CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background of the study, the statement of the study, the research
objectives, the research questions, and significance of the study. Also discussed in this chapter is
theoretical framework.
1.1 Background of th !tud"
Social phobia may cause psychologic and functional deterioration leading to depression. The two
disorders may share underlying risk factors. Further, aniety and depression could be different
manifestations of the same disorder across the course of this condition. !ecrease in self"esteem
is a possible indicator of psychosocial deterioration due to social phobia leading to subsequent
depression, or, due to depression leading to subsequent social phobia. According to #osenberg
$%&'(), self"esteem is the direction of self"attitude, a favorable or unfavourable opinion of
oneself. *igh self"esteem is the feeling that one is good enough. An individual with high self"
esteem respects him+herself, and considers him+herself worthy.
A large group of young people suffers from emotional and behavioural problems. ,etween %%
million to %- million children are at risk for emotional impairment. A majority of these children
have difficulty in handling anger and act out in harsh parental judgment and intolerance. .arents
play many different roles in the lives of their children, including teacher, playmate,
disciplinarian, and caregiver and attachment figure. As the baby is cared for, he+she discovers
over and over that he+she really matters. The role as an attachment figure is one of the most
important in predicting the child/s later social and emotional outcome. 0hildren create a sense of
self within loving relationships since each baby is a unique blend of innate characteristics. Some
babies are easily soothed, while others are more particular about what soothes them.
The low self esteem and self doubt can be caused by many factors. 1t has resulted, in part, from
an unjust system of evaluating human worth now prevalent in our society. 2ot everyone is seen
as worthy3 not everyone is accepted. 1nstead, we reserve our praise and admiration for those who
have been blessed from birth with the characteristics we value most highly. 1t is a vicious system,
and as parents, must counterbalance its impact. At the top of the list of the most highly respected
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and valued attributes in our culture is physical attractiveness. Those who happen to have it are
often honored and even feared3 those who do not may be disrespected and rejected through no
fault of their own. This measure of human worth is evident from the earliest moments of life,
when an attractive infant is considered more valuable than a homely one. For this reason, it is not
uncommon for a mother to be depressed shortly after the birth of her first baby. She had hoped to
give birth to a beautiful si"week"old 4erber baby, having four front teeth and rosy, pink cheeks.
1nstead, they hand her a red, toothless, bald, prune"faced, screaming little individual who isn5t
eactly what 6om epected.
,oosting people/s sense of self"worth has become a national preoccupation. 7et surprisingly,
research shows that such efforts do little to improve academic performance or prevent
troublesome behaviour. .eople intuitively recogni8e the importance of self"esteem to their
psychological health, so it isn/t particularly remarkable that most of us try to protect and enhance
it in ourselves whenever possible. 9hat is remarkable is that attention to self"esteem has become
a communal concern, at least for Americans, who see a favorable opinion of oneself as the
central psychological source from which all manner of positive outcomes spring. The corollary,
that low self"esteem lies at the root of individual and thus societal problems, has sustained an
ambitious social agenda for decades. 1ndeed, campaigns to raise people/s sense of self"worth
abound.
As the child grows, his or her value as a person will be assessed not only by parents but also by
those outside the home. ,eauty contests offering scholarships and pri8es for gorgeous babies are
now common, as if the attractive child didn5t already have enough advantages in life. 9hat a
distorted system for evaluating human worth. As author 4eorge :rwell has written, all people
are equal, but some people are more equal than others. The real tragedy today is how often this
statement is proven true in the lives of our children. 6illions of people are plagued by low self"
confidence. *igh confidence makes us less likeable, less employable, and less successful in the
long run. *e reveals the benefits of low confidence $including being more motivated and self"
aware), teaches us how to know when to fake it, get ahead at work, improve our social skills, feel
better emotionally and physically, and much more. Social phobia and depression are common
disorders among adolescents.
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9ith this engaging, practical study of our minds and emotions, people can become more capable
in every facet of life. Confidence will shatter every myth one has ever believed about self"
confidence and its effects on people ranging from the very personal to the global level. 9estern
culture, and particularly the American subculture, emphasi8es the value and need for individuals
to have a high self"confidence if they are to perform well and achieve success. *igh self"
confidence is mostly a liability and that a low self"confidence is more positively correlated with
successful individuals. .eople with high self confidence and low self esteem will strive at what
they do well because that is how they will 5earn5 love and respect. *owever, this can be a trap
because without self worth they will not know when they have done enough. *igh self esteem
helps you to ;be yourself<, handle adversity, and believe that you5ll win through, despite setbacks
and obstacles. 1t5s an inner force that sustains you, and gives you the courage you need in order
to be the person you want to be.
*elping children develop self"esteem is a matter of helping them gather evidence that they are
competent and capable. This evidence needs to be genuine and based on eperience. 9hen adults
create opportunities for children to take risks and eperience success, they are helping them
develop a sense of self"worth. 9hen children make mistakes, they need supportive adults who do
not rescue them from the consequences but teach them to solve problems and epress confidence
that they will do better net time. :verall, children need to know that they are cared for and
valued.
7outh today face challenges that are different from previous generations. The standards for
;good enough< seem to get higher and harder every year and goals parents have for their children
may not correspond to the goals held by their teens and young adults. Feelings of self "doubt and
aniety can erode the self" esteem and self confidence needed to move forward. =earning
!isabilities, A!!+A!*!, and autism spectrum challenges can add to the difficulties of growing
up. Those who have dealt with children eperiences the effects these challenges can have on self"
image, self confidence and relationships. Aniety, self>doubt, and depression can really
undermine a child/s, teen/s or young adult/s well being. 6indfulness, cognitive behavioural
therapy and solution" focused therapy are powerful tools against the effects of these negative
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thoughts and feelings. Families are typically included in the therapy to support the individual.
Together, the family team can successfully help their child, teen or young adult overcome the
effects of self "doubt, depression and negativity.
.roblems affecting children, teens and young adults often require a larger team approach.
Sometimes medication can be helpful. :ften times additional professionals such as tutors, life
skills coaches, =! specialists are utili8ed to provide speciali8ed support services. At Steps to
#esilience, 1 maintain a growing and continually updated list of ecellent providers of additional
professional services. =ow self esteem has the opposite effect. 1t5s connected to self doubt, and to
a general feeling that you5re not good enough to meet life5s many challenges. 1f you have low self
esteem, you may believe that you aren5t capable of achieving your dreams, and you may even
believe that you shouldn5t dream at all. 1n fact, low self esteem is the cause of many mental
disorders, and it can be associated with a variety of negative emotions, including aniety,
sadness, hostility, shame, embarrassment, loneliness and lack of spontaneity.
#aising self"esteem in young people would reduce crime, teen pregnancy, drug abuse, school
underachievement and pollution, even help to balance the state budget, a prospect predicated on
the observation that people with high self"regard earn more than others and thus pays more in
taes. Adult children raised by narcissistic parents internali8e negative messages about
themselves that can be unwound and released with good recovery work. As you went through
each childhood stage of growth and development with your reality tested by negative messages
from your parent, you learned at an early age to question yourself. 9hen you are raised to
conscript to a certain mold and your place is to serve the parent rather than the parent
augmenting your sense of self... interesting things happen. :ne of those things is that you grow
up with a continual and nagging self"doubt. !oes this mean you have low self"esteem? 2ot
always. ,ut, self"doubt and low self"esteem seem to get smushed together as the same thing.
1t makes sense that if your parent continually told you that your thoughts and feelings were
wrong, that you were too sensitive, that you should not question that parent, that you are not
good enough no matter how hard you try... you might still be somewhat haunted by self"doubt.
This does not mean you are necessarily a person with low self"esteem. Self"esteem is a
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continuum that ranges from very low to very high and many levels in between. 9hile everyone
may suffer from intermittent self"doubt, children raised by narcissists are pre"programmed to
question themselves. *aving worked with many adult children raised by narcissistic parents, 1
see men and women who took the message of @15m not good enough,@ from childhood and said
@=et me show you 1 am worthy.@ A significant portion of women in my study became what 1 call
the 6ary 6arvels and they are strong, independent, high achieving women who have
accomplished ama8ing things. They have good self"esteem, but can still be plagued by self"
doubt.
Self"esteem can be defined as someone who has a decent opinion of self without grandiosity.
:ne who sees self as a good person, hard working, reliable, honest, friendly, and able to like and
love him or herself for who they are. This does not mean that self"doubt will never crop up. The
6ary 6arvels of my study seem to have learned that, a successful person is one who can lay a
firm foundation with the bricks that others throw at him or her. The imposter syndrome is the
inability to accept and claim accomplishments no matter what level of success, even with hard"
won achievements because there is an irrational fear that you don5t deserve the success or maybe
you are just a fraud. :utward signs of accomplishment are seen as just good luck or good timing.
An imposter feels as if she or he has been deceptive and has made others think he or she is more
intelligent or skilled than they really are. 9hile this is true for narcissists who don5t necessarily
have the resume to back up the grandiosity, it is not true for hard"won success.
Self"esteem is a significant constituent of personality. 1t is a way of assessing one/s feelings,
values, attitudes, fears, strengths and weaknesses $,urger A Schonoling, %&&B). This refers how
we feel about ourselves or how we value ourselves. Self"esteem is a key to success in life.
Although children cannot articulate a concept of self"worth until about age eight, they show by
their behaviour that they have one. Self"esteem at this stage tends to be global such as ;1 am
good< and may depend on adulthood approval. As children grow up, considered socially
important. These features became influential for children because they may seem to be sources of
acceptance or rejection by others $6ickinng, %&C').
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.eople have a different view and concept about the universe, the place of man in it that leads to
various systems of ethics, philosophy and reality. Thus, most often human relationship to the
universe is described in terms of one/s ethics, moral values, ideals, religions, which interrelate to
and overlap each other. 1t is not hard to appreciate why ethics is vitally relevant to every person
on the planet. Assessment of other people/s character is perhaps one of the most important
moderators involved in interpersonal interaction such assessments are based on evaluation of the
moral trajectories of individuals $Dupperman %&&%). Ethic is a code of values that guides our
choices and actions. Essentially, it asks and attempts to answer the questions ;what is the
purposes of my life?< and ;how do 1 go about achieving it?< The actions to answer it are
conditional and motivated by some purpose.
*ence it gives rise to the term morality that refers to the code of values each of us uses to decide
on the choices and actions we make $*onderich, %&&(). American *eritage !ictionary $FGGF)
defines morality as ;a system of ideas of right and wrong conduct. A oral sense is inborn in man
and through the ages it has served as the common means of standard moral behaviours,
approving certain qualities and condemning others. 9hile this instinctive faculty may vary from
person to person, human conscience has consistently declared certain moral qualities to be good
and others to be bad. Hustice courage and truthfulness have always found praise. Similarly, in
assessing the standards of good and bad in the collective behaviour of society as a whole, only
those societies have been considered worthy of honor which have possessed the virtue of
organi8ation, discipline, mutual attention and compassion and which have established a social
order based on justice, freedom and equality $6avldudi, %&-I).
As human beings, we live our lives in groups. ,ecause we are interdependent, one person/s
activities can affect the welfare of others. 0onsequently, if we are to live with one another if
society is to be possible "" we must share certain conceptions of what is right and what is wrong.
Each of us must pursue our interests, be it for food, shelter, clothing, se, power or fame, within
the contet of a moral order governed by rules. 6orality involves how we go about distributing
the benefits and burdens of a cooperative group eistence $Eisenberg, #eykowski A Staub, %&I&J
9ilson, %&&B). 6oral development refers to the process by which children adopt principles that
lead them to evaluate given behaviours as ;right< and others as ;wrong< and to govern their own
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actions in terms of these principles. 1f media interest is any indication, many Americans are quite
concerned with the moral status of contemporary youngsters. And they look to the school to
teach values to fill what they seem to be a ;moral vacuum<.
*istorically, there have been three major philosophical doctrines regarding the moral
development of children. :ne is the doctrine of ;original sin<, favored by theologians such as
Saint Augustine $A.!. B(-"-BG). According to the view, children are naturally sinful beings. As
such they require redemption through the deliberate and punitive intervention of adults. Another
view, put forward by Hohn =ocke $%'BF"%C-G), maintains that the child is morally neutral" a
tabula rasa" and that training and eperience determine whether the child becomes righteous or
sinful. The third doctrine, represented by the writings of Hean Hacques #ousseau $%C%F"%CCI),
holds that children are characteri8ed by ;innate purity< and that immoral behaviour results from
the corrupting influence of adults.
The =ickona model $%&IB) proposes a four components program designed to facilitate moral
behaviour. The four components include self"esteem, cooperative learning, moral reflection, and
participatory decision"making. =ickona has collected data that demonstrate that the systematic
use of this model produces an increase in moral behaviour among students. =ickona $%&IB)
defines self"esteem as a student/s sense of mastery or competence. *e contends that showing
students that you respect their uniqueness as an individual is powerful tool to raise their self"
esteem. *igher self"esteem, writes =ickona, leads to the greater likelihood of moral behaviour.
6eriwether $FGGB) in his article has maintained that sanctions based upon emotional well"being
or upon self"esteem are insufficient for motivating consistent moral behaviour, and they reduce
ultimately to hedonism. This is also the case even in the hypothetical event that all moral action
results in heightened self"esteem, and all immoral action results in lower self"esteem
$6eriwether, FGGB). The present study attempts to measure the relationship between self"esteem
and moral judgment. 1t attempts to show that if a teacher respects the uniqueness of a child
his+her moral judgment is also high. *igher self"esteem leads to greater likelihood of moral
judgment. ,ut the result of this study shows a different picture of this model.
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1t was shown that parental child"judgement can take many forms, that it is difficult to measure,
and that it interacts with many other factors. Two studies were described in some detail to show
how these difficulties can be tackled by researchers attempting to understand the processes
involved. .arental child"judgement conceived as parental interest in the child and conceived as
home discussion was associated to a major degree with pupil attainment after all other factors
have been taken into account.
.arental behaviours which manifest parental child"judgemental patterns change across the age
range. 9ith younger children, direct help with school relevant skills is appropriate and
foundational. 9ith older students, activities which promote independence and autonomy more
generally become more relevant. This tentative outline model eplains why parental child"
judgement in the home is significantly more effective than parental child"judgement in the
school. The former is more enduring, pervasive and direct. The latter is less so. 1t should perhaps
be said that whilst research shows that parental child"judgement in the school has little if any
impact on child self"esteem it is not without significance. The relationship between parental
child"judgement $of any kind) and child self"esteem is probably not linear. A little parental child"
judgement in school might go a very long way as a conduit of information $about curriculum,
courses, school rules, assessments for eample) through which teachers and parents alike can
work to support the child. The effect of this basic level of in"school parental child"judgement
might be as an essential lubricant for at"home involvement. There may, of course, be other
reasons for parents working in schools which have more to do with the needs of schools or
parents and which are not epected to have an impact on pupils individually.
7oung adulthood is a period of adjustments to new patterns of life and new social epectations.
The young adult is epected to play new roles, such as that of spouse, parent and to develop new
attitudes, interests and values in keeping with these new roles. These adjustments make early
adulthood a distinctive period in the life span and also a difficult one. 1t is especially difficult
because most of the male and female have had someone like parents, teachers, friends or others
to help them make the adjustments they are faced with. 2ow as adults, they are epected to make
these adjustments for themselves. To avoid being considered immature they hesitate to turn to
others for advice and help when they find the adjustments too difficult to cope with successfully
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alone. Self"esteem can also be defined as the perception of self"worth, or the etent to which a
person values, pri8es, or appreciates the self. Self>esteem can be broadly defined as the overall
evaluation of oneself in either a positive or negative way. 1t indicates the etent to which an
individual believes himself or herself to be competent and worthy of living. Self"esteem
construct is recogni8ed today to be a major factor in learning outcomes. Self"esteem is a socio"
psychological construct that assesses an individualKs attitudes and perceptions of self"worth.
Thus, self"esteem is an understanding of oneKs quality as an object that is, how good or bad,
valuable or worthless, positive or negative, or superior or inferior one isKK1ndividual assessments
of self"esteem are formed through two interrelated processes.
First, individuals compare their social identities, opinions, and abilities with others. To the etent
that individuals feel that they are inferior to those with whom they interact, their self"esteem will
be negatively affected. Second, individuals assess themselves through their interaction with
others. .eople learn to see themselves as others believe them to be. =ow self"esteem is a hopeless
condition that keeps individuals from reali8ing their full potential. A person, who has low self"
esteem, feels incompetent, unworthy, and incapable. 1n fact, persons with low self"esteem feels
so poorly about them, these feelings make the person remain with continuous low self"esteem.
=ow self"esteem is a trait of financially unsuccessful people, which in turn results in low risk"
taking ability. .eople who have high self"esteem generally feel good about their ability to
participate, confident in social situations and happy with the way. 4enerally they have following
things, they are confident, they have good sense of self"worth, they are positive, encouraging and
supportive to others, and they possess good communication. They are participative, Energetic,
Ambitious, and they learn from their mistakes. These things give them to strength and fleibility
to take charge of their lives and grow from mistakes without any fear.
1.# !tat$nt of th Pro%&$
The development of low self"esteem in children constitutes one of the most widely debated
challenges facing .hilosophers, Theologians, Educators, and .sychologists in the present day
culture $Smetana, %&&(, %&&&3 6arsden, %&&C3 9ells, %&&-3 0olson A Eckard, %&&%3 4uiness,
FGGG3 .lantinga, FGGF3 Sire, FGGG3 6ac1ntyre, %&&G3 6oreland, %&IC3 :den, %&&(3 Erickson,
%&&-3 9illard, %&&I). 6any contemporary authors have focused on the role of educational
institutions, the social matri of family, and the culture at large for recovering the training
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processes related to the development of low self"esteem in our children and adolescents.
$LanderLen, %&&I3 =ickona, %&&%3 6oran, %&IC3 Sichel, %&II3 Turiel, FGGF3 *offman, FGG%3
0ha8an, %&I(). 1n the 0hristian community we have witnessed the birth and popularity of
programs like Focus on the Family and =isten America.
This study discovered the relative absence of research studies and literature designed to evaluate
the relationship between the parental judgment, social involvement, educational programs, and
the development of low self"esteem in children and adolescents. The relative absence of this
research leaves a vacuum in the literature and the culture at large. This study eamined the
relationships between parental judgment and the development of low self"esteem in children and
adolescents.
Specifically, for the purposes of this study it addresses the paucity of research that seeks to
eamine the question of how parenting and particularly parenting judgment patterns are related
to the development of low self"esteem in adolescents who perceive that they have eperienced a
particular parenting judgment pattern. 1gnorance of the literature on self"esteem development and
the lack of structured research have left a crisis of major proportions as it seeks to respond to the
erosion of normal and proper development of children to adulthood values that is so prominent in
the contemporary society $9ells, %&&-3 Sweet, %&&&3 .arrott, FGGG3 .eck, %&IB3 ,lanchard A
9aghorn, %&&C3 0lark, Hohnson, and Sloat, %&&%3 ,eck, %&I-3 ,alswick A ,alswick, %&I&).
10
The purpose of this study is to identify the etent to which parenting judgment patterns are one
of the building blocks for the development of low self"esteem in children.
This study joins those who have sought to identify a core set of parental characteristics that
contribute to a parenting judgment pattern that influences an optimal environment for the
development of low self"esteem in children and adolescents $0ovey, %&&C3 .arrot, FGGG3 Smalley
and Trent, %&&'3 Stinnett and ,eam, %&&&3 6c!owell, %&&&). Further, given the perennial
interest in the effects of parenting judgment pattern on the development of higher levels of self"
esteem in children and adolescents, the primary purpose of this present study is to assist with the
task of filling the void in recent scholarship on the relationship between parenting judgment
patterns and the development of low self"esteem in children. .ast research has shown that the
authoritative parenting judgment patterns traditionally have been associated with greater gains in
social domains $*offman, FGG%3 ,aumrind, %&&%3 Smetana, %&&(3 !urkheim, %&'%3 ,elsky,
0rnic, A 9oodworth, %&&(3 =osoya, 0allor, #owe, A 4oldsmith, %&&C3 :lsen, 6artin, A
*alverson, %&&&).
1.' O%(cti)* of th !tud"
The study aimed at the following objectivesJ
i. To find out the influence of .arental Hudgment on low self esteem among adults
ii. To eamine the influence of parental judgment on the stages of Self"esteem
iii. To find out the effect of parental judgment on the self"esteem
iv. To investigate the influence of .arental Hudgment on !evelopment process of self esteem
1.+ R*arch ,u*tion*
The main research questions will beJ
i. 9hat is the influence of .arental Hudgment on low self esteem among adults?
ii. *ow does parental judgment influence the stages of Self"esteem?
iii. 9hat are the effects of parental judgment on the self"esteem?
iv. 9hat is the influence of .arental Hudgment on !evelopment process of self esteem?
1.- H".oth** of th !tud"
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The study sought to test one alternate hypothesis between the two research variables. The
hypothesis stated as followsJ
i/ H0: .arental judgment is not common among low self"esteem children
H1: .arental judgment is common among low self"esteem children
ii) H0: There are no $short+long term consequences) effects of parental judgment among low self"
esteem children
H1: There are effects of parental judgment among low self"esteem children
1.0 !ignificanc of th !tud"
1n this study we seek to integrate the insights generated through reflection on current research
studies to better address the question of what parenting judgment patterns will best serve to
engage children and adolescents with meeting the comple challenges related to maturing self"
esteem in their personal eperiences. This creates a significant question for contemporary
parents, educators and counselors to address. 1t may also prove beneficial to the community to
eamine the development of low self"esteem within a framework committed to multitasking
across the insights of contributions from the field of the social sciences and theology. 9hen we
eplore the landmark research studies on moral development we do not see much evidence of
this interaction. 0hristian authors and counselors have often omitted focused interaction with the
research studies on moral development.
*aving declared this purpose we are struck by the fact that there is a lack of research eamining
the relationship between parenting judgment patterns and the development of low self"esteem in
adolescents. The review of the literature on parenting judgment patterns has demonstrated a
positive correlation between authoritative parenting and the development of both instrumental
and social competence and lower levels of problem behaviour in both boys and girls at all
developmental stages. The benefits of authoritative parenting and the detrimental effects of
permissive parenting are evident as early as the preschool years and continue throughout
adolescence and into early adulthood. Although specific differences can be found in the
competence evidenced by each group, the largest differences are found between children whose
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parents are uninvolved and their peers who have more involved parents. !ifferences between
children from authoritative homes and their peers are equally consistent, but somewhat smaller
$9eiss A Schwar8, %&&'3 ,aumrind, $%&C%)3 ,erkowit8, A 4rych, $%&&I)3 !arling, $%&&&)3
*uley, $%&&I)3 6ason, $%&&I).
Assisting persons, particularly parents and educators, with the development of solid principles
designed to address the issue of morality and rooted in research represents a worthy investment
of time and energy for educators and professional counselors. This is one of the guiding
purposes of the studyJ The relationship between parenting judgment patterns and the
development of low self"esteem in adolescents.
1.1 !co. and 2i$itation* of th !tud"
1.1.1 Th !co. of th !tud"
The study was conducted in Soy location of 9estern .rovince, the researcher purely depended
on the information relevant and valid for the study from this are only. 1t was conducted on a
randomly selected sample population and so any item of concern to the study but is outside this
area did not form part of the arguments and conclusions deduced from the results of the study.
Apart from that, the target population was the low self"esteem children of this town.
1.1.# Th 2i$itation* of th !tud"
The researcher encountered smaller sample si8e for data collection3 this meant that generali8ation
of the results was based on that smaller population. 1t means that any features found in various
geographical locations of different locations were not covered because the researcher dealt with
Secondary schools in Soy location alone and in this Survey the generali8ation was limited.
The targeted population was not willing to provide the information relevant for the study because
of confidentiality of such information. Some feared of being victimi8ed when they reveal such
information. *owever, the researcher assured respondents that they were not going to be
victimi8ed in any way because providing such information remain secret. This was a clear
evident that the data collected had some short fall of full information hence the information was
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not all accurate as epected. This was observed in questionnaire forms which were not
completely filled, wrongly answered, and even giving of irrelevant feedback.
The time period of the study was another factor of consideration, the schedule was too short
owing to the many activities and limited resources available3 it was not possible to carry out an
etensive study.
1.3 Thortica& 4ra$5ork
The study needed to be guided by a theory of parental judgment that can be empirically
evaluated and to encourage additional research and theory development. Therefore it was guided
by the Substance Abuse A the 0onflict Theory developed by Flamand, $FGG&) which states that
parental judgment is primarily a problem of structural inequality and class conflict. 9hile
substance abuse is generally omnipresent throughout society, social conflict theory argues that
minorities, the lower class and other marginali8ed groups are more likely to disproportionally
suffer negative consequences as a result of substance abuse. 1t consists of the following
components3 Substance Abuse, .arental judgment Abuse and Socioeconomic .light, !rug =aws
and Enforcement, .ower and #epresentation.
9hile the use of mind altering *arsh parental judgment has been a persistent activity throughout
human history, the term substance abuse is generally used to signify an unhealthy, debilitating
and antisocial dependence on any chemical substance. 4enerally, this is most often used to refer
to illicit or illegal parental judgment as well as some legal but regulated *arsh parental judgment
such as alcohol or prescription medications. Substance abuse is generally regarded as personally
and socially detrimental, and is usually considered a punishable offense by many state
authorities.
CHAPTER T6O: 2ITERATURE RE7IE6
#.0 Introduction
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This chapter involves systematic identification, location and analysis of the previous studies
related to the matter of investigation. 1t is useful chapter that entails analysis of casual
observations and opinions related t this proposed study. 0hapter two, through the literature
review, will help the researcher to get a thorough understanding and insight into past works and
trends records concerning the proposed study. The literature review will enable the researcher to
identify key areas that have thoroughly been researched on the strength of weaknesses of past
researchers, and identify the gaps to be filled from these studies, $Ayoke, FGGB).
#.1 Th Conc.t of !&f E*t$
:ne of the goals of education and parenting is to help children lead productive lives. *elping
children feel good about themselves is a reasonable educational objective. Educators hope that
school eperiences will help children develop a sense of personal competency and self"esteem,
while caregivers and parents hope that children will epress positive feelings and ideas about
themselves as they move through childhood into adulthood. *ow does a child acquire a healthy
sense of self? *ow can parents, caregivers, and teachers help youngsters develop self"esteem?
Some define self"esteem as what people think and feel about ourselves. 1t is our self"evaluation
and our sense of self"worth. Sometimes the terms self"esteem and self"concept are used
interchangeably. Some researchers have written that self"concept includes the qualities,
capabilities, and ways of thinking that define a person. Self"esteem is sometimes defined as a
part of self"concept that comprises self"evaluations. For eample, a child may say, ;1 am a good
reader< or ;1 am a slow runner< Self"esteem may be used to predict how a person will act in the
future. For eample, when a child agrees with statements such as, ;1 feel uncomfortable when 1
am with people 1 don/t know,< he or she may be sharing a history of feeling uneasy in new social
situations. 1n new social situations, it is likely that the child may feel awkward and so may tend
to avoid people and environments that are unfamiliar. :n the other hand, when a child agrees
with a statement such as, ;1 am a good friend,< he or she may be reflecting a history of positive
peer relationships and a high probability of success in new social situations.
Self"esteem is a multidimensional construct. :verall feelings of self"worth are often called
4lobal self"esteem. 4lobal self"esteem includes all the dimensions of an individual/s talents,
capabilities, accomplishments, and personality. This may include academic self"esteem, social
15
self"esteem, physical self"esteem, and several other areas that are still being studied. As children
grow and eperience the world, the parts of self"esteem become more distinct. 0hildren/s self"
esteem may vary among different domains. For eample, a child may have high academic self"
esteem but lower physical self"esteem3 a child might regard himself or herself as a talented
musician but poor in math or spelling. 0hildren with low self"esteem are usually described as
being hesitant to take risks or move out of their comfort 8one.
They often talk and think negatively about themselves. 1n contrast, children with very high self"
esteem may be described as cocky, boastful, or arrogant. .ersons with etremely high self"
esteem are often perceived as threatening and aggressive. *aving healthy self"esteem is a
balance between being too guarded and too egotistical3 it is also a balance between thinking too
negatively or too positively about oneself. Self"esteem is related to a number of life factors.
*ealthy self"esteem is related to eperiencing school success, feeling happy and satisfied,
making healthy lifestyle choices, having rewarding relationships, and demonstrating effective
coping skills. =ow self"esteem is related to several physical and mental health disorders such as
eating disorders, depression, and aniety. 1n addition, low self"esteem may result from
interpersonal problems, loneliness, gang membership, obesity, suicidal tendencies, and teen
pregnancy.
#.1.1 D)&o.$nt of Ha&th" !&f8E*t$
*ow a child develops self"esteem is comple and somewhat elusive. #esearch suggests that self"
esteem may be related to a child/s temperament, which is probably inherited or otherwise
biologically determined. 4enerally, children tend to have one or a combination of three
temperamentsJ easy $tend to be cheerful and adaptive), difficult $tend to be slow to adapt and
have intense or negative reactions). 0hildren with slow"to"warm"up temperaments may be
hesitant or cautious. They do not necessarily have a low self"esteem but may need more time to
adapt to epectations and environments. #esearch also suggests that much of the influence over
an individual/s self"esteem comes from early positive eperiences with parents or other
significant individuals. 0hildren are affected by how much they feel accepted, liked, and loved,
especially by parents and significant others. *owever, children also need relationships with
adults who have high and reasonable epectations for their behaviour, who help them meet those
16
epectations, and who let them learn from their mistakes. #egardless of a child/s early
eperiences or home environment, both teachers and parents can help children develop a healthy
self"esteem.
Adults who epress unconditional positive regard and acceptance for children create an
atmosphere that promotes optimistic attitudes and a willingness to take risks. .arents who
epress unconditional love and acceptance for their children tend to have children who develop a
secure sense of who they are. 0hildren need to know that even when they make mistakes and
eperience failure they are valued by others and are loved, especially by significant adults in
their lives. They also need to know that they are valued because of their relationships with adults,
not for their perfect math paper, wonderful artwork, their place on the honor roll, or the lead role
in the school play. :ne of the best ways for parents to send the message that they value their
children is to spend time together in an activity of the child/s choice. 9hen children know that
parents value them enough to spend time with them, they can feel they have inherent worth.
Adults should listen carefully to the children/s eperiences and opinions. 9hen a child has hurt
feelings or is frightened, adults can acknowledge the feeling by saying, ;1 can see that you are
sad. 1/d like to hear about what happened.< Adults must listen carefully to the child without
interrupting and should not tell the child how to feel. They must avoid responses such as, ;:h,
that/s silly to feel sad about not being invited to your friend/s birthday party. 7ou/ll get over it3
it/s not a big deal.< =istening thoughtfully and respectfully helps children to learn to trust
themselves and their feelings.
.arents and teachers who set firm and consistent boundaries for children/s behaviour tend to
create environments that are reasonable and predictable, where children feel safe to eplore and
take risks. 9hen children know specifically what is epected of them, they are more likely to
meet those epectations, creating a sense of security. 9hen adults have high and reasonable
standards for behaviour, and they discipline with warmth and caring, most children will respond
with appropriate behaviours that meet the adult/s epectations and help the children develop a
sense of competency. 9hen rules are broken, the consequences should not be harsh or cruel, but
should be administered in a way that maintains the child/s self"respect. ,eing firm, consistent,
17
and emotionally warm and responsive are hallmarks of good classroom management and good
parenting.
#escuing children from their mistakes or failures tends to teach them that they are not capable of
solving their problems and that they need adults to rescue them. 0hildren who are not held
accountable for their mistakes do not learn how to solve problems and may learn to blame others
for their mistakes. 1f a child gets in trouble at school, adults can help the child acknowledge the
mistake and brainstorm ways to solve the problem. Then they should let the child take the lead in
correcting the problem, providing support if needed. Adults can listen to a child/s feelings about
the situation, but they should avoid shaming the child or faulting others. Focusing on solving the
problem rather than blaming creates feelings of competency. From this, a child learns that we all
make mistakes and can learn from eperiencing failure, that most problems can be fied, and that
other people will still care about us.
.raise children in ways that acknowledge their efforts and focus on the process as well as the
outcome. For eample, when a child shows improvement in math a teacher can say, ;1 can tell
you worked very hard on this math assignment. 1 appreciate how much you tried.< 0hildren can
consistently produce effort, although the outcome of their efforts is not always guaranteed. 1f an
adult says something such as, ;1 knew you were the smartest student in mathM< yet the child
knows there are times when he or she is not the smartest student in math, the student may
discount the praise and develop a sense of distrust when others epress their approval. Empty
praise and flattery that are not grounded in reality and are not evidenced in the child/s eperience
tend to do more harm than good by discounting the epectations and standards for responsible,
productive behaviour. Frequent unearned praise may also lead children to rely on eternal praise
rather than on their own evaluations of their accomplishments.
Effective praise is specific and describes what the child did well. 1nstead of ;4ood job,< teachers
can say, ;1 like the way you completed this project. 1t was turned in before the due date, and your
drawings help me understand your ideas. 9hat do you like about how this project turned out?< 1n
a similar manner, parents or caregivers can say, ;1 like the way you cleaned your room. The way
you made your bed is especially neat, and your clothes are folded nicely in your closet. 7ou did a
fine job. 9hat do you like about the way it looks?< 0hildren need to learn to eperience internal
18
satisfaction for their efforts and accomplishments rather than epecting eternal approval and
rewards for everything they do.
9hen children only eperience failure they may begin to doubt themselves. 1f a child/s academic
skills are below classroom epectations and the child has a sense of continuing failure, teachers
can respond by creating assignments and projects at the child/s current skill level or adjusting
assignments so that the child eperiences success. :ne of the most effective ways for children to
see their success is through charting their improvement. For eample, if a child is struggling with
learning multiplication facts, the teacher can chart the child/s progress in successfully completing
multiplication tests or worksheets. Seeing tangible evidence of progress helps children feel proud
of their improving skills.
=ikewise, parents can help children choose activities that are developmentally appropriate and
that provide opportunities for children to feel successful. =earning a musical instrument or
playing on a sports team can help children receive recognition for constructive behaviours. 1t is
important for parents to choose activities that are developmentally appropriate and reflect the
child/s personal strengths. 0hildren often feel successful when they provide service in their
homes, schools, and communities. =earning to help others gives children a sense that they have
something important to give and also provides a sense of belonging. An older child who is
having difficulty reading may eperience success by tutoring a younger child, which, in turn,
increases the tutor/s reading skills.
Self"esteem is an important factor in the development of personality. A longitudinal study of
adolescent self"esteem found that membership in early continuous, moderate, and increasing
self"esteem trajectory groups coincided with healthier outcomes than membership in steadily
decreasing and consistently low self"esteem trajectory groups. 1n addition, much research has
shown that high self"esteem acts as a buffer against problem behaviour, whereas low self"esteem
has been related to an increased risk of such problem behaviours as aggression, crime and harsh
parental judgment, teenage pregnancy, drug and alcohol abuse, tobacco use, and eating disorders.
Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that can shape children/s self"esteem to
promote children/s future well"being and lessen the risk for problem behaviour.
19
There is a growing body of empirical literature concerning intergenerational continuities and
discontinuities in personality and behavioural characteristics and in parenting. *owever, few
studies have linked these intergenerational patterns to children/s self"esteem. Studies have shown
intergenerational consistency for parenting styles, alcoholism, drug use, and other problem
behaviours. Several investigations have also linked the parent"child relationship to problem
behaviours in the younger generation. The current study adds to the literature by eamining the
interrelationship between grandmother and parent predictors of childhood self"esteem in the
subsequent generation. This is the first B"generation study of paths to children/s self"esteem
involving psychosocial characteristics of each generation.
Studies have demonstrated longitudinal relationships between parental drug use and adult
children/s drug use. *owever, these intergenerational relationships have not been linked to a
third generation/s self"esteem. Still, because studies have shown that children of substance
abusing parents have lower self"esteem than children of non"abusers, it is epected that the
grandmothers/ drug use will be related to parental drug use, which, in turn, will be related to
children/s self"esteem. :nly F studies have demonstrated a relationship between parent substance
abuse problems and the net generation/s poor parenting practices. This relationship is consistent
with longitudinal and cross"sectional data supporting an association between drug use and other
antisocial behaviour and impaired parenting within a given generation.
The current study hypothesi8es that a direct association between the grandmothers/ substance use
problems and the parents/ parenting will be related to the third generation/s self"esteem. This
study eamines not only the role of grandmothers/ drug use, but also of her maternal acceptance,
in relationship to parental unconventionality and to parental adaptive child rearing as predictors
of the third generation/s self"esteem. Findings from our longitudinal study of a primarily white
sample support an association between the grandmother"parent as a youth relationship, via the
parents/ young adult personality to the toddlers/ problem behaviour.
The present study hypothesi8es that parents/ unconventionality will serve as a mediator between
the grandmothers/ maternal acceptance and the grandchildren/s self"esteem. The often"found
20
association between one generation/s parenting style and that of the succeeding generation has
been eplained primarily by a combination of learning or modeling and bonding. A parent can do
anything in the eyes of a '"year"old, but becomes an embarrassment to that same child at age %B.
An adolescent5s more critical view of his parents is part of growing up, preparing him to separate
from his family when he becomes an adult. .arents might turn that critical eye inward, to
reassess their parenting and lifestyles. The choices parents make can have long"lasting positive
and negative influences on children.
0hildren observe parents and their behaviours. .arents lead by eample. A child who sees his
dad eercising regularly is more likely to be active as an adult. ,ehaviours demonstrated by
parents affect a child/s eating habits, eercise habits and dental hygiene. Nnhealthful behaviours
might have even higher negative effects. 0hildren of smokers are more likely to smoke, because
of parental modeling and because they have increased access to cigarettes. A child of an
alcoholic parent is four times more likely to become an alcoholic, according to the Dentucky
!epartment for .ublic *ealth. Some of it is genetics, some modeling, and some accessibility.
,eing an involved parent takes time, patience and the ability to deal with eye rolls and mopey
behaviour. .arents can start with a family dinner, which has shown to have a tremendous positive
effect on children. The family dinner brings parents and children together, giving time and space
for conversation in a comfortable environment. .ositive parenting is being available to a child,
talking about subjects that interest the child and knowing his friends. As children grow up, there
are many aspects of their lives which influence and affect their development and behaviours. :ne
of the most important facets during this time period of development is the parental figures in
their life.
They play a large role in the social and emotional behaviours a child will possess during
childhood and later in life as well. The way a parent sociali8es may have a slight amount to do
with their genetic makeup, but due to the child5s interactions with and observations of, the
parents contribute more to the social and empathy related development than heredity does $Ohou
et al, FGGF). 0hildren form very strong emotional feelings about themselves and once they have
made up their mind, it is very hard to convince them otherwise. 1f parents tell their children that
21
they are stupid, that is what they5re going to believe because they don5t know any better. They
have grown up listening to their parents and trusting what they say.
9hen children observe their parents emotions, they feel that that is how they should be reacting
as well. .arents need to take their child into consideration before themselves at times, and often
they don5t do that. 9hen the parent has a problem in their life, if it doesn5t directly involve the
child, they should not pull them into it. #esearch was done and it was found that children take
their parents problems into themselves and worry about it just as much as the parent, even if it
doesn5t involve them $0ytryn A 6cDnew, %&&'). This is a common problem family/s face during
a divorce3 children believe it is because of them and therefore it is their problem to deal with,
even though in most cases it has nothing to do with them. That5s a heavy burden for children to
carry with them and brings a lot of emotional baggage that they wouldn5t have to deal with if
they weren5t influenced by their parents/ emotions. The emotions children encompass influence
how they deal with social interactions as well.
2ot only do the emotions of the parents affect how children will deal with their own emotions,
but social behaviours are also passed on through observation. *alloran, #oss, and 0arey $FGGF)
have proven that children often imitate their parents/ actions, especially in riskier behaviours
such as smoking and drinking. These social behaviours can become dangerous and harmful to the
children but if they see their parents doing it, they think it is ok because they are the model that
they5ve always been taught to observe. .arents need to be careful because as the saying goes,
actions speak louder than words. Even if they tell their children that it is wrong to do, the
children still see the parent doing it so they figure it can5t be that bad. .arents influence children
through social behaviours which are not very beneficial.
Emotional problems found in parents are seen to lead to social problems in children.
Additionally, maternal mood or aniety disorders may be associated with child social withdrawal
or inhibition $4erhold, =aucht, Tedorf, Schmidt A Esser, FGGF). 9hen children constantly see
their parent depressed or upset, they don5t want to be around them. 1t5s a general statement that
anyone wants to be around a positive person more than a negative one. 1f the parent gives the
child the impression that they are always down, the child is going to assume that all people are
22
and not want to be around them. 9ithout the practice of communicating and associating with
their parent, children don5t know how to be socially involved with those around them.
1n order to promote @prosocial@ behaviours from children, their parent must show an active
interest in their life, through both parental warmth and responsivity. 9hen children have this
encouragement from their caregiver they get a sense of security, control, and trust in their
surrounding environment $Ohou et. al., FGGF). 1f a parent shows genuine concern and care for
their children and what they5re doing with their life, it will increase the children5s self esteem,
which in turns allows to have been social relations with others. 1t is hard to make a friend won5t
you don5t like yourself, how can you epect someone to like you if you don5t like yourself?
0hildren who are from emotionally epressive families will more than likely have that trait as
well $Ohou et. al., FGGF). Empathy, understanding and compassion, is a characteristic which
eemplifies the ability to interact and help those around you. #oberts and Strayer5s study $as
cited in Ohou et all, FGGF) has shown that children who have more eperience with epressing
their emotions, both positive and negative, are better at understanding the feelings of those
around them. 9hen people are deciding who they want to hang out with and be around, they are
going to chose someone they feel comfortable around, someone they could go to for help or
advice, someone that just generally understands them. Feeling accepted by these people increases
children5s self esteem. They feel better about themselves when they know they can help others
and this is all because their parents taught them that it is ok to epress their emotions and speak
up about their feelings.
2ot only do parents influence how children interact with their social surroundings, but they also
play a part in children5s social behaviours. 1n today5s world, alcohol use among teenagers is
growing and becoming more and more of a problem. 1t has been proven however, that growth
oriented fun families were associated with decreased odds of males using alcohol. This is in part
because these families have a tendency to teach social behaviours such as epressiveness and
independence which help them resist peer pressure and have fun in other ways $*alloran, #oss A
0arey, FGGF). .arents teach children what is acceptable in the world and ways to avoid
unnecessary problems. Those teenagers who have been taught to be epressive learn to follow
23
their own beliefs and not be afraid to speak up and tell someone that they don5t want to do
something if they know it is wrong. 1ndependent youth don5t feel that they need to be followers
and do what the crowd is doing3 if they know something is wrong, they will find something else
to do that will make them unique. .arents teach what is right and what is wrong so their children
can apply those beliefs in the social world around them.
0hildren tend to display more hostile behaviour at school and are more fearful and withdrawn
from those around them. 0hildren of parents who are depressed don5t always have a great family
life. 1f a parent suffers from depression, the family will most likely be disorgani8ed and have a
less cohesive environment. 0hildren raised in this kind of family environment have a problem
with communication and trust $Timko, 0ronkite, ,erg A 6oos, FGGF). 0hildren look to their
families for eamples of how they should feel about others and if they can5t trust their own
family, it will not be easy for them to hold trust in other people, forming poor friendships and
relationships.
There are many people and events which influence the way children develop both emotionally
and socially. The parental units in the family play the biggest role however. .arents are the ones
children look to as models for social behaviours, interactions, and appropriate emotional
responses. 2ot only do children look to their parents for how to behave or feel, they also learn
from interacting with them. The ways parents treat and communicate with children give them an
idea of what to epect in the outside world. 9ithout parental influence, children would not
develop in the most beneficial way and would run into many problems later on in life.
0hildren raised in loving homes often thrive. 9hen parents focus on their child5s needs, show
that they love and value their child and strive to be good role models, they are implementing
positive parenting skills. According to the website .arenting"*ealthy"0hildren.com, positive
parenting effectively helps children to develop a secure attachment between parent and child, and
nurtures a sense of positive self"worth. 1t is important for a child5s self esteem since it becomes
his armor for facing life5s challenges. ,y praising your child for his efforts not just the result you
are helping him develop a strong sense of self"worth and teaching him to overcome
disappointments. #emember, too, that you are influential regarding your child5s behaviours.
24
6odel a positive, realistic attitude about your own strengths and weaknesses for him to emulate
as he grows and develops. ,y disciplining in a way that allows children to eperience
responsibility that is directly related to their privileges, a child will become capable and
accountable. 2elson encourages an authoritative style of parenting, where parents and children
work together to come up with rules that benefit one another. 1n this style of parenting, the parent
is kind and respectful yet firm when disciplining, which also encourages a healthy attachment
between parent and child.
,y hosting play dates and scheduling outings with your child and his peers, you are giving him
the opportunity to create friendships, and you5re encouraging positive social development. *e
begins to understand the value of friendship, and he learns important social skills such as sharing
and taking turns. 9hen he has a disagreement with his friends, your intervention helps train him
to resolve conflict in a positive way, without resorting to aggressive behaviour. 1t is important to
know and eplore your core beliefs. These are beliefs about ourselves, others and the world in
general. 7ou may believe you are useless, stupid and unlovable. 7ou may believe that others may
be smarter, more intelligent, and more successful and that the world is dangerous, hostile, or too
difficult. 9e may without even realising it be giving ourselves criticism. Ask yourself what is
the effect of thinking this way about yourself $it obviously has a detrimental effect) and what is
the reason for telling yourself you/re stupid.
Adult children raised by narcissistic parents internali8e negative messages about themselves that
can be unwound and released with good recovery work. As you went through each childhood
stage of growth and development with your reality tested by negative messages from your
parent, you learned at an early age to question yourself. 9hen you are raised to conscript to a
certain mold and your place is to serve the parent rather than the parent augmenting your sense
of self... interesting things happen. :ne of those things is that you grow up with a continual and
nagging self"doubt. !oes this mean you have low self"esteem? 2ot always. ,ut, self"doubt and
low self"esteem seem to get smushed together as the same thing.
1t makes sense that if your parent continually told you that your thoughts and feelings were
wrong, that you were too sensitive, that you should not question that parent, that you are not
25
good enough no matter how hard you try... you might still be somewhat haunted by self"doubt.
This does not mean you are necessarily a person with low self"esteem. Self"esteem is a
continuum that ranges from very low to very high and many levels in between. 9hile everyone
may suffer from intermittent self"doubt, children raised by narcissists are pre"programmed to
question themselves.
*aving worked with many adult children raised by narcissistic parents, 1 see men and women
who took the message of @15m not good enough,@ from childhood and said @=et me show you 1
am worthy.@ A significant portion of women in my study became what 1 call the 6ary 6arvels
and they are strong, independent, high achieving women who have accomplished ama8ing
things. They have good self"esteem, but can still be plagued by self"doubt. Self"esteem can be
defined as someone who has a decent opinion of self without grandiosity. :ne who sees self as a
good person, hard working, reliable, honest, friendly, and able to like and love him or herself for
who they are. The problems 1 do see that warrant serious recovery work areJ the inability to give
oneself credit, and sometimes feeling like an imposter. 1 think these issues are caused from the
self"doubt and negative childhood messages. ,ut they can be addressed. =et5s take a closer look.
1f raised by a narcissistic parent, an adult child will invariably be fearful that they will grow up to
be narcissistic themselves. This makes it difficult to give self credit for fear of being arrogant or
behaving like a narcissist. They may have been told in childhood, @!on5t get a big head.@ 9hat
does that mean anyway? ,ut, know that a narcissist is arrogant in disingenuous ways and most
times has nothing to back up the bragging spree. They make themselves look bigger than they
really are to cover up the internal feelings of inadequacy. This means that if you have
accomplishments and have worked hard in life, it is real and you can give yourself credit for this.
7ou don5t need to brag, but you can give yourself that credit where credit is due. 1t is an internal
kind of caring for self.
6any adult children of narcissistic parents have learned to plant their own gardens in their
internal souls with light, hope, and fresh blooming tulips. They5ve learned that when they are
told, @7ou can5t do it,@ that it might mean you have to do it, to truly take care of yourself and
chase the enemy from your self"doubting head. And then when you do...you can give yourself
credit for believing in yourself. 1n the end, it5s your dream and it belongs to no one but you. The
26
imposter syndrome is the inability to accept and claim accomplishments no matter what level of
success, even with hard"won achievements because there is an irrational fear that you don5t
deserve the success or maybe you are just a fraud. :utward signs of accomplishment are seen as
just good luck or good timing. An @imposter@ feels as if she or he has been deceptive and has
made others think he or she is more intelligent or skilled than they really are. 9hile this is true
for narcissists who don5t necessarily have the resume to back up the grandiosity, it is not true for
hard"won success.
According to 0usack et al $%&&&), most forms of harsh parental judgment inflicted upon women
and children in Denya by persons known to them or in some Surveys by strangers are considered
a ;private matter< and given no name or value. 1n everyday life, we see our relationships in a
variety of circumstances. According to 0ussack et al $%&&&), harsh parental judgment is a
forceful way of getting something from someone. 1t is also living with someone and being forced
to do things you do not understand and things that hurt. *arsh parental judgment refers to those
actions that have a harmful physical $intentional infliction of pain on an individual) or mental
effect $forced to do things that cause displeasure) on the individual. .hysical harsh parental
judgment can be perceived from five themes. They are3 0ruel punishment, Forced labour,
,eatings, Assault with weapon and, and !eath.
6ost at times, children and women are targeted for these acts. 0ruel punishment come in the
forms of starving children or food rationing, inserting pepper and ginger into anus of children,
putting children/s fingers into hot oil and the like. 0ommon among forced labour is the situation
in which parents or guardians send their children to relatives and other people to be made a
housemaid or houseboy for a little remuneration from their masters.
#.# Thortica& 4ra$5ork
The study will be guided by the Erickson/s theory developed by *ook, 9atts A 0ockcroft, FGGF.
The theory consists of eight stages of psychosocial development including the impact of
biological and societal influences on the individual/s development. Each stage in the cycle of life
presents the individual with a new adaptive psychosocial life task, which the individual needs to
resolve if further healthy development is to occur $*ook, 9atts A 0ockcroft, FGGF). The
27
psychosocial virtues and values of hope, will, purpose, skill, and fidelity can be attained once the
individual made a healthy resolution of a crisis.
0rises or key challenges is the turning points of maturation, where the individual needs to reach
a compromise between two Secondary Lictimi8ation of 0hildren Eposed to .arental judgment
opposing poles, to reach the above mentioned virtues of healthy development $*ook et al.,
FGGF). The successful resolution of each stage therefore does not merely imply the selection of
the positive pole of each developmental challenge, but rather a synthesis between the two
opposing poles to attain a developmental virtue. Although each developmental period consists of
an ultimate virtue with its challenges, the challenges and virtues of previous stages are still
present in the current developmental phase which can still influence an individual/s development
$*ook et al., FGGF).
1nfancy Stage one of Erickson/s theory consists of a compromise between basic trust versus basic
mistrust, and the virtue attained is hope. This developmental period ranges from birth to
approimately two years of age. The maternal figure has a significant impact on a child/s
attainment of hope, where a balance between trust and mistrust can be reached according to
Erickson $*ook et al., FGGF). The quality of the maternal relationship creates a sense of trust in
children, where the mother seems trustworthy to fulfill a baby/s needs and to protect him from
harm. The maternal care provided helps a child to evaluate others and their surroundings as safe
and trustworthy. Liolent events can however threaten a child/s sense of secure attachment, which
is an essential base from which children evaluate their environment. Symptoms of mistrust in
infants who witness harsh parental judgment can often be characteri8ed by poor sleep and
sleeping habits, ecessive crying and a higher susceptibility to illness and irritability $Senecal,
FGGF). These characteristics of the infants may also be used as an ecuse by the perpetrator to
assault the mother and to accuse her of bad parenting $,aker et al., FGGF).
Toddlers and Early 0hildhood is the Stage two of Erickson/s theory consists of autonomy versus
shame $toddlers up to three years of age). The child is encouraged to become more autonomous
while they develop a right sense of conduct $*ook et al., FGGF). They can develop a synthesis of
will, by attaining greater independence from their caregivers. Toddlers are involved in a range of
28
activities during this stage wherein their greater attainment of independence leads to feeling
autonomous or the inverse thereof to doubt their abilities. Toddlers can also become aggressive,
cruel and manifest irrational fears if successful development did not occur. Stage three entails
initiative versus guilt to reach the virtue of purpose.
0hildren in this phase of development are able to meet the challenges of the social environment
in a directed or purposeful way. 1f successful development takes place, children in this phase will
be responsible. 1f it does not occur, children may become rigid, self"conscious and hesitant to
take responsibility. 0hildren aged two to si years learn, during this developmental period, how
to epress their aggression and anger, as well as other emotions in appropriate ways. Eposure to
parental judgment can however teach children unhealthy ways of epressing their anger and
aggression, especially when they receive conflicting messages of what is seen and what they are
taught $,aker et al., FGGF). This developmental period is also critical in forming a preschooler/s
ideas about gender roles based on social messages from their home environment. 4ender
stereotypes of males being aggressors and females being victims can be learnt, which may
impact on the continuation of the cycle of harsh parental judgment in future generations. A boy
may for eample view the epression of his masculinity, by imitating and identifying with his
father who demonstrates his manhood through hostile and aggressive behavior. A girl may
identify with her mother/s femininity by being submissive and withdrawn $Senecal, FGGF).
=ate 0hildhood 1nferiority complees, low self esteem, feelings of unworthiness and
incompetence can present itself when children do not reach a balance between the fourth
development stage of industry versus inferiority $*ook et al., FGGF). 1n this stage children need
to aspire becoming a productive member of society, but parental judgment at home can
negatively impact on their development. =ate childhood is characteri8ed by an increased
compleity in thinking about right and wrong with an emphasis on fairness and intent that is
characteristic of normal development of school aged children $seven to twelve years of age).
,aker et al. $FGGF) states that the impact of eposure to inter"parental harsh parental judgment
may make children more prone to adopt rationali8ations to justify harsh parental judgment.
Ecuses like Pit/s the alcohol he used that made him violent or Pthe victim deserved the abuse
is often viewed as valid justifications by school"aged children.
29
Adolescent girls may develop etreme distrust in men and may epress negative attitudes about
marriage, whereas boys may often side with their fathers and may also start to abuse their
mothers $,lack A 2ewman, FGGG). Adolescents tend to place responsibility on the victim of
abuse, which can eplain why adolescent boys tend to handle their frustration by repeating
violent eperiences. Typically they repeat the behavior that was modeled by the aggressor by
assaulting their mother or siblings $Senecal, FGGF). Adolescents from violent families may
therefore use aggression as a predominant form of problem solving and may even project the
blame onto others. Adolescents may also become manipulators of their family system, and may
blame the mother for them eperiencing family problems, including difficulty within the school
setting and increased social delinquency $Senecal, FGGF). This could also contribute to
adolescents having difficulty to adjust to changing circumstances.
#.' Conc.tua& 4ra$5ork
Along with this discussion on the relationship between cognition and moral development the
literature focuses on the role of parents and particularly parenting judgment patterns in the
development of low self"esteem $*offman, FGGG3 Dostenberger, FGG-3 Lan der Lent %&&I3
4urian, %&&&3 ,rown, FGGF3 6ajors, FGG%). The contribution of .arenting judgment patterns to
the development of low self"esteemJ .arenting has been demonstrated throughout the literature to
have a stabili8ing effect on individuals throughout the lifespan. Factors such as pleasantness,
conscientiousness, neuroticism, self"esteem, etraversion, and morality are all heavily influenced
by parental involvement. $,elsky, 0rnic, A 9oodworth, %&&(3 =osoya, 0allor, #owe, A
4oldsmith, %&&C3 :lsen, 6artin A *alverson, %&&&).
#obert 0oles, $%&&C) author of the book The 6oral 1ntelligence of 0hildren, states that character
or moral development is an interaction between nature and nurture. 1t develops as a result of
parental interaction, balanced parenting judgment patterns, and a child5s own choices. #onald
*uley, $%&&I) in his book, =ove and =imitsJ achieving a balance in .arenting, eplores the two
sides of discipline and the need that children have for a balance between them. Too much rigidity
$Authoritarian style) leads to the development of low self"esteem, depression and defiance. 9hat
the author calls for is the striking of a balance between those two disciplinary styles
30
$Authoritative), $,aumrind, %&&%3 *uley, %&&I3 !arling A Steinberg, %&&B3 ,arber, ,. D.
%&&'). *uley, $%&&I) suggests that achieving this balance is easier if discipline is viewed from
the vantage point of moral development. 1n other words, we are not merely punishing behaviour,
we are shaping character.
For most children then, .arents are the original and often most meaningful source of moral
guidance $!amon, %&&&3 ,aumrind, %&&%3 !arling A Steinberg, %&&B3 Steinberg, =., !arling, 2.,
A Fletcher, A. 0. %&&(). 1t is !ianna ,aumrind5s $%&'(, %&'', %&C%, %&I&, %&&%, %&&') seminal
work in the area of parenting judgment patterns that has directed research on the subject for
decades. ,aumrind has created the three primary @styles5 of parental interaction. There is actually
a fourth, 2eglectful, style that is not utili8ed in this research study. ,aumrind5s styles areJ
#.'.1 Authoritati) !t"&
Authoritative parenting is a fleible, interactive style characteri8ed by high levels of
responsiveness and demandingness $,aumrind, %&'C). Authoritative parents frequently offer
eplanations of the reasoning behind rule systems, while consistently enforcing the restrictions
that are established. The needs and individual viewpoints of children are a priority to
authoritative parents $,aumrind, %&'C). 0hildren of authoritative parents generally are known to
demonstrate high social and instrumental competence $!arling, %&&&). ,uri, =ouisells,
6isukanis, and 6ueller $%&II) reported a strong positive relationship between parental
authoritativeness and self"esteem, a strong inverse relationship between authoritarianism and
self"esteem, and no relationship between permissiveness and self"esteem.
Authoritative parents rear children who are more likely to be independent, self"assertive, friendly
with peers and cooperative with parents $,aumrind, %&C%). 1t has been hypothesi8ed that
authoritative parents utili8e their value of strictness and responsiveness to prompt a generali8ed
respect for all authority figures and rule systems $6ason, %&&I). Authoritative parents
encourage their children to think for themselves and recogni8e their children5s unique
characteristics such as individual rights, interests, and personality3 they also assert their own
rights as parents rather than consistently putting their children first.
31
#.'.# Authoritarian !t"&
Authoritarian parenting is a highly restrictive style, in which children are epected to maintain
strict obedience to rigid rule systems. These parents are high in demandingness but low in
responsiveness $,aumrind, %&'C). =ittle discussion and eplanation of rules and restrictions are
introduced by authoritarian parents. The authoritarian parent is more interested in conformity
than in their children5s individual thoughts and feelings. !iscipline is embraced as a power tactic,
and the individual needs of children are not often seen as paramount $,aumrind, %&'C).
0hildren of authoritarian parents generally are known to have high academic commitment, low
incidents of problem behaviour, but poor social and instrumental competence $!arling, %&&&).
0hildren of authoritarian parents tend to suffer more frequently and severely from depression and
are often seen as socially withdrawn, distrustful, rebellious, and have low self"esteem.
#.'.' Pr$i**i) !t"&
.ermissive parenting is a loosely structured style, in which children are eposed to few parental
demands and epectations. .ermissive parents are high in responsiveness but low in
demandingness. 0hildren are encouraged to epress their feelings and impulses. =ittle restriction
is imposed, resulting in minimal overt control over behaviours $,aumrind, %&'C). .ermissive
parents use minimal, passive means of discipline, if any discipline is used at all. They prefer to
see themselves as their child5s friend or resource rather than as a controlling parental figure.
0hildren of permissive parents have been shown to function poorly in all domains, including
social and cognitive $!arling, %&&&). Attitudes toward authority and rule systems are
significantly negative among children who eperience permissive parenting judgment patterns
$6ason, %&&I).
!amon, $%&&&) discourses on children5s moral development with these insightsJ All children are
born with a running start on the path to moral development. A number of inborn responses 'G
predispose them to act in ethical ways. For eample, the capacity to eperience another person5s
pleasure or pain vicariously is part of our native endowment as humans. The development of a
moral identity follows a general pattern. 1t normally takes shape in late childhood, when children
acquire the capacity to analy8e people "including themselves in terms of stable character traits. 1n
32
childhood, self"identifying traits usually consist of action"related skills and interests. 9ith age,
children start to use moral terms to define themselves. For most children, parents are the original
source of moral guidance. .arents5 eplanations of rationales for decisions regarding rules and
corrective measures assist young people in understanding the nature of regulation and limitation.
They facilitate their children5s moral development with this behaviour by motivating them to
think reflectively about the rationale for their own actions $Smetana, %&&&). .arents believe that
children who have been taught right from wrong and choose to behave morally will be better
people because of their decision, with enhanced self"worth and dignity $6osher, %&&&). Today5s
parents and children live in a society which makes it hard to discern between what is right and
wrong, moral or corrupt. *istorically, people have probably always thought that theirs was the
worst of times. ,ut today, with the attacks upon traditional ideas of morality and the beliefs of
post"modernity, parenting is a particularly daunting task $6osher, %&I%).
9hen children and adolescents are engaged in the practice of general reasoning about moral
problems, their use of moral problem"solving skills becomes more mature. 0hildren5s moral
development is increased by eposure to opportunities to reason about the moral basis of real"life
and hypothetical dilemmas $Smetana, %&&&). .arental uses of reasoning and parental engagement
of children5s reasoning have been associated with children5s higher levels of moral internali8ation
and behaviour that reflects higher moral reasoning $Smetana, %&&&). As parents eplore values
and moral issues with their children and adolescents, through the use of verbal reasoning,
discourse, and dialog, they assist with the internali8ation of moral codes $Tappan, %&&C).
,ehavioural implications of reinforcements, social implications of modeling, cultural influences
of norms and sociali8ation patterns, and socio"cultural influences of language and scaffolding all
work together within the parameters of parenting decisions to create clear moral influences
within parenting judgment patterns. =imited parenting judgment patterns implications have been
noted in the moral domain within the education literature. 4enerally, the parenting judgment
patterns are largely associated with personality and sociali8ation trends $!arling, %&&&).
*owever, many of them can be etrapolated into significant meaning for the moral domain.

33
Three previous studies have eamined the relationship between parenting judgment patterns and
moral development. .ratt and !iessner $%&&-) reported that adolescent moral reasoning is
predicted positively by the use of the Authoritative parenting judgment patterns and negatively
by the .ermissive parenting judgment patterns. ,oyles and Allen $%&&B) reported similar results
while employing different methods of assessing moral reasoning and parenting judgment
patterns. They found the highest levels of moral reasoning in college students with Authoritative
parents and lowest with authoritarian parents. #esearch has also demonstrated that parents at
higher stages of moral reasoning tend to use more 1nduction and other Authoritative parenting
elements $.arikh, %&IG).
Family boundaries appear to be a determining factor for how one views moral authority $9hite,
FGGG). 9hen family members perceive their family boundaries to be permeable and unfied,
they tend to be more likely to eplore relationships outside the family. !ifferentiation beyond
family boundaries leads individuals @to give equal weight to parents and others as sources of
moral authority@ $9hite, FGGG). 0hildren whose moral education is indoctrinative, haven5t
thought about, practiced, or made the parent5s moral norms their own, any more than the adults
have thought about or practiced family values in word and deed in front of their children
$6osher, %&I%). Fleible families are more likely to encourage a variety of points"of"view, be
more understanding, interactive and apt to allow their children opportunities to epress their
opinions and eplore sources of moral authority $9hite, FGGG).
A family5s sensitivity to change contributes to its identification of perspectives, increasing a
capacity for empathy and perspective taking. Family adaptability has been defined as the @ability
of a family system to change its power structure, negotiation style and relationship rules in
response to situational and developmental stress@ Q9hite, FGGG). .atterns of positive
communication skills enable family members to increase their awareness of one another5s needs
and viewpoints. Families who actively participated in ongoing discussions concerning self"
esteems and interpersonal needs were more likely to demonstrate higher levels of self"esteem in
their children. There is evidence that has supported parental discussion styles as a promotion of
moral reasoning in children and adolescence.
34
Families have a moral impact by providing opportunities for social modeling by adults and more
eperienced family members. Teaching by eample is thought to be one of the surest ways in
helping children to translate moral reasoning into appropriate moral behaviour. 0hildren utili8e
their families as the initial backdrop against which all future moral situations will be weighed
$,erkowit8 A 4rych, %&&I) 0onversely, influences such as marital discord, parental
psychopathology $especially depression) and adverse socioeconomic circumstances can have a
detrimental effect on moral development $,erkowit8 A 4rych, %&&I) 1ronically, because of
.iaget5s $%&'() assertion that parent5s gravitated towards being authoritarian and consequently
suppressed moral reasoning, the effects of parenting as eplored by Dohlbergian moral
reasoning were largely ignored for decades $,erkowit8, 4rych, %&&I). Thankfully, researchers
eventually questioned .iaget5s position and the stage was set for eploring the variables that
enhance or detract from moral development.
#.+ E$.irica& R)i5*
According to $0usack et al %&&&) there are varieties of causes to parental judgment these are
categorised into three broad areasJ Lerbal alteration that can escalate into violent behaviour,
Financial issues that can lead to disagreements and harsh parental judgment, :ffensive conduct,
From the perspective of $cusack et al %&&&) the causes of domestic abuse more especially harsh
parental judgment against women and children are 1nfidelity, aspect of polygamy, socio"
economic reasons, disobedience, family interference, marital disharmony, outside influences and
vices. School related reasons such as refusing to go to school, being late to school, refusing to
perform personal chores of teachers, late payment of school fees, disobedience in school and
other petty offences which include cheating in eamination are other causes linked to domestic
abuse $0usack et al %&&&). Afrifa $%&&-) argues that inspite of the free education in Denya over a
quarter of a century after independence only --R of children are enrolled in the .rimary School,
and he attributes the lack of full access to education as a violation of pupils rights. *e further
cites from a newspaper article, which states that, some families were openly selling their children
because of poverty and hunger $Afrifa %&&- cited in Avoke, FGGB).
0hildren also display specific problems unique to their physical, psychological, and social
development. For eample, infants eposed to harsh parental judgment may have difficulty
35
developing attachments with their caregivers and in etreme Surveys suffer from @failure to
thrive.@ 1t should be noted that there also are limitations and uncertainties to the research since
some of the children in such studies do not show elevated problem levels even under similar
circumstances. .reschool children may regress developmentally or suffer from eating and sleep
disturbances. School"aged children may struggle with peer relationships, academic performance,
and emotional stability. Adolescents are at a higher risk for either perpetrating or becoming
victims of teen date harsh parental judgment. #eports from adults who repeatedly witnessed
parental judgment as children show that many suffer from trauma"related symptoms, depression,
and low self"esteem.
9olfe et al $%&I') posit that children who are victims of parental judgment suffer traumatising
events such as injury or death. 2egative feelings such as withdrawal, depression abnormal fears,
regression, learning problems or a decline in school performance, truancy, bullying, difficulty in
building and maintaining relationships, impulsiveness, behavioural problems, denial and
emotional problems are coupled with daily activities of children who suffer or witness parental
judgment.
Eposure to parental judgment can have serious negative effects on children. These effects may
include behavioral problems such as aggression, phobias, insomnia, low self"esteem, and
depression. 0hildren eposed to parental judgment may demonstrate poor academic performance
and problem"solving skills, and low levels of empathy. Eposure to chronic or etreme parental
judgment may result in symptoms consistent with posttraumatic stress disorder, such as
emotional numbing, increased arousal, avoidance of any reminders of the violent event, or
obsessive and repeated focus on the event.
The family situation, community environment, and the child/s own personality may either
strengthen the child/s ability to cope or increase the risk of harm. For eample, studies indicate
that children eposed to both parental judgment and child maltreatment typically show higher
levels of distress than children eposed only to parental judgment. Additional research is needed
to determine if the presence of other stressors such as poverty, homelessness, substance abuse,
and eposure to community harsh parental judgment eacerbate the negative effects of eposure
36
to parental judgment. 2ot all children eposed to harsh parental judgment suffer significant
harmful effects. ,ased on research presented in the article by :sofsky, $%&&I) concerning
children/s resilience in the face of community harsh parental judgment and war, it is likely that
the most critical protective factor for a child is the eistence of a strong, positive relationship
between the child and a competent and caring adult. 0hildren eposed to harsh parental
judgment need to be able to speak openly with a sympathetic adult about their fears and
concerns, and also, ideally, have someone intervene to improve the situation.
6ost children rely on one or both parents to provide nurturing support in the face of crises and
emotionally challenging situations, but ongoing eposure to harsh parental judgment can
sometimes hamper the parents/ abilities to meet these needs. .arents living with chronic harsh
parental judgment may feel emotionally numb, depressed, irritable, or uncommunicative, and
thus may be less emotionally available to their children. 1n Surveys of parental judgment, in
which one parent is a victim of the harsh parental judgment and the other is the perpetrator,
children may be even less able to turn to their parents for support and reassurance. The limited
research to date on resilience and eposure to parental judgment indicates that maternal
functioning, particularly as it relates to the mother/s emotional availability, may be critical to
children/s ability to cope with the eposure. 7et, battered mothers may be less emotionally
available to their children because they are preoccupied with the harsh parental judgment and
trying to stay safe, and+or because they are eperiencing depression, $LE#6AAD, FGGF).
The limited research to date on the relationship between battering fathers and their children
indicates that these fathers may be less available to their children, less likely to engage in rational
discussions with their children, and less affectionate than fathers who are not violent. Still, more
research on the effects of parental judgment on parenting is needed. ,ecause the battered parent
can be a critical support for the child, and because children often have ongoing contact with the
batterer, services must be available to help parents improve their interactions with their children,
$Ayoke, %&&C).
All low"income families struggle with limited material resources and related hardships. ,ut
families struggling with parental judgment and poverty are likely to have more needs than other
37
familiesJ battered women and their children may require protection3 men who batter may find
themselves facing legal and social service interventions3 families will need increased economic
resources to survive, and children will require financial stability and emotional comfort. All
those who work directly with children and families affected by poverty and parental judgment
need to be responsive to these circumstances as well as to the cultural ways in which family
members define and most comfortably solve problems. Further, although no single community
agency can provide Series 1ntroduction .overty Early 0hildhood .arental judgment.
1n the face of abuse and assaults, a battered woman with children often confronts two kinds of
difficult decisions. First, how will she protect herself and her children from the physical dangers
posed by her partner? Second, how will she provide for her children? This second set of social
and economic risks are central in each battered woman/s calculation of her children/s safety. 1f,
for eample, a woman decides to leave her partner to protect herself and her children, where will
she find housing and money to feed her family? 9ho will take care of the children if she must
work and her partner is no longer there $!avies, =yon, A 6onti"0atania, %&&I)? *ow will she
manage the comple, and for many families enduring relationship with the batterer over time?
Early support and intervention efforts provide important avenues through which young children
eposed to parental judgment may be able to access the services needed to bolster their
developmental trajectories and minimi8e the risks to which they are eposed. As research
findings and program evaluations improve our ability to support children eposed to parental
judgment, a key location of these change efforts must be in programs aimed at young children.
These programs varyJ some provide emotional support to children and mothers aimed at
specifically addressing parental judgment issues, while others offer interventions to enhance
development in the developmental domains described above. The common theme across these
programs is that they provide children and their families with resources to support the tasks of
development.
#.- Critica& R)i5 and 9no5&dg :a.
Although the majority of poor families in the Nnited States are white, the Nnited States is now a
country with many diverse communities of color. According to the N.S. 0ensus FGGG,F more
38
than %FR of respondents reported their race as ,lack or African American3 an additional %FR
reported themselves as *ispanic3 %R described themselves as American 1ndian or Alaskan
2ative3 and almost -R categori8ed themselves as Asian or .acific 1slander. :ver -G ethnic
groups are represented in the Asian and .acific 1slander population with, many of them 0hinese,
Hapanese, and Filipino populations, for eample having lived in this country for generations, and
others, such as the *mong, =aotian, and Lietnamese, arriving more recently and bearing burdens
due to displacement and war $7oshihama, FGGB).
#.0 !u$$ar" of R)i5 of th 2itratur
This present study is based on the desire to eamine the specific relation between parenting
judgment patterns and the development of low self"esteem in adolescents. 1n the review of the
literature we have eamined contributions from the fields of .hilosophy, Theology, and
.sychology on the etiology and development of low self"esteem in the young. 9e have also
eamined studies in the literature on parenting that have given rise to the current questions and
hypotheses of the present research study. Three studies have specifically eamined the
relationship of parenting judgment patterns to moral developmentJ ,oyes and Allen $%&&B) found
the highest levels of self"esteem in college students with authoritative parents and the lowest
levels of self"esteem in college students who perceived that their parents employed the
authoritarian style.
.ratt and !iessner $%&&-) reported that adolescent self"esteem is predicted positively when the
authoritative parenting judgment patterns %S employed and negatively when the permissive
parenting judgment patterns is employed. ,erkowit8 $%&&() argued that there was no relationship
between parenting judgment patterns and the development of low self"esteem3 however, his
research was conducted using a clinical sample. 4iven the scarcity of research concerning the
impact that parenting judgment patterns has on the development of low self"esteem in college
age adolescents further research is necessary to determine whether or not there is a statistically
significant relationship between parenting judgment patterns and the development of low self"
esteem in adolescents.
39
CHAPTER THREE: RE!EARCH DE!I:N AND ;ETHODO2O:<
'.0 Introduction
This chapter covers the methodology and procedures that were followed in carrying out the field
work for the purpose of collecting data. The various methods that were used in data collection
included participatory observation, interview schedule, and questionnaire. The chapter also gives
the data sampling procedures, where both qualitative and quantitative methods were used. This
chapter has the following stagesJ research design, study area, population sample and sampling
and research instruments. Each of the sub headings mentioned above is eplained separately
below.
'.1 R*arch D*ign
The researcher employed the Survey study design. Survey study is an intensive, descriptive and
holistic analysis of a single entity or a bounded Survey. Survey study enabled the researcher to
study the area selected entity in depth in order to gain insight into the larger Surveys and
secondly, to describe and eplain rather than predict a phenomenon. This type of design uses
smaller samples for depth analysis.
A descriptive survey research design was also be used3 this employed both quantitative and
qualitative research methods. A descriptive method collects information by interview and
administering a questionnaire to a sample population, $:rodno, FGGB). A descriptive survey
research design is also suitable for etensive research, rapid data collection, and ability to
understand the population. The researcher collected information in a standard form from a group
of respondents in the sampled population.
'.# Th !tud" Ara
This study was carried out in Soy location, 9estern .rovince in Denya. This area is selected for
the study because it has eperienced rapid growth of the number of schools with rampant
parental judgment increase, $N2!., FGG'). The area has also an increasing youthful population
that demands for education, especially for the primary and secondary education. ,eing a fast
growing urban centre, the population is challenged with limited time to take serious primary and
secondary education as rampant school drop outs among low self"esteem students is in the rise. A
40
two day familiari8ation survey was undertaken for the researcher to understand more about the
preschools. The visits provided an overview of the schools on their general layouts, and
accessibility.
'.' Targt Po.u&ation
The study targets all the low self"esteem children from Soy location. There are %I( Secondary
schools in the division. The researcher selected FG schools with a population of %FGG participants
in total. This population was involved in the study because it is directly involved in the drop out
problems, drug and effects of conflicts and misuse.
'.+ !a$.& !i= and !a$.&ing Tchni>u
The sample population consisted of %FG standard five and si, and %FG standard seven and eight
of the Secondary schools for the %G sampled schools. There were two schools selected in the
each division found within Soy. The quantitative and qualitative data was collected from %FG
sample si8e of the respondents of the target population during which questionnaires and
interview schedules were planned by the researcher. The composition of the population included
students. This made up a (GR of the target population. The sampling technique was a stratified
random sample to obtain the ten schools. This stratified sampling technique was also used in the
sampling of the employees for the study.
The stratification was based on se variable male+female. For more randomness within each
stratum, a random selection of rooms in each undergraduates/ hall of residence was undertakes
and questionnaire forms were distributed randomly to any member of the selected rooms. :f
parental judgment contained items meant to elicit information on the respondents/ rate of drug
usage, or non"drug usage. 1t also contained items that could bring to light how well or otherwise
the respondents was performing academically and for the purpose of the equivalent of second
class lower, were regarded as high performers, while those below were regarded as low
performers.
'.- Th Data Co&&ction In*tru$nt*
41
The data collection instruments are tools used to collect information from the intended target
population. The most commonly used tools include questionnaires, interview schedules,
observational forms, and documents analysis. The study used the following research instruments
in data collection. They included questionnaire, participatory observation, and interview
schedule. These are discussed below
'.0.1 ,u*tionnair
This is a collection of items to which a respondent is epected to react in writing3 designed
questions in form format were distributed to the respondents. This method collects a lot of
information over a short period of time. The method is suitable when the information needed can
be easily described in writing and if time is limited. 1n this study, the respondents were given
enough time to complete the questionnaires before returning them back for analysis of the
collected data. The questionnaires included both structured and semi structured questions. This
allowed the respondents to give their opinions where necessary.
The =ikert scale was useful in analy8ing data in questions that directly involve the feelings and
attitudes of the respondents. Another method was the use of a cross tabulation, an essential
technique in tabulating frequencies and occurrences of some variables. 9hen analy8ing
qualitative data, especially from observation and interviews, the quasi"judicial method was
crucial because it offers a systematic procedure, which uses rational argument to interpret
empirical evidence, $6ugenda and 6ugenda %&&&).
#espondents were assured confidentiality that their identities were secured and collection of
information was from the point of view of the respondents. The researcher used this method so as
to critically eamine recorded information related to the issue under investigation .This method
enabled the researcher to obtain unobtrusive information at the pleasure of the researcher and
without interruption. The method enabled the researcher to obtain the language and words of the
informants and access data at his convenient time. 1t also enabled the researcher to obtain data
that are thoughtful in that the informants have given attention to compiling them3 and save time
and epense in transcribing.
42
'.0.# Intr)i5 !chdu&
This study also used of interviews as part of the data collection process. This method was
specifically used on collecting information from the students who were confident. Structured and
semi"structured interview questions were designed for this eercise. Structured interviews were
used on the selected respondents where respondents failed to have satisfactory interviews.
=ike questionnaires, after selecting a problem, a measuring instrument was constructed. The
reason for use of interviews was that they were easy to administer in that questions are already
prepared. They also allowed a great deal of information to be gathered in a short period of time.
1nterviews also eliminate many sources of bias common to other instrument like observations.
This is because questions that were asked were confidential between the researcher and the
respondent. Above all the data collected through interviews were highly amenable to statistical
manipulation. Te arrangement of events on questions asked and answers obtained allowed easy
tabulation and correlation statistically.
'.0.' O%*r)ation
This tool allows the researcher to intermingle with members of the group to be studied in which
the researcher becomes an active participant in the events being studied by systematically
observing and recording events. The researcher gains insight into the actual processes of the real
world. The goal of observation and, especially, participant observation, which the researcher is
also an active participant, is to obtain intimate knowledge of the event and how people engaged
in them feel, think and define their world.
The classic studies that have been conducted with an observation format have yielded enormous
insight into human affairs. This instrument is also the most convenient means to familiari8e with
the social world. For this reason observation is a valuable research method as it allows the
researcher to see people in their natural setting and to observe how they view their settings. At its
best, observational research provides insights that can stimulate more controlled research or it
can supplement more controlled research by seeing what events mean to actors. The researcher
took about three weeks to observe events in the area of study and record data.
43
'.1 Pi&ot !tud"
The researcher carried out a preliminary survey of a similar population to the target population of
this study. This was done before the main study is carried out. The researcher visited to the
sampled preschools that did not actually participate in the actual survey and make preliminary
observations of the target groups. :bservations during the survey were useful in making
provisional impressions about the situations prevailing in this setting. The questionnaires were
administered to two members in each group. Along with questionnaires there were interview
schedules that were conducted to one teacher and one a head teacher.
'.1.1 7a&idit" and R&ia%i&it" of in*tru$nt*
Lalidity is the degree to which results obtained from analysis of the data actually represents the
phenomenon under study $,est and Dhan, %&&B). 1t is the accuracy and meaningfulness of
inferences, which are based on research results. 1t means the agreement between value of
measurements and its true value. Lalidity is quantified by comparing measurements with values
that are close to the true values as possible. .oor validity reduces ability to characteri8e
relationships between variables of data in a research.
Derlinger $%&(B) argue that validity of an instrument is demonstrated when that instrument
performs its designed purpose. Lalidity answers the question3 Kare the findings true?/ 1n this
study instruments will be availed to selected eperienced researchers and lecturers. The study
also used randomi8ation of sampling techniques to create equivalent representative samples that
are essentially similar in all the relevant variables that could influence dependent variable.
#eliability is the measure of the degree to which a research yields consistent results or data after
repeated trials. 1t is the degree of consistency that the research instruments or procedures
demonstrate. 1t is the reproducibility of a measurement. 1t is qualified by taking several
measurements on the same subjects. .oor reliability degrades the precision of a single
measurement and reduces the ability to track changes in measurement in a study $6islevy, FGG-).
The reliability of data collection instruments will be determined from the pilot study where the
research design will be the most suitable in data collection. 1t will be important to note the
challenges faced by the respondents in pilot study and the kind of information they will provide.
44
*owever, the researcher will review and adjust the questionnaires based on the comments by the
pilot respondents3 this will make it more reliable.
'.3 Data Ana&"*i*
The data collected was organi8ed, presented, analy8ed and interpreted using descriptive methods
of data analysis. 1t used frequency Tables, charts, percentages, and chi square was also be used
in analysis the =ikert scaled data. From the analysis, data was used to carry out a test on the
questions to determine whether the objectives can be accepted or not.
CHAPTER 4OUR: DATA PRE!ENTATION? RE!U2T! ANA2<!I! AND
INTERPRETATION
+.0 Introduction
This 0hapter covers the research design and methodology where it gave details on the population
sample si8e, the sampling design and procedure, the research design, the data collection methods
and analysis and also the research procedures used in the study.
45
+.1 :nra& Data
This section gives the personal data of the respondents, this is important in order to gauge the
level of maturity and attitude of the respondents.
+.1.1 Di*tri%ution of R*.ondnt*
#espondents 4ender sought to determine the out the gender distribution within the organi8ation,
as shown in the Table -.%J
Ta%& +.1: :ndr of R*.ondnt*
:ndr 4r>unc" Prcntag
6ale B( B(
Female '( '(
Tota& 100 100
The study result showed '(R female dominance among the participants while B(R were male.
This implies that low self"esteem is a female affair and influenced by males.
+.1.# Education 2)&
Education level was important in order to establish the qualification of the staff within the
organi8ation. The education status is shown in the Table -.F.
Ta%& +.#: Education 2)&
catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
.rimary I% I%
Secondary %G %G
Tertiary G( G(
Nniversity G- G-
Tota& 100 100
The findings showed that the majority of the participants were primary level educated
representing I%R of the sample, secondary %GR, tertiary (R3 and university -R respectively.
46
This shows that young adults have low level of education, which may have an effect on attitude
and level of knowledge about influence of parental judgment practice.
+.1.' R*.ondnt* Ag
#espondents Age was important to establish to level of maturity of the respondent as shown in
Table -.BJ
Ta%& +.': R*.ondnt* Ag
<ar* 4r>unc" Prcntag
%I"F( FG %(
F'"B( (G FG
B'"-( 'G FF
-' and above CG B(
Tota& #00 100
The study established that the organi8ation had over CF R of its population below the age of BG
years old this is a good number to enhance sales volume since there still energetic. This is an
indication that the old aged influence the decision to participate in the harsh parental judgment in
young adults hence their dominancy.
+.1.+ Ho5 &ong ha) "ou %n fu&&" d.ndnt on ;othr* Car@
.rofessional qualification was important in order to establish the qualification of the staff have
within the organi8ation. The professional qualification status is show the Table -.-
Ta%& +.+: &ngth of ti$ to fu&&" D.ndnt on ;othr* Car
catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
=ess than B years GG GG
B"( years F( F(
("%G years C( C(
Tota& 100 100
The study established that C(R had harsh parental judgment ceremonies for ("%Gyears and more
while F(R time taken while fully dependent on parental care B"( years while less than B years
47
had no response. 1t s an indication that the practice is live among young adults owing to the
length of time the members have participated in the rituals of female genital mutilations.
+.# :nra& ,u*tion on 2o5 !&f8E*t$
The study also looked at the general information factors hindering =ow Self"Esteem as would
reflect the general practice of any other negative judgment by the parent in the country.
+.#.1 Thr i* no har*h .arnta& (udg$nt in "oung adu&t*
The study sought to find out the opinion of participants about the self esteem. This section thus
asked to know the opinion of participants about the influence of pareBntal judgment in the area.
The results were as shown in the Table -.(.
1t was established that young adults lack of independency by the child was supported by the
strongly agree and agree which had (-R, the strongly disagree and disagree were F%R. 6ajority
strongly agreed that there is =ow Self"Esteem in young adults. At the same time Table -.- also
supported the idea that the practice is still alive among young adults.
Ta%& +.-: Di*tri%ution of R*.ondnt*A O.inion on !&f E*t$
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
Strongly Agree BG BG
Agree F- F-
Strongly disagree F( F(
!isagree F% F%
Tota& 100 100
+.#.# A%i&it" of "oung adu&t* to O)rco$ Parnta& Po****i)n**
Ta%& +.0: A%i&it" of "oung adu&t* to O)rco$ Parnta& Po****i)n**
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
Strongly Agree BG BG
Agree -G -G
Strongly disagree %G %G
!isagree FG FG
Tota& 100 100
48
From the respondent the strongly agree were BGR, agree -GR, strongly disagree %GR and
disagree FGR. Therefore it can be said that the majority of participants were of the opinion that
there is lack of ability to end harsh parental judgment.
+.#.' <oung adu&t* ha* $ad &** ffort in D)&o.ing High !&f E*t$
Ta%& +.1: <oung adu&t* ha* $ad &** ffort in D)&o.ing High !&f E*t$
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
Strongly Agree FG FG
Agree %G %G
Strongly disagree -G -G
!isagree BG BG
Tota& 100 100
1t was establish that young adults has made less effort in ending full dependency on harsh
parental judgment as strongly agree were FGR, agree %GR, strongly disagree -GR and disagree
BGR.
+.#.+ Har*h .arnta& (udg$nt ha* &** ffct on <oung adu&t*
Ta%& +.3: Har*h .arnta& (udg$nt ha* &** ffct on <oung adu&t*
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
Strongly Agree %( %(
Agree FG FG
Strongly disagree -( -(
!isagree FG FG
Tota& 100 100
The participants were of the opinion that =ow Self"Esteem had less effect on young adults
strongly agreed %(R, agreed FGR, strongly disagree -(R and disagree FGR.
+.#.- 2ack of Po*iti) Parnta& Budg$nt Contri%ut to it* 2o5 !&f8E*t$ d)&o.$nt
Ta%& +.C: 2ack of Po*iti) Parnta& Budg$nt Contri%ut to it* 2o5 !&f8E*t$
d)&o.$nt
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
Strongly Agree -G -G
Agree BG BG
49
Strongly disagree %G %G
!isagree FG FG
Tota& 100 100

1t was established that, lack of .ositive .arental Hudgment 0ontribute to =ow Self"Esteem
development, those who strongly agree were -GR, agree BGR, strongly disagree %GR and
disagree FGR. This means that young adults are not aware of the negative outcomes of harsh
parental judgment on the participants.
+.' 4actor* that contri%ut to th 2o5 !&f8E*t$ d)&o.$nt
Self Esteem, however, is still very deeply rooted in the process of child development. From the
perspective of the parental care, culture can be defined as Kthe set of behaviours $events), ideas,
values, beliefs and feelings $thoughts) involved in the process of satisfying the needs of a group
of people in a given situational contet. Thus, as a custom with many links to tradition, forms an
integral part of society. 1n fact, of the many factors that the women in the studies selected for this
review reported as contributing to the =ow Self"Esteem development, tradition and social
pressure were the most compelling.
Ta%& +.10: 4actor* that contri%ut to th 2o5 !&f8E*t$ d)&o.$nt of
Catgor" 4r>unc" Prcntag
.ossessive Style of Hudgment F( F(
Authoritarian Hudgment Style F- F-
.ermissive Hudgment Style FG FG
:thers F% F%
Tota& 100 100
1t was established that possessive judgment style has influence on Self"Esteem development of
young adults3 this accounted for F(R, followed by Authoritarian Hudgment Style F-R,
permissive judgment style F%R and others F%R as well. 1t means that the problem of self esteem
development is contributed most by all the three styles of parental judgment3 possessive style of
judgment3 authoritarian judgment style and permissive judgment style.
+.+ R*u&t* of ;a*ur 7a&idation
Ta%& +.11: R*u&t* of ;a*ur 7a&idation
It$* Cron%ach
4actor 2oading A&.ha
50
*arsh parental judgment $*.H) G.(&B"G.C&% G.IF'
.ossessive Style $.S) G.CG%"G.&G% G.I%B
Authoritarian Style $AS) G.I'F"G.CCB G.C'&
.ermissive Style $.6S) G.I-C"G.&BC G.I%'
** p < .01, * p < .05,
Ta%& +.1#: D*cri.ti) !tati*tic* and Corr&ation ;atriD
7aria%&* 4P !P P67 Othr*
6ean B.&GG B.-& B.B(% B.%--
Standard !eviation G.&FF G.C'' G.IFB G.I-C
*arsh parental judgment .'GG SS
.ossessive Style $.S)
Authoritarian Style $AS) .(&% SS .'FI SS
.ermissive Style $.6S) .'&G SS .'F' SS .'CI SS
** p < .01, * p < .05,
Ta%& +.1': Th inf&unc of Non8Aggr**i) Di*ci.&in !tratgi* on Chi&d 2o5 !&f
E*t$
;thod* of Parnta& Budg$nt 4r>unc" Prcntag
!iscussed issue calmly G' G'
6ade child take time"out %F %F
4ave child chore %F %F
Threatened to ground child FG FG
Actually grounded child %( %(
Threatened to tell someone else %F %F
Told child he+she had made you sad %% %%
!istracted child in some way %F %F
Tota& 100 100
Ta%& +.1+: Th inf&unc P*"cho&ogica&&" Aggr**i) Di*ci.&in !tratgi* on Chi&d 2o5
!&f E*t$
;thod* of Parnta& Budg$nt 4r>unc" Prcntag
#efused to talk to child BG BG
51
Said you would not love children G( G(
0alled child stupid or la8y F( F(
Shouted, yelled or swore at child F( F(
Threatened to smack or hit child, but did not %G %G
9alked out on child or left the room or house G( G(
Tota& 100 100
Ta%& +.1-: Th inf&unc Ph"*ica& Puni*h$nt on Chi&d 2o5 !&f E*t$
;thod* of Parnta& Budg$nt 4r>unc" Prcntag
Smacked or slapped child on the bottom GI GI
Smacked or slapped child on the hands, arms, legs %G %G
Smacked or slapped child on the face, head or ear %F %F
Shook, grabbed or pushed child FG FG
*it child with something like a slipper, belt, instrument %( %(
Threw something at child that could hurt %F %F
Dicked or knocked child down %B %B
9ashed child/s mouth out %G %G
Tota& 100 100
The tables -.%B"-.%( show the way the judgment styles influence the child self esteem
development, there were three categories of the dealings with children by their parents. These
included physical punishment, psychologically aggressive discipline strategies, and non"
aggressive discipline strategies. The psychological aggressive discipline strategy was frequently
reported as affecting the child/s cognitive development hence tendency to develop low self
esteem.
CHAPTER 4I7E: 4INDIN:!? CONC2U!ION AND RECO;;ENDATION!
-.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces the finding of the study, highlights the main responds and gives reasons
for further findings. 1t therefore discusses the conditions and recommendations made from the
findings, gives some research suggestions.
-.1 !u$$ar" of 4inding*
This study showed that education modified the attitude towards the =ow Self"Esteem
development. ,oth the descriptive and the logistic regression analyses of this study revealed that
low level of education status results in the =ow Self"Esteem development. That is, the more
52
people are educated the more they disregard the =ow Self"Esteem development $&IR and (C.CR
rejection of the =ow Self"Esteem development by higher education and by no education levels,
respectively), making this result consistent with findings from other study.
9omen with higher education are epected to have more access and eposure to media and
advocacy messages and possess greater awareness of the humane right implications. 1t is also
shown that the ratios of the proportions of women aged %( > -& who indicated that should
continue vary according to their level of education. 1t is mentioned that in %G of %( African
countries, for which data are available, support for the =ow Self"Esteem development is higher
among women with no education, compared to those with some education.
=arge proportion of women indicated that they believe religion requires. 1t was also mentioned
that in & out of the %F surveyed countries that collected information on religion, greater
proportion of 6uslim women supported the =ow Self"Esteem development. The influences of
various factors such as possessive style $.S), authoritarian style $AS), permissive style $.6S)
are also significantly influence =ow Self"Esteem development $.-&B, p T .G%). 1t means these
findings support that *arsh parental judgment with lower contributing factors is more likely to
influence discontinuity.
-.# Conc&u*ion*
This study focused on the factors that contribute to the continuation or eradication of negative
styles of child judgments, which clearly demonstrates the strong social pressure to which women
are subjected as regards the practice of harsh parental judgment. *owever, many other factors
can contribute to eroding beliefs and arguments in favour of judgment, such as the culture and
social environment of countries in the 9est. 1n sum, the process of acculturation is a fundamental
factor in the discontinuation of this ritual. 1n this paper we identify, in the international contet,
the factors that favour the perpetuation of low self esteem and those that promote its
discontinuation, in both the countries of origin and destination. 0ulturally competent nursing
care needs prior education in other cultural practices and must be consistent with what the patient
wants.
53
At the same time, global migration demands culturally competent nurses who can deliver
efficient, personali8ed attention. ,y personali8ing care and making the nursing profession an
eample of cultural understanding, we can eliminate the feeling of embarrassment eperienced
by patients with regard to 9estern medicine. There was low awareness with less education
status, people, rural residence, were predictors of continuation of females5 genital mutilation.
*ealthcare professionals need to create dynamic and reciprocal relationships with women within
order to be able to provide care and treatment based on respect, trust and equality. 2urses, as part
of the health systems in different countries, occupy an essential position in detecting and
combating these practices that result, in part, from the globali8ation process. Although progress
has been made in various areas $is recogni8ed internationally as a violation of human rights3
policies and legislation to ban the practice have been put in place in many countries, and there
are signs of social change that lead to the eradication of factors that influence low self"esteem),
there is still a long way to go in the fight against negative judgment by parents. 1nstitutions and
public sector organi8ations must contribute towards political, educational and healthcare
measures for its eradication.
-.' Rco$$ndation*
Firstly, given the evidence concerning the role of legislation in the discontinuation of the
practice, future studies should evaluate the role of the law as an instrument of social change.
Secondly, it is necessary to assess the knowledge and attitudes of healthcare professionals and
social service providers regarding in general, and the legal provisions and procedures to apply
when cases at risk are detected. Thirdly, the effectiveness of a holistic approach in nursing care to
women with requires assessment. Fourthly, more research is needed regarding the media and
their role in changing attitudes towards. 4iven the current paucity of scientific literature
published in Spain, such further research should be carried out at a regional and global level.
1n order to improve access to health care and support for affected young people, it is important
that professionals in the health and education professionals are alert and respond to their needs.
54
0are and prevention should be mainstreamed into eisting strategies that respond to the needs of
women and girls with and the potential risks to their daughters.
-.+ !ugg*tion for 4urthr !tudi*
4aps and uncertainties in current research knowledge are highlighted. 6ore research is needed
especially among men. There would be advantages in researching the role of 1slam in attitudinal
change, the informational needs of the various communities in 9estern locales, and avenues for
effective dissemination of information. 4roups who seek to encourage communities to
discontinue need to eplore ways to address the belief set that sustains the practice. Although the
results suggest factors perpetuating and hindering are fairly consistent across the many eile
communities in the 9est, to optimally inform prevention efforts research should be done locally
because the factors may vary somewhat across locations and time. The findings here form a clear
starting point.
55
Rfrnc*
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0ompany.
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*alloran, E.0., #oss, 4.H., A 0arey, 6... $FGGF, Spring). The relationship of adolescent
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*art, S., Hones, 2.A., Field, T., A =undy, ,. $%&&&,9inter). :ne"year"old infants of intrusive and
withdrawn depressed mothers. Child Psychiatry and Human e!elopment, BG $F), %%%" %FG.
Timko, 0., 0ronkite, #.0., ,erg, E.A., A 6oos, #.*. $FGGF, Spring). 0hildren of parents with
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56