Introduction to Statistics

The term statistics mean that the numerical statement as well as statistical methodology.
When it is used in the sense of statistical data it refers to quantitative aspects of things and is a
numerical description.
Example: Income of family, production of automobile industry, sales of cars etc. There
quantities are numerical. But there are some quantities which are not in themselves numerical
but can be made so by counting. The sex of a baby is not a number, but by counting the number
of boys, we can associate a numerical description to sex of all new born babies, for an example,
when saying that 60% of all live-born babies are boy. This information then, comes within the
realm of statistics.

Definition
The word statistics can be used is two senses, viz, singular and plural. In narrow sense
and plural sense, statistics denotes some numerical data (statistical data). In a wide and singular
sense statistics refers to the statistical methods. Therefore, these have been grouped under two
heads Statistics as a data and Statistics as a methods.

Statistics as a Data
Some definitions of statistics as a data are
a) Statistics are numerical statement of facts in any department of enquiring placed in relation to
each other.
- Powley
b) By statistics we mean quantities data affected to a marked extent by multiplasticity of course.
- Yule and Kendall
c) By statistics we mean aggregates of facts affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of
causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of
accuracy, collected in a systematic manner for pre-determinated purpose and placed in
relation to each other.
- H. Secrist
This definition is more comprehensive and exhaustive. It shows more light on
characteristics of statistics and covers different aspects.
Some characteristics the statistics should possess by H. Secrist can be listed as follows.
Statistics are aggregate of facts
Statistics are affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes.
Statistics are numerically expressed
Statistics should be enumerated / estimated
Statistics should be collected with reasonable standard of accuracy
Statistics should be placed is relation to each other.

Statistics as a methods
Definition
a) Statistics may be called to science of counting
- A.L. Bowley
b) Statistics is the science of estimates and probabilities.
- Boddington
c) Dr. Croxton and Cowden have given a clear and concise definition.
Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
numerical data.
According to Croxton and Cowden there are 4 stages.

a) Collection of Data
A structure of statistical investigation is based on a systematic collection of data. The
data is classified into two groups
i) Internal data and
ii) External data
Internal data are obtained from internal records related to operations of business
organisation such as production, source of income and expenditure, inventory, purchases and
accounts.
The external data are collected and purchased by external agencies. The external data
could be either primary data or secondary data. The primary data are collected for first time and
original, while secondary data are collected by published by some agencies.
b) Organisations of data
The collected data is a large mass of figures that needs to be organised. The collected
data must be edited to rectify for any omissions, irrelevant answers, and wrong computations.
The edited data must be classified and tabulated to suit further analysis.
c) Presentation of data
The large data that are collected cannot be understand and analysis easily and quickly.
Therefore, collected data needs to be presented in tabular or graphic form. This systematic order
and graphical presentation helps for further analysis.
d) Analysis of data
The analysis requires establishing the relationship between one or more variables.
Analysis of data includes condensation, abstracting, summarization, conclusion etc. With the
help of statistical tools and techniques like measures of dispersion central tendency, correlation,
variance analysis etc analysis can be done.
e) I nterpretation of data
The interpretation requires deep insight of the subject. Interpretation involves drawing
the valid conclusions on the bases of the analysis of data. This work requires good experience
and skill. This process is very important as conclusions of results is done based on interpretation.
We can define statistics as per Seligman as follows.
Statistics is a science which deals with the method and of collecting, classifying,
presenting, comparing and interpretating the numerical data collected to throw light on
enquiry.

Importance of statistics
In todays context statistics is indispensable. As the use of statistics is extended to
various field of experiments to draw valid conclusions, it is found increased importance and
usage. The number of research investigations in the field of economics and commerce are
largely statistical. Further, the importance and statistics in various fields are listed as below.
a) State Affairs: In state affairs, statistics is useful in following ways
1. To collect the information and study the economic condition of people in the states.
2. To asses the resources available in states.
3. To help state to take decision on accepting or rejecting its policy based on statistics.
4. To provide information and analysis on various factors of state like wealth, crimes,
agriculture experts, education etc.
b) Economics: In economics, statistics is useful in following ways
1. Helps in formulation of economic laws and policies
2. Helps in studying economic problems
3. Helps in compiling the national income accounts.
4. Helps in economic planning.
c) Business
1. Helps to take decisions on location and size
2. Helps to study demand and supply
3. Helps in forecasting and planning
4. Helps controlling the quality of the product or process
5. Helps in making marketing decisions
6. Helps for production, planning and inventory management.
7. Helps in business risk analysis
8. Helps in resource long term requirements, in estimating consumers preference and helps
in business research.
d) Education: Statistics is necessary to formulate the polices regarding start of new courses,
consideration of facilities available for proposed courses.
e) Accounts and Audits:
1. Helps to study the correlation between profits and dividends enable to know trend of
future profits.
2. In auditing sampling techniques are followed.

Functions of statistics
Some important functions of statistics are as follows
1. To collect and present facts in a systematic manner.
2. Helps in formulation and testing of hypothesis.
3. Helps in facilitating the comparison of data.
4. Helps in predicting future trends.
5. Helps to find the relationship between variable.
6. Simplifies the mass of complex data.
7. Help to formulate polices.
8. Helps Government to take decisions.

Limitations of statistics
1. Does not study qualitative phenomenon.
2. Does not deal with individual items.
3. Statistical results are true only on an average.
4. Statistical data should be uniform and homogeneous.
5. Statistical results depends on the accuracy of data.
6. Statistical conclusions are not universally true.
7. Statistical results can be interpreted only if person has sound knowledge of statistics.

Distrust of Statistics
Distrust of statistics are due to lack of knowledge and limitations of its uses, but not due
to statistical sciences.
Distrust of statistics are due to following reasons.
a) Figures are manipulated or incompleted.
b) Quoting figures without their context.
c) Inconsistent definitions.
d) Selection of non-representative statistical units.
e) Inappropriate comparison
f) Wrong inference drawn.
g) Errors in data collection.

Statistical Data
Statistical investigation is a long and comprehensive process and requires systematic
collection of data in large size. The validity and accuracy of the conclusion or results of the
study depends upon how well the data were gathered. The quality of data will greatly influence
the conclusions of the study and hence importance is to be given to the data collection process.
Statistical data may be classified as Primary Data and Secondary Data based on the
sources of data collection.

Primary data
Primary data are those which are collected for the first time by the investigator /
researchers and are thus original in character. Thus, data collected by investigator may be for the
specific purpose / study at hand. Primary data are usually in the shape of raw materials to which
statistical methods are applied for the purpose of analysis and interpretation.

Secondary data
Secondary have been already collected for the purpose other than the problem at hand.
These data are those which have already been collected by some other persons and which have
passed through the statistical analysis at least once. Secondary data are usually in the shape of
finished products since they have been already treated statistically in one or the other form.
After statistical treatment the primary data lose their original shape and becomes secondary data.
Secondary data of one organisation become the primary data of other organisation who first
collect and publish them.

Primary Vs Secondary Data
Primary data are originated by researcher for specific purpose / study at hand while
secondary data have already been collected for purpose other than research work at hand.
Primary data collection requires considerably more time, relatively expensive. While the
secondary data are easily accessible, inexpensive and quickly obtained.
Table A compression of Primary and Secondary Data
Primary data Secondary data
Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems
Collection process Very involved Rapid and easy
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long Short
Suitability Its suitability is positive It may or may not suit the
object of survey
Originality It is original It is not original
Precautions No extra precautions
required to use the data
It should be used with
extra case

Limitations of secondary data
a) Since secondary data is collected for some other purpose, its usefulness to current
problem may be limited in several important ways, including relevancies and accuracy.
b) The objectives, nature and methods used to collect secondary data may not be appropriate
to present situation.
c) The secondary data may not be accurate, or they may not be completely current or
dependable.

Criteria for evaluating secondary data
Before using the secondary data it is important to evaluate them on following factors
a) Specification and methodology used to collect the data
b) Error and accuracy of data of the data
c) The currency
d) The objective The purpose for which data were collected
e) The nature content of data
f) The dependability

Sources of data
Primary source The methods of collecting primary data.
When data is neither internally available nor exists as a secondary source, then the
primary sources of data would be approximate.
The various method of collection of primary data are as follows
a) Direct personal investigation
- Interview
- Observation
b) Indirect or oral investigation
c) Information from local agents and correspondents
d) Mailded questionnaires and schedules
e) Through enumerations

Secondary source The methods of collecting secondary data
i) Published Statistics
a) Official publications of Central Government
Ex: Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) Ministry of planning
- National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)
- Office of the Registrar General and Census Committee GOI
- Director of Statistics and Economics Ministry of Agriculture
- Labour Bureau Ministry of Labour etc.
ii) Publications of Semi-government organisation
Ex:
- The institute of foreign trade, New Delhi
- The institute of economic growth, New Delhi.
iii) Publication of research institutes
Ex:
- Indian Statistical Institute
- Indian Agriculture Statistical Institute
- NCRET Publications
- Indian Standards Institute etc.
iv) Publication of Business and Financial Institutions
Ex:
- Trade Association Publications like Sugar factory, Textile mill, Indian chamber of
Industry and Commerce.
- Stock exchange reports, Co-operative society reports etc.
v) News papers and periodicals
Ex:
- The Financial Express, Eastern Economics, Economic Times, Indian Finance, etc.
vi) Reports of various committees and commissions
Ex:
- Kothari commission report on education
- Pay commission reports
- Land perform committee reports etc.
vii) Unpublished statistics
- Internal and administrative data like Periodical Loss, Profit, Sales, Production
Rate, Balance Sheet, Labour Turnover, Budges, etc.

Classification and Tabulation
The data collected for the purpose of a statistical inquiry some times consists of a few
fairly simple figures which can be easily understood without any special treatment. But more
often there is an overwhelming mass of raw data without any structure. Thus, unwidely,
unorganised and shapeless mass of collected is not capable of being rapidly or easily associated
or interpreted. Unorganised data are not fit for further analysis and interpretation. In order to
make the data simple and easily understandable the first task is not condense and simplify them
in such a way that irrelevant datas are removed and their significant features are stand out
prominently. The procedure adopted for this purpose is known as method of classification and
tabulation. Classification helps proper tabulation.
Classified and arranged facts speak themselves; unarranged, unorganised they are dead
as mutton.
- Prof. J.R. Hicks
Meaning of Classification
Classification is a process of arranging things or data in groups or classes according to
their resemblances and affinities and gives expressions to the unity of attributes that may subsit
among a diversity of individuals.

Definition of Classification
Classification is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to
their common characteristics or separating them into different but related parts.
- Secrist
The process of grouping large number of individual facts and observations on the basis of
similarity among the items, is called classification.
- Stockton & Clark
Characteristics of classification
a) Classification performs homogeneous grouping of data
b) It brings out points of similarity and dissimilating
c) The classification may be either real or imaginary
d) Classification is flexible to accommodate adjustments

Objectives / purposes of classifications
i) To simplify and condense the large data
ii) To present the facts to easily in understandable form
iii) To allow comparisons
iv) To help to draw valid inferences
v) To relate the variables among the data
vi) To help further analysis
vii) To eliminate unwanted data
viii) To prepare tabulation
Guiding principles (rules) of classifications
Following are the general guiding principles for good classifications
a) Exhaustive: Classification should be exhaustive. Each and every item in data
must belong to one of class. Introduction of residual class (i.e. either,
miscellaneous etc.) should be avoided.
b) Mutually exclusive: Each item should be placed at only one class
c) Suitability: The classification should confirm to object of inquiry.
d) Stability: Only one principle must be maintained throughout the classification and
analysis.
e) Homogeneity: The items included in each class must be homogeneous.
f) Flexibility: A good classification should be flexible enough to accommodate new
situation or changed situations.

Modes / Types of Classification
Modes / Types of classification refers to the class categories into which the data could be
sorted out and tabulated. These category depends on the nature of data and purpose for which
data is being sought.

Important types of classification
a) Geographical (i.e. on the basis of area or region wise)
b) Chronological (On the basis of Temporal / Historical, i.e. with respect to time)
c) Qualitative (on the basis of character / attributes)
d) Numerical, quantitative (on the basis of magnitude)

a) Geographical Classification
In geographical classification, the classification is based on the geographical regions.
Ex: Sales of the company (In Million Rupees) (region wise)
Region Sales
North 285
South 300
East 185
West 235
b) Chronological Classification
If the statistical data are classified according to the time of its occurrence, the type of
classification is called chronological classification.
Sales reported by a departmental store
Month
Sales
(Rs.) in lakhs
January 22
February 26
March 32
April 25
May 27
June 29
July 30
August 30
c) Qualitative Classification
In qualitative classifications, the data are classified according to the presence or absence
of attributes in given units. Thus, the classification is based on some quality characteristics /
attributes.
Ex: Sex, Literacy, Education, Class grade etc.
Further, it may be classified as
a) Simple classification b) Manifold classification
i) Simple classification: If the classification is done into only two classes then classification
is known as simple classification.
Ex: a) Population in to Male / Female
b) Population into Educated / Uneducated
ii) Manifold classification: In this classification, the classification is based on more than one
attribute at a time.
Ex:

d) Quantitative Classification: In Quantitative classification, the classification is based on
quantitative measurements of some characteristics, such as age, marks, income, production,
sales etc. The quantitative phenomenon under study is known as variable and hence this
classification is also called as classification by variable.
Ex:
For a 50 marks test, Marks obtained by students as classified as follows
Population
Smokers Non-smokers
Illiterate Literate
Male Female
Male Female
Literate Illiterate

Male Female
Male Female
Marks No. of students
0 10 5
10 20 7
20 30 10
30 40 25
40 50 3
Total Students = 50
In this classification marks obtained by students is variable and number of students in
each class represents the frequency.


Meaning and Definition of Tabulation
Tabulation may be defined as systematic arrangement of data is column and rows. It is
designed to simplify presentation of data for the purpose of analysis and statistical inferences.

Major Objectives of Tabulation
1. To simplify the complex data
2. To facilitate comparison
3. To economise the space
4. To draw valid inference / conclusions
5. To help for further analysis

Differences between Classification and Tabulation
1. First data are classified and presented in tables; classification is the basis for tabulation.
2. Tabulation is a mechanical function of classification because is tabulation classified data
are placed in row and columns.
3. Classification is a process of statistical analysis while tabulation is a process of
presenting data is suitable structure.

Classification of tables
Classification is done based on
1. Coverage (Simple and complex table)
2. Objective / purpose (General purpose / Reference table / Special table or summary table)
3. Nature of inquiry (primary and divided table).
Ex:
a) Simple table: Data are classified based on only one characteristic
Distribution of marks
Class Marks No. of students
30 40 20
40 50 20
50 60 10
Total 50

b) Two-way table: Classification is based on two characteristics
Class Marks
No. of students
Boys Girls Total
30 40 10 10 20
40 50 15 5 20
50 60 3 7 10
Total 28 22 50
Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution is a table used to organize the data. The left column (called
classes or groups) includes numerical intervals on a variable under study. The right column
contains the list of frequencies, or number of occurrences of each class/group. Intervals are
normally of equal size covering the sample observations range.
It is simply a table in which the gathered data are grouped into classes and the number of
occurrences which fall in each class is recorded.

Definition
A frequency distribution is a statistical table which shows the set of all distinct values of
the variable arranged in order of magnitude, either individually or in groups with their
corresponding frequencies.
- Croxton and Cowden
A frequency distribution can be classified as
a) Series of individual observation
b) Discrete frequency distribution
c) Continuous frequency distribution

a) Series of individual observation
Series of individual observation is a series where the items are listed one after the each
observations. For statistical calculations, these observation could be arranged is either ascending
or descending order. This is called as array.
Ex:
Roll No.
Marks obtained
in statistics
paper
1 83
2 80
3 75
4 92
5 65
The above data list is a raw data. The presentation of data in above form doesnt reveal
any information. If the data is arranged in ascending / descending in the order of their
magnitude, which gives better presentation then, it is called arraying of data.

Discrete (ungrouped) Frequency Distribution
If the data series are presented in such away that indicating its exact measurement of
units, then it is called as discrete frequency distribution. Discrete variable is one where the
variates differ from each other by definite amounts.
Ex:
Assume that a survey has been made to know number of post-graduates in 10 families at
random, the resulted raw data could be as follows.
0, 1, 3, 1, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4
This data can be classified into an ungrouped frequency distribution. The number of
post-graduates becomes variable (x) for which we can list the frequency of occurrence (f) in a
tabular from as follows;
Number of post
graduates (x)
Frequency
(f)
0 2
1 2
2 4
3 1
4 1
The above example shows a discrete frequency distribution, where the variables has
discrete numerical values.
Continuous frequency distribution (grouped frequency distribution)
Continuous data series is one where the measurements are only approximations and are
expressed in class intervals within certain limits. In continuous frequency distribution the class
interval theoretically continuous from the starting of the frequency distribution till the end
without break. According to Boddington the variable which can take very intermediate value
between the smallest and largest value in the distribution is a continuous frequency distribution.
Ex:
Marks obtained by 20 students in students exam for 50 marks are as given below
convert the data into continuous frequency distribution form.
18 23 28 29 44 28 48 33 32 43
24 29 32 39 49 42 27 33 28 29
By grouping the marks into class interval of 10 following frequency distribution table can
be formed.
Marks No. of students
0 - 5 0
5 10 0
10 15 0
15 20 1
20 25 2
25 30 7
30 35 4
35 40 1
40 45 3
45 50 2

Technical terms used in formulation frequency distribution
a) Class limits:
The class limits are the smallest and largest values in the class.
Ex:
0 10, in this class, the lowest value is zero and highest value is 10. the two boundaries
of the class are called upper and lower limits of the class. Class limit is also called as class
boundaries.
b) Class intervals
The difference between upper and lower limit of class is known as class interval.
Ex:
In the class 0 10, the class interval is (10 0) = 10.
The formula to find class interval is gives on below

R
S L
i


L = Largest value
S = Smallest value
R = the no. or classes
Ex:
If the marks of 60 students in a class varies between 40 and 100 and if we want to form 6
classes, the class interval would be

R
S L
i

=
6
40 100
=
6
60
= 10 L = 100
S = 40
K = 6
Therefore, class intervals would be 40 50, 50 60, 60 70, 70 80, 80 90 and 90
100.

Methods of forming class-interval
a) Exclusive method (overlapping)
In this method, the upper limits of one class-interval is the lower limit of next class. This
methods makes continuity of data.
Ex:
Marks No. of students
20 30 5
30 40 15
40 50 25
A student whose mark is between 20 to 29.9 will be included in the 20 30 class.
Better way of expressing is
Marks No. of students
20 to les than 30
(More than 20 but les than 30)
5
30 to les than 40 15
40 to les than 50 25
Total Students 50

b) I nclusive method (non-overlaping)
Ex:
Marks No. of students
20 29 5
30 39 15
40 49 25
A student whose mark is 29 is included in 20 29 class interval and a student whose
mark in 39 is included in 30 39 class interval.

Class Frequency
The number of observations falling within class-interval is called its class frequency.
Ex: The class frequency 90 100 is 5, represents that there are 5 students scored between 90 and
100. If we add all the frequencies of individual classes, the total frequency represents total
number of items studied.

Magnitude of class interval
The magnitude of class interval depends on range and number of classes. The range is
the difference between the highest and smallest values is the data series. A class interval is
generally in the multiples of 5, 10, 15 and 20.
Sturges formula to find number of classes is given below
K = 1 + 3.322 log N.
K = No. of class
log N = Logarithm of total no. of observations
Ex: If total number of observations are 100, then number of classes could be
K = 1 + 3.322 log 100
K = 1 + 3.322 x 2
K = 1 + 6.644
K = 7.644 = 8 (Rounded off)
NOTE: Under this formula number of class cant be less than 4 and not greater than 20.
Class mid point or class marks
The mid value or central value of the class interval is called mid point.
Mid point of a class =
2
class) of limit upper class of limit (lower


Sturges formula to find size of class interval
Size of class interval (h) =
N log 322 . 3 1
Range

Ex: In a 5 group of worker, highest wage is Rs. 250 and lowest wage is 100 per day. Find the
size of interval.
h =
N log 322 . 3 1
Range

=
50 log 322 . 3 1
100 250

= 55.57 56

Constructing a frequency distribution
The following guidelines may be considered for the construction of frequency
distribution.
a) The classes should be clearly defined and each observations must belong to one and to
only one class interval. Interval classes must be inclusive and non-overlapping.
b) The number of classes should be neither too large nor too small.
Too small classes result greater interval width with loss of accuracy. Too many class
interval result is complexity.
c) All interval should be of the same width. This is preferred for easy computations.
The width of interval =
classes of Number
Range

d) Open end classes should be avoided since creates difficulty in analysis and interpretation.
e) Intervals would be continuous throughout the distribution. This is important for
continuous distribution.
f) The lower limits of the class intervals should be simple multiples of the interval.
Ex: A simple of 30 persons weight of a particular class students are as follows. Construct a
frequency distribution for the given data.
62 58 58 52 48 53 54 63 69 63
57 56 46 48 53 56 57 59 58 53
52 56 57 52 52 53 54 58 61 63
Steps of construction
Step 1
Find the range of data (H) Highest value = 70
(L) Lowest value = 46
Range = H L = 69 46 = 23
Step 2
Find the number of class intervals.
Sturges formula
K = 1 + 3.322 log N.
K = 1 + 3.222 log 30
K = 5.90 Say K = 6
No. of classes = 6

Step 3
Width of class interval
Width of class interval =
classes of Number
Range
= 4 883 . 3
6
23


Step 4
Conclusions all frequencies belong to each class interval and assign this total frequency
to corresponding class intervals as follows.
Class interval Tally bars Frequency
46 50 | | | 3
50 54 | | | | | | | 8
54 58 | | | | | | | 8
58 62 | | | | | 6
62 66 | | | | 4
66 70 | 1

Cumulative frequency distribution
Cumulative frequency distribution indicating directly the number of units that lie above
or below the specified values of the class intervals. When the interest of the investigator is on
number of cases below the specified value, then the specified value represents the upper limit of
the class interval. It is known as less than cumulative frequency distribution. When the
interest is lies in finding the number of cases above specified value then this value is taken as
lower limit of the specified class interval. Then, it is known as more than cumulative
frequency distribution.
The cumulative frequency simply means that summing up the consecutive frequency.
Ex:
Marks No. of students
Less than
cumulative
frequency
0 10 5 5
10 20 3 8
20 30 10 18
30 40 20 38
40 50 12 50
In the above less than cumulative frequency distribution, there are 5 students less than
10, 3 less than 20 and 10 less than 30 and so on.
Similarly, following table shows greater than cumulative frequency distribution.
Ex:
Marks No. of students
Less than
cumulative
frequency
0 10 5 50
10 20 3 45
20 30 10 42
30 40 20 32
40 50 12 12
In the above greater than cumulative frequency distribution, 50 students are scored
more than 0, 45 more than 10, 42 more than 20 and so on.

Diagrammatic and Graphic Representation
The data collected can be presented graphically or pictorially to be easy understanding
and for quick interpretation. Diagrams and graphs gives visual indications of magnitudes,
groupings, trends and patterns in the data. There parameter can be more simply presented in the
graphical manner. The diagrams and graphs helps for comparison of the variables.

Diagrammatic presentation
A diagram is a visual form for presentation of statistical data. The diagram refers various
types of devices such as bars, circles, maps, pictorials and cartograms etc.

Importance of Diagrams
1. They are simple, attractive and easy understandable
2. They give quick information
3. It helps to compare the variables
4. Diagrams are more suitable to illustrate discrete data
5. It will have more stable effect in the readers mind.

Limitations of diagrams
1. Diagrams shows approximate value
2. Diagrams are not suitable for further analysis
3. Some diagrams are limited to experts (multidimensional)
4. Details cannot be provided fully
5. It is useful only for comparison

General Rules for drawing the diagrams
i) Each diagram should have suitable title indicating the theme with which diagram is
intended at the top or bottom.
ii) The size of diagram should emphasize the important characteristics of data.
iii) Approximate proposition should be maintained for length and breadth of diagram.
iv) A proper / suitable scale to be apoted for diagram
v) Selection of approximate diagram is important and wrong selection may mislead the
reader.
vi) Source of data should be mentioned at bottom.
vii) Diagram should be simple and attractive
viii) Diagram should be effective than complex.

Some important types of diagrams
a) One dimensional diagrams (line and bar)
b) Two-dimensional diagram (rectangle, square, circle)
c) Three dimensional diagram (cube, sphere, cylinder etc.)
d) pictogram
e) Cartogram

a) One dimensional diagrams (line and bar)
In one dimensional diagrams, the length of the bars or lines are taken into account.
Width of the bars are not considered. Bar diagrams are classified mainly as follows.
i) Line diagram
ii) Bar diagram
- Vertical bar diagram
- Horizontal bar diagram
- Multiple (compound) bar diagram
- Sub-divided (component) bar diagram
- Percentage subdivided bar diagram
i) Line diagram
This is simplest type of one dimensional diagram. On the basis of size of the figures,
heights of the bar / lines are drawn. The distance between bars are kept uniform. The limitation
of this diagram are it is not attractive cannot provide more than one information.

Ex: Draw the line diagram for the following data
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
No. of students passed in first
class with distinction
5 7 12 5 13 15
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
(15)
(13)
(5)
(12)
(7)
(5)


N
o
.

o
f

s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s

p
a
s
s
e
d

i
n

F
C
D
Year

Indication of diagram: Highest FCD is at 2006 and lowest FCD are at 2001 and 2004.

b) Simple bars diagram
A simple bar diagram can be drawn using horizontal or vertical bar. In business and
economics, it is very a common diagram.

Vertical bar diagram
The annual expresses of maintaining the car of various types are given below. Draw the
vertical bar diagram. The annual expenses of maintaining includes (fuel + maintenance + repair
+ assistance + insurance).
Type of the car Expense in Rs. / Year
Maruthi Udyog 47533
Hyundai 59230
Tata Motors 63270
Source: 2005 TNS TCS Study
Published at: Vijaya Karnataka, dated: 03.08.2006

Source: 2005 TNS TCS Study
Published at: Vijaya Karnataka, dated: 03.08.2006
Indicating of diagram
a) Annual expenses of Maruthi Udyog brand car is comparatively less with other
brands depicted
b) High annual expenses of Tata motors brand can be seen from diagram.

Horizontal bar diagram
World biggest top 10 steel makers are data are given below. Draw horizontal bar
diagram.
Steel
maker
Arcelor
Mittal
Nippon POSCO JFE
BAO
Steel
US
Steel
NUCOR
RIVA Thyssen-
krupp
Tangshan
47533
59230
63270
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
Maruthi Udyog Hyundai Tata Motors
Prodn.
in
million
tonnes
110 32 31 30 24 20 18 18 17 16

Source: ISSB Published by India Today

Compound bar diagram (Multiple bar diagram)
Multiple bar diagrams are used to provide more information than simple bar diagram.
Multiple bar diagram provides more than one phenomenon and highly useful for direct
comparison. The bars are drawn side by side and different columns, shades hatches can be used
for indicating each variables used.
Ex: Draw the bar diagram for the following data. Resale value of the cars (Rs. 000) are as
follows.
Year (Model) Santro Zen Wagonr
2003 208 252 248
2004 240 278 274
2005 261 296 302
110
32
31
30
24
20
18
18
17
16
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Arcelor Mittal
Nippon
POSCO
JFE
BAO Steel
US Steel
NUCOR
RIVA
Thyssen-krupp
Tangshan
T
o
p

-

1
0

S
t
e
e
l

M
a
k
e
r
s
Production of Steel (Million Tonnes)

Source: True value used car purchase data
Published by: Vijaya Karnataka, dated: 03.08.2006
Ex: Represent following in suitable diagram
Class A B C
Male 1000 1500 1500
Female 500 800 1000
Total 1500 2300 2500
208
252
248
240
278
274
261
296
302
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1 2 3
Model of Car
V
a
l
u
e

i
n

R
s
.
Santro Zen Wagnor

Ex: Draw the suitable diagram for following data
Mode of
investment
Investment in 2004 in Rs. Investment in 2005 in Rs.
Investment %age Investment %age
NSC 25000 43.10 30000 45.45
MIS 15000 25.86 10000 15.15
Mutual Fund 15000 25.86 25000 37.87
LIC 3000 5.17 1000 1.52
Total 58000 100 66000 100
1000
500
1500
800
1500
1000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

(
i
n

N
o
s
.
)
1 2 3
Class
Male Female
1500
2300
2500
2004 2005
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
45.45
15.15
37.87
1.52 5.17
25.86
25.86
43.10


%

o
f

I
n
v
e
s
t
m
e
n
t
Year

Two-dimensional diagram
In two-dimensional diagram both breadth and length of the diagram (i.e. area of the
diagram) are considered as area of diagram represents the data. The important two dimensional
diagrams are
a) Rectangular diagram
b) Square diagram

a) Rectangular diagram
Rectangular diagrams are used to depict two or more variables. This diagram helps for
direct comparison. The area of rectangular are kept in proportion to the values. It may be of two
types.
i) Percentage sub-divided rectangular diagram
ii) Sub-divided rectangular diagram
In former care width of the rectangular are proportional to the values, the various
components of the values are converted into percentages and rectangles are divided according to
them. While later case is used to show some related phenomenon like cost per unit, quality of
production etc.
Ex: Draw the rectangle diagram for following data
Item Expenditure
Expenditure in Rs.
Family A Family B
Provisional stores 1000 2000
Education 250 500
Electricity 300 700
House Rent 1500 2800
Vehicle Fuel 500 1000
Total 3500 7000

Total expenditure will be taken as 100 and the expenditure on individual items are
expressed in percentage. The width of two rectangles are in proportion to the total expenses of
the two families i.e. 3500 : 7000 or 1 : 2. The height of rectangles are according to percentage of
expenses.

Item
Expenditure
Monthly expenditure
Family A (Rs. 3500) Family B(Rs. 7000)
Rs. %age Rs. %age
Provisional stores 1000 28.57 2000 28.57
Education 250 7.14 500 7.14
Electricity 300 8.57 700 10
House Rent 1500 42.85 2800 40
Vehicle Fuel 500 12.85 1000 14.28
Total 3500 100 7000 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
B A


%

o
f

E
x
p
e
n
d
i
t
u
r
e
Family
Provisonal Stores Education
Electricity House Rent Vehicle Fuel


b) Square diagram
To draw square diagrams, the square root is taken of the values of the various items to be
shown. A suitable scale may be used to depict the diagram. Ratios are to be maintained to draw
squares.
Ex: Draw the square diagram for following data
4900 2500 1600
Solution: Square root for each item in found out as 70, 50 and 40 and is divided by 10; thus we
get 7, 5 and 4.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7 5
4

3 2 1
4900
2500
1600



Pie diagram
Pie diagram helps us to show the portioning of a total into its component parts. It is used
to show classes or groups of data in proportion to whole data set. The entire pie represents all
the data, while each slice represents a different class or group within the whole. Following
illustration shows construction of pie diagram.

Draw the pie diagram for following data
Revenue collections for the year 2005-2006 by government in Rs. (crore)s for petroleum
products are as follows. Draw the pie diagram.
Customs 9600
Excise 49300
Corporate Tax and dividend 18900
States taking 48800
Total 126600

Solution:
Item / Source Value in
crores
Angle of circle %ge
Customs 9600
o
30 . 27 360 x
126600
9600
7.58
Excise 49300
o
20 . 140 360 x
126600
49300
39.00
Corporate Tax and Dividend 18900
o
70 . 53 360 x
126600
18900
14.92
States taking 48800
o
80 . 138 360 x
126600
48800
38.50
Total 126600 360
o
100

Source: India Today 19 June, 2006

Choice or selection of diagram
There are many methods to depict statistical data through diagram. No angle diagram is
suited for all purposes. The choice / selection of diagram to suit given set of data requires skill,
knowledge and experience. Primarily, the choice depends upon the nature of data and purpose of
presentation, to whom it is meant. The nature of data will help in taking a decision as to one-
dimensional or two-dimensional or three-dimensional diagram. It is also required to know the
audience for whom the diagram is depicted.
The following points are to be kept in mind for the choice of diagram.
1. To common man, who has less knowledge in statistics cartogram and pictograms are
suited.
2. To present the components apart from magnitude of values, sub-divided bar diagram can
be used.
3. When a large number of components are to be shows, pie diagram is suitable.
Graphic presentation
A graphic presentation a visual form of presentation graphs are drawn on a special type
of paper known are graph paper.
Common graphic representations are
a) Histogram
b) Frequency polygon
c) Cumulative frequency curve (ogive)
7.58
39
14.92
38.5
Customs
Excise
Corporate Tax
and Dividend
States taking
Advantages of graphic presentation
1. It provides attractive and impressive view
2. Simplifies complexity of data
3. Helps for direct comparison
4. It helps for further statistical analysis
5. It is simplest method of presentation of data
6. It shows trend and pattern of data
Difference between graph and diagram
Diagram Graph
1. Ordinary paper can be used 1. Graph paper is required
2. It is attractive and easily
understandable
2. Needs some effect to understand
3. It is appropriate and effective to
measure more variable
3. It creates problem
4. It cant be used for further analysis 4. Can be used for further analysis
5. It gives comparison 5. It shows relationship between
variables
6. Data are represented by bars,
rectangles
6. Points and lines are used to represent
data
Frequency Histogram
In this type of representation the given data are plotted in the form of series of rectangles.
Class intervals are marked along the x-axis and the frequencies are along the y-axis according to
suitable scale. Unlike the bar chart, which is one-dimensional, a histogram is two-dimensional in
which the length and width are both important. A histogram is constructed from a frequency
distribution of grouped data, where the height of rectangle is proportional to respective frequency
and width represents the class interval. Each rectangle is joined with other and the blank space
between the rectangles would mean that the category is empty and there is no values in that class
interval.
Ex: Construct a histogram for following data.
Marks obtained (x) No. of students (f) Mid point
15 25 5 20
25 35 3 30
35 45 7 40
45 55 5 50
55 65 3 60
65 75 7 70
Total 30
For convenience sake, we will present the frequency distribution along with mid-point of
each class interval, where the mid-point is simply the average of value of lower and upper
boundary of each class interval.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
75 65 55 45 35 25
15


F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
N
o
.

o
f

s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
)
Class Interval (Marks)


Frequency polygon
A frequency polygon is a line chart of frequency distribution in which either the values of
discrete variables or the mid-point of class intervals are plotted against the frequency and those
plotted points are joined together by straight lines. Since, the frequencies do not start at zero or
end at zero, this diagram as such would not touch horizontal axis. However, since the area under
entire curve is the same as that of a histogram which is 100%. The curve must be enclosed, so
that starting mid-point is jointed with fictitious preceding mid-point whose value is zero. So
that the beginning of curve touches the horizontal axis and the last mid-point is joined with a
fictitious succeeding mid-point, whose value is also zero, so that the curve will end at
horizontal axis. This enclosed diagram is known as frequency polygon.
Ex: For following data construct frequency polygon.
Marks (CI) No. of frequencies (f) Mid-point
15 25 5 20
25 35 3 30
35 45 7 40
45 55 5 50
55 65 3 60
65 75 7 70

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
A Frequency polygon


F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Mid point (x)

Cumulative frequency curve (ogive)
ogives are the graphic representations of a cumulative frequency distribution. These
ogives are classified as less than and more than ogives. In case of less than, cumulative
frequencies are plotted against upper boundaries of their respective class intervals. In case of
grater than cumulative frequencies are plotted against upper boundaries of their respective class
intervals. These ogives are used for comparison purposes. Several ogves can be compared on
same grid with different colour for easier visualisation and differentiation.
Ex:
Marks
(CI)
No. of
frequencies (f)
Mid-point
Cum. Freq.
Less than
Cum. Freq.
More than
15 25 5 20 5 30
25 35 3 30 8 25
35 45 7 40 15 22
45 55 5 50 20 15
55 65 3 60 23 10
65 75 7 70 30 7
Less than give diagram
20 30 40 50 60 70
5
10
15
20
25
30
'Less than' ogive


L
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Upper Boundary (CI)


Less than give diagram
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10
15
20
25
30
35
'More than' ogive


M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

O
g
i
v
e
Lower Boundary (CI)