa
politicizedguerrillaforce.Bythewinterof1927-28,thecombined"peasants'andworkers'"armyhad
some10,000troops.
Mao'sprestigerosesteadilyafterthefailureoftheComintern-directedurbaninsurrections.Inlate1931
hewasabletoproclaimtheestablishmentoftheChineseSovietRepublicunderhischairmanshipin
RuijinJiangxiProvince.TheSoviet-orientedCCPPoliticalBureaucametoRuijinatMao'sinvitation
withtheintentofdismantlinghisapparatus.But,althoughhehadyettogainmembershipinthePolitical
Bureau,Maodominatedtheproceedings.
Intheearly1930s,amidcontinuedPoliticalBureauoppositiontohismilitaryandagrarianpoliciesand
thedeadlyannihilationcampaignsbeingwagedagainsttheRedArmybyChiangKai-shek'sforces,
Mao'scontroloftheChineseCommunistmovementincreased.TheepicLongMarchofhisRedArmy
anditssupporters,whichbeganinOctober1934,wouldensurehisplaceinhistory.Forcedtoevacuate
theircampsandhomes,Communistsoldiersandgovernmentandpartyleadersandfunctionaries
numberingabout100,000(includingonly35women,thespousesofhighleaders)setoutonacircuitous
retreatofsome12,500kilometersthrough11provinces,18mountainranges,and24riversinsouthwest
andnorthwestChina.DuringtheLongMarch,MaofinallygainedunchallengedcommandoftheCCP,
oustinghisrivalsandreassertingguerrillastrategy.Asafinaldestination,heselectedsouthernShaanxi(
)Province,wheresome8,000survivorsoftheoriginalgroupfromJiangxiProvince(joinedby
some22,000fromotherareas)arrivedinOctober1935.TheCommunistssetuptheirheadquartersat
Yan'an( ),wherethemovementwouldgrowrapidlyforthenexttenyears.Contributingtothis
growthwouldbeacombinationofinternalandexternalcircumstances,ofwhichaggressionbythe
Japanesewasperhapsthemostsignificant.ConflictwithJapan,whichwouldcontinuefromthe1930sto
theendofWorldWarII,wastheotherforce(besidestheCommuniststhemselves)thatwouldundermine
theNationalistgovernment.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|RepublicanChina|RepublicanChina:III]
RepublicanChina:III
Anti-JapaneseWar
FewChinesehadanyillusionsaboutJapanesedesignsonChina.Hungryforrawmaterialsandpressed
byagrowingpopulation,JapaninitiatedtheseizureofManchuriainSeptember1931andestablishedex-
QingemperorPuyi( )asheadofthepuppetregimeofManchukuo( )in1932.Thelossof
Manchuria,anditsvastpotentialforindustrialdevelopmentandwarindustries,wasablowtothe
Nationalisteconomy.TheLeagueofNations,establishedattheendofWorldWarI,wasunabletoactin
thefaceoftheJapanesedefiance.TheJapanesebegantopushfromsouthoftheGreatWallintonorthern
Chinaandintothecoastalprovinces.ChinesefuryagainstJapanwaspredictable,butangerwasalso
directedagainsttheGuomindanggovernment,whichatthetimewasmorepreoccupiedwithanti-
CommunistexterminationcampaignsthanwithresistingtheJapaneseinvaders.Theimportanceof
"internalunitybeforeexternaldanger"wasforcefullybroughthomeinDecember1936,whenNationalist
troops(whohadbeenoustedfromManchuriabytheJapanese)mutiniedatXi'an( ).Themutineers
forciblydetainedChiangKai-shekforseveraldaysuntilheagreedtoceasehostilitiesagainstthe
CommunistforcesinnorthwestChinaandtoassignCommunistunitscombatdutiesindesignatedanti-
Japanesefrontareas.
TheChineseresistancestiffenedafterJuly7,1937,whenaclashoccurredbetweenChineseandJapanese
troopsoutsideBeijing(thenrenamedBeiping )neartheMarcoPoloBridge.Thisskirmishnotonly
markedthebeginningofopen,thoughundeclared,warbetweenChinaandJapanbutalsohastenedthe
formalannouncementofthesecondGuomindang-CCPunitedfrontagainstJapan.Thecollaborationtook
placewithsalutaryeffectsforthebeleagueredCCP.Thedistrustbetweenthetwoparties,however,was
scarcelyveiled.Theuneasyalliancebegantobreakdownafterlate1938,despiteJapan'ssteady
territorialgainsinnorthernChina,thecoastalregions,andtherichChangJiang( )Valleyincentral
China.After1940,conflictsbetweentheNationalistsandCommunistsbecamemorefrequentintheareas
notunderJapanesecontrol.TheCommunistsexpandedtheirinfluencewhereveropportunitiespresented
themselvesthroughmassorganizations,administrativereforms,andtheland-andtax-reformmeasures
favoringthepeasants--whiletheNationalistsattemptedtoneutralizethespreadofCommunistinfluence.
AtYan'an( )andelsewhereinthe"liberatedareas,"MaowasabletoadaptMarxism-Leninismto
Chineseconditions.Hetaughtpartycadrestoleadthemassesbylivingandworkingwiththem,eating
theirfood,andthinkingtheirthoughts.TheRedArmyfosteredanimageofconductingguerrillawarfare
indefenseofthepeople.Communisttroopsadaptedtochangingwartimeconditionsandbecamea
seasonedfightingforce.MaoalsobeganpreparingfortheestablishmentofanewChina.In1940he
outlinedtheprogramoftheChineseCommunistsforaneventualseizureofpower.Histeachingsbecame
thecentraltenetsoftheCCPdoctrinethatcametobeformalizedasMaoZedongThought.Withskillful
organizationalandpropagandawork,theCommunistsincreasedpartymembershipfrom100,000in1937
to1.2millionby1945.
In1945Chinaemergedfromthewarnominallyagreatmilitarypowerbutactuallyanationeconomically
prostrateandonthevergeofall-outcivilwar.Theeconomydeteriorated,sappedbythemilitary
demandsofforeignwarandinternalstrife,byspiralinginflation,andbyNationalistprofiteering,
speculation,andhoarding.Starvationcameinthewakeofthewar,andmillionswererenderedhomeless
byfloodsandtheunsettledconditionsinmanypartsofthecountry.Thesituationwasfurther
complicatedbyanAlliedagreementattheYaltaConferenceinFebruary1945thatbroughtSoviettroops
intoManchuriatohastentheterminationofwaragainstJapan.AlthoughtheChinesehadnotbeen
presentatYalta,theyhadbeenconsulted;theyhadagreedtohavetheSovietsenterthewarinthebelief
thattheSovietUnionwoulddealonlywiththeNationalistgovernment.Afterthewar,theSovietUnion,
aspartoftheYaltaagreement'sallowingaSovietsphereofinfluenceinManchuria,dismantledand
removedmorethanhalftheindustrialequipmentlefttherebytheJapanese.TheSovietpresencein
northeastChinaenabledtheCommuniststomoveinlongenoughtoarmthemselveswiththeequipment
surrenderedbythewithdrawingJapanesearmy.TheproblemsofrehabilitatingtheformerlyJapanese-
occupiedareasandofreconstructingthenationfromtheravagesofaprotractedwarwerestaggering,to
saytheleast.
ReturntoCivilWar
DuringWorldWarII,theUnitedStatesemergedasamajoractorinChineseaffairs.Asanallyit
embarkedinlate1941onaprogramofmassivemilitaryandfinancialaidtothehard-pressedNationalist
government.InJanuary1943theUnitedStatesandBritainledthewayinrevisingtheirtreatieswith
China,bringingtoanendacenturyofunequaltreatyrelations.Withinafewmonths,anewagreement
wassignedbetweentheUnitedStatesandChinaforthestationingofAmericantroopsinChinaforthe
commonwareffortagainstJapan.InDecember1943theChineseexclusionactsofthe1880sand
subsequentlawsenactedbytheUnitedStatesCongresstorestrictChineseimmigrationintotheUnited
Stateswererepealed.
ThewartimepolicyoftheUnitedStateswasinitiallytohelpChinabecomeastrongallyandastabilizing
forceinpostwarEastAsia.AstheconflictbetweentheNationalistsandtheCommunistsintensified,
however,theUnitedStatessoughtunsuccessfullytoreconciletherivalforcesforamoreeffectiveanti-
Japanesewareffort.Towardtheendofthewar,UnitedStatesMarineswereusedtoholdBeipingand
TianjinagainstapossibleSovietincursion,andlogisticsupportwasgiventoNationalistforcesinnorth
andnortheastChina.
ThroughthemediatoryinfluenceoftheUnitedStatesamilitarytrucewasarrangedinJanuary1946,but
battlesbetweenNationalistsandCommunistssoonresumed.RealizingthatAmericaneffortsshortof
large-scalearmedinterventioncouldnotstopthewar,theUnitedStateswithdrewtheAmericanmission,
headedbyGeneralGeorgeC.Marshall,inearly1947.Thecivilwar,inwhichtheUnitedStatesaidedthe
Nationalistswithmassiveeconomicloansbutnomilitarysupport,becamemorewidespread.Battles
ragednotonlyforterritoriesbutalsofortheallegianceofcrosssectionsofthepopulation.
Belatedly,theNationalistgovernmentsoughttoenlistpopularsupportthroughinternalreforms.The
effortwasinvain,however,becauseoftherampantcorruptioningovernmentandtheaccompanying
politicalandeconomicchaos.Bylate1948theNationalistpositionwasbleak.Thedemoralizedand
undisciplinedNationalisttroopsprovednomatchforthePeople'sLiberationArmy(PLAor
).TheCommunistswerewellestablishedinthenorthandnortheast.Althoughthe
Nationalistshadanadvantageinnumbersofmenandweapons,controlledamuchlargerterritoryand
populationthantheiradversaries,andenjoyedconsiderableinternationalsupport,theywereexhaustedby
thelongwarwithJapanandtheattendantinternalresponsibilities.InJanuary1949Beipingwastakenby
theCommunistswithoutafight,anditsnamechangedbacktoBeijing.BetweenAprilandNovember,
majorcitiespassedfromGuomindangtoCommunistcontrolwithminimalresistance.Inmostcasesthe
surroundingcountrysideandsmalltownshadcomeunderCommunistinfluencelongbeforethecities.
AfterChiangKai-shekandafewhundredthousandNationalisttroopsfledfromthemainlandtothe
islandofTaiwan,thereremainedonlyisolatedpocketsofresistance.InDecember1949Chiang
proclaimedTaipei( ),Taiwan( ),thetemporarycapitalofChina.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|RepublicanChina:II|PRC]
ThePeople'sRepublicOfChina
OnOctober1,1949,thePeople'sRepublicofChinawasformallyestablished,withitsnationalcapitalat
Beijing."TheChinesepeoplehavestoodup!"declaredMaoasheannouncedthecreationofa"people's
democraticdictatorship."Thepeopleweredefinedasacoalitionoffoursocialclasses:theworkers,the
peasants,thepetitebourgeoisie,andthenational-capitalists.ThefourclassesweretobeledbytheCCP,
asthevanguardoftheworkingclass.AtthattimetheCCPclaimedamembershipof4.5million,of
whichmembersofpeasantoriginaccountedfornearly90percent.ThepartywasunderMao's
chairmanship,andthegovernmentwasheadedbyZhouEnlai( 1898-1976)aspremierofthe
StateAdministrativeCouncil(thepredecessoroftheStateCouncil).
TheSovietUnionrecognizedthePeople'sRepubliconOctober2,1949.Earlierintheyear,Maohad
proclaimedhispolicyof"leaningtooneside"asacommitmenttothesocialistbloc.InFebruary1950,
aftermonthsofhardbargaining,ChinaandtheSovietUnionsignedtheTreatyofFriendship,Alliance,
andMutualAssistance,validuntil1980.ThepactalsowasintendedtocounterJapanoranypower's
joiningJapanforthepurposeofaggression.
ForthefirsttimeindecadesaChinesegovernmentwasmetwithpeace,insteadofmassivemilitary
opposition,withinitsterritory.Thenewleadershipwashighlydisciplinedand,havingadecadeof
wartimeadministrativeexperiencetodrawon,wasabletoembarkonaprogramofnationalintegration
andreform.InthefirstyearofCommunistadministration,moderatesocialandeconomicpolicieswere
implementedwithskillandeffectiveness.Theleadershiprealizedthattheoverwhelmingand
multitudinoustaskofeconomicreconstructionandachievementofpoliticalandsocialstabilityrequired
thegoodwillandcooperationofallclassesofpeople.Resultswereimpressivebyanystandard,and
popularsupportwaswidespread.
By1950internationalrecognitionoftheCommunistgovernmenthadincreasedconsiderably,butitwas
slowedbyChina'sinvolvementintheKoreanWar.InOctober1950,sensingathreattotheindustrial
heartlandinnortheastChinafromtheadvancingUnitedNations(UN)forcesintheDemocraticPeople's
RepublicofKorea(NorthKorea),unitsofthePLA--callingthemselvestheChinesePeople'sVolunteers--
crossedtheYaluJiang( )RiverintoNorthKoreainresponsetoaNorthKoreanrequestforaid.
AlmostsimultaneouslythePLAforcesalsomarchedintoXizangtoreassertChinesesovereigntyovera
regionthathadbeenineffectindependentofChineserulesincethefalloftheQingdynastyin1911.In
1951theUNdeclaredChinatobeanaggressorinKoreaandsanctionedaglobalembargoonthe
shipmentofarmsandwarmaterieltoChina.Thisstepforeclosedforthetimebeinganypossibilitythat
thePeople'sRepublicmightreplaceNationalistChina(onTaiwan)asamemberoftheUNandasaveto-
holdingmemberoftheUNSecurityCouncil.
AfterChinaenteredtheKoreanWar,theinitialmoderationinChinesedomesticpoliciesgavewaytoa
massivecampaignagainstthe"enemiesofthestate,"actualandpotential.Theseenemiesconsistedof
"warcriminals,traitors,bureaucraticcapitalists,andcounterrevolutionaries."Thecampaignwas
combinedwithparty-sponsoredtrialsattendedbyhugenumbersofpeople.Themajortargetsinthisdrive
wereforeignersandChristianmissionarieswhowerebrandedasUnitedStatesagentsatthesemasstrials.
The1951-52driveagainstpoliticalenemieswasaccompaniedbylandreform,whichhadactuallybegun
undertheAgrarianReformLawofJune28,1950.Theredistributionoflandwasaccelerated,andaclass
strugglelandlordsandwealthypeasantswaslaunched.Anideologicalreformcampaignrequiringself-
criticismsandpublicconfessionsbyuniversityfacultymembers,scientists,andotherprofessional
workerswasgivenwidepublicity.Artistsandwritersweresoontheobjectsofsimilartreatmentfor
failingtoheedMao'sdictumthatcultureandliteraturemustreflecttheclassinterestoftheworking
people,ledbytheCCP.Thesecampaignswereaccompaniedin1951and1952bythesanfan( or
"threeanti")andwufan( or"fiveanti")movements.Theformerwasdirectedostensiblyagainstthe
evilsof"corruption,waste,andbureaucratism";itsrealaimwastoeliminateincompetentandpolitically
unreliablepublicofficialsandtobringaboutanefficient,disciplined,andresponsivebureaucratic
system.Thewufanmovementaimedateliminatingrecalcitrantandcorruptbusinessmenand
industrialists,whowereineffectthetargetsoftheCCP'scondemnationof"taxevasion,bribery,cheating
ingovernmentcontracts,theftsofeconomicintelligence,andstealingofstateassets."Inthecourseof
thiscampaignthepartyclaimedtohaveuncoveredawell-organizedattemptbybusinessmenand
industrialiststocorruptpartyandgovernmentofficials.Thischargewasenlargedintoanassaultonthe
bourgeoisieasawhole.Thenumberofpeopleaffectedbythevariouspunitiveorreformcampaignswas
estimatedinthemillions.
TheTransitiontoSocialism,1953-57
Theperiodofofficiallydesignated"transitiontosocialism"correspondedtoChina'sFirstFive-YearPlan
(1953-57).Theperiodwascharacterizedbyeffortstoachieveindustrialization,collectivizationof
agriculture,andpoliticalcentralization.
TheFirstFive-YearPlanstressedthedevelopmentofheavyindustryontheSovietmodel.Soviet
economicandtechnicalassistancewasexpectedtoplayasignificantpartintheimplementationofthe
plan,andtechnicalagreementsweresignedwiththeSovietsin1953and1954.Forthepurposeof
economicplanning,thefirstmoderncensuswastakenin1953;thepopulationofmainlandChinawas
showntobe583million,afigurefargreaterthanhadbeenanticipated.
AmongChina'smostpressingneedsintheearly1950swerefoodforitsburgeoningpopulation,domestic
capitalforinvestment,andpurchaseofSoviet-suppliedtechnology,capitalequipment,andmilitary
hardware.Tosatisfytheseneeds,thegovernmentbegantocollectivizeagriculture.Despiteinternal
disagreementastothespeedofcollectivization,whichatleastforthetimebeingwasresolvedinMao's
favor,preliminarycollectivizationwas90percentcompletedbytheendof1956.Inaddition,the
governmentnationalizedbanking,industry,andtrade.PrivateenterpriseinmainlandChinawasvirtually
abolished.
Majorpoliticaldevelopmentsincludedthecentralizationofpartyandgovernmentadministration.
Electionswereheldin1953fordelegatestotheFirstNationalPeople'sCongress,China'snational
legislature,whichmetin1954.Thecongresspromulgatedthestateconstitutionof1954andformally
electedMaochairman(orpresident)ofthePeople'sRepublic;itelectedLiuShaoqi( 1898-
1969)chairmanoftheStandingCommitteeoftheNationalPeople'sCongress;andnamedZhouEnlai
premierofthenewStateCouncil.
Inthemidstofthesemajorgovernmentalchanges,andhelpingtoprecipitatethem,wasapowerstruggle
withintheCCPleadingtothe1954purgeofPoliticalBureaumemberGaoGang( )andParty
OrganizationDepartmentheadRaoShushi( ),whowereaccusedofillicitlytryingtoseize
controloftheparty.
Theprocessofnationalintegrationalsowascharacterizedbyimprovementsinpartyorganizationunder
theadministrativedirectionofthesecretarygeneralofthepartyDengXiaoping( whoserved
concurrentlyasvicepremieroftheStateCouncil).Therewasamarkedemphasisonrecruiting
intellectuals,whoby1956constitutednearly12percentoftheparty's10.8millionmembers.Peasant
membershiphaddecreasedto69percent,whiletherewasanincreasingnumberof"experts",whowere
neededforthepartyandgovernmentalinfrastructures,inthepartyranks.
Aspartoftheefforttoencouragetheparticipationofintellectualsinthenewregime,inmid-1956there
begananofficialefforttoliberalizethepoliticalclimate.Culturalandintellectualfigureswere
encouragedtospeaktheirmindsonthestateofCCPruleandprograms.Maopersonallytooktheleadin
hundredschoolsofthoughtcontend"( ).Atfirsttheparty'srepeatedinvitation
toairconstructiveviewsfreelyandopenlywasmetwithcaution.Bymid-1957,however,themovement
unexpectedlymounted,bringingdenunciationandcriticismagainstthepartyingeneralandtheexcesses
ofitscadresinparticular.Startledandembarrassed,leadersturnedonthecriticsas"bourgeoisrightists"(
)andlaunchedtheAnti-RightistCampaign.TheHundredFlowersCampaign,sometimes
calledtheDoubleHundredCampaign( ),apparentlyhadasoberingeffectontheCCP
leadership.
themovement,whichwaslaunchedundertheclassicalslogan"Letahundredflowersbloom,letthe
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|RepublicanChina:III|PRC:II]
ThePeople'sRepublicOfChina:II
TheGreatLeapForward,1958-60
Theantirightistdrivewasfollowedbyamilitantapproachtowardeconomicdevelopment.In1958the
CCPlaunchedtheGreatLeapForward( )campaignunderthenew"GeneralLineforSocialist
Construction."TheGreatLeapForwardwasaimedataccomplishingtheeconomicandtechnical
developmentofthecountryatavastlyfasterpaceandwithgreaterresults.Theshifttotheleftthatthe
new"GeneralLine"representedwasbroughtonbyacombinationofdomesticandexternalfactors.
AlthoughthepartyleadersappearedgenerallysatisfiedwiththeaccomplishmentsoftheFirstFive-Year
Plan,they--Maoandhisfellowradicalsinparticular--believedthatmorecouldbeachievedintheSecond
Five-YearPlan(1958-62)ifthepeoplecouldbeideologicallyarousedandifdomesticresourcescouldbe
utilizedmoreefficientlyforthesimultaneousdevelopmentofindustryandagriculture.These
assumptionsledthepartytoanintensifiedmobilizationofthepeasantryandmassorganizations,stepped-
upideologicalguidanceandindoctrinationoftechnicalexperts,andeffortstobuildamoreresponsive
politicalsystem.Thelastoftheseundertakingswastobeaccomplishedthroughanewxiafang(
downtothecountryside)movement,underwhichcadresinsideandoutsidethepartywouldbesentto
factories,communes,mines,andpublicworksprojectsformanuallaborandfirsthandfamiliarization
withgrass-rootsconditions.Althoughevidenceissketchy,Mao'sdecisiontoembarkontheGreatLeap
ForwardwasbasedinpartonhisuncertaintyabouttheSovietpolicyofeconomic,financial,and
technicalassistancetoChina.Thatpolicy,inMao'sview,notonlyfellfarshortofhisexpectationsand
needsbutalsomadehimwaryofthepoliticalandeconomicdependenceinwhichChinamightfind
itself.
TheGreatLeapForwardcenteredonanewsocioeconomicandpoliticalsystemcreatedinthe
countrysideandinafewurbanareas--thepeople'scommunes.Bythefallof1958,some750,000
agriculturalproducers'cooperatives,nowdesignatedasproductionbrigades,hadbeenamalgamatedinto
about23,500communes,eachaveraging5,000households,or22,000people.Theindividualcommune
wasplacedincontrolofallthemeansofproductionandwastooperateasthesoleaccountingunit;itwas
subdividedintoproductionbrigades(generallycoterminouswithtraditionalvillages)andproduction
teams.Eachcommunewasplannedasaself-supportingcommunityforagriculture,small-scalelocal
industry(forexample,thefamousbackyardpig-ironfurnaces),schooling,marketing,administration,and
localsecurity(maintainedbymilitiaorganizations).Organizedalongparamilitaryandlaborsavinglines,
thecommunehadcommunalkitchens,messhalls,andnurseries.Inaway,thepeople'scommunes
constitutedafundamentalattackontheinstitutionofthefamily,especiallyinafewmodelareaswhere
radicalexperimentsincommunalliving--largedormitoriesinplaceofthetraditionalnuclearfamily
housing--occurred.(Thesewerequicklydropped.)Thesystemalsowasbasedontheassumptionthatit
wouldreleaseadditionalmanpowerforsuchmajorprojectsasirrigationworksandhydroelectricdams,
whichwereseenasintegralpartsoftheplanforthesimultaneousdevelopmentofindustryand
agriculture.
or
TheGreatLeapForwardwasaneconomicfailure.Inearly1959,amidsignsofrisingpopular
restiveness,theCCPadmittedthatthefavorableproductionreportfor1958hadbeenexaggerated.
AmongtheGreatLeapForward'seconomicconsequenceswereashortageoffood(inwhichnatural
disastersalsoplayedapart);shortagesofrawmaterialsforindustry;overproductionofpoor-quality
goods;deteriorationofindustrialplantsthroughmismanagement;andexhaustionanddemoralizationof
thepeasantryandoftheintellectuals,nottomentionthepartyandgovernmentcadresatalllevels.
Throughout1959effortstomodifytheadministrationofthecommunesgotunderway;thesewere
intendedpartlytorestoresomematerialincentivestotheproductionbrigadesandteams,partlyto
decentralizecontrol,andpartlytohousefamiliesthathadbeenreunitedashouseholdunits.
Politicalconsequenceswerenotinconsiderable.InApril1959Mao,whoborethechiefresponsibilityfor
theGreatLeapForwardfiasco,steppeddownfromhispositionaschairmanofthePeople'sRepublic.
TheNationalPeople'sCongresselectedLiuShaoqiasMao'ssuccessor,thoughMaoremainedchairman
oftheCCP.Moreover,Mao'sGreatLeapForwardpolicycameunderopencriticismataparty
conferenceatLushan( ),JiangxiProvince.TheattackwasledbyMinisterofNationalDefensePeng
Dehuai( ),whohadbecometroubledbythepotentiallyadverseeffectMao'spolicieswouldhave
onthemodernizationofthearmedforces.Pengarguedthat"puttingpoliticsincommand"wasno
substituteforeconomiclawsandrealisticeconomicpolicy;unnamedpartyleaderswerealsoadmonished
fortryingto"jumpintocommunisminonestep."AftertheLushanshowdown,PengDehuai,who
allegedlyhadbeenencouragedbySovietleaderNikitaKhrushchevtoopposeMao,wasdeposed.Peng
wasreplacedbyLinBiao( ),aradicalandopportunistMaoist.Thenewdefenseministerinitiateda
systematicpurgeofPeng'ssupportersfromthemilitary.
Militancyonthedomesticfrontwasechoedinexternalpolicies.The"soft"foreignpolicybasedonthe
FivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistencetowhichChinahadsubscribedinthemid-1950sgavewaytoa
"hard"linein1958.FromAugustthroughOctoberofthatyear,theChineseresumedamassiveartillery
bombardmentoftheNationalist-heldoffshoreislandsofJinmen( Chin-meninWadeGilesbut
oftenreferredtoasKinmenorQuemoy)andMazu( Ma-tsuinWade-Giles).Thiswas
accompaniedbyanaggressivepropagandaassaultontheUnitedStatesandadeclarationofintentto
"liberate"Taiwan.
ChinesecontroloverXizanghadbeenreassertedin1950.Thesocialistrevolutionthattookplace
thereafterincreasinglybecameaprocessofsinicizationfortheTibetans.Tensionculminatedinarevolt
in1958-59andtheflighttoIndiabytheDalaiLama,theTibetans'spiritualanddefactotemporalleader.
RelationswithIndia--wheresympathyfortherebelswasaroused--deterioratedasthousandsofTibetan
refugeescrossedtheIndianborder.Therewereseveralborderincidentsin1959,andabriefSino-Indian
borderwareruptedinOctober1962asChinalaidclaimtoAksaiChin,nearly103,600squarekilometers
ofterritorythatIndiaregardedasitsown.TheSovietUniongaveIndiaitsmoralsupportinthedispute,
thuscontributingtothegrowingtensionbetweenBeijingandMoscow.
TheSino-Sovietdisputeofthelate1950swasthemostimportantdevelopmentinChineseforeign
relations.TheSovietUnionhadbeenChina'sprincipalbenefactorandally,butrelationsbetweenthetwo
werecooling.TheSovietagreementinlate1957tohelpChinaproduceitsownnuclearweaponsand
missileswasterminatedbymid-1959.Fromthatpointuntilthemid-1960s,theSovietsrecalledallof
theirtechniciansandadvisersfromChinaandreducedorcanceledeconomicandtechnicalaidtoChina.
Thediscordwasoccasionedbyseveralfactors.Thetwocountriesdifferedintheirinterpretationofthe
natureof"peacefulcoexistence."TheChinesetookamoremilitantandunyieldingpositionontheissue
ofanti-imperialiststruggle,buttheSovietswereunwilling,forexample,togivetheirsupportonthe
Taiwanquestion.Inaddition,thetwocommunistpowersdisagreedondoctrinalmatters.TheChinese
accusedtheSovietsof"revisionism";thelattercounteredwithchargesof"dogmatism."Rivalrywithin
theinternationalcommunistmovementalsoexacerbatedSino-Sovietrelations.Anadditional
complicationwasthehistoryofsuspicioneachsidehadtowardtheother,especiallytheChinese,who
hadlostasubstantialpartofterritorytotsaristRussiainthemid-nineteenthcentury.Whateverthecauses
ofthedispute,theSovietsuspensionofaidwasablowtotheChineseschemefordevelopingindustrial
andhigh-level(includingnuclear)technology.
ReadjustmentandRecovery,1961-65
In1961thepoliticaltideathomebegantoswingtotheright,asevidencedbytheascendancyofamore
moderateleadership.Inanefforttostabilizetheeconomicfront,forexample,theparty--stillunderMao's
titularleadershipbutunderthedominantinfluenceofLiuShaoqi,DengXiaoping,ChenYun( ),
PengZhen( ),BoYibo( ),andothers--initiatedaseriesofcorrectivemeasures.Among
thesemeasureswasthereorganizationofthecommunesystem,withtheresultthatproductionbrigades
andteamshadmoresayintheirownadministrativeandeconomicplanning.Togainmoreeffective
controlfromthecenter,theCCPreestablisheditssixregionalbureausandinitiatedstepsaimedat
tighteningpartydisciplineandencouragingtheleadingpartycadrestodeveloppopulist-styleleadership
atalllevels.Theeffortswerepromptedbytheparty'srealizationthatthearroganceofpartyand
governmentfunctionarieshadengenderedonlypublicapathy.Ontheindustrialfront,muchemphasis
wasnowplacedonrealisticandefficientplanning;ideologicalfervorandmassmovementswereno
longerthecontrollingthemesofindustrialmanagement.Productionauthoritywasrestoredtofactory
managers.Anothernotableemphasisafter1961wastheparty'sgreaterinterestinstrengtheningthe
defenseandinternalsecurityestablishment.Byearly1965thecountrywaswellonitswaytorecovery
underthedirectionofthepartyapparatus,or,tobemorespecific,theCentralCommittee'sSecretariat
headedbySecretaryGeneralDengXiaoping.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|PRC|PRC:III]
ThePeople'sRepublicOfChina:III
TheCulturalRevolutionDecade,1966-76
Intheearly1960s,Maowasonthepoliticalsidelinesandinsemiseclusion.By1962,however,hebegan
anoffensivetopurifytheparty,havinggrownincreasinglyuneasyaboutwhathebelievedwerethe
creeping"capitalist"andantisocialisttendenciesinthecountry.Asahardenedveteranrevolutionarywho
hadovercometheseverestadversities,Maocontinuedtobelievethatthematerialincentivesthathadbeen
restoredtothepeasantsandotherswerecorruptingthemassesandwerecounterrevolutionary.
Toarresttheso-calledcapitalisttrend,MaolaunchedtheSocialistEducationMovement(1962-65),in
whichtheprimaryemphasiswasonrestoringideologicalpurity,reinfusingrevolutionaryfervorintothe
partyandgovernmentbureaucracies,andintensifyingclassstruggle.Therewereinternaldisagreements,
however,notontheaimofthemovementbutonthemethodsofcarryingitout.Oppositioncamemainly
fromthemoderatesrepresentedbyLiuShaoqi( )andDengXiaoping( ),whowere
unsympathetictoMao'spolicies.TheSocialistEducationMovementwassoonpairedwithanotherMao
campaign,thethemeofwhichwas"tolearnfromthePeople'sLiberationArmy."MinisterofNational
DefenseLinBiao'srisetothecenterofpowerwasincreasinglyconspicuous.Itwasaccompaniedbyhis
callonthePLAandtheCCPtoaccentuateMaoistthoughtastheguidingprinciplefortheSocialist
EducationMovementandforallrevolutionaryundertakingsinChina.
InconnectionwiththeSocialistEducationMovement,athoroughreformoftheschoolsystem,whichhad
beenplannedearliertocoincidewiththeGreatLeapForward,wentintoeffect.Thereformwasintended
asawork-studyprogram--anewxiafangmovement--inwhichschoolingwasslatedtoaccommodatethe
workscheduleofcommunesandfactories.Ithadthedualpurposeofprovidingmasseducationless
expensivelythanpreviouslyandofre-educatingintellectualsandscholarstoaccepttheneedfortheirown
participationinmanuallabor.Thedraftingofintellectualsformanuallaborwaspartoftheparty's
rectificationcampaign,publicizedthroughthemassmediaasanefforttoremove"bourgeois"influences
fromprofessionalworkers--particularly,theirtendencytohavegreaterregardfortheirownspecialized
fieldsthanforthegoalsoftheparty.Officialpropagandaaccusedthemofbeingmoreconcernedwith
having"expertise"thanbeing"red".
TheMilitantPhase,1966-68
Bymid-1965MaohadgraduallybutsystematicallyregainedcontrolofthepartywiththesupportofLin
Biao( ),JiangQing( Mao'sfourthwife),andChenBoda( ),aleadingtheoretician.In
late1965aleadingmemberofMao's"ShanghaiMafia,"YaoWenyuan( ),wroteathinlyveiled
attackonthedeputymayorofBeijing,WuHan( ).Inthenextsixmonths,undertheguiseof
upholdingideologicalpurity,Maoandhissupporterspurgedorattackedawidevarietyofpublicfigures,
includingStateChairmanLiuShaoqiandotherpartyandstateleaders.Bymid-1966Mao'scampaignhad
),the eruptedintowhatcametobeknownastheGreatProletarianCulturalRevolution(
firstmassactiontohaveemergedagainsttheCCPapparatusitself.
ConsiderableintrapartyoppositiontotheCulturalRevolutionwasevident.OntheonesidewastheMao-
LinBiaogroup,supportedbythePLA;ontheothersidewasafactionledbyLiuShaoqiandDeng
Xiaoping,whichhaditsstrengthintheregularpartymachine.PremierZhouEnlai,whileremaining
personallyloyaltoMao,triedtomediateortoreconcilethetwofactions.
Maofeltthathecouldnolongerdependontheformalpartyorganization,convincedthatithadbeen
permeatedwiththe"capitalist"andbourgeoisobstructionists.HeturnedtoLinBiaoandthePLAto
counteracttheinfluenceofthosewhowereallegedly"`left'informbut`right'inessence."ThePLAwas
widelyextolledasa"greatschool"forthetrainingofanewgenerationofrevolutionaryfightersand
leaders.Maoistsalsoturnedtomiddle-schoolstudentsforpoliticaldemonstrationsontheirbehalf.These
students,joinedalsobysomeuniversitystudents,cametobeknownastheRedGuards.MillionsofRed
GuardswereencouragedbytheCulturalRevolutiongrouptobecomea"shockforce"andto"bombard"
withcriticismboththeregularpartyheadquartersinBeijingandthoseattheregionalandprovincial
levels.
RedGuardactivitieswerepromotedasareflectionofMao'spolicyofrekindlingrevolutionary
enthusiasmanddestroying"outdated,""counterrevolutionary"symbolsandvalues.Mao'sideas,
popularizedintheQuotationsfromChairmanMao,becamethestandardbywhichallrevolutionary
effortsweretobejudged.The"fourbigrights"--speakingoutfreely,airingviewsfully,holdinggreat
debates,andwritingbig-characterposters--becameanimportantfactorinencouragingMao'syouthful
followerstocriticizehisintrapartyrivals.The"fourbigrights"becamesuchamajorfeatureduringthe
periodthattheywerelaterinstitutionalizedinthestateconstitutionof1975.Theresultoftheunfettered
criticismofestablishedorgansofcontrolbyChina'sexuberantyouthwasmassivecivildisorder,
punctuatedalsobyclashesamongrivalRedGuardgangsandbetweenthegangsandlocalsecurity
authorities.Thepartyorganizationwasshatteredfromtoptobottom.(TheCentralCommittee's
Secretariatceasedfunctioninginlate1966.)Theresourcesofthepublicsecurityorganswereseverely
strained.Facedwithimminentanarchy,thePLA--theonlyorganizationwhoseranksforthemostparthad
notbeenradicalizedbyRedGuard-styleactivities--emergedastheprincipalguarantoroflawandorder
andthedefactopoliticalauthority.AndalthoughthePLAwasunderMao'srallyingcallto"supportthe
left,"PLAregionalmilitarycommandersorderedtheirforcestorestraintheleftistradicals,thusrestoring
orderthroughoutmuchofChina.ThePLAalsowasresponsiblefortheappearanceinearly1967ofthe
revolutionarycommittees,anewformoflocalcontrolthatreplacedlocalpartycommitteesand
administrativebodies.TherevolutionarycommitteeswerestaffedwithCulturalRevolutionactivists,
trustedcadres,andmilitarycommanders,thelatterfrequentlyholdingthegreatestpower.
Theradicaltiderecededsomewhatbeginninginlate1967,butitwasnotuntilaftermid-1968thatMao
cametorealizetheuselessnessoffurtherrevolutionaryviolence.LiuShaoqi,DengXiaoping,andtheir
fellow"revisionists"and"capitalistroaders"hadbeenpurgedfrompubliclifebyearly1967,andthe
Maoistgrouphadsincebeeninfullcommandofthepoliticalscene.
Viewedinlargerperspective,theneedfordomesticcalmandstabilitywasoccasionedperhapsevenmore
bypressuresemanatingfromoutsideChina.TheChinesewerealarmedin1966-68bysteadySoviet
militarybuildupsalongtheircommonborder.TheSovietinvasionofCzechoslovakiain1968heightened
Chineseapprehensions.InMarch1969ChineseandSoviettroopsclashedonZhenbaoIsland(knownto
theSovietsasDamanskiyIsland)inthedisputedWusuliJiang(UssuriRiver)borderarea.Thetensionon
theborderhadasoberingeffectonthefractiousChinesepoliticalsceneandprovidedtheregimewitha
newandunifyingrallyingcall.
TheNinthNationalPartyCongresstotheDemiseofLinBiao,1969-71
TheactivistphaseoftheCulturalRevolution--consideredtobethefirstinaseriesofculturalrevolutions--
wasbroughttoanendinApril1969.ThisendwasformallysignaledattheCCP'sNinthNationalParty
Congress,whichconvenedunderthedominanceoftheMaoistgroup.Maowasconfirmedasthesupreme
leader.LinBiaowaspromotedtothepostofCCPvicechairmanandwasnamedasMao'ssuccessor.
OtherswhohadrisentopowerbymeansofCulturalRevolutionmachinationswererewardedwith
positionsonthePoliticalBureau;asignificantnumberofmilitarycommanderswereappointedtothe
CentralCommittee.Thepartycongressalsomarkedtherisinginfluenceoftwoopposingforces,Mao's
wife,JiangQing,andPremierZhouEnlai.
Thegeneralemphasisafter1969wasonreconstructionthroughrebuildingoftheparty,economic
stabilization,andgreatersensitivitytoforeignaffairs.Pragmatismgainedmomentumasacentraltheme
oftheyearsfollowingtheNinthNationalPartyCongress,butthistendencywasparalleledbyeffortsof
theradicalgrouptoreassertitself.Theradicalgroup--KangSheng( ),XieFuzhi( ),Jiang
Qing( ),ZhangChunqiao( ),YaoWenyuan( ),andWangHongwen( )--no
longerhadMao'sunqualifiedsupport.By1970Maoviewedhisrolemoreasthatofthesupremeelder
statesmanthanofanactivistinthepolicy-makingprocess.Thiswasprobablytheresultasmuchofhis
declininghealthasofhisviewthatastabilizinginfluenceshouldbebroughttobearonadividednation.
AsMaosawit,Chinaneededbothpragmatismandrevolutionaryenthusiasm,eachactingasacheckon
theother.Factionalinfightingwouldcontinueunabatedthroughthemid-1970s,althoughanuneasy
coexistencewasmaintainedwhileMaowasalive.
TherebuildingoftheCCPgotunderwayin1969.Theprocesswasdifficult,however,giventhe
pervasivenessoffactionaltensionsandthediscordcarriedoverfromtheCulturalRevolutionyears.
Differencespersistedamongthemilitary,theparty,andleft-dominatedmassorganizationsoverawide
rangeofpolicyissues,tosaynothingoftheradical-moderaterivalry.ItwasnotuntilDecember1970that
apartycommitteecouldbereestablishedattheprovinciallevel.Inpoliticalreconstructiontwo
developmentswerenoteworthy.Astheonlyinstitutionofpowerforthemostpartleftunscathedbythe
CulturalRevolution,thePLAwasparticularlyimportantinthepoliticsoftransitionandreconstruction.
ThePLAwas,however,notahomogeneousbody.In1970-71ZhouEnlaiwasabletoforgeacentrist-
rightistalliancewithagroupofPLAregionalmilitarycommanderswhohadtakenexceptiontocertainof
LinBiao'spolicies.Thiscoalitionpavedthewayforamoremoderatepartyandgovernmentleadershipin
thelate1970sand1980s.
ThePLAwasdividedlargelyonpolicyissues.OnonesideoftheinfightingwastheLinBiaofaction,
whichcontinuedtoexhorttheneedfor"politicsincommand"andforanunremittingstruggleagainstboth
theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.Ontheothersidewasamajorityoftheregionalmilitary
commanders,whohadbecomeconcernedabouttheeffectLinBiao'spoliticalambitionswouldhaveon
militarymodernizationandeconomicdevelopment.Thesecommanders'viewsgenerallywereintune
withthepositionstakenbyZhouEnlaiandhismoderateassociates.Specifically,themoderategroups
withinthecivilianbureaucracyandthearmedforcesspokeformorematerialincentivesforthepeasantry,
efficienteconomicplanning,andathoroughreassessmentoftheCulturalRevolution.Theyalso
advocatedimprovedrelationswiththeWestingeneralandtheUnitedStatesinparticular--iffornoother
reasonthantocountertheperceivedexpansionistaimsoftheSovietUnion.Generally,theradicals'
objectionnotwithstanding,theChinesepoliticaltideshiftedsteadilytowardtherightofcenter.Among
thenotableachievementsoftheearly1970swasChina'sdecisiontoseekrapprochementwiththeUnited
States,asdramatizedbyPresidentRichardM.Nixon'svisitinFebruary1972.InSeptember1972
diplomaticrelationswereestablishedwithJapan.
Withoutquestion,theturningpointinthedecadeoftheCulturalRevolutionwasLinBiao'sabortivecoup
attemptandhissubsequentdeathinaplanecrashashefledChinainSeptember1971.Theimmediate
consequencewasasteadyerosionofthefundamentalistinfluenceoftheleft-wingradicals.LinBiao's
closestsupporterswerepurgedsystematically.Effortstodepoliticizeandpromoteprofessionalismwere
intensifiedwithinthePLA.Thesewerealsoaccompaniedbytherehabilitationofthosepersonswhohad
beenpersecutedorfallenintodisgracein1966-68.
EndoftheEraofMaoZedong,1972-76
AmongthemostprominentofthoserehabilitatedwasDengXiaoping,whowasreinstatedasavice
premierinApril1973,ostensiblyundertheaegisofPremierZhouEnlaibutcertainlywiththe
concurrenceofMaoZedong.Together,ZhouEnlaiandDengXiaopingcametoexertstronginfluence.
Theirmoderatelinefavoringmodernizationofallsectorsoftheeconomywasformallyconfirmedatthe
TenthNationalPartyCongressinAugust1973,atwhichtimeDengXiaopingwasmadeamemberofthe
party'sCentralCommittee(butnotyetofthePoliticalBureau).
Theradicalcampfoughtbackbybuildinganarmedurbanmilitia,butitsmassbaseofsupportwaslimited
toShanghaiandpartsofnortheasternChina--hardlysufficienttoarrestwhatitdenouncedas"revisionist"
and"capitalist"tendencies.InJanuary1975ZhouEnlai,speakingbeforetheFourthNationalPeople's
Congress,outlinedaprogramofwhathascometobeknownastheFourModernizationsforthefour
sectorsofagriculture,industry,nationaldefense,andscienceandtechnology.Thisprogramwouldbe
reaffirmedattheEleventhNationalPartyCongress,whichconvenedinAugust1977.AlsoinJanuary
1975,DengXiaoping'spositionwassolidifiedbyhiselectionasavicechairmanoftheCCPandasa
memberofthePoliticalBureauanditsStandingCommittee.DengalsowasinstalledasChina'sfirst
civilianchiefofPLAGeneralStaffDepartment.
Theyear1976sawthedeathsofthethreemostseniorofficialsintheCCPandthestateapparatus:Zhou
EnlaiinJanuary,ZhuDe(thenchairmanoftheStandingCommitteeoftheNationalPeople'sCongress
anddejureheadofstate)inJuly,andMaoZedonginSeptember.InAprilofthesameyear,massesof
demonstratorsinTiananmenSquareinBeijingmemorializedZhouEnlaiandcriticizedMao'sclosest
associates,Zhou'sopponents.InJunethegovernmentannouncedthatMaowouldnolongerreceive
foreignvisitors.InJulyanearthquakedevastatedthecityofTangshan( )inHebeiProvince.These
events,addedtothedeathsofthethreeCommunistleaders,contributedtoapopularsensethatthe
"mandateofheaven"hadbeenwithdrawnfromtherulingparty.Atbestthenationwasinastateof
seriouspoliticaluncertainty.
DengXiaoping,thelogicalsuccessoraspremier,receivedatemporarysetbackafterZhou'sdeath,when
radicalslaunchedamajorcounterassaultagainsthim.InApril1976Dengwasoncemoreremovedfrom
allhispublicposts,andarelativepoliticalunknown,HuaGuofeng( ),aPoliticalBureau
member,vicepremier,andministerofpublicsecurity,wasnamedactingpremierandpartyfirstvice
chairman.
EventhoughMaoZedong'sroleinpoliticallifehadbeensporadicandshallowinhislateryears,itwas
crucial.DespiteMao'sallegedlackofmentalacuity,hisinfluenceinthemonthsbeforehisdeath
remainedsuchthathisorderstodismissDengandappointHuaGuofengwereacceptedimmediatelyby
thePoliticalBureau.ThepoliticalsystemhadpolarizedintheyearsbeforeMao'sdeathintoincreasingly
bitterandirreconcilablefactions.WhileMaowasalive--andplayingthesefactionsoffagainsteachother--
thecontendingforceswereheldincheck.Hisdeathresolvedonlysomeoftheproblemsinherentinthe
successionstruggle.
TheradicalcliquemostcloselyassociatedwithMaoandtheCulturalRevolutionbecamevulnerableafter
Maodied,asDenghadbeenafterZhouEnlai'sdemise.InOctober,lessthanamonthafterMao'sdeath,
JiangQingandherthreeprincipalassociates--denouncedastheGangofFour( )--werearrested
withtheassistanceoftwoseniorPoliticalBureaumembers,MinisterofNationalDefenseYeJianying(
1897-1986)andWangDongxing( ),commanderoftheCCP'selitebodyguard.Within
daysitwasformallyannouncedthatHuaGuofenghadassumedthepositionsofpartychairman,chairman
oftheparty'sCentralMilitaryCommission,andpremier.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|PRC:II|PRC:IV]
ThePeople'sRepublicOfChina:IV
ThePost-MaoPeriod,1976-78
ThejubilationfollowingtheincarcerationoftheGangofFourandthepopularityofthenewruling
triumvirate(HuaGuofeng ,YeJianying ,andLiXiannian ,atemporary
allianceofnecessity)weresucceededbycallsfortherestorationtopowerofDengXiaoping(
)andtheeliminationofleftistinfluencethroughoutthepoliticalsystem.ByJuly1977,atno
smallrisktoundercuttingHuaGuofeng'slegitimacyasMao'ssuccessorandseemingtocontradictMao's
apparentwill,theCentralCommitteeexoneratedDengXiaopingfromresponsibilityfortheTiananmen
Squareincident( ).Dengadmittedsomeshortcomingsintheeventsof1975,andfinally,at
apartyCentralCommitteesession,heresumedallthepostsfromwhichhehadbeenremovedin1976.
Thepost-MaopoliticalorderwasgivenitsfirstvoteofconfidenceattheEleventhNationalParty
Congress,heldAugust12-18,1977.Huawasconfirmedaspartychairman,andYeJianying,Deng
Xiaoping,LiXiannian,andWangDongxing( )wereelectedvicechairmen.Thecongress
proclaimedtheformalendoftheCulturalRevolution,blameditentirelyontheGangofFour,and
reiteratedthat"thefundamentaltaskofthepartyinthenewhistoricalperiodistobuildChinaintoa
modern,powerfulsocialistcountrybytheendofthetwentiethcentury."Manycontradictionsstillwere
apparent,however,inregardtotheMaoistlegacyandthepossibilityoffutureculturalrevolutions.
ThenewbalanceofpowerclearlywasunsatisfactorytoDeng,whosoughtgenuinepartyreformand,
soonaftertheNationalPartyCongress,tooktheinitiativetoreorganizethebureaucracyandredirect
policy.HislongtimeprotegeHuYaobang( )replacedHuasupporterWangDongxingasheadof
theCCPOrganizationDepartment.Educationalreformswereinstituted,andCulturalRevolution-era
verdictsonliterature,art,andintellectualswereoverturned.Theyear1978provedacrucialoneforthe
reformers.Differencesamongthetwocompetingfactions--thatheadedbyHuaGuofeng(soontobe
brandedasaleftist)andthatledbyDengandthemoremoderatefigures--becamereadilyapparentbythe
timetheFifthNationalPeople'sCongresswasheldinFebruaryandMarch1978.Seriousdisputesarose
overtheapparentlydisproportionatedevelopmentofthenationaleconomy,theHuaforcescallingfor
stillmorelarge-scaleprojectsthatChinacouldillafford.Inthefaceofsubstantivelossesinleadership
positionsandpolicydecisions,theleftistssoughttocounterattackwithcallsforstrictadherencetoMao
ZedongThoughtandthepartylineofclassstruggle.RehabilitationsofDeng'sassociatesandothers
sympathetictohisreformplansweresteppedup.Notonlyweremanyofthosepurgedduringthe
CulturalRevolutionreturnedtopower,butindividualswhohadfallenfromfavorasearlyasthemid-
1950swererehabilitated.Itwasatimeofincreasedpoliticalactivismbystudents,whosebig-character
postersattackingDeng'sopponents--andevenMaohimself--appearedwithregularity.
ChinaandtheFourModernizations,1979-82
TheculminationofDengXiaoping'sre-ascenttopowerandthestartinearnestofpolitical,economic,
social,andculturalreformswereachievedattheThirdPlenumoftheEleventhNationalPartyCongress
CentralCommitteeinDecember1978.TheThirdPlenumisconsideredamajorturningpointinmodern
Chinesepoliticalhistory."Left"mistakescommittedbeforeandduringtheCulturalRevolutionwere
"corrected,"andthe"twowhatevers"( )policy("supportwhateverpolicydecisionsChairman
MaomadeandfollowwhateverinstructionsChairmanMaogave")wasrepudiated.Theclassicpartyline
callingforprotractedclassstrugglewasofficiallyexchangedforonepromotingtheFourModernizations.
Inthefuture,theattainmentofeconomicgoalswouldbethemeasureofthesuccessorfailureofpolicies
andindividualleadership;inotherwords,economics,notpolitics,wasincommand.Toeffectsucha
broadpolicyredirection,DengplacedkeyalliesonthePoliticalBureau(includingChenYun asan
additionalvicechairmanandHuYaobangasamember)whilepositioningHuYaobangassecretary
generaloftheCCPandheadoftheparty'sPropagandaDepartment.AlthoughassessmentsoftheCultural
RevolutionandMaoweredeferred,adecisionwasannouncedon"historicalquestionsleftoverfroman
earlierperiod."The1976TiananmenSquareincident,the1959removalofPengDehuai( ),and
othernowinfamouspoliticalmachinationswerereversedinfavorofthenewleadership.New
agriculturalpoliciesintendedtoloosenpoliticalrestrictionsonpeasantsandallowthemtoproducemore
ontheirowninitiativewereapproved.
Rapidchangeoccurredinthesubsequentmonthsandyears.Theyear1979witnessedtheformal
exchangeofdiplomaticrecognitionbetweenthePeople'sRepublicandtheUnitedStates,aborderwar
betweenChinaandVietnam,thefledgling"democracymovement"(whichhadbeguninearnestin
November1978),andthedeterminationnottoextendthethirty-year-oldTreatyofFriendship,Alliance,
andMutualAssistancewiththeSovietUnion.AlltheseeventsledtosomecriticismofDengXiaoping,
whohadtoalterhisstrategytemporarilywhiledirectinghisownpoliticalwarfareagainstHuaGuofeng
andtheleftistelementsinthepartyandgovernment.Aspartofthiscampaign,amajordocumentwas
presentedattheSeptember1979FourthPlenumoftheEleventhNationalPartyCongressCentral
Committee,givinga"preliminaryassessment"oftheentirethirty-yearperiodofCommunistrule.Atthe
plenum,partyViceChairmanYeJianyingpointedouttheachievementsoftheCCPwhileadmittingthat
theleadershiphadmadeseriouspoliticalerrorsaffectingthepeople.Furthermore,Yedeclaredthe
CulturalRevolution"anappallingcatastrophe"and"themostseveresetbackto[the]socialistcausesince
[1949]."AlthoughMaowasnotspecificallyblamed,therewasnodoubtabouthisshareofresponsibility.
Theplenumalsomarkedofficialacceptanceofanewideologicallinethatcalledfor"seekingtruthfrom
facts"andofotherelementsofDengXiaoping'sthinking.AfurthersetbackforHuawastheapprovalof
theresignationsofotherleftistsfromleadingpartyandstateposts.Inthemonthsfollowingtheplenum,a
partyrectificationcampaignensued,repletewithapurgeofpartymemberswhosepoliticalcredentials
werelargelyachievedasaresultoftheCulturalRevolution.Thecampaignwentbeyondthecivilian
ranksoftheCCP,extendingtopartymembersinthePLAaswell.
EconomicadvancesandpoliticalachievementshadstrengthenedthepositionoftheDengreformists
enoughthatbyFebruary1980theywereabletocalltheFifthPlenumoftheEleventhNationalParty
CongressCentralCommittee.Onemajoreffectoftheplenumwastheresignationofthemembersofthe
"LittleGangofFour"(anallusiontotheoriginalGangofFour,Mao'sallies)--Hua'sclosestcollaborators
andthebackboneofoppositiontoDeng.WangDongxing,WuDe,JiDengkui,andChenXilianwere
chargedwith"grave[butunspecified]errors"inthestruggleagainsttheGangofFouranddemotedfrom
thePoliticalBureautomereCentralCommitteemembership.Inturn,theCentralCommitteeelevated
Deng'sprotegesHuYaobangandZhaoZiyang( )totheStandingCommitteeofthePolitical
BureauandthenewlyrestoredpartySecretariat.Underthetitleofsecretarygeneral,HuYaobangtook
overday-to-dayrunningoftheparty.Especiallypoignantwastheposthumousrehabilitationofthelate
presidentandone-timesuccessortoMao,LiuShaoqi( ),attheFifthPlenum.Finally,attheFifth
NationalPeople'sCongresssessioninAugustandSeptemberthatyear,Deng'spreeminencein
governmentwasconsolidatedwhenhegaveuphisvicepremiershipandHuaGuofengresignedas
premierinfavorofZhaoZiyang.
OneofthemorespectacularpoliticaleventsofmodernChinesehistorywasthemonth-longtrialofthe
GangofFourandsixofLinBiao's( )closestassociates.A35-judgespecialcourtwasconvenedin
November1980andissueda20,000-wordindictmentagainstthedefendants.Theindictmentcamemore
thanfouryearsafterthearrestofJiangQing( )andherassociatesandmorethannineyearsafterthe
arrestsoftheLinBiaogroup.Beyondthetrialoftenpoliticalpariahs,itappearedthattheintimate
involvementofMaoZedong,currentpartychairmanHuaGuofeng,andtheCCPitselfwereontrial.The
prosecutionwiselyseparatedpoliticalerrorsfromactualcrimes.Amongthelatterweretheusurpationof
statepowerandpartyleadership;thepersecutionofsome750,000people,34,375ofwhomdiedduring
theperiod1966-76;and,inthecaseoftheLinBiaodefendants,theplottingoftheassassinationofMao.
InJanuary1981thecourtrenderedguiltyverdictsagainsttheten.JiangQing,despiteherspiritedself-
vindicationanddefenseofherlatehusband,receivedadeathsentencewithatwo-yearsuspension;later,
JiangQing'sdeathsentencewascommutedtolifeimprisonment.SoenduringwasMao'slegacythat
JiangQingappearedtobeprotectedbyitfromexecution.ThesamesentencewasgiventoZhang
Chunqiao,whileWangHongwenwasgivenlifeandYaoWenyuantwentyyears.ChenBodaandthe
otherLinBiaofactionmembersweregivensentencesofbetweensixteenandeighteenyears.Thenet
effectofthetrialwasafurthererosionofMao'sprestigeandthesystemhecreated.Inpre-trialmeetings,
thepartyCentralCommitteeposthumouslyexpelledCCPvicechairmanKangShengandPolitical
BureaumemberXieFuzhifromthepartybecauseoftheirparticipationinthe"counterrevolutionary
plots"ofLinBiaoandJiangQing.Thememorialspeechesdeliveredattheirfuneralswerealso
rescinded.Therewasenoughadversepre-trialtestimonythatHuaGuofengreportedlyofferedtoresign
thechairmanshipbeforethetrialstarted.InJune1981theSixthPlenumoftheEleventhNationalParty
CongressCentralCommitteemarkedamajormilestoneinthepassingoftheMaoistera.TheCentral
CommitteeacceptedHua'sresignationfromthechairmanshipandgrantedhimtheface-savingposition
ofvicechairman.Inhisplace,CCPsecretarygeneralHuYaobangbecamechairman.Huaalsogaveup
hispositionaschairmanoftheparty'sCentralMilitaryCommissioninfavorofDengXiaoping.The
plenumadoptedthe35,000-word"ResolutiononCertainQuestionsintheHistoryofOurPartySincethe
FoundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChina."Theresolutionreviewedthesixtyyearssincethefounding
oftheCCP,emphasizingpartyactivitiessince1949.Amajorpartofthedocumentcondemnedtheten-
yearCulturalRevolutionandassessedMaoZedong'sroleinit."Chiefresponsibilityforthegrave`Left'
errorofthe`culturalrevolution,'anerrorcomprehensiveinmagnitudeandprotractedinduration,does
indeedliewithComradeMaoZedong....[and]farfrommakingacorrectanalysisofmanyproblems,
heconfusedrightandwrongandthepeoplewiththeenemy....Hereinlieshistragedy."Atthesame
time,Maowaspraisedforseekingtocorrectpersonalandpartyshortcomingsthroughouthislife,for
leadingtheeffortthatbroughtthedemiseofLinBiao,andforhavingcriticizedJiangQingandher
cohort.HuatoowasrecognizedforhiscontributionsindefeatingtheGangofFourbutwasbrandeda
"whateverist."Huaalsowascriticizedforhisanti-DengXiaopingpostureintheperiod1976-77.
Severaldaysaftertheclosingoftheplenum,ontheoccasionofthesixtiethanniversaryofthefounding
oftheCCP,newpartychairmanHuYaobangdeclaredthat"althoughComradeMaoZedongmadegrave
mistakesinhislateryears,itisclearthatifweconsiderhislifework,hiscontributionstotheChinese
revolutionfaroutweighhiserrors....Hisimmensecontributionsareimmortal."Theseremarksmay
havebeenofferedinanefforttorepairtheextensivedamagedonetotheMaoistlegacyandbyextension
tothepartyitself.Huwenton,however,topraisethecontributionsofZhouEnlai,LiuShaoqi,ZhuDe,
PengDehuai,andascoreofothererstwhileenemiesofthelatechairman.Thusthenewpartyhierarchy
soughttoassess,andthusclosethebookson,theMaoisteraandmoveontotheeraoftheFour
Modernizations.TheculminationofDeng'sdrivetoconsolidatehispowerandensurethecontinuityof
hisreformistpoliciesamonghissuccessorswasthecallingoftheTwelfthNationalPartyCongressin
September1982andtheFifthSessionoftheFifthNationalPeople'sCongressinDecember1982.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|PRC:III|PRC:V]
ThePeople'sRepublicOfChina:V
Reforms,1980-88
Note:ThefollowingsectionisactuallytheintroductionoftheArmyAreaHandbook,butitcontainsalot
ofinformationaboutChinainthe80's,soIhaveplacedithere.
Reform - dubbed China's "Second Revolution"--wasoneofthemostcommontermsinChina's
politicalvocabularyinthe1980s.ReformoftheChineseCommunistPartyanditspoliticalactivities,
reformofgovernmentorganization,reformoftheeconomy,militaryreforms,culturalandartistic
reforms,indeed,China'spost-MaoZedongleaderscalledforreformofeverypartofChinesesociety.The
leadersofthePeople'sRepublicofChinasawreformasthewaytorealizethebroadgoaloftheFour
Modernizations(announcedbyPremierZhouEnlaiin1975:themodernizationofindustry,agriculture,
scienceandtechnology,andnationaldefense)andtobringChinaintothecommunityofadvanced
industrialnationsbythestartofthenewmillennium.ThereformmovementhadantecedentsinChinese
historyintheHan(206B.C.-A.D.220),Song(960-1279),andQing(1644-1911)dynasties,when
concertedeffortsweremadetobringaboutfundamentalchangesinadministrativemethodswhile
keepingtheoverallinstitutionalframeworkintact.Thus,thereformmovementofthe1980s--whichhas
beenattributedlargelytotheinsightsanddeterminationofDengXiaoping,themostimportantfigurein
thepost-MaoZedongleadership--tookitsplaceinthebroadspectrumofChinesehistory.Aswith
previousreformmovements,historywillmeasurethisone'ssuccess.
Latetwentieth-centuryChinesesocietyhasdevelopedoutofsome3,300yearsofrecordedhistoryand,
asarchaeologicalfindsindicate,severalmillenniaofprehistoriccivilization.Forthousandsofyears,the
MiddleKingdom(Zhongguo--theChinesenameforChina)wasmarkedbyorganizationalandcultural
continuity,whichwerereaffirmedinacyclicrise,flourishing,anddeclineofimperialdynasties.Short-
lived,vibrant,butoftentyrannicaldynastiesfrequentlywerefollowedbylongperiodsofstabilityand
benevolentrulethatwerebuiltonthebestfeaturesoftheprecedingeraandthatdiscardedormodified
moreauthoritarianideas.Anethicalsystemofrelations--governedbyrulesofproprietyattributedtothe
SchoolofLiterati(alsoknownastheConfucianschool)--carefullydefinedeachperson'splaceinsociety.
Inthissystem,harmonyofsocialrelationsratherthantherightsoftheindividualwastheideal.The
highestsocialstatuswasheldbyscholar-officials,theliteratiwhoprovidedtheinterpretationsneededfor
maintainingharmonyinaslowlyevolvingworld.Hard-workingfarmers,theprovidersofsustenanceto
society,alsooccupiedanimportantplaceinthesocietalstructure.
China'sdevelopmentwasinfluencedbythealienpeoplesonthefrontiersofChinesecivilization,who
weresinicizedintotheChinesepolity.Occasionally,groupsaroseamongalienborderpeoplesthatwere
strongenoughtoconquerChinaitself.Thesegroupsestablishedtheirowndynasties,onlytobeabsorbed
intoanage-oldsystemofgovernance.TheimportationofBuddhism,too,inthefirstcenturyA.D.andits
gradualassimilationhadafundamentalimpactonChina.EarlycontactswiththepremodernWestern
worldbroughtavarietyofexchanges.TheChinesecontributedsilk,printing,gunpowder,andporcelain.
StaplefoodstuffsfromAfricaandtheAmericaswereassimilatedbyChina,aswastheWestern-style
chair.Inlatercenturies,ChinesescholarsstudiedWesternastronomy,mathematics,andotherbranches
ofscience.WesternersarrivedinChinainthenineteenthcentury,duringthedeclineoftheQingdynasty,
insearchoftradeandcolonialempires.ThroughforceofarmstheWesternersimposedunequaltreaties
compellingChinatoaccepthumiliatingcompromisestoitstraditionalsystemofsocietyandgovernment.
ChinareactedtointrusionsfromtheWest--andfromanewlymodernizedJapan(towhichChinalosta
warin1895)--inavarietyofways,sometimesmaintainingthetraditionalstatusquo,adaptingWestern
functionstoChinesesubstance,orrejectingChinesetraditioninfavorofWesternsubstanceandform.As
theQingdynastydeclined,reformscametoolateanddidtoolittle.Theunsuccessfulreformeffortswere
followedbyrevolution.Stillburdenedwiththelegacyofthousandsofyearsofimperialruleandnearlya
centuryofhumiliationsatforeignhands,Chinasawtheestablishmentofarepublicin1911.Butwarlord
ruleandcivilwarcontinuedfornearlyfortymoreyears,accompaniedin1937-45bywarwithJapan.
TheChinesecivilwarof1945-49waswonbytheChineseCommunistParty,thecurrentrulingpartyof
China,ledbyitschairmanandchiefideologist,MaoZedong.TheCommunistsmovedquicklyto
consolidatetheirvictoryandintegrateallChinesesocietyintoaPeople'sRepublic.Exceptfortheisland
ofTaiwan(whichbecamethehomeoftheexiledGuomindangunderChiangKai-shekandhis
successors),thenewgovernmentunifiedthenationandachievedastabilityChinahadnotexperienced
forgenerations.EagernessonthepartofsomeCommunistleaderstoachieveevenfasterresults
engenderedtheGreatLeapForward(1958-60),aprogramthatattemptedrapideconomicmodernization
butproveddisastrous.PoliticalreactiontotheGreatLeapForwardbroughtonlyatemporaryrespite
beforeacounterreactionoccurredintheformoftheCulturalRevolution(1966-76),aperiodofradical
experimentationandpoliticalchaosthatbroughttheeducationalsystemtoahaltandseverelydisrupted
attemptsatrationaleconomicplanning.WhenMaoZedongdiedin1976,theCulturalRevolutionera
effectivelycametoanend.
Eagertomakeupforlosttimeandwastedresources,China'sleadersinitiatedChina's"second
revolution"--acomprehensiveeconomicmodernizationandorganizationalreformprogram.Deng
XiaopingandhisassociatesmobilizedtheChinesepeopleinnewwaystomakeChinaaworldpower.
StartingwiththeThirdPlenumoftheChineseCommunistParty'sEleventhNationalPartyCongressin
December1978,DengreaffirmedtheaimsoftheFourModernizations,placingeconomicprogressabove
theMaoistgoalsofclassstruggleandpermanentrevolution.Profitincentivesandbonusestooktheplace
ofideologicalslogansandredbannersasChina'sleadersexperimentedwithwaystomodernizethe
economy.Mao'slegendarypeople'scommunesweredismantledandreplacedbyaresponsibilitysystem,
inwhichpeasanthouseholdsweregivengreaterdecision-makingpoweroveragriculturalproductionand
distribution.Farmfamilieswereallowedtoleaselandandgrowcropsoftheirownchoosing.Inthe
urbansector,factorymanagersweregrantedtheflexibilitytonegotiatewithbothdomesticandforeign
counterpartsovermattersthatpreviouslyhadbeenhandledbycentralplannersinBeijing.Exploitationof
China'srichnaturalresourcesadvancedsignificantlyinthelate1970sandthroughoutthe1980s.As
China'sindustrialsectoradvanced,therewasincreasingmovementofthepopulationtourbanareas.
China'spopulationitselfhadsurpassed1billionpeopleby1982andwasexperiencinganannualrateof
increaseof1.4percent.Asintimespast,foreignspecialistswereinvitedtoassistinthemodernization
process,andjointventureswithforeigncapitalistsandmultinationalconglomeratesproliferated.
IncreasingnumbersofChinesestudentswentabroadtopursueadvanceddegreesinawiderangeof
scientificandtechnicalfields.
Allthischangewasnotwithoutcost--bothpoliticalandmonetary.Effortsatfundamentaltransformation
ofeconomic,governmental,andpoliticalorganizationscauseddiscontentamongsomepeopleandin
someinstitutionsandwereresistedbythosewhoclungtothe"ironricebowl"ofguaranteedlifetimejob
tenure.Beijing'sreformleadersmaderepeatedcallsforpartymembersandgovernmentbureaucratsto
reformtheir"ossifiedthinking"andtoadoptmodernmethods.Olderandinappropriatelytrained
bureaucratsretiredingreatnumbersasayoungerandmoretechnicallyorientedgenerationtookover.In
theongoingdebatebetweenthosewhoemphasizedideologicalcorrectnessandthosewhostressedthe
needfortechnicalcompetence--"reds"versus"experts"--thetechnocratsagainemergedpredominant.But
developingandsuccessfullyapplyingtechnologicalexpertise--theveryessenceoftheFour
Modernizations--costvastsumsofmoneyandrequiredspecialeffortonthepartoftheChinesepeople.
Inarejectionofthetime-honoredconceptof"self-reliance,"Chinaenteredintothemilieuof
internationalbankloans,jointventures,andawholepanoplyofonce-abhorredcapitalisteconomic
practices.
Aspoliticsandtheeconomycontinuedtorespondtoandchangeeachother,China'sreformershadto
balancecontendingforceswithinandagainsttheirreformeffortswhilemaintainingthemomentumofthe
FourModernizationsprogram.Indoingso,DengXiaopingandhisassociateswerefacedwithseveral
unenviabletasks.Onewastocreateunityandsupportforthescopeandpaceofthereformprogram
amongpartymembers.Therewasalsoanecessitytodelivermaterialresultstothebroadmassesof
peopleamideconomicexperimentsandmountinginflation.Failuretoachievethesebalancesandto
makemid-coursecorrectionscouldprovedisastrousforthereformleadership.
Asoundideologicalbasiswasneededtoensurethesupportofthepartyforthereformprogram.Deng's
politicalidioms,suchas"seekingtruthfromfacts"and"socialismwithChinesecharacteristics,"were
reminiscentofreformistformulationsofcenturiespastandhadunderlyingpracticalramifications.The
supportersofDengheldthattheoryandpracticemustbefullyintegratedifsuccessistobehopedfor,
andtheyarticulatedthepositionthattheMarxist-Leninistcreedisnotonlyvalidbutisadaptableto
China'sspecial--ifnotunique--situation.TheideologicalconvictionthatChinawasstillinthe"initial
stageofsocialism"--aviewpointreaffirmedattheThirteenthNationalPartyCongressinOctoberand
November1987--providedastillbroaderideologicalbasisforcontinuingthedevelopmentoftheDeng's
reformprograminthelate1980sandearly1990s.Thisideologicalpronouncementalsoemphasized
reformers'fundamentaltenetthatsincetheendofthe"periodofsocialisttransformation"(turningover
privateownershipofthemeansofproductiontothestate)in1956,therehadbeennumerous"leftist"
errorsmadeintheparty'sideologicalline.MistakessuchastheGreatLeapForwardandtheCultural
Revolutionhadproducedsetbacksinachieving"socialistmodernization"andhadkeptChinafrom
emergingfromtheinitialstageofsocialism.Itwas,perhaps,theveryfailureoftheseleftistcampaigns
thathadpavedthewayforthereformsofthe1980s.
Politicalconfrontationoverthereformswaspervasiveand,tomanyforeignobservers,confusing.In
simplisticterms,the"conservatives"inthereformdebateweremembersofthepost-Mao"left,"whilethe
"liberals"werethepro-Deng"right."BeingconservativeinChinainthe1980svariouslymeantadhering
tothelessradicalaspectsofMaoistorthodoxy(notallofwhichhadbeendiscredited)oracceptingthe
goalsofreformbutrejectingthepace,scope,orcertainmethodsoftheDengprogram.Thus,therewere
bothconservativeopponentstoreformandconservativereformers.Whilemanyreformopponentshad
beensweptawayinto"retirement,"conservativereformersuntilthelate1980sservedasmembersof
China'shighestrulingbodyandlocusofpower,theStandingCommitteeoftheparty'sPoliticalBureau.
SuchleadersasStandingCommitteememberChenYun,oneoftheprincipalarchitectsofeconomic
reform,objectedtothe"bourgeoisliberalization"ofthemodernizationprocessthatcamewithinfusions
offoreign,especiallyWestern,culture.Intheconservativereformview,theapplicationofChinese
valuestoWesterntechnology(reminiscentofthetraditionaltiyong[substanceversusform]formulation
evokedinthelate-nineteenth-centuryreformperiod)wouldservethePeople'sRepublicingoodstead.
Inthe1980sChina'sintellectualsandstudentsfrequentlytestedthelimitsofofficialtoleranceincallsfor
freerartisticandliteraryexpression,demandsformoredemocraticprocesses,andevencriticismsofthe
party.Theseconfrontationsreachedtheirapexinlate1986,whenthousandsofstudentsthroughoutthe
nationtooktothestreetstomaketheirviewsknown.Intheresultingcrackdown,someprominent
intellectualsweredemotedorexpelledfromtheparty.Evenitshighestofficialwasnotinvulnerable:
GeneralSecretaryHuYaobangwasdemotedinJanuary1987forhavingdealtunsuccessfullywithpublic
activismandcriticismoftheparty.Hu'sousterpavedthewayforthechiefimplementeroftheDeng
reforms,ZhaoZiyang,premieroftheStateCouncil,toassumecommandofthepartyandmorefirmly
establishDeng'sideologyasthestatusquoofreform.Atthetimeofthewritingofthisbook,itremained
tobeseenwhatdegreeofsuccesstheconservativereformelementswouldhaveineffectinga
compromise,havingplacedtheirownrepresentativesinthePoliticalBureauStandingCommitteeandthe
StateCouncil'shighestofficesinlate1987.
Self-proclaimedsuccessesofthereformsofthe1980sincludedimprovementsinbothruralandurban
life,adjustmentofthestructuresofownership,diversificationofmethodsofoperation,andintroduction
ofmorepeopleintothedecision-makingprocess.Asmarketmechanismsbecameanimportantpartof
thenewlyreformedplanningsystem,productscirculatedmorefreelyandthecommoditymarketwas
rapidlyimproved.Thegovernmentsoughttorationalizeprices,revampthewagestructure,andreform
thefinancialandtaxationsystems.Thepolicyofopeninguptotheoutsideworld(theChineseeschew
thetermopendoor,withitslegacyofimperialistimpositions)broughtasignificantexpansionof
economic,technological,andtraderelationswithothercountries.Reformsofthescientific,
technological,andeducationalinstitutionsroundedoutthesuccessesoftheDeng-inspiredreforms.For
thefirsttimeinmodernChinesehistory,thereformsalsowerebeingplacedonthefirmbasisofa
rationalbodyoflawandacarefullycodifiedjudicialsystem.Althoughreformandliberalizationleftthe
oncemore-strictlyregimentedsocietyopentoabuses,thenewsystemoflawsandjudicialorganizations
continuedtofosterthestabledomesticenvironmentandfavorableinvestmentclimatethatChinaneeded
torealizeitsmodernizationgoals.
Amidthesesuccesses,theauthoritiesadmittedthatthereweredifficultiesinattemptingsimultaneouslyto
changethebasiceconomicstructureandtoavoidthedisruptionsanddeclinesinproductionthathad
markedtheill-conceived"leftistexperiments"ofthepreviousthirtyyears.China'ssizeandincreasing
economicdevelopmentrenderedcentraleconomicplanningineffective,andtheabsenceofmarketsanda
modernbankingsystemleftthecentralauthoritiesfewtoolswithwhichtomanagetheeconomy.A
realisticpricingsystemthatreflectedaccuratelylevelsofsupplyanddemandandthevalueofscarce
resourceshadyettobeimplemented.Thetremendouspent-updemandforconsumergoodsandthelack
ofeffectivecontrolsoninvestmentandcapitalgrantstolocalfactoriesunleashedinflationarypressures
thatthegovernmentfounddifficulttocontain.Effortstotransformlethargicstatefactoriesintoefficient
enterprisesresponsiblefortheirownprofitsandlosseswerehamperedbyshortagesofqualified
managersandbythelackofbothalegalframeworkforcontractsandaconsistentandpredictable
taxationsystem.Thegoalsofeconomicreformwereclear,buttheirimplementationwasslowedby
practicalandpoliticalobstacles.Nationalleadersrespondedbyreaffirmingsupportforreformingeneral
termsandbypublicizingthesuccessesofthosecitiesthathadbeenpermittedtoexperimentwith
managerialresponsibility,marketsforrawmaterials,andfundraisingthroughthesaleofcorporatebonds.
NationalsecurityhasbeenakeydeterminantofChineseplanningsince1949.Althoughnationaldefense
hasbeenthelowestpriorityoftheFourModernizations,ithasnotbeenneglected.Chinahashada
perennialconcernwithbeingsurroundedbyenemies--theSovietstothenorthandwest,theVietnamese
tothesouth,andtheIndianstothesouthwest--andhassoughtincreasinglytoprojectitselfasaregional
power.Inresponsetothisconcernandpowerprojection,inthe1970sChinamovedtoaugment"people's
war"tacticswithcombined-armstactics;todevelopintercontinentalballisticmissiles,nuclear
submarines,andotherstrategicforces;andtoacquiresophisticatedforeigntechnologieswithmilitary
applications.Intheinternationalarena,Chinainthe1980sincreasinglyusedimprovedbilateralrelations
andavarietyofinternationalforumstoprojectits"independentforeignpolicyofpeace"whileopening
uptotheoutsideworld.
FromOctober25toNovember1,1987,theChineseCommunistPartyhelditsThirteenthNationalParty
Congress.Dozensofveteranpartyleadersretiredfromactivefront-linepositions.Notleastamongthe
changeswasthealterationoftheStandingCommitteeofthepartyPoliticalBureau--theveryapexof
powerinChina--bothinpersonnelandinstatedpurpose.DengXiaoping,ChenYun,andLiXiannian
steppeddown,andHuYaobang'sdemotiontomerePoliticalBureaumembershipwasconfirmed.Only
oneincumbent--ZhaoZiyang--wasleftontheStandingCommittee.InplaceofthepartyeldersandHu
Yaobang,agroupofmostlyyounger,moretechnologicallyorientedindividualswereseated.The
PoliticalBureau'sStandingCommitteecomprisedDeng'sprotg,sixty-eight-year-oldZhaoZiyang(who
relinquishedhispositionasheadofgovernmenttobecomegeneralsecretaryoftheparty);LiPeng,a
sixty-year-old,Soviet-educatedengineer,whobecameactingpremieroftheStateCouncilinZhao's
place(hewasconfirmedaspremierinspring1988);QiaoShi,asixty-four-year-oldexpertinparty
affairs,governmentadministration,andlegalmatters;HuQili,afifty-eight-year-oldpartySecretariat
memberinchargeofideologicaleducation,theoreticalresearch,andpropaganda;andveteraneconomic
plannerandconservativereformarchitectYaoYilin,thenewpartyelderatageseventy-one.Inregardto
function,thePoliticalBureaunolongerwasconceivedofasagroupofinfluentialindividualsbutasa
consensualdecision-makingorganization.Thepartyconstitutionwasamendedtomaketheparty
SecretariatastaffarmofthePoliticalBureauanditsStandingCommittee,ratherthanthesomewhat
autonomousbodyithadbeensince1982.Bymid-1988,theChineseCommunistPartyannouncedthatits
increasinglywelleducatedmembershiphadrisento47million,anall-timehigh.
Theretireeswerenotleftwithoutavoice.Deng,eighty-threeandstillChina'sdefactoleader,retained
hispositionsaschairmanofthepartyandstateCentralMilitaryCommissions,thelatterofwhich
designatedhimascommander-in-chiefoftheChinesearmedforces.(ZhaoZiyangwasappointedfirst
vicechairmanofthepartyandstateCentralMilitaryCommissions,givinghimmilitarycredentialsand
pavingthewayforhimtosucceedDeng.)Eighty-two-year-oldChenYungaveuphispositionasfirst
secretaryofthepartyCentralCommissionforDisciplineInspectionbutreplacedDengaschairmanof
theparty'sCentralAdvisoryCommission,asignificantforumforpartyelders.LiXiannianwho
relinquishedhispositionasheadofstate,orpresident,toanotherpartyelder--eighty-one-year-oldYang
Shangkun--tobecomechairmanoftheSeventhChinesePeople'sPoliticalConsultativeConferencein
spring1988,wasleftwithoutaleadingpartyposition.HuYaobang,farfrombeingtotallydisgracedafter
hisJanuary1987debacle,retainedmembershiponthePoliticalBureauandenjoyedafairamountof
popularsupportattheThirteenthNationalPartyCongressandafterward.
Belowthenationallevel,numerousleadershipchangesalsotookplacefollowingtheThirteenthNational
PartyCongress.Morethan600youngerandbettereducatedleadersofprovincial-levelcongressesand
governmentshadbeenelectedinChina'stwenty-nineprovinces,autonomousregions,andspecial
municipalities.
TheSeventhNationalPeople'sCongresswasheldfromMarch25toApril13,1988.Thiscongress,along
withtheSeventhChinesePeople'sPoliticalConsultativeConference,heldfromMarch24toApril10,
1988,wasmarkedbyanewopennessandtoleranceofdebateanddissent.Theopeningceremonyofthe
NationalPeople'sCongresswastelevisedlive,andmeetingsandpaneldiscussionswererecordedand
broadcastthesameday.Chineseandforeignjournalistswerepermittedtoattendthepaneldiscussions
andquestionthedeputiesinpressconferences.Dissentingstatementsanddissentingvoteswerewidely
publicizedinthedomesticpress.Aspiritofreformprevailedaslawsandconstitutionalamendments
wereratifiedtolegitimizeprivatebusinessandlandsalesandtoencourageforeigninvestment.TheState
Councilwasrestructuredandstreamlined.Fourteenministriesandcommissionsweredissolvedandten
newones--theStatePlanningCommissionandministriesofpersonnel,labor,materials,transportation,
energy,construction,aeronauticsandastronauticsindustry,waterresources,andmachinebuildingand
electronicsindustry--wereestablished.Manyoftheministriesthatweredissolvedwereconvertedinto
businessenterprisesresponsiblefortheirownprofitsandlosses.
LiPengwaselectedpremieroftheStateCouncil,asexpected,andYaoYilinandfifty-nine-year-old
financialexpertTianJiyunwerere-electedasvicepremiers.Sixty-six-year-oldformerMinisterof
ForeignAffairsWuXueqianalsowaselectedvicepremier.Statecouncillors,alltechnocratschosenfor
theirprofessionalexpertise,werereducedinnumberfromeleventonine.Allstatecouncillorsexcept
BeijingmayorChenXitongandSecretaryGeneraloftheStateCouncilChenJunshengserved
concurrentlyasheadsofnational-levelcommissionsorministries.Althoughsevenoftheninewerenew
statecouncillors,onlyLiGuixian,thenewlyappointedgovernorofthePeople'sBankofChina,wasnew
tonationalpolitics.Onamovethatseemedtobodewellforreformefforts,long-timeDengallyand
politicalmoderateWanLiwasselectedtoreplacePengZhenaschairmanoftheStandingCommitteeof
theSeventhNationalPeople'sCongress.TheconservativePenghadbeenconsideredinstrumentalin
blockingordelayingmanyimportantpiecesofreformistlegislation.ItalsowasdecidedattheSeventh
NationalPeople'sCongresstoelevateHainanIsland,formerlypartofGuangdongProvince,toprovincial
statusandtodesignateitasaspecialeconomiczone.
InSeptemberandOctober1987andagaininMarch1988,riotseruptedinthestreetsofLhasa,thecapital
ofXizangAutonomousRegion(Tibet).Callsfor"independenceforTibet"andexpressionsofsupportfor
theexiledspiritualleader,theDalaiLama,weremadeamidviolencethatclaimedthelivesofatleastsix
peoplein1987andatleastninemore(includingpolicemen)in1988.Manymorewerereportedtohave
beenbadlyinjured.AlthoughChineseauthoritiescondemnedtheriots,theirinitialresponsewas
restrainedincomparisonwithactionstheyhadtakenagainstearlieranti-Chinesedemonstrationsin
Xizang.Inaddition,theauthoritiesaccompaniedtheircensureoftheLhasariotswithaplethoraof
publicityonadvancesmadebytheinhabitantsofXizanginrecentyearsandaliftingoftravelrestrictions
onforeigncorrespondents.TheMarch1988riotingspreadtoneighboringQinghaiProvince,wherethere
isasizableTibetan(Zang)minority.Thistimetheauthoritiesresortedtosternermeasures,suchas
militaryforceandnumerousarrests,butonlyafterofferinglenienttreatmenttorioterswhoturned
themselvesinvoluntarily.Bymid-1988,itappearedthatboththeDalaiLama,concernedthatviolence
andbloodshedinhishomelandwasoutofcontrol,andtheChinesegovernment,worriedaboutinstability
inastrategicborderarea,weredisplayinggreaterflexibilityintheirrespectivepositions.
TheJanuary1988deathofTaiwan'sleader,ChiangChing-kuo,broughtexpressionsofsympathyfrom
ZhaoZiyangandotherChineseCommunistPartyleadersandrenewedcallsforthereunificationof
Chinaundertheslogan"onecountry,twosystems."Implicitinthemainland'sdiscussionofthetransfer
ofpowertoanewgenerationofleaders--Taiwan-bornLiTeng-huisucceededChiang--wasregretthatthe
opportunityhadbeenlostforreachingarapprochementwiththelastrulingmemberoftheChiang
family.BeijingappealedtothepatriotismofthepeopleinTaiwanandcalledforunitywiththemainland
but,atthesametime,keptaclosewatchforanysentimentsthatmightleadtoindependenceforTaiwan.
Inforeignaffairs,Beijingcontinuedtobalanceitsconcernforsecuritywithitsdesireforanindependent
foreignpolicy.ChinareactedcautiouslytothesigningofanucleararmstreatybytheSovietUnionand
theUnitedStatesandrefusedtoholditsownsummitwithSovietleaderMikhailGorbachev.Despitea
lesseningoftensionsbetweenBeijingandMoscowandgreatlyimprovedChineserelationswiththe
governmentsandrulingpartiesthroughoutEasternEurope,ChinacontinuedtoinsistthattheSoviet
UnionwouldhavetoenditssupportforVietnameseoccupationofCambodia,withdrawallofitstroops
fromAfghanistan,andsignificantlyreduceSovietforcesdeployedontheSino-Sovietborderandinthe
MongolianPeople'sRepublicbeforerelationsbetweentheChineseandSovietgovernmentsandparties
couldimprove.Bymid-1988therewereindicationsthattheSovietUnionwastakingstepstoremove
these"threeobstacles"toimprovedSino-Sovietrelations.Asearlyasthefallof1986,theSovietUnion
announcedthepullbackofasignificantnumberoftroopsfromMongoliaandtheSino-Sovietborder.In
May1988MoscowbeganwithdrawingtroopsfromAfghanistanwiththegoalofevacuatingitsforces
fromthatcountrybyearly1989.ButChinaremainedskepticalofVietnamesegovernment
announcementsthatitwouldwithdraw50,000troopsfromCambodiabytheendof1988,andChina's
leaderscontinuedtopressuretheSovietUniontoexertmoreinfluenceonVietnamtosecureanearly
withdrawalofallVietnamesetroopsfromCambodia.AlreadystrainedSino-Vietnameserelationswere
exacerbatedwhenChineseandVietnamesenavalforcesclashedinMarch1988overseveralsmall
islandsinthestrategicallylocatedNansha(Spratly)archipelago.
InSino-Americanrelations,disputesovertradeandtechnologytransferin1987werefurthercloudedby
UnitedStatesconcernoverreportedChineseSilkwormmissilesalestoIran,salesofDongfeng-3
intermediaterangemissilestoSaudiArabia,anddisclosuresthatIsraelallegedlyassistedChinainthe
developmentofthemissilesystemlatersoldtotheSaudis.AnotherconcernwasChina'sprotestoveran
October1987UnitedStatesSenateresolutiononthe"Tibetanquestion"thatfocusedonallegedhuman
rightsviolationsinXizang.AvisittoWashington,bythenMinisterofForeignAffairsWuXueqianin
March1988,however,hadsalutaryeffectsonbilateralrelations:Chinamadeassurancesthatitwould
ceaseSilkwormmissilesalestoIranandtheUnitedStatespledgedtocontinuetomakedesired
technologiesavailabletoChina.TheperennialTaiwanissueandproblemsinXizangapparentlywere
subsumedbylargernationalinterests.
InFebruary1988BeijingChinaachieveditslong-soughtgoalofestablishingdiplomaticrelationswith
Uruguay,oneofthefewnationsthatstillhadstate-to-statetieswithTaipei.Withthisaccomplishment
Chinaincreaseditsdiplomaticexchangesto134countries,whileTaiwan'sofficialrepresentationswere
reducedto22.
ThedynamismofChina'sdomesticactivitiesandinternationalrelationswillcontinuethenew
millenniumapproaches.Developmentsintheall-encompassingreformprogramandtheirresulting
impactonChinesesociety,particularlytheeffortsofChina'sleaderstobringincreasingprosperitytothe
morethan1billionChinesepeople,andChina'sgrowingparticipationandinfluenceintheinternational
communitywillremainofinteresttoobserversthroughouttheworld.
[TableofContents|Timeline|MapofChina|PRC:IV]
ReferencesforHistoryofChina
Chinesehistoryisavastfieldofintellectualinquiry.Advancesinarchaeologyanddocumentaryresearch
constantlyproducenewresultsandnumerousnewpublications.Anexcellentandconcisesurveyofthe
entirecourseofChinesehistoryuptothe1970sisChina: Tradition and TransformationbyJohnK.
FairbankandEdwinO.Reischauer.Foramorein-depthreviewofmodernChinesehistory(beginningof
theQingdynastytotheearly1980s),ImmanuelC.Y.Hsu'sThe Rise of Modern Chinashouldbe
consulted.Hsu'sbookisparticularlyusefulforitschapter-by-chapterbibliography.MauriceMeisner's
Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republicpresentsacomprehensivehistorical
analysisofpost-1949Chinaandprovidesaselectedbibliography.
ThereareanumberofexcellentserialpublicationscoveringChinesehistorytopics.TheseincludeChina
Quarterly,ChineseStudiesinHistory,andJournalofAsianStudies.TheAssociationforAsianStudies'
annualBibliographyofAsianStudiesprovidesthemostcomprehensivelistofmonographs,collectionsof
documents,andarticlesonChinesehistory.
AnothergoodsourceofbibliographicinformationcanbefoundatChineseCulturalStudies:
BibliographicalGuide.
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Bedeski,RobertE."TheEvolutionoftheModernStateinChina:Na-tionalistandCommunist
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Bianco,Lucien."People'sChina:25Years.'Fu-chiang'andRedFer-vor,"ProblemsofCommunism,
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Bridgham,Philip."TheFallofLinPiao,"ChinaQuarterly[London],No.55,July-September1973,427-
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Chang,ParrisH.PowerandPolicyinChina.UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1975.
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Clubb,O.Edmund,etal."ThePeople'sRepublicofChina,1976,"CurrentHistory,71,No.419,
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Wang,Ting."TheSuccessionProblem,"ProblemsofCommunism,22,No.3,May-June1973,13-24.
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Whitson,WilliamW.ChineseMilitaryandPoliticalLeadersandtheDistributionofPowerinChina,
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Wich,Richard."TheTenthPartyCongress:ThePowerStructureandtheSuccessionQuestion,"China
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Wilson,Dick(ed.).MaoTse-tungintheScalesofHistory.(Apreliminaryassessmentorganizedby
ChinaQuarterly.)London:CambridgeUniversityPress,1977.
Wu,Yuan-li(ed.).China:AHandbook.NewYork:Praeger,1973.ZhongguoShouce.HongKong:Ta
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(Variousissuesofthefollowingperiodicalswerealsousedinthepreparationofthischapter:Beijing
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1979-March17,1980;FinancialTimes[London],January1978-September1980;ForeignBroadcat
InformationServiceDailyReport:People'sRepublicofChina[Washington],September1978-August
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[Washington],January1979-June1980;andWahingtonPost,September1977August1980.)
[TableofContents]
HistoryofChina
Asyoucansee,thisisaveryambitiousproject,andI'mnotsurehowfarIwillget,butheregoes
nothing.
ImustadmitIhaven'tthoughtofundertakingsuchanambitiousprojectuntilIcameacrosstheArmy
Area HandbookonChinaconvertedintoelectronicformandmadepubliclyaccessibleatthefollowing
gophersiteintheUniversityofMissouriatSt.Louis:
gopher://gopher.umsl.edu:70/11/library/govdocs/armyahbs/aahb9.Youcanalsofindacopyatthe
LibraryofCongresswebsiteathttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html.
AftercontactingtheDepartmentofCommerce,Economics&Statistic'sDivision(theyareresponsible
forconvertingthetextintoelectronicform)andgettingthe tofreelyrepublishmaterialsinthe
handbook,Idecidedtoputtheinformationinamorepleasinghypertextformatwithextraaddedbells
andwhistles(maps,pictures,minibios,etc....O.K.,stillunderconstruction ).
ThecoreofthefollowinghistorypagesisbasedonthehistoryportionoftheArmy Area Handbookon
China.Specifically,thehistorysectionwaswrittenbyRinn-SupShinnandRobertL.Worden.
Ifyouareinterestedinwhatpossessedmetodothis,pleasereadmymotivations.Feelfreetomake
commentsorsuggestionsbyleavingmeanote.
ForanoverviewofChineseHistoryintermsofchronology,checkout:
History Timeline
Forthetableofcontentstothehistorypages,pleasevisit:
The History Pages
NOTE:AtthebottomofeachhistorypageisalinktoamapofChina,soyouwillhaveaframeof
referencewheneveryouareinunfamiliarterritory.Beforewarnedthough,it'sbig.
Somenotesaboutthewebpages.Asyouwillnotice,IhavetriedtoaddChinesecharacters
inthetextwhereverIfeelisappropriate.IthasalwaysannoyedmethatsometimesI
couldn'tfigureoutthecharactersfromjustreadingthephoneticEnglishtranslation.In
addition,therearealwayssomeChinesephrasesthatdonotlendthemselvestotranslation.
ThesectionsfromtheArmy Area Handbookaregreat,buttherearealwaysinformationaboutcertain
peopleoreventthatIwouldliketoadd.SinceIdon'twantyoutogetconfusedaboutwhichpartsare
fromthehandbookandwhichpartsaremycontribution,Ihaveelectedtoplacecommentslike<!--
Added by Leon --> beforeandaftermyadditions.Iputthesenotesinthecommentssotheywon't
bedistracting,yetpeoplewhoareinterestedinwhichpartsareoriginalhandbooktextandwhichparts
aremyhandiworkcanfindoutwith"viewsource".
It'samazingtheamountofmaterialthatisavailableoninternetwithregardstosourcesofChinese
classics.Unfortunately,youoftenneedbrowsersorapplicationsthatareabletoviewencodedChinese
text.ConvertingeverythingtoGiffileswouldnotbetheoptimalsolution!Thus,todistinguishlinksto
originalChinesetextorEnglishtranslationsofit,Ihaveoptedforthefollowingsolution:ifthehypertext
thathasalinkappearsinEnglish,thenclickingonthetextwouldgototheEnglishversion,andifthe
linkappearsinChinese,thenbepreparedtopulloutyourChinesecapablebrowsers!Formore
information,pleasecheckoutReadingChineseontheNet.
PleasecheckouttheseSITESformorethingsrelatedtoChineseculture.
OK,enoughnotesandwarning,GoBrowseAway!
Thismagnificentwebpageisanothercrackpotideaof
LeonPoonwhomyoucanemailatlpoon@chaos.umd.eduor
HistoryTimeline
NOTE:ClickingontheChinesecharactersforeachofthedynastywillbringupalistoftheemperors(in
Chinese)foreachoftherespectivedynasty.However,noteverydynastywillhavealink.Forthosewho
hascanreadChinese,IhighlyrecommendSekeWei'sexcellentEraandTimelineofChineseHistory.
Dates Dynasty
ca.2000-1500B.C.
Xia
1700-1027B.C. Shang
1027-771B.C.
WesternZhou
770-221B.C.
EasternZhou
770-476B.C.--SpringandAutumnperiod
475-221B.C.--WarringStatesperiod
221-207B.C. Qin
206B.C.-A.D.9
WesternHan
A.D.9-24
Xin(WangManginterregnum)
A.D.25-220
EasternHan
A.D.220-280
ThreeKingdoms
220-265--Wei
221-263--Shu
229-280--Wu
A.D.265-316 WesternJin
A.D.317-420 EasternJin
A.D.420-588
SouthernandNorthernDynasties
420-588
SouthernDynasties
420-478--Song
479-501--Qi
502-556--Liang
557-588--Chen
NorthernDynasties
386-533--NorthernWei
386-588
534-549--EasternWei
535-557--WesternWei
550-577--NorthernQi
557-588--NorthernZhou
A.D.581-617 Sui
A.D.618-907 Tang
A.D.907-960
FiveDynasties
907-923--LaterLiang
923-936--LaterTang
936-946--LaterJin
947-950--LaterHan
951-960--LaterZhou
A.D.907-979 TenKingdoms
Song
A.D.960-1279
960-1127--NorthernSong
1127-1279--SouthernSong
A.D.916-1125 Liao
A.D.1038-1227 WesternXia
A.D.1115-1234 Jin
A.D.1279-1368 Yuan
A.D.1368-1644 Ming
A.D.1644-1911 Qing
A.D.1911-1949
RepublicofChina(inmainlandChina)
A.D.1949- RepublicofChina(inTaiwan)
A.D.1949-
People'sRepublicofChina
[HistoryofChina][TableofContents]
Main|OtherChineseWebSites
ChineseCulturalStudies:
BibliographicalGuide
NOTE:
Althoughtosomestudentsthismayappeartobeaveryextensivebibliography,infactitis
rathersuperficial.MuchofwhatiswrittenaboutChinaisinChineseandJapanese.Other
importantworkhasalsobeendoneinotherEuropeanlanguages,especiallyFrenchand
German.Herereferencesarerestrictedtoafairlysmallnumberofthethousandsofworks
availableinEnglish.
INTERNETSITES
AverygoodWorldWideWebpagewithlinkstoallsortsofresourcesconcerningChinese
studiesisinAustraliaattheChineseCulturePage
Therearepointersheretotexts,bibliographies,otherwebpagesandsoforth.
Ifyouwouldliketoaccessthisdocumentasaplainasciitextfile,clickhereChinesePlain
TextBibliography
CLASSICCHINESESOURCESINTRANSLATION
Collections
Bary,WilliamTheodorede,ed.,SourcesofChineseTradition,2Vols.,(NewYork:
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1964)Excellentcollectionofsourcesintranslation,witha
heavyemphasisonthehistoryofthought.pb
Ebrey,PatriciaBuckley,ed.,ChineseCivilizationandSociety:ASourcebook,(NewYork:
TheFreePress,1981)pb.AcollectionoftranslationsfocusingonChinesesocialhistory.
Ebrey,PatriciaBuckley,ed.,ChineseCivilization:ASourcebook,(NewYork:TheFree
Press,1993)pb.Secondeditionofthe1981collection,butcontainingmorestandard
politicalandphilosophicalmaterial.
Grazia.Sebastiande.,MastersofChinesePoliticalThought:FromtheBeginningstothe
HanDynasty,(NewYork:Viking,1973)pb,Veryextensiveandusefulselection.
Legge,James,TheTextsofTaoism,2Vols,TheSacredBooksoftheEastVols.49&50,
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1891;reissuedNewYork:Dover,1962),pb.Contains,
inaratherarchaicEnglishandwithadistincttransliteraionscheme,TheTaoTeChing,the
writingsofChuangTzu,andshorterworks-theT'aiShang[ofTractateofActionsand
TheirRetributions],theCh'ingChangChing[orClassicofPurity],theYinFuChing[or
ClassicoftheHarmonyoftheSeenandUnseen],theYShuChing[orClassicofthe
PivotofJade]andtheHsiaYungChing[orClassicoftheDirectoryfortheDay].
TheChineseClassics:WithATranslation,CriticalAndExegeticalNotes,prolegomena,
andcopiousindexes/byJamesLegge.Insevenvolumes,(HongKong:Legge;London:
Trubner,1861-1872)
Wing-tsitChan,ASourcebookinChinesePhilosophy,(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversity
Press,1963)pb.Thiscompriesover800pagesofChinesephilosophicalworks,arrangedin
chronologicalorder,andeachintroducedbyawell-informedcommentary.Itisabasictool
forEnglishreaders.
The Yi Qing [I Ching]
TheClassicofChanges:ANewTranslationoftheIChingasInterpretedbyWangBi,
translatedbyRichardJohnLynn,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1994).Amuch
moreuptodatetranslationthanthefamousWilhelmversion.SeereviewinTheNew
Republic11/16/1994.
IChing[BookofChanges],trans[intoGerman],RichardWilhelm,renderedintoEnglish
byCaryF.Barnes,3rd.ed.,BollingenSeriesXIX,(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversity
Press,1967,1sted.1950)FordecadesthestandardEnglishversionoftheIChing.The
coretext[sometiimescalledtheZhouYi,withoutthe7[orten]"wings"isavailableonthe
internet,viatheWorldWideWeb,at
http://www.monash.edu.au/cc/staff/sas/sab/WWW/changes.txt
Shchutskii,IulianK.,ResearchesontheIChing,trans.[fromRussian]WilliamL.
MacDonald,TsuyoshiHasegawawithHellmutWhilhelm,(London:Routledge&Kegan
Paul,1980,RussianeditionMoscow,1960)pb.Desigbedtoaccompanythe
Wilhelm/BarnesversionoftheIching.
Si Shu - The Four Books [the Confucian Classics]:
Kungtzu[Confucius],6thCenturyBCE
TheAnalects,[LunYuLuny]attrib.toConfucius,
trans.ArthurWaley,(NewYork:Macmillan,1938;repr.Vintage,1989),pb.This
comeswithaveryusefulintrocuctionandcommentary.
anotherversionavailableontheInternet,viaWorldWideWebat
gopher://gopher.vt.edu:10010/11/66/1TheGreatLearning[DaXueTaHsio],attrib.
toConfucius,
trans.InWing-TsitChan,ASourcebookinChinesePhilosophy,(PrincetonNJ:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),84-94
anotherversionavailableontheInternetviaWorldWideWebat
gopher://gopher.vt.edu:10010/11/66/2
TheDoctrineofthetheMean[ZhongYongChungYung],attrib.toConfucius,
trans.InWing-TsitChan,ASourcebookinChinesePhilosophy,(Princeton
NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),95-115
anotherversionavailableontheInternetviaWorldWideWebat
gopher://gopher.vt.edu:10010/11/66/3
MengZi/Meng-tzu[Mencius]
TheBookofMencius,[MengZiMengtzu]attribtoMencius
Mencius,translatedbyD.C.Lau(NewYork:PenguinBooks,1970)
JamesLegge,TheWorksofMencius(NewYork:DoverPublications,1970)
notyetavailableontheInternet,butforanyupdatesseelinkonWorldWide
Webathttp://www.monash.edu.au/cc/staff/sas/sab/WWW/cpsot.html
Legalism
BasicwritingsofMoTzu,HsunTzu,andHanFeiTzu,translatedbyBurtonWatson,
Recordsofcivilization:sourcesandstudies,no.74,(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1967)
XunZi[Hsuntzu]340-245BCE
Basicwritings.translatedbyBurtonWatson,(NewYork,Columbia
UniversityPress,1963)
HanFei-tzu,d.233BCE
HanFeiTzu:BasicWritings,translatedbyBurtonWatson,(NewYork,
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1970,1964)
LiSzu
MoTzu;BasicWritings,translatedbyBurtonWatson.(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1963).
Later Confucianism
A.C.Graham,trans.,TheBookofLieh-tzu(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1960)
WangYang-ming,InstructionsforPracticalLivingandOtherNeo-ConfucianWritings,
translatedbyWing-tsitChan,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1963)
Daoist [Taoist] Texts:
Legge,James,TheTextsofTaoism,2Vols,TheSacredBooksoftheEastVols.49&50,
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1891;reissuedNewYork:Dover,1962),pb.
LaoZi[LaoTzu],6thCenturyBCE[perhaps]
DaoDeChing[TaoTeChing][TheBookoftheWayandVirtue],
trans,inJamesLegger,TheTextsofTaoism,2Vols,TheSacredBooksoftheEast
Vols.49&50,(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1891;reissuedNewYork:Dover,
1962),Vol1.pb.
trans.inWing-TsitChan,ASourcebookinChinesePhilosophy,(PrincetonNJ:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),136-176,pb
trans.Gia-FuFengandJaneEnglish,withanewintroductionandNotesbyJacon
Needleman,(NewYork:Vintage,1972,withnewnotes,1989)pb.
TheWayofLifeaccordingtoLaotzu:AnAmericanVersion,trans.WitterBynner,
(NewYork:Perigree,1944,1986)pb
TheCanonofReasonandVirtue,Chinese/Englishedition,trans.D.T.Suzukiand
PaulCarus,(LaSalle,IL:OpenCourt,1913,OpenCourtpbed.1974)pb
interpolationofvariousversionsbyPeterA.Merel.[pete@extro.su.oz.au]based
uponthetranslationsof:LinYutang,Ch'uTa-Kao,Gia-FuFeng&JaneEnglish,
RichardWilhelmandAleisterCrowley.availableontheInternet,viatheWorld
WideWeb,athttp://www.ii.uib.no/~arnemo/tao/tao_teh_ching_merel.html
anothertranslation,byStanRosenthal,isavailableontheInternet,viatheWorld
WideWeb,athttp://www.ii.uib.no/~arnemo/tao/tao_teh_ching_index.html
anothertranslationisavailableontheInternet,viatheWorldWideWeb,at
http://www.cnd.org/GB/Classics/Lao_Zi-TOC.txt.html
ZhangZi[ChuangTzu],3rdCenturyBCE
TheWayofChuangTzu,
partialtrans.inWing-TsitChan,ASourcebookinChinesePhilosophy,(Princeton
NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),177-210
inJamesLegge,TheTextsofTaoism,2Vols,TheSacredBooksoftheEastVols.
49&50,(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1891;reissuedNewYork:Dover,
1962),pb.ThisversionusestheoddtransliterationsystememployedbyLegge.
BasicWritings.translatedbyBurtonWatson.,(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversity
Press,1964)
TheCompleteworksofChuangTzu.translatedbyBurtonWatson.NewYork,
(ColumbiaUniversityPress,1968)
"interpreted"byThomasMerton,(NewYork:NewDirections,1969)pb.Aneffort
byThomasMertontorenderthewritingsofthegreatestTaositthinkerwhos
existencecanbeverified.Merton,whodidnotreadChinese,basedhisversionon
previoustranslationsbyHerbertGiles[ChuangTzu,Mystic,MoralistansSocial
Reformer,translatedfromtheChinese,(Shanghai:1926)],JamesLegge[op.cit.],
LonWieger,[LesPresdusystmeTaoiste,(Paris:1950),andRichardWilhelm,
[DschuangTsi-DasWahreBuchVomSdlichenBlutenland,(Dsseldirf/-Koler:
1951)]
Buddhist Texts:
BuddhistScriptures,ed.andtrans.EdwardConze,(NewYork:Penguin,1959)Selected
passagesfromIndianandChineseBuddhisttraditions.
I-hsuan,d.867CE,TheZenTeachingsOfMasterLin-Chi:ATranslationOfTheLin-Chi
Lu,byBurtonWatson.1sted.,(Boston:ShambhalaPublications,1993)
TheThreefoldLotusSutra,trans,BurtonWatson,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1993)pb.PerhapsthemostimportantMahayanatext,theLotusSutrapurportstobethe
discourseofthehistoricBuddhabeforehisfinalparinirvana.
Other History of Thought Texts
PanChao,ca.49-ca.120CETheChineseBookOfEtiquetteAndConductForWomenAnd
Girls,Entitled,InstructionForChineseWomenAndGirls,ByLadyTsao.transS.L.
Baldwin.(NewYork,Eaton&Mains,1900)
SunZi[SunTzu],TheArtofWar,
transSamuelB,Griffin,(Oxford:Clarendon,1963;laterpbeditionsavailable),pb.
anothertranslation,byLionelGiles,isavailableontheInternet,viatheWorldWideWeb,
athttp://timpwrmac.clh.icnet.uk/Docs/suntzu/szcontents.html
Historical Texts:
Faxian[Fa-hsien],ca.337-ca.422CE,
ARecordOfBuddhisticKingdoms/BeingAnAccountByTheChineseMonkFa-
HienOfHisTravelsInIndiaAndCeylon(A.D.399-414)InSearchOfThe
BuddhistBooksOfDiscipline;translatedandannotatedwitha..,(Oxford:
ClarendonPress,1886,repr.NewYork,ParagonBookReprintCorp.1965)
ArecordoftheBuddhistcountries,translatedfromtheChinesebyLiYung-hsi,
(Peking:ChineseBuddhistAssociation,1957)
RecordOfTheBuddhisticKingdoms,tr.fromtheChinesebyHerbertA.Giles,
(London,Trubner&co.,[etc.,etc.,1900?)
ThetravelsofFa-hsien(399-414A.D.),orRecordoftheBuddhisticKingdoms,
retranslatedbyH.A.Giles,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1923,repr.
London,Routledge&Paul,1959.repr.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1981.)
TravelsOfFah-HianAndSung-Yun,BuddhistPilgrims,FromChinaToIndia(400
A.D.And518A.D.),tr.fromtheChinesebySamualBeal.[2ded.].(NewYork:
AugustusM.Kelley,1969)
XuQingShuChing
ShuChing:BookofHistory:AmodernizededitionofthetranslationofJamesLegge,by
ClaeWaltham,(London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1972)Asindicated,amodernizationand
mergingoftwoLeggetranslationswhichavoidsLegge'soutdatedtransliterationsystemin
favoroftheWade-Gilessystem.AlongwiththeYiQingIChingandtheShihChingthisis
oneofthethreeoldestChinesebookstosurvive.
SimaQian,Ssu-maChien,RecordsoftheHistorian:ChaptersfromtheSHIH-CHIof
SsumaCh'ien,trans.BurtonWatson,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1958),pb.5
chaptersdealingwiththeZhou[Chou]andQin[Ch'in]dynasties.Theextractsaremeantto
suggesttheformandconetntofthefirstgreatChineseshistoricalwork.
SimaQian,Ssu-maChien,RecordsoftheGrandHistorianofChina:Chaptersfromthe
SHIH-CHIofSsumaCh'ien,2Vols.,trans.BurtonWatson,(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1961),pb.(Rev.ed.HongKong;NewYork:Renditions-Columbia
UniversityPress,c1993-)18chaptersdealingwiththeHanDynasty.
SimaQian,Ssu-maCh'ien,ca.145-ca.86B.C,TheGrandScribe'sRecords,WilliamH.
Nienhauser,Jr.,editor;Tsai-faCheng...[etal.],translators,(Bloomington:Indiana
UniversityPress,c1994-)
SimaQian,Ssu-maCh'ien,ca.145-ca.86B.C,HistoricalRecords,translatedwithan
introductionandnotesbyRaymondDawson.Oxford,(NewYork:OxfordUniversity
Press,1994)pb.
Tso-ch'iu,Ming.,TheTsoChuan:SelectionsFromChina'sOldestNarrativeHistory,
translatedbyBurtonWatson(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1989)
Literary Texts
ShihChing[BookofOdes]
TheoldestChinesecollectionofpoems.
Shihching=Theshiking:theold"Poetryclassic"oftheChinese:aclosemetrical
translation,withannotations,byWilliamJennings,(London;NewYork:G.Routledge
andSons,Ltd.,1891,repr.NewYork:ParagonBookReprintCorp.,1969)
Bookofodes(Shi-King),byL.Cranmer-Bying.London,J.Murray,1909.
TheodesofConfucius,byL.Cranmer-Byng.[2d.ed.].(NewYork,Dutton,1908)
Thebookofodes.Chinesetext,transcriptionandtranslation,byBernhardKarlgren.
(Stockholm,MuseumofFarEasternAntiquities,1950)
CaoXueqinTs'aoHsueh-ch'in,ca.1717-1763.,DreamOfTheRedChamber,;translated
andadaptedfromtheChinesebyChi-ChenWang;withaprefacebyMarkVanDoren.
Abridged,(NewYork:AnchorBooks,1989,c1958).ThemostfamousChinesenovel-a
sortofcomplexRomeoandJulietstorry.Thisisanexpansionofthe1929version,butnot
thecompletework.
CaoXueqinTs'aoHsueh-ch'in,ca.1717-1763.DreamOfTheRedChamber;Hunglou
meng.AChinesenoveloftheearlyChingPeriod.EnglishtranslationbyFlorenceand
IsabelMcHugh,(NewYork:PantheonBooks1958).(alsoNewYork:Grosset&Dunlap;
1968,c1958.)
CaoXueqinTs'aoHsueh-ch'inca.1717-1763.TheStoryoftheStone,AlsoknonwasThe
DreamOfTheRedChamber;HunglouMeng..CompleteEnglishtranslationinfour
volumes,(NewYork:Penguin,19??)
ChineseLyricism;ShihPoetryFromTheSecondToTheTwelfthCentury,withtranslations
byBurtonWatson,(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversityPress,1971)
ChineseRhyme-Prose;PoemsInTheFuFormFromTheHanAndSixDynastiesPeriods.
translatedandwithanintrod.byBurtonWatson.(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1971)
TheColumbiaBookOfChinesePoetry:FromEarlyTimesToTheThirteenthCentury,
translatedandeditedbyBurtonWatson.NewYork,(ColumbiaUniversityPress,1984)
Graham,A.C.,trans.,PoemsoftheLateT'ang,(London:Penguin,1965)Translationsof
sevenpoetsofthe8thand9thcenturiesCE.
Han-shan,fl.627-649CE,Coldmountain;100poemsbytheT'angpoetHan-shan.
translatedandwithanintrod.byBurtonWatson,(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversityPress
,1970)
Hsiao-hsiao-sheng[attrib.]ChinP'ingMei:TheGoldenLotus:TheAdventurousHistoryof
HsiMenandHisSixWives,ChinP'ingMeitz'uhua,trans.Ct.T.Hsia,(NewYork:G.P.
Putnam's,1940,repr.NewYork:Perigree,1982)
LiPoandTuFu,LiPoandTuFu,trans.ArthurCooper,(London:Penguin,1973)Poems
oftwofreindstraditionallyconsideredthegreatestpoetsofChina.
LuYu,1125-1210CE,TheOldManWhoDoesAsHePleases;SelectionsFromThe
PoetryAndProseOfLuYu,translated[fromtheChinese]byBurtonWatson.(NewYork,
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1973)
SixYanPlays,trans.LiuJung-en,(NewYork:Penguin,1972)pb.PlaysbyChiChn-
hsiang,ChngTeh-hui,KuanHan-ch'ing,LiHan-ku,MaChih-yan,andanonymous.
SuShih,1037-1101CE,SuTung-p'o:selectionsfromaSungdynastypoet,translatedand
withanintrod.byBurtonWatson(NewYork,ColumbiaUniversityPress,1965)
SuShih,1037-1101CE,SelectedpoemsofSuTung-p'o,translatedbyBurtonWatson,(Port
Townsend,WA:CopperCanyonPress,1994)
GENERALBOOKSONCHINESECIVILIZATION
[SeealsounderPost-MaoChinaforbooks/sourcesonstatistics,etcs,formodernChinaasawhole]
Anderson,EugeneN.,TheFoodofChina,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1988)
Butterfield,Fox.,China:AliveintheBitterSea,rev.ed.(NewYork:RandomHouse,
1990).
Dawson,Raymond,TheChineseExperience,(NewYork:CharlesScribner,1978)
FocusesonculturalaspectsofChineselife.
Eberhard,Wolfram,AHistoryofChina,rev.ed.(4thEd),(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1977,firsted.1950)pb.AstandardtextbookonChinese
historywithmuchinformationarrangedunderclearlymarkedsubheadings.
Elvin,Mark,ThePatternoftheChinesePast:ASocialandEconomicInterpretation,
(StanfordCA:StanfordUniversityPress,1973)pb.Adeterminedattempttoconsider
Chinesehistoryapartfromthedyansticcyclesofpoliticalhistoriography.Themajorfocus
isonthequestionsof1.whyChinaremainedacoherentculturewhenallotherancient
culturesdissipated,2.theeconomicrevolutionofthe8-12thcenturies,and3.whyChina
failedtomaintainitseconomicandtechnologicalleadinthemodernperiod.
Fairbank,JohnKing,ed.,ChineseThoughtandInstitutions,(Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress,1957)
Filstrup,Chris,andFilstrup,Janie.China:FromEmperorstoCommunes,(London:Dillon,
1982).
Gernet,Jacques,AHistoryofChineseCivilization,trans.J.R.Foster,(Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1982,pb.1985,firstFrenched.1972)pb.Standardtextbook
fromaseniorFrenchChinascholar.
Kublin,Hyman,China,rev.edition,(Boston:Houghton-Mifflin,1976)Aboodesignedfor
highschoolsocialstudiescourses,byaformerproffesoratBrooklynCollege.Itgivesvery
goodgeneraloverviewofChinesecultureinstraightforwardlanguage.
LinYu-tang,MyCountryandMyPeople,(NewYork:ReynalandHitchcock,1935),A
widelyreaddiscussionofChineseculturebyprobablythemostfamousChinesewriter
[apartfromMao]thiscentury.
Lord,B.B.,Legacies:AChineseMosaic,(Knopf,1990).
MacNair,HarleyFarnsworth,ed.,China,(BerkeleyandLosAngles:Universityof
CalifirniaPress,1946).Aselectionofarticlesbyleadingsinologistsonmanyaspectsof
Chineseculture.
March,Andrew,TheIdeaofChina:MythandTheoryinGeographicThought,(NewYork:
Praeger,1974),
McLenighan,Valjean.,China:AHistoryto1949,(Childrens,1983).
Morton,W.Scott,China,ItsHistoryandCulture,3rded.(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,
1994?,1sted1980)
Murphey,Rhoads.,China,rev.ed.(Gateway,1988).
TungChi-ming,AnOutlineHistoryofChina,(SanFrancisco:ChinaBooks,1979),A
TextbookwrittenfromthepointofviewofamodernPRCmarxisthistorian.
Williams,C.A.S.,OutlinesofChineseSymbolism&ArtMotives,3rded.,,(Shanghai:Kelly
&Walsh,1941,repr.NewYork:Dover,1976),pb.Useful,ifsometimesoutdated,
dictionaryofChinesesymbolism.
ORIGINSOFCHINESECIVILIZATION
ChangKwang-chih,TheArchaeologyofAncientChina,4thed.,(NewHaven,CT:Yale
UniversityPress,I968)pb.ThemostauthoritativesourceonChinesearchaeology..
ChangKwang-chih,ShangCivilization,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1980)pb.A
syntheticinterpretationofwhatisknownabouttheShangasofI980.
ChangKwang-chih,Art,MythandRitual:ThePathtoPoliticalAuthorityinAncientChina,
(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,I983).Ahighlyreadableinterpretationofearlv
Chineseartandpolitics.KGO
Keighley,DavidN.,SourcesofShangHistory:TheOracleBoneInscriptionsofBronze
AgeChina,(BerkelevandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1978).Asurvev
andexplanationoftheoraclebonedocumentation.KGO
Keighley,DavidN.,"EarlyCivilizationinChina:ReflectionsonHowItBecameChinese,"
inPaulRopp,ed.,HeritageofChina:ContemporaryPerspectivesonChinseCivilization,
(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990),15-54,Astimulating
articlethatexplicitlycontrastsancientChineseandGreekcivilizations,andexamineswhat
isdistinctiveabouteach.KGO
Goff,Denise,EarlyChina,rev.ed.(Watts,1986).
Sabin,Louis.,AncientChina,(Troll,1985).
THEZHOUDYNASTY:THEGOLDENAGEOFCHINA
Creel,HerrleeG.,TheOriginsofStatecraftinChina,(Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press,1970).AlthoughitperhapsoverstatesthedegreeofcentralizationpresentinZhou
China,thisworksamassiverepositoryofinformation.KGO
Giles,Herbert,ConfucianismanditsRivals,(London:1915)
Hall,DavidandRogerAmes,ThinkingthroughConfucius,(NewYork:SUNYPress,
1987)pb.AnexplorationofthecomnonalitiesanddisjuncturesbetweenConfucianand
Westernphilosophies.KGO
Lewis,MarkEdward,SanctionedViolenceinEarlyChina,(Albany,NY:StateUniversitv
ofNewYorkPress,1990).AprovocativeinterpretationoftheWarringStatesTransition
thatcentersontheroleofsanctionedviolence.KGO
More,Frederic,TheIntellectualFoundationsofChina,2ded.,(NewYork:McGrawHill,
1989)pb.AnelegantintroductiontothemajorissuesinclassicalChinesethought.KGO
Schwartz,Benjamin,TheWorldofThoughtinAncientChina,(Cambridge,MA:Harvard
UniversityPress,1985)pb.Athoughtfulandsustainedreappraisalofmajorthinkersofthe
lateZhou.KGO
Shaughnessy,EdwardL.,SourcesofWesternZhouHistory:InscribedBionzeVessels,
(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversitvofCaliforniaPress,1991).Atechnicalyet
accessibleintroduciontothestudvofbronzeinscriptions.
Watson,Burton,EarlyChineseLiterature,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1962),
pb.ExcellentsyntheticoverviewofHistory,PhilosophyandPoetryinChinatocirca220
CE.
CH'INANDHANCHINA:THEUNIFIEDEMPIRE
Bodde,Derk,FestivalsinClassicalChina:NewYearandOtherAnnualObservances
DuringtheHanDynasty206BC-AD200,(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversitvPress,
1975).AnencvclopedicaccountoftextualreferencestofestivalsduringtheHan.KGO
Ch'uT'ung-csu(editedbyJackDull),HanSocialStructures,(Seattle:Universitvof
WashingtonPress,1972).IncludesbothprimarysourcesandanalysisofHandynasty
society.KGO
Levi,Jean,TheChineseEmperor,trans.BarbaraBray,(NewYork:VintageBooks,1989).
Asinologist'snovelisticaccountoftheintriguesandpowerstrugglesinthefirstemperor's
reign.KGO
Loewe,Michael,CrisisandConflictinHanChina:104BCtoAD9,(London:Allenand
Unwin,1974).AcollectionofessavsthatdiscussHandynastypolitics.KGO
Loewe,Michael,WaystoParadise:TheChineseQuestforImmortality,(London:Allen&
Unwin,I979).AsurvevofarchaeologicalandtextualmaterialsonHandynastvbeliefs
about.immortalityandotherreligiousissues.KGO
Twitchett,DenisandMichaelLoewe.eds..,TheCambridgeHistoryofChina,Vol1:The
Ch'inandHanBmpires221BC-AD220,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,
I986).Acollectionofauthoritativeessays.KGO
WuHung,TheWuLiangShrine:TheIdeologyofEarlyChinesePictorialArt,(Stanford,
CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1989).Asplendidlyillustratedanalysisoftheengravingsat
aHandynastyshrine.KGO
SUIANDTANGCHINA:THEDURABILITYOFEMPIRE
Fitzgerald,TheEmpressWu,(London:Cresset,1968).StoryoftheWoChao,theonly
womantoruleChinainhereownright.
Needham,Joseph,ScienceandCivilizationinChina,(NewYork:CambridgeUniversity
Press,I954-).AmultivolumemagisterialsurveyofChinesescienceandtechnology,
painstakinglydocumentedandlavishlyillustrated.KGO
Wright,Arthur,BuddhisminChineseHistory,(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,
1959)pb.AclassicaccountoftheChinesetransformationofBuddhism.KGO
Maspero,Henri,ChinainAntiquity,trans.FrankKierman,(Amherst,MA:Universityof
MassachusettsPress,1978).ImportantstudiesofTaoism.KGO
Wright,Arthur,TheSuiDynasty,(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1978)pb.Alucidaccountof
theSui.KGO
Spiro,Audrey,ContemplatingtheAncients:AesthticandSocialIssuesinEarlyChinese
Portraiture,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990).An
examinationofportraitureofthePeriodofDisunioninitscontext.KGO
Barfield,Thomas,ThePerilousFrontier:Nomadic1andChina221B.C.toA.D.1957,
(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1989)pb.AprovocativeinterpretationofChinese-nomad
relations,designedforthegeneralreader.KGO
Dudbridge,Glen,TheLegendofMiao-san,(London:Press,1978).Adetailedstudyofthe
legendofayoungwhoisidentifiedwiththebodhisattvaGuanyin.
Teiser,StephenF.,TheGhostFestivalinMedievalChina,(Princeton,NJ:Princeton
UniversityPress,1988).AdetailedoftheChinesefestivalofthedead.
Wechsler,Howard,OfferingsofJadeandSilk:RitualandLegitimationtheTangDynasty,
(NewHaven,CT:YaleUnversityPress,1985).Apoliticalanalysisthattakesritual
seriously.
Twitchett,Denis,TheWritingofOfficialHistoryunderTheTang,(NewYork:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1992)Adiscussionofthepoliticsandmechanicsofhistoryunderthe
Tang.
THEGLORIESOFCHINAUNDERTHESUNG
Gernet,Jacques,DailyLifeinChinaonthrEveoftheMongolInvasion,(NewYork:
Macmillan,1962;repub.Stanford:StanfordUniverityPress,1970)pb.Alivelyand
readableaccountofdailylifeintheSongcapital.KGO
Hansen,Valerie,ChangingGodsinMedievalChina1127-1276,(Princeton,NJ:Princeton
UniversityPress,1990).Asplendidstudyofthetransmissionandtransformacionof
popularreligioninSongdynastyChina.KGO
Ebrecy,Patricia,ChuHsi'sFamilyRituals:ATwelfthCcenturyManualforthe
PerformanceofCappings,Weddings,FuneralsandAncestralRites,(Princeton,NJ:
PrincetonUniversityPress,1991).Atranslationofacrucialritualtext.KGO
Hymes,Robert,StatsmenandGentlemen:TheEliteofFu-chou,Chiang-hsi,inNorthern
and.SouthernnSung,(Cambridge,CambridgeUniversi~vPress,1986).Ananalysisin
changeselitestatusandsocietyfromtheNortherntotheSouthernSong.
Chaffee,John,TheThornyGatesofLearninginSungChina:ASocialHistoryof
Examinations,(Cambridge,MA:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985).Anaccountofthe
examinationsystemanditsimplications.KGO
MONGOLSANDTHEYUANDYNASTY
Rossabi,Morris,KhublaiKhan:HisLifeandTimes,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1988),Ahighlyreadableaccountofthemanwhoruled
mostofEastAsiainthethirteenthcentury.KGO
Allsen,Thomas,MongolImperialism:ThePoliticsoftheGrandOanMongkeinChina,
RussiaandIslamicLands1251-1259,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,1987),TheMongolempireinworldperspective.
Endicoct-West,Elizabeth,MongolianRuleinChina:LocalAdministrationintheYuan
Dynasty,(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1989).AcarefulsyudvofYuan
administration.KGO
Langlois,John,ed.,ChinaunderMongolRule,(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1981).AcollectionofessaystreatingvariousaspectsofYuanhistory.
MarcoPolo,TheTravels,transRonaldLatham,(London:Penguin,1958)pb.Poloisthe
mostfamousmedievaltravellertoChina.Thisishisaccountofhistravelsand
acquaintancewithKublaiKhan.
Morgan,David,TheMongols,(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1986)Anuptodatehistoryofthe
entireMongolimperialadventure.LooksnotjustatChina,butatoriginsandexpansionin
theWestandintheMuslimworld.
THERESTORATIONOFCHINESEPOWERSUNDERTHEMING
Huang,Rav,1587,AYearofNoSignificance:TheMingDynastyinDecline,(NewHaven,
CT:YaleUniversityPress,1981)pb.Acollectionofbiographiesofkeyplayersinlate
Mingpoliticsandsociety.KGO
Dardass,John,ConfucianismandAutocracy:ProfessionlEthicsandtheFoundingofthe
MingDynasty,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversitvofCaliforniaPress,1983).An
analysisoftheroleoftheConfucianliteratiintheformationoftheMingstate.KGO
Clunas,Craig,SuperflousThings:MaterialCultureandSocialStatusinEarlyModern
China,(Urbana,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1991).Astudyofeliteconsumptionwhich
suggestiveofcomparisonstoearlymodernEurope.KGO
Brokaw,Cynthia.T.,TheLedgersofMeritandDemerit:SocialChangeandMoralOrder
inLateImperialChina,(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1991)Astudvof
popularmoralitybooksandthewaysinwhichtheyarerootedinchangingsocialcontexts.
KGO
THEQINGDYNASTY:LATEIMPERIALCHINA
Will,Pierre-EtienneandR.BinWong,NourishthePeople:TheStateCivilianGranary
SysteminChina,1650-1850,(AnnArbor,MI:UniversityofMichiganCenterforChinese
Studies,1991).Atemporal,spatial,structural,andcomparativeanalysisofamajorQing
institutionaffectingthelivesofpeasantsgivesaconcretesenseofthecapacitiesand
commitmentsofthestate.KGO
Wakeman,Jr.,Frederic,TheGrandEnterprise:TheManchuReconstructionofImperial
OrderinSeventeenthCenturyChina,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,1985)AgrandnarrativeoftheManchuconquest,throughwhichmuchofthe
foundationformodernChinawaslaid.KGO
Kuhn,Philip,Soulstealers:TheChineseSorceryScareof1768,(Cambridge,MA:Harvard
UniversitvPress,1990).Anengrossingstoryaboutsorcerythatrevealsmuchabout
popularcultureandofficials'viewsofthesocietvtheyruled.
Spence,Jonathan,ed.,Ts'aoYinandtheK'ang-hsiEmperor,(NewHaven:Yale,1966,2nd
printing1988)pb.RecountsthestoryofahereditarybondservantoftheManchuemperors.
Spence,Jonathan,ed.,EmperorofChina:Self-PortraitofK'ang-hsi,(NewYork:Vintage,
1975)pb.AnautobiographyofthegreatQingemperor-1661-1722,constructedfromhis
commentsscatteredthroughoutavarietyofdocuments.
Spence,Jonathan,andJohnWills.eds.,FromMingtoCh'ing:Conquest,Regionand
ContinuityinSeventeenthCenturyChina,(NewHaven.CT:YaleUniversityPress,1979).
CollectionofessaysonlateMingandearlyQingChina.
THECHINESEWORLDORDER
Fairbank,JohnKing,ed.,TheChineseWorld:TraditionalChina'sForeignRelations,
(CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress,1968)pb.AnexcellentsummaryofChina's
relationswithneighbors,especiallyinthelateimperialperiod.KGO
Fletcher,Joseph,"Ch'ingInnerAsiac.I800,"inJohnFairbank,ed.,CambridgeHistoryof
China,Vol.10,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversitvPress,1978).ThefinestessayonQing
InnerAsia.KGO
Hevia,JamesL.,CherishingMenfromAfar:QingGuestRitualandtheMacartney
Embassyof1793,(DurhamNC:DukeUniversityPress,1995)pb.Examinesafamous
encounterbetweentheQingandBritishempires.Doesnotseethisamerelyaprocessof
"misunderstanding"butdevelopsapostmoderncritiqueoftheeventandthewayitwas
laterstudied.
Rossabi,Morris,ChinaandInnerAsia:From36CtothePresentDay,(London:Thames
andHudson,1975).PartOnegivesagoodoverviewofMingdynastyInnerAsiarelations.
KGO
Spence,Jonathan,TheMemoryPalaceofMatteoRicci,(NewYork:Viking,1984;pb
198?)pb.AdiscussionofthelifeofMatthewRicciS.J.,perhapsthemostperceptiveof
WesternvisitorstoChina.SpenceusetheconceitofaRenaissancememoryscheme.The
reviewbuH.R.TrevorRoperintheNewYorkReviewofBooks(1984)provides,infact,a
goodquickoverviewofthelifeandcareerofRicci.RoperpraisesSpence'sbook,butnotes
thatitsclevernesscansometimesobscurethestoryforthosewhodonotalreadyknow
somethingaboutthesubject.
Spence,Jonathan,TheQuestionofHu,(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1988;pbVintage,
1989)pb.AccountofthetravelsinthewestofJohnHu,aChinesecatholicwhoin1722
accompaniedjesuitmissionaryonajourneytoFrance.
Steinberg,DavidJoel,ed.,InSearchofSoutheastAsia:AModernHistory,rev.ed.
(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1986)pb.PartsIandIIgiveexcellentthematicand
country-specificaccountsofSoucheastAsiaintheeighteenthcentury.KGO
CHINA'SNINETEENTHCENTURYCHALLENGE
Fairbank,JohnKing,TradeandDiplomacyontheCoast:TheOpeningoftheTreatyPorts,
1842-1854,(StanfordCA:StanfordUniversityPress,1969)pb.Theclassicaccountofthe
creationoftheportsystembythefounderofmodernChinastudiesintheUnitedStates.
KGO
Fairbank,JohnKing,TheGreatChineseRevolution1800-1985,(NewYork:Harper&
Row,1986,pb1987)pb.Wellwrittennarrativeaccountofthehugechangesfacedby
Chinasince1800,butithasnofootnotes.
Kuhn,Philip,RebellionandItsEnemiesinLateImperialChina,(Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversityPress,1971)pb.Aninfluentialstatementofhowofficialsandelites
mobilizedmilitraypowertoopposetheTaiping.KGO
Seagrave,SterlingDragonLady:TheLifeandLegendoftheLastEmpressofChina,(New
York:AlfredA.Knopf,1992)pb.Popular,butlong,biographyofCixi,the"dowager
empress",whoeffectivelyruledChinainthelate19thcentury.
Waley,Arthur,TheOpiumWararThroughChineseEyes,(Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1968)pb.ArevealingaccountoftheOpiumWarthroughChinese
documents,allblendedintoanarrativebyoneoftheforemosttranslatorsofChinese
literature.KGO
Wright,Mary,TheLastStandoftheChineseGovernment,(Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1962)pb.Thebestsurveyofthefullrangeofpoliciestakenbythe
Chinesestateafterdefeatingthemid-centuryrebellions.
INTERNATIONALRELATIONSANDPOLITICALCHANGEINASIA
Steinberg,DavidJoel,ed.,InSearchofSoutheastAsia:AModernHistory,rev.ed.
(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1986)pb.PartsIIandIIIconsidernineteenth-
centurypoliticalchangesbeforeandafterEuropeanimperialism.
Rossabi,Morris,ChinaandInnerAsia:From1368tothePresentDay,(London:Thames
andHudson,1975).PartIIIconsidersChina'sstrengthinInnerAsiaanditssubsequent
decline.
CHINAANDMODERNIZATION
Alitto,GuyS.,TheLastConfucian:LiangShu-mingandtheChineseDilemmaof
Modernity,2nded.,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1986),pb.
AbiographyofthemostfamousdefenderofChinesetraditionalConfucianisminthis
century.Thebookaddressesthewholeissueof"modernity"andChina.
Rozman,Gilbert,ed.,TheModernizationofChina,(NewYork:TheFreePress,1981),pb.
Ateam-writtenbookcoveringallaspectsofthemodernizationissue.
Spence,Jonathan,TheGateofHeavenlyPeace:TheChineseandTheirRevolution,1895-
1980,(NewYork;Viking,1981;London:Faber,1982;pb,Penguin,1982)pb
Spence,Jonathan,InSearchofModernChina,(NewYork;Viking,1992?)pb.
Ssu-yTengandJohnKingFairbank,eds.,China'sResponsetotheWest:ADocumentary
Survey1839-1923,(CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress,1954)
Tse-TsungChow,TheMayFourthMovement,(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,
1967).Arichsurveyoftheintellectualcurrentsofthetime.KGO
REPUBLICANCHINA
Buck,PearlS.(PearlSydenstricker),1892-1973,TheGoodEarth[Novel],(NewYork,
Grossett&Dunlappublishers1931,repr.NewYork,TheModernlibrary1934)multiple
reissues,pb
CliffordNicholasR.,SpoiltChildrenofEmpire:WesternersinShanghaiandtheChinese
Revolutionofthe1920s,(Hanover:MiddleburyCollegePress,1991)pb.Ananalysisand
accountofthecross-culturalmegapolisofpre-CommunistChina.AsmuchaboutWestern
imperialismasaboutChinaitself.
Huang,Philip,ThePeasantEconomyandSocialChangeinNorthChina,(Stanford,CA:
StanfordUniversityPress,1985)pb.Achallengingstudyofeconomicchange,social
relations,andpoliticalcontrolinearlytwentieth-centurynorthChina.KGO
LevyJr.,MarionJ,TheFamilyRevolutioninModernChina,(CambridgeMA:Harvard
UniversityPress,1949,repr.inpbNewYork:Atheneum,1968)pb.Asociological
approach.
Seagrave,SterlingTheSoongDynasty,(NewYork:Harper&Row,1985),pb.Anaccount
oftheSoongfamilywhichplayedanimportant,perhapsdominant,partinChinesehistory
inthefirsthalfofthiscentury.Abusinessfamilywhichmarriedwell,itsmostfamous
memberisperhapsSoongMaylingwhobecameMadameChiangKai-shek.
Sheridan,JamesE.,ChinainDisintegration:TheRepublicanErainChineseHistory,1912-
1949,(NewYork:TheFreePress,1971)pb.AcomprehensivesurveyofRepublican
China'sprecarioussituation.KGO
EASTASIADURINGTHERISEANDFALLOFIMPERIALJAPAN1930-
1952
Beasley,W.G.,JapaneseImperialism,1899-199,(Oxford:OxfordUniversitvPress,
1987).AsystematicandbalancedaccountofJapan'sformalandinformalempire
throughoutAsia.
Perry,Elizabeth,RebelsandRevolutionariesinNorthChina,1845-1945,(Stanford,CA:
StanfordUniversitvPress,1980)pb.AnelegantcomparisonoftheNianRebellionandthe
CommunistmovementinnorthChina.KGO
Dower,John,WarWithoutMercy:RaceandPowerinthePacificWar,(NewYork:
Pantheon,1981)pb.AsoberinganalysisofJapaneseandChineseperspectivesonthe
enemyduringWorldWarII.KGO
COMMUNISTCHINA
Bianco,Lucien,OriginsoftheChineseRevolution,1915-1949,(StanfordCA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1967)
Carter,A.R.,ModernChina(Watts,1986).
Chan,Anita,RichardMadsenandJonathanUnger,ChenVillage:TheRecentHistoryofa
PeasantCommunityinMao'sChina,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,1984)pb.LooksataSouthChinafarmingvillage.
Ch'n,Jerome,MaoandtheChineseRevolution,(London:OxfordUniverityPress,1965)
Includes37poemsbyMao.WelldocumentaccountofMaoandtheCommunistPartyup
tothemomentofpowerin1949.
Danforth,Kenneth,andDickinson,M.B.,eds.,JourneyintoChina,(NationalGeographic,
1982).
Jacobs,Dan.N.andHansH.Baerwald,eds.,ChineseCommunism:SelectedDocuments,
(NewYork:Harper&Row,1963),pb.
Hacker,J.H.,TheNewChina,(Watts,1986).
MaoZedong,SelectedWorksofMaoTse-Tung,3ded.,(Peking:ForeignLanguagePress,
1975)
Martin,Helmut,CultandCanon:TheOriginsandDevelopmentofStateMaoism,(M.E.
Sharpe,1982).
Mosher,StevenW.,BrokenEarth:TheRuralChinese,(NewYork:FreePress,1983)An
accountbasedonfieldworkinGuangdongprovince,butwithnodocumentation.
Pannell,C.W.,EastAsia,GeographicalandHistoricalApproachestoForeignArea
Studies,(Kendall/Hunt,1983).
Rau,Margaret.,TheMinorityPeoplesofChina,(Messner,1982).
Roderick,John.,China:FromtheLongMarchtoTiananmenSquare,(Holt,1990).
Wilson,Dick,TheLongMarch1935:TheEpicofChineseCommunism'sSurvival,
(London:HamishHamilton,1971;NewYork:Viking,1972,reprinPenguinpb,1977,
1982)Anaccountofthe6000milemarchby100,000Chinesecommunistswhich
eventuallyenabledthemtodefeattheNationalistgovernment.
Wood,Frances.,PeopleatWorkinChina(David&Charles,1988).
Schurmann,Franz,IdeologyandOrganizationinCommunistChina,2nded.,(Berkeley
andLosAngeles,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1971),pb.Asystematicanalysisof
China'spoliticalorganizationandideologyduringthe1950sandI960s.
ForautobiographicalanalysesoftheCulturalRevolutionyearsconsideranyofthethree
followingaccounts:
LiangHengandJudithShapiro,SonoftheRevolution,(NewYork:VintageBooks,1983)
pbKGO
YueDaivunandCarolynWakeman,TotheStorm:TheOdysseyofaRevolutionary
ChineseWoman,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985)pb
KGO
GaoYuan,BornRed:AChronicleoftheCulturalRevolution,(Stanford,CA:Stanford
UniversityPress,1987)pbKGO
POST-MAOCHINA
CongressoftheUnitedStates,JointEconomicCommittee.ChinaUndertheFour
Modernizations.PartI(WashingtonDC:U.S.Govt.PrintingOffice,1982).
Dorn,JamesA.AndWangXi,eds.,EconomicReforminChina:ProblemsandProspects,
(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1989),pb.
FangLizhi,BringingDowntheGreatWall:WritingsonScience,CultureandDemocracy
inChina,(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1991)Acollectionofspeechesandwritngsby
China'smostfamousmoderndissident.
Harding,Harry,China'sSecondIndustrialRevolution:ReformAfterMao,(Washington,
DC:BrookingsInstitution,1987)pb.AbalancedassessmentofChina'spoliticaland
economicreformsfrom1976tothelate1980s.KGO
KristofNicholasD.andSherylWuDunn,ChinaWakes:TheStrugglefortheSoulofa
RisingPower,(NewYork:Vintage,1994)pb
Link,Perry,EveningChatsinBeijing:ProbingChina'sPredicament,(NewYork:W.W.
Norton,1992)pb.Basedondiscussions,inChina,withChineseintellectualsandthe
perpetuationoftheirtraditiondutytoworryaboutsocietyatlarge.
Link,Perry,RichardMadsenandPaulG.Pickowitz,eds.,UnofficialChina:Popular
CultureandThoughtinthePeople'sRepublic,(BoulderCO:WestviewPress,1989)pb.
Mackerras,ColinAndAmandaYorke,edsa.,TheCambridgeHandbookofContemporary
China;CountryStudy,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1991)pb.Usefulsourcs
ofstatisticasandmapsaboutmodernChina.
Schell,Orville,MandateofHeaven:TheLegacyofTiananmenSquareandtheNext
GenerationofChineseLeaders,(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1994)pb.
Vogel,EzraF.,OneStepAheadinChina:GuangdongUnderReform,(CambridgeMA:
HarvardUniverityPress,1989)pb.Anaccountofthehugeeconomicchangesinthe
Guangdongregion,thefirsttopressahaedwithapost-Maocapitalistsystem.
Worden,RobertL.,AndraMatlesSavadaandRonaldE.Dolan,eds.,China;Country
Study,(WashingtonDC:FederalResearchDivision,1988)Extensivesurveyofmany
aspectsofmodernChina.
GENDER:CHINESEWOMENANDMENANDOTHERS
[seealsoWOMEN;]
Anderson,MaryM.HiddenPower:ThePalaceEunuchsofImperialChina,(BuffaloNY:
Prometheus:1990)Popularaccountwithminimalnotes.
Cabezon,JoseIgnacio,ed.,Buddhism,SexualityandGender,(AlbanyNY:SUNY,1992),
pb.ArticlesbyLeonardZwillingandPaulGordnSchalowlookathomosexualityin
Buddhistwritingsandpractice.
Edwards,LouiseP.,MenAndWomenInQingChina:GenderInTheRedChamber
Dreams,Seriestitle:SinicaLeidensia;v.31,(Leiden;NewYork:E.J.Brill,1994)
Franklin,MargaretAnn,TheChineseSex-GenderSystem,PartyPolicy,AndThe
EducationOfWomen,(EastLansing,MI:WomeninInternationalDevelopment,Michigan
StateUniversity,c1989
Gilmartin,ChristinaK.etal.,eds.,EngenderingChina:Women,Culture,AndTheState,
(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1994)
Hinsch,Bret,PassionsoftheCutSleeve:TheMaleHomosexualTraditioninChina,
(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990),pb.
Martin,Bernard,TheStrainOfHarmony;MenAndWomenInTheHistoryOfChina,
(London,W.Heinemann,1948)
Miller,Neil,OutintheWorld:GayandLesbianLifefromBuenosAirestoBangkok,(New
York:Vintage,1993),pb.
Sadler,C.E.,TwoChineseFamilies,(London:Atheneum,1981).
Wile,Douglas,ArtOfTheBedchamber:TheChineseSexualYogaClassicsIncluding
Women'sSoloMeditationTexts,(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,c1992)
Zito,AngelaandTani.E.Barlow,eds.,Body,Subject&PowerinChina,(Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress,1994)
CHINESEWOMEN
Anderson,JenniferandTheresaMunford,trans.ChineseWomenWriters:ACollectionof
ShortStoriesByChineseWomenWritersOfThe1920SAnd30S.(HongKong:Joint
PublishingCo.,1985).
Andors,Phyllis,TheUnfinishedLiberationOfChineseWomen,1949-1980,(Bloomington
:IndianaUniversityPress;Brighton,Sussex:WheatsheafBooks,1983)
Ayscough,FlorenceWheelock,ChineseWomen,YesterdayAndToday,(Boston,Houghton
Mifflincompany,1937)
Broyelle,Claudie,Women'sLiberationinChina,translatedfromtheFrenchbyMichele
CohenandGaryHerman,(AtlanticHighlands,N.J.:HumanitiesPress,1977)
Burton,MargaretE.(MargaretErnestine),TheEducationOfWomenInChina,(NewYork
:FlemingH.Revell,c1911)
Chang,Jung,WildSwans:ThreeDaughtersOfChina,(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,
1991)
Chao,Paul,WomenUnderCommunism:FamilyInRussiaAndChina,(Bayside,N.Y.:
GeneralHall,1977)
ChaoPu-weiYang,1889-,AutobiographyOfAChineseWoman,BuweiYangChao,put
intoEnglishbyherhusbandYuenrenChao,(Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress1970,
c1947).
Cheng,Lucie,CharlotteFurth,andHon-mingYip,WomenInChina:BibliographyOf
AvailableEnglishLanguageMaterials,(Berkeley,Calif.:InstituteofEastAsianStudies,
UniversityofCalifornia,CenterforChineseStudies,1984)
Anderson,Jennifer&TheresaMunford,trans.,ChineseWomenWriters:ACollectionOf
ShortStoriesByChineseWomenWritersOfThe1920sAnd30s,(Hongkong:JointPub.
Co.,1985)
Chow,Rey,WomanAndChineseModernity:ThePoliticsOfReadingBetweenWestAnd
EastU(Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,19??)
Conger,SarahPike,LettersFromChina:WithParticularReferenceToTheEmpress
DowagerAndTheWomenOfChina,3ded,(Chicago:A.C.McClurg,1910,c1909)
ContemporaryChinesewomenwritersII,1sted.,(Beijing:PandaBooks,1991)
ContemporaryChineseWomenWritersIII,1sted.,(Beijing,China:ChineseLiterature
Press:DistributedbyChinaInternationalBookTradingCorp.,1993)
Croll,ElisabethJ.,TheWomen'sMovementInChina:ASelectionOfReadings,2ded.
(London:Anglo-ChineseEducationalInstitute,1974)
Croll,ElisabethJ.,ChineseWomenSinceMao,(London:ZedBooks;Armonk,N.Y.:
M.E.Sharpe,1983)
Curtin,Katie,WomeninChina,(NewYork:PathfinderPress,1975)
Cusack,Dymphna,ChineseWomenSpeak,2ded.,(London:CenturyHutchinson,1985)
Davis,JohnAngell,TheChineseSlave-Girl:AStoryOfWoman'sLifeInChina,
(Philadelphia:PresbyterianBoardofPublication,1901,c1880)
DrunkenWhiskers,ThatChineseWoman:TheLifeOfSai-Chin-Hua,trans.Henry
McAleavy,(London:Allen&Unwin,1959;NewYork:Crowell1959)
Ebrey,PatriciaBuckley,TheInnerQuarters:MarriageAndTheLivesOfChineseWomen
InTheSungPeriod,(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993)
Gerstlacher,Anna,etal.eds.,.WomanAndLiteratureInChina,..(Bochum[Germany]:
StudienverlagDr.N.Brockmeyer,1985)
GuissoRichardW.andStanleyJohannesen,eds,,WomenInChina:CurrentDirectionsIn
HistoricalScholarship,(Youngstown,N.Y.:PhiloPress,1981)
Gross,SusanHill,WomenInTraditionalChina:AncientTimesToModernReform,
(Gross&MarjorieWallBingham.Hudson,Wis.:G.E.McCuenPublications,1980)
Honig,Emily&GailHershatter,PersonalVoices:ChineseWomenInThe1980's,
(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1988)
Hung,Eva,ContemporaryWomenWriters:HongKongAndTaiwan..(Shatin,N.T.,Hong
Kong:ResearchCentreforTranslation,ChineseUniversityofHongKong,1991).The
authorsarewomenwhocameintoliteraryprominenceintheearlytomid-1980's.
TheImpactOfEconomicDevelopmentOnRuralWomenInChina:AReportOfThe
UnitedNationsUniversityHousehold,Gender,AndAgeProject/All-ChinaWomen's
Federation,(Tokyo:UnitedNationsUniversity,c1993)
Ko,Dorothy,TeachersoftheInnerChambers:WomenandCultureinSeventeenth-
CenturyCHina,(StanfordCA;StanfordUniversityPress,1994)pb.
KwokPui-lan,ChinesewomenandChristianity,1860-1927,(Atlanta,Ga.:ScholarsPress,
1992)
Landy,Laurie,WomenandtheChineseRevolution,(NewYork:InternationalSocialists,
1969?)
Lee,LilyXiaoHong.,TheVirtueOfYin:StudiesOnChineseWomen,(Broadway,NSW,
Australia:WildPeony;Honolulu:Internationaldistribution,UniversityofHawaiiPress,
1994)
LiYu-ning,ChineseWomenThroughChineseEyes,(Armonk,N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe,1992)
LiehNuChuan,ThePositionOfWomanInEarlyChinaAccordingToTheLiehNuChuan,
"TheBiographiesOfChineseWomen",ed.AlbertRichardO'Hara,(Taipei:MeiYa
Publications,1971)
Lin,JuliaC.,trans.,.WomenOfTheRedPlain:AnAnthologyOfContemporaryChinese
Women'sPoetry,(NewYork,N.Y.,USA:PenguinBooks,1992)
Ling,Amy.,BetweenWorlds:WomenWritersOfChineseAncestry(NewYork:
PergamonPress,1990)
LiuHsiang,77?-6?BCE.ThePositionOfWomanInEarlyChinaAccordingToTheLieh
NuChuan,"TheBiographiesOfEminentChineseWomen"editedAlbertRichardO'Hara,
(Westport,Conn.:HyperionPress,1981)
LiuHsiang,77?-6?BCE,TypicalWomenOfChina.TranslatedFromAPopularNative
WorkOnTheVirtues,Words,Deportment,AndEmploymentOfTheWomenOfChina,by
thelateMissA.C.Safford.editedbyJohnFryer.2ded.(Shanghai:Kelly&Walsh,
limited,1899)
NienlingLiuetal,trans.,TheRoseColoredDinner:NewWorksByContemporary
ChineseWomenWriters,(HongKong:JointPub.Co.,1988).Ninewomen'sprose
selectionswrittensince1979arepresentedinthiscollection.
Martin,Diana,WomeninChineseSociety:AnAnnotatedBibliography(FarnhamRoyal:
CommonwealthAgriculturalBureaux,1974)Seriestitle:Annotatedbibliography
(CommonwealthBureauofAgriculturalEconomics);no.42.
Mosher,StevenW.,AMother'sOrdeal:OneWoman'sFightAgainstChina'sOne-Child
Policy,(NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,c1993)
TheMuseOfChina:ACollectionOfProseAndShortStories,(Taipei,Taiwan:Chinese
WomenWritersAssociation,1974)
TheMuseOfChina:ACollectionOfProseAndShortStories,Vol2.,(Taipei,Taiwan:
ChineseWomenWritersAssociation,1978)
Paledndri,AngelaJung,ed.,WomenWritersOf20thCenturyChina,(Eugene,Or.:Asian
StudiesProgram,UniversityofOregon,1982)
Peck,Stacey,HallsOfJade,WallsOfStone:WomenInChinaToday(NewYork:F.
Watts,1985)
Pruitt,Ida,ADaughterofHan:TheAutobiographyofaChineseWorkingWomanbyIda
PruitfromtheStoryToldHerbyNingLaoT'ait'ai,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,
1945,repr.StanfordCA;StanfordUniversityPress,1967)pb.
Rexroth,Kenneth,&LingChung.,trans.andeds.,Orchidboat.WomenpoetsofChina
(NewYork:PublishedforJ.LaughlinbyNewDirectionsPub.Corp.,1982,c1972)pb,
120poemsby54poetsareincluded.Alsoincludesanessaytitled,"ChineseWomenand
Literature-ABriefSurvey"byLingChung.
Roberts,R.A.andAngelaKnox,trans.,OneHalfOfTheSky:SelectionFrom
ContemporaryWomenWritersOfChina,(London:Heinemann,1987),Eightauthorsare
representedinthisselectiondesignedtoillustratetherangeoftwentieth-centuryChinese
women'swriting
Rosen,Stanley,ed.,ChineseWomen.specialeditionofChineseSociologyAnd
Anthropology21:3(1987)
Ross,JamesR.,CaughtInATornado:AChineseAmericanWomanSurvivesTheCultural
Revolution,(Boston:NortheasternUniversityPress,1994)
SevenContemporaryChineseWomenWriters.1sted.(Beijing,China:ChineseLiterature:
DistributedbyChinaPublicationsCentre,1982.)
Sheridan,Mary,andJanetW.Salaff,eds.Lives,Chineseworkingwomen,(Bloomington:
IndianaUniversityPress,1984)
Shimer,DorothyBlair,ed.,RiceBowlWomen:WritingsByAndAboutWomenOfChina
AndJapan,(NewYork:NewAmericanLibrary,1982).Chronologicalselectionsofawide
rangeofwomen'sexperiencesfromtwocultureswherethericebowlisatraditional
symbolofwomanhood.
Sidel,Ruth.,WomenAndChildCareInChina;AFirsthandReport,(NewYork:Hilland
Wang,1972)
Siu,Bobby,WomenOfChina:ImperialismAndWomen'sResistance,1900-1949,(London
:ZedPress;Westport,Conn.,U.S.A.:U.S.distributor,L.Hill,1982,c1981)
Spence,Jonathan,TheDeathofWomanWang,(NewYork:VikingPenguin,1987;pb
Penguin,1989)pb.Setin17thcenturyprovincialChina,thisrecountsthestoryofan
unhappymarriage,andthemurderbyherhusbandof'WomanWang".
Swann,NancyLee,PanChao,foremostwomanscholarofChina,firstcenturyA.D.;
background,ancestry,life,andwritingsofthemostcelebratedChinesewomanofletters,
(NewYork,Russell&Russell,1968,firsted.1932)
Tong,Benson,UnsubmissiveWomen:ChineseProstitutesInNineteenth-CenturySan
Francisco,(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1994)
Tseng,Chi-fen,1852-1942,TestimonyOfAConfucianWoman:TheAutobiographyof
Mrs.NieZengJifen,1852-1942,trans.andannotatedbyThomasL.Kennedy;editedby
ThomasL.KennedyandMickiKennedy,(Athens,Ga.:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,
1993)
Wallace,LEthel.,HwaNanCollege:TheWoman'sCollegeOfSouthChina,(NewYork:
UnitedBoardforChristianCollegesinChina,1956)
WeiChang-ling,StatusofWmen:China,(Bangkok:UnescoPrincipalRegionalOfficefor
AsiaandthePacific,1989)
Wei,KatherinandTerryQuinn,SecondDaughter:GrowingUpinChina,1930-1949,
(NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston,1984)pb.ThelifeamemberoftheChineseupper
classgirlintheturbulent1930s.
Weidner,Marshaetal.,ViewsFromJadeTerrace:ChineseWomenArtists,1300-1912
(Indianapolis,Ind.:IndianapolisMuseumofArt;NewYork:Rizzoli,c1988)
Wolf,MargeryandRoxaneWitke.eds.,WomenInChineseSociety,(Stanford,Calif.:
StanfordUniversityPress,1975)
Wolf,Margery,RevolutionPostponed:WomeninContemporaryChina,(Stanford,Calif.:
StanfordUniversityPress,1985)DocumentscontinuingoppressionofChinesewomen,but
seesrealimrpovements.
WuChao,ed.,WomeninChineseFolklore,WomenofChinaSpecialSeries,(Beijing,
China:WomenofChina:DistributedbyChinaPublicationsCentre,1983)
Young,MarilynBlatt,ed.,,WomenInChina;StudiesInSocialChangeAndFeminism.
(AnnArbor,CenterforChineseStudies,UniversityofMichigan,1973)
YuehTai-yun,ToTheStorm:TheOdysseyOfARevolutionaryChineseWoman,
recountedbyYueDaiyun;writtenbyCarolynWakeman,(Berkeley:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,1985)
Zhang,Zhimei,Foxspirit:AWomanInMao'sChina,(Montreal:VehiculePress;Don
Mills,Ont.:DistributedbyGeneralDistributionServices,1992)
ZhuHong,ed.,TheSerenityOfWhiteness:StoriesByAndAboutWomenInContemporary
China,(NewYork:AvailablePress,1992)
THECHINESEDIASPORA
Chong,Denise,TheConcubine'sChildren,Storyofauthor'simmigrantancestors.
Daniels,Roger,"MinoritiesfromOtherRegions:Chinese",inComingtoAmerica:A
HistoryofImmigrationandEthnicityinAmericanLife,(NewYork:HarperCollins,1990),
238-50
Gutman,Herbert,director,WhoBuiltAmerica:WorkingPeopleandtheNation'sEconomy,
Politics,CultureandSociety,VolumeI,(NewYork:Pantheon,1989),pp.523-31,538-45
lookatthesituationofChineseimmigrantworkers,andthehostilityofmanyWhite
workingclassunions.
Kingston,MaxineHong,TheWomanWarrior,
Tan,Amy,TheJoyLuckClub,[Novel](NewYork:Putnam's,1989,pb.NewYork:
Ballantine's,1990)pb.
Tan,Amy,TheKitchenGod'sWife,[Novel](NewYork:Putnam's,1991,pbNewYork:
Ballantine's,1992)
CHINESEART
Boyd,A.,ChineseArchitecture(London:1962)
Bussagli,Mario,ChinesePainting,trans.fromItalianbyHenryVidon(London:Paul
Hamlyn,1969).Short,butbeautifullyillustrated,historyofChinesepainting.
ChiangYee,ChineseCalligraphy,(London:Methuen,1961,reissueof1sted1938)
Fisher,RobertE.,BuddhistArtandArchitecture,(NewYork;Thames&Hudson,1993)
pb.AnintroductiontothevarietiesofBuddistart,includingthatofChinaandJapan.
Medley,Margaret,TheChinesePotter.(IthacaandLondon:CornellUniversityPress,
1982)
Siren,O.,ChinesePainting,7vols.,(NewYork:RonaldPress,1956-58)
Siren,O.,TheChineseontheArtofPainting,(Peking:H.Vetch,1936)
Siren,O.,ChineseSculpturefromtheVthtotheXIVthCentury,4.vols.(London:Benn,
1925)
Sullivan,M.,AnIntroductiontoChineseArt(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,1961)
Treagear,Mary,ChineseArt,(London:Thames&Hudson,1980)pb.Easilyavailableand
partofadistnguishedarthistoryseries.
Willets,W.,ChineseArt,(London:Penguin,1958),pb
CHINESEPHILOSOPHYANDRELIGION
Bercholz,SamuelandSherabChdzinKohn,eds.,EnteringtheStream:AnIntroductionto
theBuddhaandHisTeachings,(Boston:Shambala,1993)pb.Aneclecticselectionof
textsandmoderndiscussions,icludingoftheMahayanatradition,publishedtoaccompany
thefilm"LittleBuddha".Becauseitisdirectedatanon-specialistaudience,thisisagood
introduction.
Blofeld,John,BoddisattvaofCompassion:TheMysticalTraditionofKuanYin,(Boston:
Shambala,1977)pb.Adiscussion,byawesternbeliever,oftheveryimportant
tramsgenderedboddisattvaofcompassion.
Ch'en,Kenneth,BuddhisminChina:AHistoricalSurvey,(PrincetonNJ:Princeton
UniversityPress,1964)pb.LooksatallschoolsofBuddhism.Takesariseanddecline
approach.
Creel,HerrleeG.,ChineseThoughtFromConfuciustoMaoTse-tung,(Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress,1953)
Dumoulin,Heinrich,ZenBuddhism:AHistory,VolumeI:IndiaandChina,transJamesW.
HeisigandPaulKnitter,(NewYork:Macmillan,1988)
Gernet,Jacques,BuddhisminChineseSociety,(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1995,firstFrenched.19??)RecentbookfocusingontheeconomicaspectsofBuddhismin
Chinesehistory.
Getty,Alice,TheGodsofNorthernBuddhism:TheirHistoryandIconography,2nded.,
(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1928;reissuedNewYork:Dover,1988)pb.Anextensive
surveyofthelargenumberofdivinities,buddhas,andbodhisattvasofthevarious
Mahayanareligiousandartistictraditions.
Humphries,Christmas,Buddhism:AnIntroductionandGuide,(London:Penguin,1951)A
basicintroductiontoallaspectsofBuddhismbyafamousEnglishjudgewhowasthemost
famousWesternBuddhistformuchofhislife.pb
Koller,JohnM.,OrientalPhilosophies,(NewYork:CharlesScribner's,1970)
Merton,Thomas,MysticsandZenMasters,(NewYork:NoondayPress,1967)pb
AseriesofessayonEasternreligionbyafamousAmericanCatholicmonk.Theyarevery
readable.Particularlyusefulareessayson"ClassicChineseThought","LoveandTao",
"TheJesuitsinChina","ZenBuddhistMonasticism"and"TheZenKoan".
Ross,NancyWilson,Buddhism:AWayofLifeandThought,(NewYork:Knopf,1980;pb
Vintage,1981)pb.AmorerecentbasicintroductionthanthatbyChristmasHumphries.
Paul,Diana,"Kuan-Yin:SaviorandSavioressinChinesePureLandBuddhism",inCarol
Olson,ed.,TheBookoftheGoddessPastandPresent,(NewYork:Crossroad,1983),161-
75
Schafer,EdwardH.TheDivineWoman:DragonLadiesandrainMaidens,(SanFrancisco:
NorthPointPress,1980)
Snelling,John,TheBuddhistHandbook,(RochesterVT:InnerTraditions,1991)pb.See
especiallythechapterson"Mahayana",83-92,"NorthernTransmission:China",121-143.
Theworkisalsousefulasgeneraloverview.
SmithJr.,Kidder,etall,SungDynastyUsesoftheIChing,(PrincetonNJ:Princeton
UniversityPress,1990)
TaoTaoLiuSanders.,Dragons,GodsandSpiritsfromChineseMythology,(Schocken,
1982).
Yoshinori,Takeuchi,ed.,BuddhistSpirituality:Indian,SoutheastAsain,Tibetan,and
EarlyChinese,Vol8.ofWorldSpirituality:AnEncyclopedicHistoryoftheReligious
Quest,(NewYork:Crossroad,1993)Seeespeciallytheessays:G.CPande,"TheMessage
ofGotamaBuddhaandItsEarliestInterpretations",3-33;KajiyamaYuichi,
:PrajnaparimitaandtheRiseofMahayana",137-54;MichaelPye,"TheLotusSutraand
theEssenceofMahayana",171-87;RogerJ.Corless,"PureLandPiety",242-274;Whalen
Lewis,"TheThreeJewelsinChina";PaulLSwanson,"TheSpiritualityofEmptinessin
EarlyChineseBuddhism",373-96.Allessayshaveexcellentuptodatebibliographies
BuddhistSpirituality:Ch'an,EastAsianandContenporary,Vol9.ofWorldSpirituality:
AnEncyclopedicHistoryoftheReligiousQuest,(NewYork:Crossroad,tobepublished
199?)
ConfucianSpirituality,Vol11.ofWorldSpirituality:AnEncyclopedicHistoryofthe
ReligiousQuest,(NewYork:Crossroad,tobepublished199?)
TaoistSpirituality,Vol10.ofWorldSpirituality:AnEncyclopedicHistoryofthe
ReligiousQuest,(NewYork:Crossroad,tobepublished199?)
Yu-Lan,Fung,TheSpiritofChinesePhilosphy,(Boston:1962)
ThiswasusefulbibliographicguidetoChinesephilosophicaltexts,fromaWestern
philosophicalperspective,whichmaybeusefultosomereaders:
GUIDETOCHINESEPHILOSOPHICTEXTSFORINCLUSION
ININTRODUCTORYCOURSES
CompiledbyBryanW.VanNorden
(http://www.cs.uni.edu/~bryanandvannorden@uni.edu)
(versionofOctober8,1994)
Manyphilosopherssaythattheywouldliketoincludenon-Western
philosophyintheircourses,buthavenoideawheretolookforappropriate
selections.Otherphilosophersworrythattheylackthenecessaryexpertise
toteachtextsfromanotherintellectualtradition.Thefollowingtextshave
beenselectedfortworeasons:theydealwithissuesandusephilosophical
techniquesrecognizabletophilosopherswith"analytic"training;andthey
arerelatively"self-contained,"sothattheycanbeusedwithoutabroad
backgroundinChinesephilosophy.Forsecondaryworksonsomeofthe
philosophersmentionedbelow,see"BibliographyofSomeMajorWorkson
ConfucianPhilosophy."
MoTzu,"UniversalLove,"inBurtonWatson,trans.,(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1963),pp.39-49.Thisessaypresentsasustainedargument
forakindofuniversalisticconsequentialism.Itadvocates"universalism"
(equalconcernforallhumans)over"partialism"(moreconcernforsome
humansthanforothers).ThetargetsoftheessayareConfucianismand
Yangism(thelatteristhephilosophyofYangChu,videinfra).
"YangChu,"inA.C.Graham,trans.,TheBookofLieh-tzu(NewYork:
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1960),pp.138-157.ThehistoricalYangChu
wasprobablyeitherapsychologicalegoistoranethicalegoist(although
A.C.Grahamarguesthathewasactuallyasortof"Epicurean").This
collectionofdialoguesandanecdoteswascompiledlongafterhisdeath,but
canbeusedtoillustrateavarietyofstandardegoisticarguments.
Kung-sunLung,"OntheWhiteHorse,"inWing-tsitChan,trans.,ASource
BookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),
pp,235-237.(Foranalternativetranslationwithdiscussion,seeA.C.
Graham,"Kung-sunLung'sDiscourseRe-ReadasArgumentaboutWhole
andPart,"inidem,StudiesinChinesePhilosophyandPhilosophical
Literature(Albany:SUNYPress,1990),especiallypp.201-210.)Thisisan
infamoussophisticalargumentinwhichitisclaimedthat"awhitehorseis
notahorse."
Mencius,Mencius,translatedbyD.C.Lau(NewYork:PenguinBooks,
1970).(Foranalternativetranslation,seeJamesLegge,TheWorksof
Mencius(NewYork:DoverPublications,1970).)TherichnessofMencius's
isolatedsayingsoftencannotbeappreciatedwithoutunderstandinghis
historicalcontextandhisworkasawhole.However,anumberofpassages
presentbriefargumentsthatshouldproveprovocativeforclassroomuse.
Menciuscriticizesconsequentialistargumentsin1A1(Book1,PartA,
Section1)and6B4.Hepresentsananti-egoisticthought-experimentin2A6.
In3A5,heargueswitha"universalist"followerofMoTzu(videsupra).He
arguesthathumannatureis"good"(inthesenseofpossessinginnatebut
incipienttendenciestowardvirtue)in2A6,and6A1through10.Alternative
translationsofmanypassagesintheMenciusareavailablefromBryanW.
VanNorden(vannorden@uni.edu).
ChuangTzu,"DiscussiononMakingAllThingsEqual,"inBurtonWatson,
trans.,ChuangTzu:BasicWritings(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1964),pp.31-45.(Foranalternativetranslation,see"TheSortingWhich
EvensThingsOut,"inA.C.Graham,trans.,Chuang-Tzu:TheInner
Chapters(Boston:UnwinPaperbacks,1981),pp.48-61.)Thestyleofthis
textisnotanalytic,sosomephilosophersmayfinditdifficulttodealwith.In
addition,scholarsdisagreeabouthowtointerpretit.ntalEssaysonChuang-
tzu(Hawaii:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1983),especiallypp.38-50.Fora
critiqueofHansen'sinterpretation,andadiscussionoftheothermajor
interpretationsofChuangTzu,seePaulKjellberg,"Zhuangziand
Skepticism,"DoctoralThesis,DepartmentofPhilosophy,Stanford
University,1993(UniversityMicrofilmsInternationalOrderNumber
9403970).
WangCh'ung,"ATreatiseonDeath,"inWing-tsitChan,trans.,ASource
BookinChinesePhilosophy(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963),
pp.299-302.WangCh'ungpresentsanumberofincisiveargumentsagainst
personalimmortality.
WangYang-ming,InstructionsforPracticalLivingandOtherNeo-
ConfucianWritings,translatedbyWing-tsitChan(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,[1963]),Section5,pp.9-12.Inthissection,WangYang-
mingdeniesthepossibilityofwhatWesternphilosopherscallakrasia,or
weaknessofwill.WangYang-mingisalsoaradical"particularist";many
sectionsinthisworkillustratethis.
TaiChen,EvidentialCommentaryontheMeaningsofTermsintheMencius,
Sections3-5.(ThebesttranslationofthisisJohnEwell,"Re-inventingthe
Way:DaiZhen'sEvidentialCommentaryontheMeaningofTermsin
Mencius(1777),"Ph.D.dissertation,History,UniversityofCaliforniaat
Berkeley,1990(UniversityMicrofilmsInternationalOrderNumber
9126550),pp.111-125.AusablepublishedtranslationisAnn-pingChinand
MansfieldFreeman,TaiChenonMencius(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
Press,1990),pp.72-76.)Tai'sworkisorganizedasacommentaryonthe
Mencius,butinthissectionhepresentsaninterestinguniversalizability
argumentreminiscentofmanyWestern"idealobserver"theories.
MoviesAddressingChineseHistoryandCulture
ThethirdlargestmovieindustryintheworldisbasedinHongKong,sotherearethousandsofmovies
whichcouldbelisted.Itshouldbenotedthat,incontrasttotheChinese"artmovies"oftenshowninrep
moviehouses,theHongKongmoviesexcelinextremelybloodyandchoreographedviolence.Here,
though,isaverysmallselectionofeasilyaccessiblefilms,manymadeintheWest.
ChoiceForAChineseWoman:EnlightenmentInABuddhistConvent,aproductionof
ZDFincooperationwithZhongshanTVArtCenter.(Princeton,N.J.:Filmsforthe
Humanities&Sciences,1993)1videocassette(VHS)(35min.)
DoubleHappiness,Director:,Released1995[InEnglish]
LooksatthelifeofaCanadianwomanandthecomplexitiesofherlifeinlivinguptoher
goalsasanindependantwomanandtheexpectationsofherChinesefamily.
EatDrink,ManWoman,Director:AngLee,writtenbyMr.Lee,Hui-LingWangand
JamesSchamus,Released1994[InChinese,withEnglishsubtitles]
Thisisaboutafatherwhohaslosthisjoiedevivre.NohappierthanMr.Chu(Sihung
Lung)arethethreebeautifuldaughterswhoseromanticlivesarestar-crossedandwhocan't
seemtoescapetheirfather'sspell.Mr.Chu,awidower,isconsideredagreatmaninsome
circles,butathomeit'sanothermatter.Sundaydinnerforfatheranddaughtersisaterrible
ordeal.Familytensionsrunsohightheparticipantscanbarelyeveneat.It'spossiblethat
Mr.Lee,awarmlyengagingstorytellerunderanycircumstances,couldhavemadethe
fatheracelebratedsingerordog-trainerwithequalease.Asithappens,hepresentsMr.
ChuasthegreatestchefinTaipei,whichnotonlymakestheSundaydinnersequencea
spectacularaffairbutalsoturns"EatDrinkManWoman"intoanalmostedibletreat.
[fromreviewbyJanetMaslin,NewYorkTimes,August3,1994]NYT
FarewellMyConcubine,Director:ChenKaige;screenplay(inMandarin,withEnglish
subtitles)byLilianLeeandLuWei,basedonthenovelbyMissLee;154minutes,
Released1993
ThisChineseepicprovedtroublesometotheCommunistauthoritiesathome,andisoneof
thoseveryrarefilmspectaclesthatdeliverjustabouteverythingtheadsarelikelyto
promise:action,history,exoticcolor,multitudesinconfrontation,broadoverviewsof
socialandpoliticallandscapes,allintimatelyrootedinalovestoryofviciousintensity,the
kindthatplaysbestwhenitgoesbadly,whichismostofthetime.
Thetimecoveredis1925through1977.ThesettingisBeijing,earliercalledPekingand,
whennotthenationalcapital,Peiping.Thefilm'stitleistakenfromafavoriteworkin
Chineseoperarepertory,atragictaleoutofanancientpastthathasbecomemyth.It's
aboutaconcubinewho'ssoloyalandtruethatratherthanabandonherkingashefaces
militarydefeat,shechoosestodanceforhimonelasttimeandthentocutherthroatwith
hissword.
Theoperaisimportanttothefilmforseveralreasons.Itistheworkthatmakesstarsofthe
twoactorswhoareitsprincipalcharacters,DieyiandXiaolou.Itcomestodominatethe
professionallivesofbothmen,andeventoshapetheemotionalandsexualdevelopmentof
Dieyi,whoislovedbythepublicforthewomen'srolesheplaysintheall-maleopera
company.Theoperaisalsoareminderthatinlife,asinthestoryoftheconcubineandthe
king,eachofusmusttakeresponsibilityforhisownfate.
DieyiandXiaoloumeetasboyswhenbothareapprenticedtoanoperaschool.Itisthemid-
1920's,neartheendoftheperiodwhenwarlordsweretheeffectiverulersofChina.Dieyi,
apretty,gentleboy,isthesonofaprostitutewhodumpshimattheschooltogethimout
ofthebrothel.Whentheschool'smasterinitiallyrefusestoacceptDieyibecausehehassix
fingersononehand,hismothertakesanaxandchopsofftheextradigit.
Duringthosefirstdaysattheschool,whichmakesaDickensianorphanagelooklike
DisneyWorld,therobustXiaoloubefriendsDieyi,initiatingarelationshipthatbecomes
theobssessivecenterofDieyi'slife.Asoftenhappensinsuchfiction,crucialeventsinthe
friends'livescoincidewithgreatpubliceventsthat,inturn,shapetheirdestinies.
Inthisway``FarewellMyConcubine''interweavesthestoryofDieyiandXiaolouwiththe
JapaneseinvasionofChinainthe1930's,thesurrenderoftheJapaneseattheendofWorld
WarII,theruleoftheNationalistGovernment,theChinesecivilwar,thevictoryofthe
Communistsin1949and,finally,theCulturalRevolution(1966-1976)anditsexhausted
aftermath.
That'salotofgroundforanyfilmtocover,butMr.Chenandhisscreenwriters(LilianLee
andLuWei)succeedwithastonishingintelligenceandclarity.Forallofthecomplexities
ofitsleadingcharacters,``FarewellMyConcubine''isnotasubtlefilm.It'salong
declarativestatement,reportingcomplexitieswithoutinanywayreflectingthem,which
ultimatelydistinguishesafilmasthoroughlyaccomplishedasthisfromatrulygreatone.
Insteadofsubtleties,``FarewellMyConcubine''offersaphysicalproductionofgrandscale
andsometimesravishinggoodlooks,thoughthoselooksoverworkthedirector'sfondness
forshootingthroughfilteredlenses,glass,smoke,mist,gauze,fishtanksandflames.Allof
thesequencesrelatingtoChineseoperaareriveting,fromthebrutaldisciplineandtraining
oftheboystotheirexquisiteperformancesonthestagewhentheyhavegrownup.Mr.
Chenisadirectorwhohasasmuchcommandoftheintimatemomentsasofthebigscenes
ofcrowds,chaosandconfusion.
Thefilm'scentrallovestoryisactuallyatriangle:Dieyi,XiaolouandJuxian,thebeautiful,
strong-mindedprostitutewhomXiaolou,anaggressiveheterosexualasanadult,marriesto
thefuriousresentmentofhisco-starandboyhoodfriend.Dieyidriftsintoaliaisonwitha
rich,olderoperapatron.Theco-starsbreakuptheiractonthenighttheJapaneseenter
Peiping.YetwhenXiaolouisarrestedbytheJapanese,itisDieyiwhosingsacommand
performancefortheoccupationofficerstowinXiaolou'srelease.
Themovieisfullofmemorablescenes,includingXiaolou'scourtshipofJuxianwhileshe's
stillworkingatthenotoriousHouseofBlossoms,andaharrowingsequencetowardthe
endwhentheRedGuardssuccessfullyreducetheirinitiallydecentvictimstodesperate,
panickedwrecks,eachfuriouslydenouncingoldfriendsandloversascounter-
revolutionaries.It'sanarrativeofsuicides,miscarriages,betrayals,drugaddictionand
sorrowfulparadoxes:goodintentionsinevitablygowrong,whichcouldbeanobservation
abouttheCommunistrevolution.
Youdon'thavetobeaChinahandtounderstandwhy``FarewellMyConcubine''hashad
theBeijingauthoritiesclimbingthewalls.Thoughtheevilsitdescribeswouldnotbe
deniedbythepresentCommunistregime,thefilmdoesn'tpreachtruisms.Itcelebratesthe
rightsoftheindividualandtheimportanceofidiosyncrasy.Itstreatmentofthehomosexual
Dieyiissympathetictothepointofbeingdeeplyromantic.``FarewellMyConcubine''
examinestheactivitiesoftheRedGuardswithsuchimplacablefurythatthecriticism
extendstotheentiresystemitself,beforeandaftertheCulturalRevolution.
Probablythefilm'smostmaddeningfaultintheeyesofofficialBeijing,wherenonewsis
goodnews:Itwillbewitchaudienceseverywhere,peoplewhohaveneverbeforespenttwo
consecutivemomentsthinkingaboutthenatureoftheworld'sleast-knownmajorpower.
[fromareviewbyVincentCanby,NewYorkTimes,1993]NYT
InnoftheSixthHappiness,Director:MarkRobson,Starring:IngridBergman,Curt
Jurgens,RobertDonat.Released:1958[InEnglish]
EngrossingdramasetinChinajustpriortoWorldWarII.Bergmandoesafineactingjob
asanEnglishgirlwhobecomesabravemissionary.Sheshepherdschildrenthroughenemy
linesandcarriesonaromancewithJurgens.Donat,inhislastfilm,isnotableintheroleof
amandarin.Anexcitinghappyendingwrapsitupnicely.l58minutes[AOL]
GenghisKhan,Director:HenryLevin,Starring:OmarSharif,StephenBoyd,Francoise
Dorleac,Released:1964[InEnglish]
Apassablehistoricalepicwithsomegoodactionscenes,buthungupbyascriptloaded
withnonsense.TheplotfollowstheChinesewarriors'risetopowerandhiscampaignof
revengeagainsthisoldenemyJamuga,whomurderedGenghisKhan'sfather.Momentsof
decentactingstandoutamongtheroutine.126minutes[AOL]
TheGoodEarth,Director:SidneyFranklin;screenplaybyTalbotJennings,StarringTess
Slesinger,ClaudineWest.Released1937.
Basedonnobel-prizewinningauthorPearlBuck'smostsuccessfulnovel,thisfilmisthe
classicaccountoftheworldofaChinesepeasant.
TheJoyLuckClub,Director:WayneWang,StarringKieuChinh,TsaiChin,FranceNuyen
andLisaLu.WayneWang,Released1994.139mins.Video:HollywoodPicturesHome
Video;[Burbank,Calif.]:BuenaVistaHomeVideo[distributor],1994].
BasedonAmyTan'spopularnovel,thiscomplex,epictearjerkertellsoftheoftendifficult
relationshipsoffourimmigrantChinesewomenandtheiryuppiedaughters.Unfortunately,
theawkwardfilmevolvesasamazeofdisconnectedvignettesandflashbacks,especially
whenitinvolvesthehardshipsoftheolderwomenintheirnativeChina.Theactresses,
however,turninniftyperformanceswhilethemalepartsareprimarilycardboard
caricatures.135mins.[AOL]
TheLastEmperor,Director:BernardoBertulucci,StarringJohnLone.Released1988,164
mins.[inMandarinandEnglish]Video:BeverlyHills,Calif.:NelsonEntertainment:
BeautifullyfilmedepicofChina'slastimperialruler,PuYi-fromhisappointmenttothe
throneatagethreetohisdeathasanordinarycitizeninthePeople'sRepublicin1967.
FilmmakerBernardoBertoluccitellsanintimate,sweepingstoryofamancontrolledby
historicalforces.Thepictureisvisuallyexciting,generallyengrossingandfascinatingasa
portraitofmodernChinamadebywesterners.166mins.[AOL]
LeftHandofGod,Director:EdwardDmytryk,Starring:HumphreyBogart,GeneTierney,
LeeJ.CobbReleased:1955[InEnglish]
BogartstarsasanAmericanpilotposingasaCatholicpriestinChinajustafterWorldWar
II.Hegetsinvolvedwitharenegadewarlord,playedbyCobb,whoisimmersedinconflict.
Thedramaplodsalong,butit'swatchablebecauseofthetopcast,whichismuchbetter
thanthematerial.87minutes[AOL]
LittleBuddha,Director:BernardoBertolucci,StarringKeanuReeves,Released,199?[in
English]
FromrenowndirectorBernardoBertolucci("TheLastEmperor"),avisuallylavishbut
ultimatelydrabandabsurdexcursionintoEasternreligionandthelifeofBuddha.The
amamteurishplotinvolvesanine-year-oldSeattleboy(AlexWisendanger)whois
identifiedbyTibetanmonksasapossiblereincarnatedhighpriest.Thissituationfindsthe
youthandhisfather(ChrisIsaak)onatriptoKatmandu.Thelistlessdramaislacedwith
flashbacksto500B.C.whentheactualBuddha(KeanuReeves)apparentlylived.Shallow
characterizationsandlistlessactingadduptoalongmeditationratherthanamovingstory.
123mins.[AOL]
M.Butterfly,Director:DavidCronenberg,StarringJeremyIronsandJohnLone,Released
19[InEnglish]
BasedonDavidHwang'sBroadwayplay,thischillydrama,setinBeijing,China,in1964,
presentsanincrediblepremise:aFrenchdiplomatengagesinalong-termsexualaffairwith
aChineseoperasingerwhohebelievesisawomanbutactuallyisamanandaspy.The
storyapparentlyistrue,butthefilmfailstoclarifysuchafar-fetcheddeception.
Nevertheless,JeremyIrons,astheattache,andJohnLone,asthecraftyfemale
impersonator,gamelytrytobreathelifeintotheircharacters,butit'sanimpossibletask.
100mins.[AOL]
TemptationofaMonk,DirectorClaraLaw,StarringWuHsin-ku,Released1994,118mins.
Ahistoricalepicsetin7thCEChina.TheheroisoneGeneralShiwhohideshimselfasa
Buddhistmonkaftergettinginvolvedinafailedplottomurderaprince.Themovie
addressesboth7thcenturypolitcisandthereligiousquest.Althoughitisspectacular,
withoutanimmensebackgroundintheperiod,theviewercaneasilybecomebored.[In
MandarinwithEnglishSubtitles.VideoreleasedbyFoxLorber].
TheWeddingBanquet,DirectorAngLee;Released199?,[InMandarinandEnglish]
AcommedyofmannersinwhichagayTaiwanesebusinessmaninManhattanandhis
Americanlovergothroughaseriesofpretendedmarriagesituationsinordertoimpressthe
businessmen'svisitingTaiwaneseparents.Itisveryfunny.
TheauthorandmaintainerofthissiteisPaulHalsall[a picture!].Hecanbecontactedby
emailathalsall@murray.fordham.edu
Pleasedonothesitatetomailcommentsorsuggestions.
|Main|
ChineseCulturalStudies:
WebSites
CONTENTS
CulturalStudies:General
CulturalStudies:EastAsia
AsiaasaRegion
China:WebGuides
China:General
China:History:General
China:AncientandMedievalHistory
China:19thandEarly20thCenturyHistory
China:SincetheCommunistParty
China:Westerners
China:Art
China:Music
China:Language
China:Literature
China:Philosophy
China:Women
China:Gays
Japan
Korea
Tibet
Buddhism
CulturalStudies:MiddleEastandMore
AncientMiddleEast
JewishHistory
EarlyChristianity
IslamicHistory
AfricanHistory
IndianHistory
Cultural Studies: Women
Cultural Studies: Other Links
CulturalStudies:General
AnumberoffacultyinothercollegehavecompiledtrulyimpressiveWorldWideWeb
pageswhichpresentaguidetoworldculturesingeneral(includingtheMiddleEastand
China).
WorldCultures-byRichardHookeratWashingtonStateUniversity
SeeespeciallyhisINTERNETRESOURCESGUIDE
WorldCivilizations-byPaulBriansatWashingtonStateUniversity
SomeSitesofGeneralInterest
ArchiveofFineArts
ArtSource
HistoryofMathematics
HumanLanguages
TheOrientalInstituteoftheUniversityofChicago
PurdueUniversityWritingLab
WorldArtTreasures
WorldGeneticTreeofLanguages
WorldWideArtsResources--Museums
WorldWideArtsResources--Museums
CulturalStudies:EastAsia
ThereareanumberofWorldWideWebSiteswhichcollectinformationonChina.
Internet East Asian History Sourcebook
AsiaasaRegion
CERN/ANU-AsianStudiesWWWVL
H-NETASIA-PACIFICNETWORK
H-AsiaHomepage
H-AsiaLinks
AskAsiaHomepage
ForEducators
Hooker-EASTASIANTIMELINE
QueerAsian/Pacificresources
China:WebGuides
CERN/ANU-AsianStudies-China
Chinascape:ChineseWebIndex
ChinaWWWVL-InternetGuideforChinaStudies:History
ChinaLinksforHyperChinaUsers
China:General
China:OtherInformation
CondensedChina:AnIntroduction
ChineseCulture
Rivendell'sChinaPage
China:OverviewPage
SinoLogicSoftware-HyperChina
ChineseHistoricalandCulturalProject
WelcometotheChineseNewYearPage!
CHCPGoldenLegacyCurriculum:LunarCalendar
GIFimage443x721pixels
THEINSIDIOUSDr.FUMANCHU
ChinaintheVirtualClassroom
China:History:General
FairbankChineseHistoryLibrary:RobGray
LibraryofCongress/FederalResearchDivision/CountryStudies/Area
HandbookSeries/China
CHINESEHISTORY
HistoryofChina
HistoryofChina:TableofContents
5KYearsofChineseHistory
CondensedChina:ChineseHistoryforBeginners
China:AncientandMedievalHistory
ClassicalChineseHistoriography
ProfessorPaulBrians,atWashingtonStateUniversity,collectedalargenumberof
photographsforhislecturesonChina.Theyareworthcheckingout.
LectureonAncientCulturesinGeneral
Lecture1onChina
Lecture2onChina
Lecture3onChina
CourseReadings:MedievalChina
CourtLifeInChina
ImperialEras
China:19thandEarly20thCenturyHistory
AShortHistoryoftheOpiumWars
HistoryHouse:Stories:Christ'sBrotherGoestoChina
PacificCentury-China
PacificCentury-Asia
TheChineseBoycott-06.01
JapaneseArmy'sAtrocities--NanjingMassacre
NanjingMassacre-Translator:RobertGray
China:SincetheCommunistParty
TheGateofHeavenlyPeace
Tiananmen-1989
Flashback-96.03.20
History
BBCNews|Internetlinks|TopInternetlinks
August7-REVOLUTIONBYSTAGES
HarryWu
China:Westerners
JesuitChineseProvince
ProjectGutenbergEditionofTwoYearsintheForbiddenCity
TwoYearsintheForbiddenCity
TalesofoldShanghai-Library-HouseboatDaysinChina-1906
TalesofOldShanghai
China:Art
AsianArt
AsianArts
ChineseArtandCulture
ArtofChinaHomepage(AGEN-MC)
NationalPalaceMuseumU.S.TravelingExhibit
China:Music
ChineseMusicPage
ANCIENTCHINESEMUSIC
Indexof/pub/multimedia/chinese-music
China:Language
WordMappingTableforPinyin,Wade-GilesandYale
PronounciationofPhoneticSymbols
China:Literature
ChinatheBeautiful-ChineseArtandLiterature
ClassicalChinesePoetry
ChinesePoetrybyVariousAuthors
CourseReadings:AncientChineseLiterature
China:Philosophy
ChinesePhilosophyPage
Thigpen'sArtofWarpage
IntrotoIChing
Confucius,TheAnalects
TheDoctrineoftheMean(Zhongyong)
TheGreatLearning
LaoTzu,TaoTeChing
TaoismInformationPage
Tao,aSynthesisofTaoistPhilosophy
BibliographyofTaoisminEuropeanLanguages
SunTzu,OntheArtofWar
HistoryofChineseMathematicsTimeline
China:Women
Religion384:WomeninChineseReligion
WomeninChineseHistory--Bibliography
Footbinding
China:Gays
LongYangClub's"GlobalVillage"
LONGYANGCLUB-TORONTO
Homosexuality:HowtheeconomicsandpoliticsofSingaporehaveshapedthe
AnglicanDioceseanditsroleintheProvinceofSouthEastAsia
Japan
J-Guide:StanfordGuidetoJapanInformationResources
WWWResourcesforJapaneseHistory
JapaneseCultureandSociety
JapanfromaJapanesePerspective(ContentsPage)
HistoryTextbooksIssue:WWII
Korea
NorthKorea:History
HistoryofKoreaPg1
Korea:History
Tibet
NobelPrizeforPeace:AcceptanceSpeech,Oslo,Norway,1989byTenzinGyatso,
14thDalaiLamaofTibet........transcribedbyJessicaBrown,forMountainMan
Graphics,Australia,2ndDayof(theSouthern)Spring'95
TheTibetanBookofLivingandDying
DrepungLoselingMonastery
Shugdenversuspluralismandnationalunitycontroversyandclarification
TibetO.R.G.-TibetanBuddhism
Buddhism
Internet Indian History Sourcebook
BuddhistResources
TheBuddhistStudiesWWWVirtualLibrary
DharmaElectronicFileArchive
IntroductiontoBuddhism
AnintroductiontoBuddhistteachings
NCFBuddhismHomePage
TricycleBuddhistReview
TricycleBuddhistReview:BasicsofBuddhism
IndexofAAR_courses-Lotus_Sutra/
PraiseToQwanYin
Buddhism
CourseReadings:BuddhisminAsia
BuddhistResourcesLinksPitakaJodo-ShinshuIndex
Buddhism,anIntroduction
BuddhistArt
DharmaNetInternational
ImagesoftheBuddha
JournalofBuddhistEthics
TricycleBuddhistReview
BuddhaZine:MagazineArticles
HomosexualityandTheravadaBuddhism
Texts
TheDhammapada
TheMahamangalasutta
NavayanaSutra
Zen and Nicheren Buddhism
Texts
NavayanaSutra
Cheng-Tao-Ko,SongofEnlightenment
TenBulls(Zenpoemandpictures)
ChogyeZenWWWPage
HistoricalRootsofZen
ZenBuddhistTexts(U.TexasHouston,Texas)
ZenBuddhism&TaoismInformation(BorlaengeU.,Sweden)
WebSites
IntroductiontoNichirenShoshuBuddhism
CulturalStudies:MiddleEast
AncientMiddleEasternWorld
(Egyptian,Mesopotamian,Hebrew,GreekandRoman).
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook
ThiscoversancientEgyptandMesopotamia,Greece,Rome,andLateAntiquity.
JewishHistory
Internet Jewish History Sourcebook
DeadSeaScrollsExhibit
GlossaryfortheStudyofJudaism
TheJudaismPage
JudaismReadingList
ShortTimelineofJewishGroups
Timeline
EarlyChristianity
Internet Medieval Sourcebook
EarlyChristianTimelineto199A.D.
EarlyChristianTimeline,200-640A.D.
IslamicHistory
Internet Islamic History Sourcebook
IntroductiontoArabic("Let'sLearnArabic")
IslamicArchitectureinIsfahan(Images)
IslamicTextsandResourcesMetaPage
TheShi'aEncyclopedia
AfricanHistory
Internet African History Sourcebook
AfricanHistory
AfricanStudiesWorldWideWebLinks
AfricanMultimediaattheUniversityofPennsylvania
AfricanStudiesattheUniversityofPennsylvania
InternetResourcesonAfricanStudies
Nubia:ItsGloryandItsPeople
VanishedKingdomsoftheNile:TheRediscoveryofAncientNubia
IndianHistory
Internet Indian History Sourcebook
CulturalStudies:Women
Internet Women's History Sourcebook
UniversityofMarylandatCollegeParkGuidetoWomen'sStudies
CulturalStudies:OtherLinks
The World Lecture HallcomprisesacollectionoflinkstoWorldWideWeb
presentationsbyfacultyinallsubjects.
TheauthorandmaintainerofthissiteisPaulHalsall[a picture!].Hecanbecontactedby
emailathalsall@murray.fordham.edu
Pleasedonothesitatetomailcommentsorsuggestions.