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= and
s
a
T
h h
h h
n
4 3
4 3
=
where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and turbine respectively
and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case.
Activity 3
Consider the steam power plant in Activity 2. If the adiabatic efficiency of the
turbine is 87% and the adiabatic efficiency of the pump is 85%, determine
a. the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
b. the net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s
12.2.5 Increasing Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle
Thermal Efficiency of Carnot cycle is
H
L
T
T
1 . To increase the thermal efficiency of
the Rankine cycle, either T
H
should be increased or T
L
decreased as low as possible.
Three ways of accomplishing them are:
1 Lowering the condenser pressure.
T
S
Figure 12.4: Actual Rankine Cycle
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
Irreversibilities
in pump
Pressure drop in condenser
Irreversibilities
in turbine
Unit 12 8
This lowers the temperature (T
L
) at which heat is rejected and therefore increases
W
net
.
Figure 12.5: Effect of lowering condenser pressure on Rankine cycle
2 Superheating the steam to high temp
This raises the temperature (T
H
) at which heat is added to steam and both the net
work and heat outputs are increased.
Figure 12.6:Effect of superheating the steam to high temperature on Rankine
cycle
3 Increasing the boiler pressure
This raises the temperature (T
H
) at which boiling takes place and therefore raises the
temperature at which heat is added to steam.
Unit 12 9
Figure 12.7: Effect of increasing the boiler pressure on Rankine cycle
12.3 INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION CYCLES
As shown previously, the most efficient refrigeration cycle would be the reversed
Carnot Cycle. However, there are several impracticalities associated with reversed
Carnot Cycle such as:
Compression of a liquid vapour mixture (process 2-3 on Figure 12.8) requires a
compressor that handles two phases.
Expansion of high moisture refrigerant represented by (process 4 to 1 on Figure
12.8)
T
s
The reversed Carnot cycle cannot be attained in actual devices and is not a suitable
model for refrigeration cycles.
Figure 12.8: Representation of
Reversed Carnot Cycle on T-s diagram
1 2
3
4
Unit 12 10
12.3.1 The Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
Many impracticalities associated with the reversed Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
vaporising the refrigerant completely before it is compressed and by replacing the
turbine by an expansion valve.
The cycle that results is called the ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle and is
shown below.
At state 1, refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated vapour and is compressed
isentropically to the pressure of the condenser. The temperature of the refrigerant
increases during this isentropic compression. At state 2, refrigerant enters the
condenser as superheated vapour and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of
heat rejection to atmosphere. At state 3, saturated liquid refrigerant is throttled to the
pressure of the evaporator.
At state 4, refrigerant enters evaporator as low quality saturated mixture and
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. This completes
the cycle.
1 - 2 : Isentropic compression in compressor.
2 - 3 : Constant pressure heat rejections.
3 - 4 : Throttling in expansion device.
4 - 1 : Constant heat absorption in evaporator.
3
2
1 4
Condenser
Evaporator
Figure 12.9: Representation of Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
2
1
3
4
T
s
Compressor
Throttling
Valve
Unit 12 11
Figure 12.7 shows an ordinary household refrigerator.
QL
Figure 12.7: Ordinary Household Refrigerator
Activity 4
Outline differences between ideal Rankine cycle and ideal Refrigeration cycle.
Activity 5
Write equations outlining energy analysis of ideal refrigeration cycles.
12.4 AIR CONDITIONING
In air conditioning, the air-water vapour mixture is used, and since the vapour may
condense out of the mixture during a process, forming a two-phase mixture, it has to
be treated differently from an ordinary gas mixture.
12.4.1 Parameters in Air-vapour Mixture
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, small amounts of other gases and normally
contains some water vapour and is referred to as ATMOSPHERIC AIR. By contrast,
air that contains no water vapour is called dry air.
Freezer
Evaporator Coils
Valve
Q
H
Kitchen Air
Condenser Coils
Compressor
Unit 12 12
The amount of water vapour in the air can be specified in various ways:
Absolute or Specific Humidity
It is defined as the actual amount of water vapour in 1 kg of dry air.
( ) dryair kg vapour water kg
m
m
W
a
v
/ =
Relative Humidity
It is defined as the ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in air to the maximum
amount of water vapour that air can hold at this temperature.
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
= .
x
of ass
e temperatur same at hold
can air moisture of amount imum ma
tempT a at vapour m
m
m
g
v
Relative humidity is expressed in Percent
Other Parameters are:
1. Dry bulb temperature is the ordinary temperature of atmospheric air.
2. Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation
begins if air is cooled at cst pressure.
3. Wet bulb temperature is used to determine specific humidity and is measured
with a wet bulb thermometer.
Unit 12 13
12.4.2 The Psychrometric Chart
Data about air-vapour mixtures (atmospheric air) are shown on chart known as
Psychrometric charts, and these are used extensively in air conditioning applications.
These charts are drawn for atmospheric pressures.
Basic Features of Psychrometric Charts:
Horizontal axis: Dry bulb temperature
Vertical axis: Specific humidity
Left end curve: Saturation line which shows relative humidity
Lines having downhill appearance
1. Constant Specific Volume
2. Constant enthalpy
3. Constant wet bulb temperatures- - - - - - -
The Psychrometric chart services as a valuable aid in visualising air conditioning
processes.
Ordinary heating or cooling will appear as horizontal lines. Any derivation from a
horizontal line indicates that moisture is added or removed from the air during the
process.
Activity 6
Consider a room which contains air at 1 atm, 35
0
C and 40 percent relative humidity.
Figure 12.8: Psychrometric Chart
Dry bulb temperature
Humidify
Dehumidify
Cool Heat
Cool and Dehumidify
Unit 12 14
Using the psychrometric chart, determine
(a) Specific humidity (kg water/kg air)
(b) Enthalpy (KJ/kg air)
(c) Wet bulb temperature (
0
C)
(d) Dewpoint temperature (
0
C)
(e) Specific volume of the air (m
3
/
kg air)
12.5 SUMMARY
It has been seen in this unit that the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapour
power cycles because it cannot be approximated in practice. The model cycle for
vapour power cycles is the Ideal Rankine cycle, which is composed of four internally
reversible processes.
Actual processes have irreversibilities which are accounted for in the actual Rankine
cycle, by adiabatic efficiencies for expansion in turbine and compression in pump.
Similarly, for refrigerators, the reversed Carnot Cycle has many impracticabilities and
cannot be approximated in practice. The model cycle is the vapour compression
refrigerator cycle, which consists of isentropic compression in the compressor,
followed by a constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser, throttling in a
throttling valve and finally, constant heat absorption in evaporator.
Finally, the Psychrometric chart which indicates properties of air water vapour
mixtures and widely used in air conditioning was explained.
In the next unit, you will see gas power cycles, the basis for the operation of
automobile engines.
Unit 12 15
12.6 ANSWER TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
..
= Tds Q
then Q
in
= area under 2 3
Q
out
= area under 4 1
s
Then W
net
= Q
in
- Q
out
W
net
= area enclosed by 1 2 3 4
Activity 2
Superheated Region
Point 3
kJ/kg.K 6.7428 s
kJ/kg 3 . 3115 h
3
350
3
3
0
=
=
=
MPa P
C T
Point 4
g 3.2 kJ/k 24 h
0.886 x
s s
MPa P
0
.K kJ/kg 7428 . 6
775 . 0
4
3 4
=
=
= =
=
Point 1
=
=
= =
J/kg k 1.2130 s
/kg 0.001037m sat liquid
384.3kJ/kg h MPa P
1
3
1
k
075 . 0
1
w
pump
=
1
(P
2
-P
1
) = 3.033 kJ/kg
1
2
3
4
Figure 12.9
T
Unit 12 16
Point 2
= + =
=
KJ/kg 42 . 387
3
1 2
2
pump
W h h
MPa P
n
th
=
( )
260 . 0
78 . 2727
9 . 2018
1 =
Activity 3
If turbine has adiabatic efficiency of 0.87, then
S
a
h h
h h
.
4 3
4 3
87 0
=
From previous example; h
3
= 3115.3 kJ/kg
h
4S
= 2403.2 kJ/kg
h
4
a kg J / k 7 . 2495 3 . 3115 ) 2 . 2403 3 . 3115 ( 87 . 0 = +
Point 1: h
1
=384.3 kJ/kg
Pump has n
th
= 0.85
Then 0.85 =
a a
isen
a
S
h h
P P v
h h
W
h h
h h
2 1
1 2
2 1 2 1
2 1
) (
( )
kJ/kg 9 . 386
65 . 0
1
1 2
2
=
+ =
P P v
h h
a
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
MW . . 15 2726.4 Output Net Power
/kg 2726.4 kJ .9) 38 (3115.3 - ) -h (h q
) (n 15 q
-q q 15
-q q m w m Output Net Power
0.226
h h
h h
1
q
q
1 n
2a 3 in
th in
out in
out in i net i
2 3
1 4
in
out
th
25 9 226 0
6
= =
= = =
=
=
= =
=
= =
1
2
3
4
Figure 12.10
S
75 kPa
350
0
C
3 MPa
T
Unit 12 17
Activity 4
Ideal Rankine Cycle Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
1) Power Cycle Refrigeration Cycle
2) Consists of Condenser - Condenser
- Evaporator - Evaporator
- Pump - Throttling value
- Turbine - Compressor
- Gas/Vapour - Refrigerant
Activity 5
All four components are steady flow devices, and all four processes that make up the
cycle can be analysed as steady flow processes.
q w = he - hi
Processes 2 3 and 4 1 do not involve any work. Process 1 2 is adiabatic.
Then, the
1 2
4 1
h h
h h
w
q
COP
net
L
R
= =
Activity 6
P = 1 atm; T = 35
0
C, = 40%
(a) Specific humidity,
= 0.0142 kg H
2
0/kg dry air
(b) Enthalpy of air,
h = 71.5 kJ/kg dry air
(c) Wet bulb temperature
T
wb
= 24
0
C
(d) Dewpoint temperature
T
dp
= 19.4
0
C
(e) Specific volume
= 0.893 m
3
/kg air
= 40%
T= 35
0
C
Figure 12.11