Remembering 1994: Violence

interrupted, democracy restored

by Savitri Hensman
- on 081!"014
#ay "014 mar$ed t%e &'t% anniversary o' t%e
brutal end o' Sri (an$a)s civil *ar, amidst massive %uman rig%ts violations
by rival armies t%at $illed t%ousands o' civilians+ ,%ile many Sri (an$ans
'elt relieved to be 'ree o' t%e 'ear o' t%e (iberation -igers o' -amil .elam,
communalism %as since been allo*ed to /ouris% and democracy and t%e
rule o' la* undermined+
0et 1! 1ugust represents a very di2erent sort o' anniversary+ -*enty years
ago, t%roug% non-violent direct action, a %eavily-armed dictatorial regime
*as 'orced to give up po*er and peace *as temporarily restored in an
island *rac$ed by violence 'rom many 3uarters+ -%is *as ac%ieved in t%e
main t%roug% mass action by ordinary Sri (an$ans, t%oug% international
%uman rig%ts activism also played a part+ -%oug% t%e %opes raised by t%e
1994 general election *ere not completely 'ul&lled, 4 believe t%ere are
important lessons to be learned+
5ismantling constraints and c%anging culture
-%e outcome o' t%e 1ugust 1994 general election *as all t%e more
remar$able because, during t%e previous decade-and-a-%al', Sri (an$a %ad
plunged do*n to dept%s *%ic% 'e* could %ave imagined+
6rom 1948, *%en 7eylon 8as it *as t%en9 gained independence, serious
/a*s %ad been apparent, in particular t%e denial o' citi:ens%ip to upcountry
-amils, despite t%eir crucial contribution to t%e nation)s economy, and
ongoing neo-colonial relations%ip *it% t%e *est, *it% a negative impact on
prospects 'or development+ Ho*ever t%e small island in t%e 4ndian ;cean
e<celled in ot%er *ays, *it% a tradition o' open political debate and 'ree
elections, *idespread access to education and ma=or improvements in
public %ealt%+ 6e* could %ave imagined *%at *ould %appen =ust a 'e*
decades later+
-%e marginalisation o' minorities *as indeed a signi&cant problem,
e<pressed 'or instance in t%e 19>! ;?cial (anguage 1ct, better $no*n as
t%e Sin%ala ;nly 1ct, and 19>8 anti--amil riots+ So *as t%e alienation o'
poorer Sin%alese yout%, *%ic% boiled over in a s%ort-lived and brutally
suppressed rebellion in 19@1 by t%e Aanat%a Vimu$t%i Beramuna+ -%e
remnant o' t%e AVB t%en s%i'ted to t%e pat% o' parliamentary democracy,
see$ing to become a mainstream party+
C# Berera, a leader o' t%e le't-*ing (an$a Sama Sama=a Barty, %ad *arned
parliament in 19>! Dt%at t%ose *%o so* t%e *ind, *ill live to reap t%e
*%irl*ind+ -%e race %atred t%at is being roused no* *ill end in racial
disorder and bloods%edE you =ust cannot stop t%is *%en you start on t%is
slippery slope+ -%ere is no end until you reac% roc$ bottom,F ending in
Ddictators%ipF+ Gut t%e *arning *as *idely ignored, t%oug% an<iety about
%uman rig%ts intensi&ed in t%e a'termat% o' t%e AVB uprising and unrest
among -amils in t%e Cort% and .ast+
-%e HI government *as one o' several *%ic% %elped to arm t%e Sri (an$an
security 'orces to crus% t%e rebels in 19@1 and Gritis% intelligence o?cers
gave secret advice+ -%is *as to become an important alliance in years to
come+ 1t t%e same time, t%e 7ivil Rig%ts #ovement *as 'ormed in Sri (an$a
*%ile, overseas, organisations suc% as t%e 7eylon 7ommittee bringing
toget%er Sri (an$an and 'oreign %uman rig%ts activists also campaigned 'or
=ust and %umane treatment o' captured rebels+
-%e %istory o' subse3uent years can be read as a relentless succession o'
'ailures and %orrors, o' aut%oritarianism time and again triump%ing over
democracy, militarism over peace, narro* communalism over =ustice 'or all+
0et it *as also a time o' resistance, *%en t%roug% small 8sometimes
stealt%y9 acts o' %umanity and courage, si:eable numbers o' people %eld on
to values very di2erent 'rom t%e ruling elite and s%o*ed solidarity *it% one
anot%er across t%e communal barriers *%ic% t%e state %ad tried to
rein'orce+ Some also %ad t%e %umility to c%ange t%eir minds, letting go o'
pre=udices and 'alse con&dence in t%e aut%orities and re-e<amining t%eir
assumptions+ -%is ot%er narrative, t%oug% sometimes eclipsed by t%e brutal
deeds o' t%e seemingly all-po*er'ul, *as to prove crucial to t%e
developments o' 1994+
1n unpopular Sri (an$a 6reedom Barty lost po*er in t%e 19@@ parliamentary
election and t%e rig%t-*ing Hnited Cational Barty too$ over+ 4ts ent%usiasm
'or t%e global business sector appealed to t%e governments o' #argaret
-%atc%er and Ronald Reagan, *%ic% too$ control in t%e HI and HS1 in 19@9
and 1981 respectively+ -%ey provided t%e ne* ruling regime, %eaded by AR
Aaya*ardene, *it% t%e military and diplomatic support needed to trans'orm
t%e country into t%eir vie* o' an e?cient modern economy, in *%ic%
multinational corporations *ere encouraged to invest *it%out %aving to
bot%er about *or$ers) rig%ts and dissent *as stamped out+
1n e<ecutive presidency *as created, t%e president *as given po*er to ban
organisations and in 19@9 a draconian Brevention o' -errorism 1ct *as
passed+ 1 %and'ul o' young -amils intent on &g%ting 'or a separate state
posed little real t%reat but t%e government decided to eliminate t%is irritant
by treating t%e *ider -amil community in t%e Cort% and .ast as i' t%ey *ere
enemy aliens+ 0oung men, in particular, *ere pulled in, %umiliated and
sometimes tortured+ 1s a result, sympat%y 'or t%e e<tremists gre* and t%ey
gained ne* recruits 'rom among 'ormerly la*-abiding youngsters+
4n t%e Sout%, too, t%e government *as busy doing a*ay *it% opportunities
'or peace'ul dissent+ -%e civic rig%ts o' opposition leader Sirimavo
Gandaranai$e *ere ta$en a*ay+ 4ndependent trade unionists and ot%er *ere
assaulted by t%e HCB)s t%uggis% Junion), %eaded by industries minister 7yril
#at%e*+ He *as also becoming notorious 'or %is close alliance *it%
Gudd%ist mon$ #adi%e Bannasi%e Caya$e -%ero, *%ose &ercely anti-
minority r%etoric bore little resemblance to t%e *ise and compassionate
teac%ings o' t%e Gudd%a+ 4n universities too, learning *as disrupted, *%ile
t%e sc%ool curriculum *as distorted to indoctrinate c%ildren *it% racial
%atred against non-Sin%alese people+
-%e burning o' Aa2na)s %istoric library in 1981 *as an act o' state-sponsored
la*lessness, *it% ministers loo$ing on+ -%is %elped to unloose yet more o'
t%e restraints on violent and blatantly oppressive be%aviour+ 4n t%e .ast too,
minorities came under attac$+ Audges *ere t%reatened and t%ose in c%arge
/aunted t%eir apparent 'reedom to act as t%ey pleased+
-%e government staged a %eavily rigged re'erendum to supposedly
postpone t%e 'ort%coming parliamentary election *%en, as customary,
control *ould probably %ave s%i'ted to t%e ot%er main parliamentary party+
4nstead in 198K, using t%e ambus% and $illing o' some soldiers as a prete<t,
t%e state unleas%ed large-scale violence on -amils, a si:eable number o'
*%om *ere murdered, ot%ers driven out o' t%e Sout% by HCB t%ugs+ Some
Sin%alese people s%eltered -amils 'riends or even resisted t%e attac$ers but
many *ere in deep denial t%at anyt%ing serious *as *rong+ 4t *as a
sobering reminder o' %o* easily even decent people can be manipulated
during times o' %eig%tened passion L t%oug% some protested angrily against
*%at *as being done to t%eir neig%bours and t%eir country+
-%ere *as international outrage: in some cases tourists *ere *atc%ing as
de'enceless people *ere slaug%tered *%ile police or soldiers loo$ed on+
Ho*ever AR Aaya*ardene)s regime $ne* t%at it could act *it% impunity,
since it %ad t%e bac$ing o' t%e *orld)s greatest superpo*er, t%e HS state,
as *ell as its old ally in t%e HI+ 4ronically, a government *%ic% relied so
%eavily on 'oreign arms, aid, investment and in/uence *ould go on to
e<press resentment against outside Dinter'erenceF i' anyone abroad
e<pressed concern at t%e *ay in *%ic% ordinary Sri (an$ans *ere treated+
-%e Sri (an$an aut%orities s%amelessly blamed smaller parties including t%e
AVB and 7ommunist Barty 'or t%e violence *%ic% it %ad orc%estrated, and
banned t%em+ -%e moderately nationalist -amil Hnited (iberation 6ront *as
also barred, *it% t%e aim o' more-or-less eliminating e2ective opposition
*it%in or outside parliament *%ile maintaining a rationale 'or repression+
Gy dismantling t%e usual c%ec$s and balances suc% as an independent
=udiciary, and promoting a culture in *%ic% people o' di2erent et%nic groups
*ere encouraged to loo$ on one anot%er as enemies rat%er t%an valued
'ello*-Sri (an$ans, t%ose in po*er %oped to divide and rule, per%aps in
perpetuity, a ne* dynasty+ Bresident Aaya*ardene and %is associates set
about building a gleaming ne* parliamentary comple< in a ne*
administrative capital, Sri Aaya*ardenapura+ Ho*ever t%ings did not go
according to plan+
Signs o' %ope amidst brutal militarism
#uc% %as been *ritten about t%e %orri&c events t%at 'ollo*ed+
Movernment troops continued to %arass, detain *it%out trial and sometimes
$ill -amils+ #ore survivors =oined t%e armed nationalist movement+ -%is
largely abandoned its earlier idealistic r%etoric o' %o* it *as not against
ordinary Sin%alese people, engaging in vicious acts o' terror+ -iger supremo
Brab%a$aran eliminated potential rivals 'or leaders%ip or 'orced t%em to
/ee, t%oug% some escaped and continued to &g%t+ He too soug%t to rule li$e
a mediaeval monarc% but *it%out t%e code o' c%ivalry o' ancient times t%at
protected t%e de'enceless+ 7%ild soldiers *ere recruited and ordered to $ill
t%emselves rat%er t%an surrender+ -%ose -amils in areas %e controlled *%o
*ere t%oug%t to be disobedient to %im could end up imprisoned in
dungeons or dead+
7ommunal divisions gre* as -amil nationalists managed to alienate t%e
#uslims *%ose support t%ey %ad soug%t and ended up attac$ing rat%er
t%an recruiting t%em+ Some #uslim men in turn =oined pro-government
%ome guards, proving ine2ective in de'ending 'ello*-villagers but %arming
innocent -amils+
#ean*%ile in t%e Sout%, *%ere t%e government %ad suppressed peace'ul
dissent and done a*ay *it% democracy *%ile maintaining t%e trappings,
disa2ection spilled over into violence+ -%e AVB too$ up arms again, *inning
support among alienated yout% *%o sa* t%at t%e 'orm o' development
promoted by t%e government enric%ed its cronies but e<cluded t%em+ 4t too
turned to terrorism, including assassinating t%ose it disagreed *it%
politically, *%ile t%e state)s paramilitary deat% s3uads *%ic% %ad operated
in t%e .ast and Cort% turned t%eir attention to sout%ern villages+ (arge
numbers o' men in particular DdisappearedF, t%eir bodies o'ten burned
beyond recognition or buried in mass graves so t%at t%eir 'amilies did not
even %ave t%e consolation o' a 'uneral+ #any %ad not even been involved in
t%e rebellion+ 5issidents 'rom ot%er bac$grounds *ere also targeted+
#ean*%ile t%e 4ndian government %ad been dra*n in, since t%e Sri (an$an
regime)s actions *ere driving re'ugees to 4ndia and leading to anger t%ere,
especially in t%e sout%, *%ere many 'elt an a?nity *it% Sri (an$an -amils+
#oreover, amidst t%e continual rivalry 'or in/uence among international
po*ers, Sri (an$a)s alignment *it% t%e ,est included t%e ris$ o' a military
base in -rincomalee, t%reatening 4ndia)s security and status+
1n 4ndian Beace Ieeping 6orce ended up in Sri (an$a, to t%e disgust o'
prime minister Ranasing%e Bremadasa, *%o *ent on to become president+
1 measure o' devolution *as agreed t%at *ould $eep Sri (an$a intact but
alleviate -amil grievances to some e<tent+ -%e 4BI6 *as suc$ed into t%e
'ray and ended up $illing yet more civilians+
Gy t%en, rival -amil nationalist groups *ere 'orming s%i'ting alliances *it%
t%e 4ndian and Sri (an$an states to secure t%eir o*n advantage and, in t%e
case o' t%e smaller groups, survival+ -%e relentlessly po*er-%ungry
Brab%a$aran 'ell out *it% t%e 4ndian government and =oined 'orces *it% t%e
Sri (an$an army against 4ndia, *%ic% ended up *it%dra*ing+ -%e -igers
used government arms and e3uipment to *ipe out more o' t%eir 'ello*-
-amil nationalists be'ore again turning against t%e state, massacring
captured police o?cers to ma$e t%eir point+ -%e AVB too %ad aligned
t%emselves against 4ndian intervention, indulging in Sin%alese nationalist
=ingoism, but t%ey *ere doing badly and ended up being %eavily de'eated+
Gy 1990 Sri (an$a out*ardly seemed an e<ample o' t%e triump% o'
militarism+ ;rdinary members o' t%e police and armed 'orces, and rebel
groups, %ad in many cases been pressured into complicity *it% acts o'
e<treme violence, at ris$ o' ot%er*ise t%emselves being branded as
subversives or DtraitorsF+ -%e -igers massacred *ors%ippers at prayer in
mos3ues in t%e east and drove out #uslims in t%e nort%*est, despite t%e
pleas o' t%e -amil neig%bours *it% *%om t%ey lived in %armony+ -%e Sri
(an$an security 'orces bombed and s%elled *it%out ta$ing care to minimise
civilian casualties, in de&ance o' t%e la*s governing armed con/ict
*orld*ide+
.t%nic cleansing %ad seemingly become part o' li'e in Sri (an$a, along *it%
$idnapping, torture and murder+ 4ndeed assassination %ad become so muc%
part o' political culture t%at s%ado*y groups 'ormed *%ose alignment *as
unclear, per%aps pro-AVB or -iger or maybe *it% government lin$s, and
rumours abounded about *%o *as responsible 'or various $illings+ 6or
instance *%en government minister and Bremadasa rival Ran=an ,i=eratne
*as $illed in an e<plosion in 1991, supposedly by t%e -igers, t%ere *ere
di2ering t%eories as to *%o *as actually responsible+ Cumerous people %ad
been le't displaced, in=ured, bereaved or traumatised+
Ho*ever, in parallel to more visible displays o' po*er, a di2erent $ind o'
resistance %ad been ta$ing place, seemingly against impossible odds+ 1n
immediate priority in Sri (an$a and overseas *as caring 'or survivors and
trying to protect t%eir 'uture %ealt% and *ellbeing as 'ar as possible+ Gut
getting detainees tried or released and preventing 'urt%er abuses *as also
an urgent need+
1cross t%e island, among 'riends and 'amily, in *omen)s and c%urc% groups,
political parties and unions, voluntary organisations and, very importantly,
net*or$s o' Gudd%ists *%o did not %old *it% t%e government)s distortion o'
t%eir 'ait%, people *ere s%aring a di2erent vie* o' reality+ Nuietly or openly,
people *ere discarding t%e o?cial lies and bigotry and see$ing to &nd, and
communicate, t%e trut%+ -%is too$ considerable courage, and determination
not to give in to despair, but it meant t%at an alternative perspective *as
available to t%ose o' t%eir 'riends and neig%bours *%o came to realise t%e
%avoc *roug%t by communalism and militarism+
Iillings, disappearances and abuses o' po*er *ere painsta$ingly
documented and t%e aut%orities c%allenged, a ris$y process+ -%ere *ere
martyrs along t%e *ay, many o' t%em little-$no*n but a 'e* *%o %ad a %ig%
public pro&le+
-%ese included dissidents *it%in t%e HCB itsel', suc% as municipal councillor
(a$s%man Berera, *%o reportedly teamed up *it% %is 'riend Ric%ard de
Ooysa, a *riter and broadcaster, to prepare to put on a play in 1990
satirising t%e government+ Got% *ere ta$en but only de Ooysa)s body *as
'ound+ His mot%er became a prominent %uman rig%ts campaigner, rallying
ot%er parents o' t%ose disappeared or $illed, *%ile many in t%e elite *ere
s%oc$ed to discover t%at t%ose in t%eir o*n circles *ere not immune+
#ean*%ile, already si:eable communities o' Sri (an$an e<patriates in
countries suc% as t%e HI and 1ustralia %ad been enlarged as re'ugees
soug%t sa'ety+ -%ese included -amils bot% against and 'or t%e -igers and
Sin%alese dissidents, including la*yers *%o %ad de'ended alleged AVB
members and been targeted by deat% s3uads+ 7ampaigners *%o believed
in %uman rig%ts 'or all, democracy and et%nic e3uality *ere already active,
some but not all o' *%om *ere o' Sri (an$an descent+
.ven overseas Sri (an$ans *%o only believed in %uman rig%ts 'or some
people, and *ere un*illing to criticise t%e -igers or AVB, %ad to couc% t%eir
appeals to t%e public in t%e countries *%ere t%ey *ere living in terms o'
%umanitarianism or =ustice+ -%an$s to t%e meticulous documentation by
%uman rig%ts activists in Sri (an$a itsel', it *as becoming increasingly
di?cult 'or even t%e HI government to pretend t%at all *as *ell+ 4t *as also
apparent t%at t%e island %ad not become a tran3uil investors) paradise+ HI
%ig% commissioner in 7olombo 5avid Mladstone e<pressed dismay at t%e
government)s gross violations o' %uman rig%ts and *as e<pelled in 1991+
Gy t%en 7%andri$a Gandaranai$e Iumaratunga %ad ended up amongst t%e
e<iles in (ondon+ S%e %ad le't t%e S(6B to =oin a smaller party, t%e le't-*ing,
anti-communalist Sri (an$a #a%a=ana Ba$s%aya, %eaded by %er %usband,
and actor and idealistic politician *%o boldly called 'or radical c%ange+ He
%ad been assassinated in 1988, ostensibly by t%e AVB, and s%e %ad le't 'or
sa'ety *it% %er c%ildren+ S%e =oined t%e 7ommittee 'or 5emocracy and
Austice in Sri (an$a, an organisation to *%ic% 4 also belonged, *%ic%
campaigned 'or all *%ose rig%ts *ere violated, *%et%er -amil, Sin%alese or
#uslim+
1994 and lessons 'or today
S%e returned to Sri (an$a in t%e early 1990s to 'orm a Beople)s 1lliance
*%ic% broug%t toget%er t%e S(6B, S(#B, (SSB, 7B and ot%er parties,
committed to a restoration o' democracy and %uman rig%ts and to see$ing
a political rat%er t%an military settlement to t%e Det%nic 3uestionF+
Gy no* t%e ripples o' dissent %ad turned into a *ave+ Bremadasa %imsel'
'ell victim to t%e political culture o' violence %e %ad %elped to promote
*%en %e *as murdered by a suicide bomber in 199K+
;n 1! 1ugust 1994, ordinary Sri (an$ans *ere out on t%e streets in large
numbers to prevent t%e rigging o' t%e parliamentary election+ -%e HCB *as
de'eated and a measure o' democracy restored+ (ater t%at year,
Iumaratunga *on t%e presidential election+ -%e -igers too *ere under
pressure 'rom people in t%e areas t%ey controlled *%o *ere tired o' t%e
constant violence+ 6or a *%ile, t%e &g%ting *as %alted and people en=oyed
t%e relie' o' peace+
Some o' t%e %opes o' t%at period, *%en a regime determined to %old on to
po*er at any cost *as peace'ully van3uis%ed and Sri (an$a *as again
a?rmed as being a multi-et%nic and multi-religious country, *ere not
'ul&lled+ Brab%a$aran %ad no intention o' negotiating a settlement *%ic% did
not give %im dictatorial control over -amils in t%e Cort% and .ast, and t%e
-igers resumed %ostilities in 199>+ -amil civilians *ere ultimately to pay a
terrible price 'or %is belligerence+ Iumaratunga *as also persuaded not to
launc% devolution proposals unilaterally but rat%er to agree t%ese *it% t%e
HCB, one o' many mista$es s%e made+
0et *%at occurred *as remar$able and did bring about a longer-term
c%ange in national culture+
-%e situation no* is di2erent in many *ays 'rom t%at in t%e early 1990s+
Gut %uman rig%ts and democracy L including t%e independence o' t%e
=udiciary L are under attac$+ -rade unionists and communities protesting
against in=ustices 'ace roug% treatment and re'usal to listen+ Got% t%e Sri
(an$an state and t%e -iger leaders be%aved appallingly at t%e end o' t%e
civil *ar in "009 but t%e supporters o' bot% are in deep denial+ 4ndependent
=ournalists and ot%er dissidents %ave been murdered *it% impunity+
#inorities are again under attac$ and a deadly brand o' DSin%ala Gudd%ismF
is being peddled *it% t%e connivance o' t%e aut%orities+
Ber%aps %ope can be derived, and lessons learned, 'rom 1994+
6irstly, attempts to de'end t%e vulnerable and see$ =ustice, %o*ever 'utile
t%ey may appear, may ma$e a di2erence in t%e longer term+
Secondly, non-violent direct action is ordinarily a more e2ective strategy
*%en pursuing a =ust cause t%an military action+ -%is seems counter-
intuitive and re3uires bot% courage and discipline+
-%irdly, building alliances based on principles suc% as %uman rig%ts and
democracy 'or all, and ability to empat%ise *it% t%e su2ering and
aspirations o' ot%er people, is vitally important+ -%ose *%o *or$ in isolation,
'ocusing on a particular et%nic or religious identity or a particular cause t%at
a2ects t%em directly, *%ile not caring about ot%ers, are less li$ely to
succeed+
6ourt%ly, c%anging a political and social culture t%at is indi2erent to li'e and
to t%e *ellbeing o' t%e poorest and most marginalised is important, as *ell
as *or$ing at t%e level o' la*s and institutions+ -%at includes
ac$no*ledging *%at too$ place be'ore 1994 and trying to ensure t%at
'amilies &nally get t%e c%ance to &nd out *%at %appened to t%eir loved
ones, *%oever $illed t%em, as *ell as loo$ing to t%e 'uture+
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