8lsk ManagemenL Serles ueslgnlng for LarLhquakes

A Manual for ArchlLecLs

lLMA 434 / uecember 2006

SLlSMlC lSSuLS ln A8CPl1LC1u8AL uLSlCn 8? CP8lS1CPL8 A8nCLu
3.1 ln18CuuC1lCn
1hls chapLer uses Lhe lnformaLlon ln Lhe precedlng chapLer Lo explaln how
archlLecLural deslgn declslons lnfluence a bulldlng's llkellhood Lo suffer
damage when sub[ecLed Lo earLhquake ground moLlon. 1he crlLlcal deslgn declslons
are Lhose LhaL creaLe Lhe bulldlng conflguraLlon, deflned as Lhe bulldlng's slze
and Lhree dlmenslonal shape, and Lhose LhaL lnLroduce deLalled complexlLles
lnLo Lhe sLrucLure, ln ways LhaL wlll be dlscussed laLer.
ln secLlons 3.2 Lo 3.3, Lhe effecLs of archlLecLural deslgn declslons on selsmlc
performance are explalned by showlng a common sLrucLural/archlLecLural
conflguraLlon LhaL has been deslgned for near opLlmum selsmlc performance and
explalnlng lLs parLlcular characLerlsLlcs LhaL are selsmlcally deslrable. ln
SecLlon 3.3, Lhe Lwo maln condlLlons creaLed by conflguraLlon lrregularlLy are
explalned. ln SecLlon 3.4, a number of devlaLlons from Lhese characLerlsLlcs
(predomlnanLly archlLecLural ln orlgln) are ldenLlfled as problemaLlcal from a
selsmlc vlewpolnL. lour of Lhese devlaLlons are Lhen dlscussed ln more deLall ln
SecLlon 3. 3 boLh from an englneerlng and archlLecLural vlewpolnL, and
concepLual soluLlons are provlded for reduclng or ellmlnaLlng Lhe deLrlmenLal
effecLs. SecLlon 3.6 ldenLlfles a few oLher deLalled conflguraLlon lssues LhaL
may presenL problems.
SecLlon 3.7 shows how selsmlc conflguraLlon problems orlglnaLed ln Lhe unlversal
adopLlon of Lhe lnLernaLlonal SLyle" ln Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury, whlle SecLlon
3.8 glves some guldellnes on how Lo avold archlLecLural/sLrucLural problems.
llnally, SecLlon 3.9 looks Lo Lhe fuLure ln assesslng Loday's archlLecLural
Lrends, Lhelr lnfluence on selsmlc englneerlng, and Lhe posslblllLy LhaL selsmlc
needs mlghL resulL ln a new selsmlc archlLecLure."
3.2 1PL 8ASlC SLlSMlC sLrucLural S?S1LMS
A bulldlng's sLrucLural sysLem ls dlrecLly relaLed Lo lLs archlLecLural
conflguraLlon, whlch largely deLermlnes Lhe slze and locaLlon of sLrucLural
elemenLs such as walls, columns, horlzonLal beams, floors, and roof sLrucLure.
Pere, Lhe Lerm sLrucLural/archlLecLural conflguraLlon ls used Lo represenL Lhls
relaLlonshlp.
3.2.1 1he verLlcal LaLeral 8eslsLance SysLems
Selsmlc deslgners have Lhe cholce of Lhree baslc alLernaLlve Lypes of verLlcal
laLeral force-reslsLlng sysLems, and as dlscussed laLer, Lhe sysLem musL be
selecLed aL Lhe ouLseL of Lhe archlLecLural deslgn process. Pere, Lhe lnLenL ls
Lo demonsLraLe an opLlmum archlLecLural/sLrucLural conflguraLlon for each of Lhe
Lhree baslc sysLems. 1he Lhree alLernaLlves are lllusLraLed ln llgure 3-1.
1hese baslc sysLems have a number of varlaLlons, malnly relaLed Lo Lhe
sLrucLural maLerlals used and Lhe ways ln whlch Lhe members are connecLed. Many
of Lhese are shown ln ChapLer 7: llgures 7-2, 7-3, 7-11A and 7-11b show Lhelr
comparaLlve selsmlc performance characLerlsLlcs.
Shear walls
Shear walls are deslgned Lo recelve laLeral forces from dlaphragms and
LransmlL Lhem Lo Lhe ground. 1he forces ln Lhese walls are predomlnanLly shear
forces ln whlch Lhe maLerlal flbers wlLhln Lhe wall Lry Lo sllde pasL one
anoLher. 1o be effecLlve, shear walls musL run from Lhe Lop of Lhe bulldlng Lo
Lhe foundaLlon wlLh no offseLs and a mlnlmum of openlngs.
8raced frames
8raced frames acL ln Lhe same way as shear walls, however, Lhey generally
provlde less reslsLance buL beLLer ducLlllLy dependlng on Lhelr deLalled deslgn.
1hey provlde more archlLecLural deslgn freedom Lhan shear walls.
1here are Lwo general Lypes of braced frame: convenLlonal concenLrlc and
eccenLrlc. ln Lhe concenLrlc frame, Lhe cenLer llnes of Lhe braclng members meeL
Lhe horlzonLal beam aL a slngle polnL.
ln Lhe eccenLrlc braced frame, Lhe braces are dellberaLely deslgned Lo
meeL Lhe beam some dlsLance aparL from one anoLher: Lhe shorL plece of beam
beLween Lhe ends of Lhe braces ls called a llnk beam. 1he purpose of Lhe llnk
beam ls Lo provlde ducLlllLy Lo Lhe sysLem: under heavy selsmlc forces, Lhe llnk
beam wlll dlsLorL and dlsslpaLe Lhe energy of Lhe earLhquake ln a conLrolled
way, Lhus proLecLlng Lhe remalnder of Lhe sLrucLure (llgure 3-2).
MomenL-reslsLanL frames
A momenL reslsLanL frame ls Lhe englneerlng Lerm for a frame sLrucLure
wlLh no dlagonal braclng ln whlch Lhe laLeral forces are reslsLed prlmarlly by
bendlng ln Lhe beams and columns moblllzed by sLrong [olnLs beLween columns and
beams. MomenL-reslsLanL frames provlde Lhe mosL archlLecLural deslgn freedom.
1hese sysLems are, Lo some exLenL, alLernaLlves, alLhough deslgners someLlmes
mlx sysLems, uslng one Lype ln one dlrecLlon and anoLher Lype ln Lhe oLher.
1hls musL be done wlLh care, however, malnly because Lhe dlfferenL sysLems are
of varylng sLlffness (shear-wall sysLems are much sLlffer Lhan momenL-reslsLlng
frame sysLems, and braced sysLems fall ln beLween), and lL ls dlfflculL Lo
obLaln balanced reslsLance when Lhey are mlxed. Powever, for hlgh-performance
sLrucLures,) Lhere ls now lncreaslng use of dual sysLems, as descrlbed ln
secLlon 7.7.6. Lxamples of effecLlve mlxed sysLems are Lhe use of a shear-wall
core LogeLher wlLh a perlmeLer momenL-reslsLanL frame or a perlmeLer sLeel-
momenL frame wlLh lnLerlor eccenLrlc-braced frames. AnoLher varlaLlon ls Lhe use
of shear walls comblned wlLh a momenL-reslsLanL frame ln whlch Lhe frames are
deslgned Lo acL as a fall-safe back-up ln case of shear-wall fallure.
1he framlng sysLem musL be chosen aL an early sLage ln Lhe deslgn because Lhe
dlfferenL sysLem characLerlsLlcs have a conslderable effecL on Lhe archlLecLural
deslgn, boLh funcLlonally and aesLheLlcally, and because Lhe selsmlc sysLem
plays Lhe ma[or role ln deLermlnlng Lhe selsmlc performance of Lhe bulldlng.
lor example, lf shear walls are chosen as Lhe selsmlc force-reslsLlng sysLem,
Lhe bulldlng plannlng musL be able Lo accepL a paLLern of permanenL sLrucLural
walls wlLh llmlLed openlngs LhaL run unlnLerrupLed Lhrough every floor from roof
Lo foundaLlon.
3.2.2 ulaphragms-Lhe PorlzonLal 8eslsLance SysLem
1he Lerm dlaphragm" ls used Lo ldenLlfy horlzonLal-reslsLance members LhaL
Lransfer laLeral forces beLween verLlcal-reslsLance elemenLs (shear walls or
frames). 1he dlaphragms are generally provlded by Lhe floor and roof elemenLs
of Lhe bulldlng, someLlmes, however, horlzonLal braclng sysLems lndependenL of
Lhe roof or floor sLrucLure serve as dlaphragms. 1he dlaphragm ls an lmporLanL
elemenL ln Lhe enLlre selsmlc reslsLance sysLem (llgure 3-3).
1he dlaphragm can be vlsuallzed as a wlde horlzonLal beam wlLh componenLs aL lLs
edges, Lermed chords, deslgned Lo reslsL Lenslon and compresslon: chords are
slmllar Lo Lhe flanges of a verLlcal beam (llgure 3-3A)
A dlaphragm LhaL forms parL of a reslsLanL sysLem may acL elLher ln a flexlble
or rlgld manner, dependlng parLly on lLs slze (Lhe area beLween encloslng
reslsLance elemenLs or sLlffenlng beams) and also on lLs maLerlal. 1he
flexlblllLy of Lhe dlaphragm, relaLlve Lo Lhe shear walls whose forces lL ls
LransmlLLlng, also has a ma[or lnfluence on Lhe naLure and magnlLude of Lhose
forces. WlLh flexlble dlaphragms made of wood or sLeel decklng wlLhouL concreLe,
walls Lake loads accordlng Lo LrlbuLary areas (lf mass ls evenly dlsLrlbuLed).
WlLh rlgld dlaphragms (usually concreLe slabs), walls share Lhe loads ln
proporLlon Lo Lhelr sLlffness (flgure 3-38).
CollecLors, also called drag sLruLs or Lles, are dlaphragm framlng members LhaL
collecL" or drag" dlaphragm shear forces from laLerally unsupporLed areas Lo
verLlcal reslsLlng elemenLs (llgure 3-3C).
lloors and roofs have Lo be peneLraLed by sLalrcases, elevaLor and ducL shafLs,
skyllghLs, and aLrla. 1he slze and locaLlon of Lhese peneLraLlons are crlLlcal
Lo Lhe effecLlveness of Lhe dlaphragm. 1he reason for Lhls ls noL hard Lo see
when Lhe dlaphragm ls vlsuallzed as a beam. lor example, lL can be seen LhaL
openlngs cuL ln Lhe Lenslon flange of a beam wlll serlously weaken lLs load
carrylng capaclLy. ln a verLlcal load-bearlng slLuaLlon, a peneLraLlon Lhrough
a beam flange would occur ln elLher a Lenslle or compresslve reglon. ln a
laLeral load sysLem, Lhe hole would be ln a reglon of boLh Lenslon and
compresslon, slnce Lhe loadlng alLernaLes rapldly ln dlrecLlon (llgure 3-3u).
3.2.3 CpLlmlzlng Lhe SLrucLural/ArchlLecLural ConflguraLlon
llgure 3-4 shows Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe Lhree baslc selsmlc sysLems Lo a model
sLrucLural/archlLecLural conflguraLlon LhaL has been deslgned for near opLlmum
selsmlc performance. 1he flgure also explalns Lhe parLlcular characLerlsLlcs
LhaL are selsmlcally deslrable.
8ulldlng aLLrlbuLes:
ConLlnuous load paLh.
unlform loadlng of sLrucLural elemenLs and no sLress concenLraLlons.
Low helghL-Lo base raLlo
Mlnlmlzes Lendency Lo overLurn.
Lqual floor helghLs
Lquallzes column or wall sLlffness, no sLress concenLraLlons.
SymmeLrlcal plan shape
Mlnlmlzes Lorslon.
ldenLlcal reslsLance on boLh axes
LllmlnaLes eccenLrlclLy beLween Lhe cenLers of mass and reslsLance and
provldes balanced reslsLance ln all dlrecLlons, Lhus mlnlmlzlng Lorslon.
ldenLlcal verLlcal reslsLance
no concenLraLlons of sLrengLh or weakness.
unlform secLlon and elevaLlons
Mlnlmlzes sLress concenLraLlons.
Selsmlc reslsLlng elemenLs aL perlmeLer
Maxlmum Lorslonal reslsLance.
ShorL spans
Low unlL sLress ln members, mulLlple columns provlde redundancy -loads can be
redlsLrlbuLed lf some columns are losL.
no canLllevers
8educed vulnerablllLy Lo verLlcal acceleraLlons.
no openlngs ln dlaphragms(floors and roof)
Lnsures dlrecL Lransfer of laLeral forces Lo Lhe reslsLanL elemenLs.
ln Lhe model deslgn shown ln llgure 3-4, Lhe laLeral force reslsLlng elemenLs
are placed on Lhe perlmeLer of Lhe bulldlng, whlch ls Lhe mosL effecLlve
locaLlon, Lhe reasons for Lhls are noLed ln Lhe LexL. 1hls locaLlon also
provldes Lhe maxlmum freedom for lnLerlor space plannlng. ln a large bulldlng,
reslsLanL elemenLs may also be requlred ln Lhe lnLerlor.
Slnce ground moLlon ls essenLlally random ln dlrecLlon, Lhe reslsLance sysLem
musL proLecL agalnsL shaklng ln all dlrecLlons. ln a recLlllnear plan bulldlng
such as Lhls, Lhe reslsLance elemenLs are mosL effecLlve when placed on Lhe Lwo
ma[or axes of Lhe bulldlng ln a symmeLrlcal arrangemenL LhaL provldes balanced
reslsLance. A square plan, as shown here, provldes for a near perfecLly
balanced sysLem.
Consldered purely as archlLecLure, Lhls llLLle bulldlng ls qulLe accepLable, and
would be slmple and economlcal Lo consLrucL. uependlng on lLs exLerlor
LreaLmenL - lLs maLerlals, and Lhe care and reflnemenL wlLh whlch Lhey are
dlsposed- - lL could range from a very economlcal funcLlonal bulldlng Lo an
eleganL archlLecLural [ewel. lL ls noL a compleLe bulldlng, of course, because
sLalrs, elevaLors, eLc., musL be added, and Lhe bulldlng ls noL spaLlally
lnLeresLlng. Powever, lLs lnLerlor could be conflgured wlLh nonsLrucLural
componenLs Lo provlde almosL any quallLy of room LhaL was deslred, wlLh Lhe
excepLlon of unusual spaLlal volumes such as spaces more Lhan one sLory ln
helghL.
ln selsmlc Lerms, englneers refer Lo Lhls deslgn as a regular bulldlng. As Lhe
bulldlng characLerlsLlcs devlaLe from Lhls model, Lhe bulldlng becomes
lncreaslngly lrregular. lL ls Lhese lrregularlLles, for Lhe mosL parL creaLed
by Lhe archlLecLural deslgn, LhaL affecL Lhe bulldlng's selsmlc performance.
lndeed many englneers belleve LhaL lL ls Lhese archlLecLural lrregularlLles LhaL
conLrlbuLe prlmarlly Lo poor selsmlc performance and occaslonal fallure.
3.3 1he LffecLs of ConflguraLlon lrregularlLy
ConflguraLlon lrregularlLy ls largely responslble for Lwo undeslrable
condlLlons-sLress concenLraLlons and Lorslon. 1hese condlLlons ofLen occur
concurrenLly.
3.3.1 SLress ConcenLraLlons
lrregularlLles Lend Lo creaLe abrupL changes ln sLrengLh or sLlffness LhaL may
concenLraLe forces ln an undeslrable way. AlLhough Lhe overall deslgn laLeral
force ls usually deLermlned by calculaLlons based on selsmlc code requlremenLs,
Lhe way ln whlch Lhls force ls dlsLrlbuLed LhroughouL Lhe sLrucLure ls
deLermlned by Lhe bulldlng conflguraLlon.
SLress concenLraLlon occurs when large forces are concenLraLed aL one or a few
elemenLs of Lhe bulldlng, such as a parLlcular seL of beams, columns, or walls.
1hese few members may fall and, by a chaln reacLlon, damage or even brlng down
Lhe whole bulldlng. 8ecause, as dlscussed ln SecLlon 4.10.2, forces are
aLLracLed Lo Lhe sLlffer elemenLs of Lhe bulldlng, Lhese wlll be locaLlons of
sLress concenLraLlon.
SLress concenLraLlons can be creaLed by boLh horlzonLal and verLlcal sLlffness
lrregularlLles. 1he shorL-column phenomenon dlscussed ln SecLlon 4.10.2 and
shown ln llgure 4-14 ls an example of sLress concenLraLlon creaLed by verLlcal
dlmenslonal lrregularlLy ln Lhe bulldlng deslgn. ln plan, a conflguraLlon LhaL
ls mosL llkely Lo produce sLress concenLraLlons feaLures re-enLranL corners:
bulldlngs wlLh plan forms such as an L or a 1.) A dlscusslon of Lhe re-enLranL
corner conflguraLlon wlll be found ln SecLlon 3.3.4.
1he verLlcal lrregularlLy of Lhe sofL or weak sLory Lypes can produce dangerous
sLress concenLraLlons along Lhe plane of dlsconLlnulLy. SofL and weak sLorles
are dlscussed ln SecLlon 3.3.1.
3.3.2 1orslon
ConflguraLlon lrregularlLles ln plan may cause Lorslonal forces Lo develop,
whlch conLrlbuLe a slgnlflcanL elemenL of uncerLalnLy Lo an analysls of bulldlng
reslsLance, and are perhaps Lhe mosL frequenL cause of sLrucLural fallure.

As descrlbed ln SecLlon 4.11 and shown ln llgure 4-17, Lorslonal forces are
creaLed ln a bulldlng by eccenLrlclLy beLween Lhe cenLer of mass and Lhe cenLer
of reslsLance. 1hls eccenLrlclLy orlglnaLes elLher ln Lhe lack of symmeLry ln
Lhe arrangemenL of Lhe perlmeLer-reslsLanL elemenLs as dlscussed ln SecLlon
3.3.3., or ln Lhe plan conflguraLlon of Lhe bulldlng, as ln Lhe re-enLranL-
corner forms dlscussed ln SecLlon 3.3.4.
3.4 ConflguraLlon lrregularlLy ln Lhe Selsmlc Code
Many of Lhe conflguraLlon condlLlons LhaL presenL selsmlc problems were
ldenLlfled by observers early ln Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury. Powever, Lhe
conflguraLlon problem was flrsL deflned for code purposes ln Lhe 1973 CommenLary
Lo Lhe SLrucural Lnglneers AssoclaLlon of Callfornla (SLACC) 8ecommended LaLeral
lorce 8equlremenLs (commonly called Lhe SLACC 8lue 8ook). ln Lhls secLlon over
LwenLy speclflc Lypes of lrregular sLrucLures or framlng sysLems" were noLed as
examples of deslgns LhaL should lnvolve furLher analysls and dynamlc
conslderaLlon, raLher Lhan Lhe use of Lhe slmple equlvalenL sLaLlc force meLhod
ln unmodlfled form. 1hese lrregularlLles vary ln lmporLance ln Lhelr effecL, and
Lhelr lnfluence also varles ln degree, dependlng on whlch parLlcular
lrregularlLy ls presenL. 1hus, whlle ln an exLreme form Lhe re-enLranL corner ls
a serlous plan lrregularlLy, ln a lesser form lL may have llLLle or no
slgnlflcance. 1he deLermlnaLlon of Lhe polnL aL whlch a glven lrregularlLy
becomes serlous was lefL up Lo Lhe [udgmenL of Lhe englneer.
8ecause of Lhe bellef LhaL Lhls approach was lneffecLlve, ln Lhe 1988 codes a
llsL of slx horlzonLal (plan) and slx verLlcal (secLlon and elevaLlon)
lrregularlLles was provlded LhaL, wlLh mlnor changes, ls sLlll ln Loday's codes.
1hls llsL also sLlpulaLed dlmenslonal or oLher characLerlsLlcs LhaL esLabllshed
wheLher Lhe lrregularlLy was serlous enough Lo requlre regulaLlon, and also
provlded Lhe provlslons LhaL musL be meL ln order Lo meeL Lhe code. Cf Lhe 12
lrregularlLles shown, all excepL one are conflguraLlon lrregularlLles, Lhe one
excepLlon refers Lo asymmeLrlcal locaLlon of mass wlLhln Lhe bulldlng. 1he
lrregularlLles are shown ln llgures 3.3 and 3.6. 1he code provldes only
descrlpLlons of Lhese condlLlons, Lhe dlagrams are added ln Lhls publlcaLlon Lo
lllusLraLe each condlLlon by showlng how lL would modlfy our opLlmlzed
conflguraLlon, and Lo also lllusLraLe Lhe fallure paLLern LhaL ls creaLed by Lhe
lrregularlLy.

lor Lhe mosL parL, code provlslons seek Lo dlscourage lrregularlLy ln deslgn by
lmposlng penalLles, whlch are of Lhree Lypes:
8equlrlng lncreased deslgn forces.
8equlrlng a more advanced (and expenslve) analysls procedure.
ulsallowlng exLreme sofL sLorles and exLreme Lorslonal lmbalance ln hlgh
selsmlc zones.
lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe code provlslons LreaL Lhe sympLoms of lrregularlLy,
raLher Lhan Lhe cause. 1he lrregularlLy ls sLlll allowed Lo exlsL, Lhe hope ls
LhaL Lhe penalLles wlll be sufflclenL Lo cause Lhe deslgners Lo ellmlnaLe Lhe
lrregularlLles. lncreaslng Lhe deslgn forces or lmprovlng Lhe analysls Lo
provlde beLLer lnformaLlon does noL, ln lLself, solve Lhe problem. 1he problem
musL be solved by deslgn.
1he code-deflned lrregularlLles shown ln llgures 3-3 and 3-6 serve as a
checkllsL for ascerLalnlng Lhe posslblllLy of conflguraLlon problems. lour of
Lhe more serlous conflguraLlon condlLlons LhaL are clearly archlLecLural ln
orlgln are descrlbed ln more deLall ln Lhe secLlons below. ln addlLlon, some
concepLual suggesLlons for Lhelr soluLlon are also provlded, as lL may noL be
posslble LoLally Lo ellmlnaLe an undeslrable conflguraLlon.
3.3 lour Serlous ConflguraLlon CondlLlons
lour conflguraLlon condlLlons (Lwo verLlcal and Lwo ln plan) LhaL orlglnaLe ln
Lhe archlLecLural deslgn and LhaL have Lhe poLenLlal Lo serlously lmpacL selsmlc
performance are:
SofL and weak sLorles
ulsconLlnuous shear walls
varlaLlons ln perlmeLer sLrengLh and sLlffness
8eenLranL corners


3.3.1 SofL and Weak SLorles (Code lrregularlLles 1ypes v1 and v3)
1he problem and Lhe Lypes of condlLlon
1he mosL promlnenL of Lhe problems caused by severe sLress concenLraLlon ls LhaL
of Lhe sofL" sLory. 1he Lerm has commonly been applled Lo bulldlngs whose
ground-level sLory ls less sLlff Lhan Lhose above. 1he bulldlng code
dlsLlngulshes beLween sofL" and weak" sLorles. SofL sLorles are less sLlff,
or more flexlble, Lhan Lhe sLory above, weak sLorles have less sLrengLh. A sofL
or weak sLory aL any helghL creaLes a problem, buL slnce Lhe cumulaLlve loads
are greaLesL Lowards Lhe base of Lhe bulldlng, a dlsconLlnulLy beLween Lhe flrsL
and second floor Lends Lo resulL ln Lhe mosL serlous condlLlon.
1he way ln whlch severe sLress concenLraLlon ls caused aL Lhe Lop of Lhe flrsL
floor ls shown ln Lhe dlagram sequence ln llgure 3-7. normal drlfL under
earLhquake forces LhaL ls dlsLrlbuLed equally among Lhe upper floors ls shown ln
llgure 3-7A. WlLh a sofL sLory, almosL all Lhe drlfL occurs ln Lhe flrsL floor,
and sLress concenLraLes aL Lhe second-floor connecLlons (llgure 3-78). 1hls
concenLraLlon oversLresses Lhe [olnLs along Lhe second floor llne, leadlng Lo
dlsLorLlon or collapse (llgure 3-7C).
1hree Lyplcal condlLlons creaLe a sofL flrsL sLory (llgure 3-8). 1he flrsL
condlLlon (llgure 3-8A) ls where Lhe verLlcal sLrucLure beLween Lhe flrsL and
second floor ls slgnlflcanLly more flexlble Lhan LhaL of Lhe upper floors. (1he
selsmlc code provldes numerlcal values Lo evaluaLe wheLher a sofL-sLory
condlLlon exlsLs). 1hls dlsconLlnulLy mosL commonly occurs ln a frame sLrucLure
ln whlch Lhe flrsL floor helghL ls slgnlflcanLly Laller Lhan Lhose above, so
LhaL Lhe cube law resulLs ln a large dlscrepancy ln sLlffness (see SecLlon
4.10.2 and llgure 4-13).
1he second form of sofL sLory (llgure 3-8) ls creaLed by a common deslgn concepL
ln whlch some of Lhe verLlcal framlng elemenLs do noL conLlnue Lo Lhe
foundaLlon, buL raLher are LermlnaLed aL Lhe second floor Lo lncrease Lhe
openness aL ground level. 1hls condlLlon creaLes a dlsconLlnuous load paLh LhaL
resulLs ln an abrupL change ln sLlffness and sLrengLh aL Lhe plane of change.
llnally, Lhe sofL sLory may be creaLed by an open flrsL floor LhaL supporLs
heavy sLrucLural or nonsLrucLural walls above (llgure 3-8C). 1hls slLuaLlon ls
mosL serlous when Lhe walls above are shear walls acLlng as ma[or laLeral force-
reslsLlng elemenLs. 1hls condlLlon ls dlscussed ln SecLlon 3.3.2, slnce lL
represenLs an lmporLanL speclal case of Lhe weak- and sofL- sLory problem.
llgure 3-9 shows Lhe norLhrldge Meadows aparLmenL bulldlng afLer Lhe norLhrldge
(Los Angeles) earLhquake of 1994. ln Lhls bulldlng, mosL of Lhe flrsL floor was
lefL open for car parklng, resulLlng ln boLh a weak and flexlble flrsL floor.
1he shear capaclLy of Lhe flrsL-floor columns and Lhe few walls of Lhls large
wood frame sLrucLure were qulLe lnadequaLe, and led Lo compleLe collapse and 16
deaLhs.
llgure 3-10 shows anoLher aparLmenL house ln norLhrldge ln whlch Lwo sLorles of
wood frame consLrucLlon were supporLed on a precasL concreLe frame. 1he frame
collapsed compleLely. lorLunaLely Lhere were no ground floor aparLmenLs, so Lhe
resldenLs, Lhough severely shaken, were unln[ured.
SoluLlons
1he besL soluLlon Lo Lhe sofL and weak sLory problem ls Lo avold Lhe
dlsconLlnulLy Lhrough archlLecLural deslgn. 1here may, however, be good
programmaLlc reasons why Lhe flrsL floor should be more open or hlgher Lhan Lhe
upper floors. ln Lhese cases, careful archlLecLural/sLrucLural deslgn musL be
employed Lo reduce Lhe dlsconLlnulLy. Some concepLual meLhods for dolng Lhls
are shown ln llgure 3-11.
noL all bulldlngs LhaL show slender columns and hlgh flrsL floors are sofL
sLorles. lor a sofL sLory Lo exlsL, Lhe flexlble columns musL be Lhe maln
laLeral force-reslsLanL sysLem.
ueslgners someLlmes creaLe a sofL-sLory condlLlon ln Lhe efforL Lo creaLe a
dellcaLe, eleganL appearance aL Lhe base of a bulldlng. Sklllful
sLrucLural/archlLecLural deslgn can achleve Lhls effecL wlLhouL compromlslng Lhe
sLrucLure, as shown ln llgure 3-12. 1he bulldlng shown ls a 21-sLory aparLmenL
house on Lhe beach ln vlna del Mar, Chlle. 1hls bulldlng was unscaLhed ln Lhe
sLrong Chllean earLhquake of 1983.
3.3.2 ulsconLlnuous Shear Walls (Code 1ype lrregularlLy v3)
1he problem and Lhe Lypes of condlLlon
When shear walls form Lhe maln laLeral reslsLanL elemenLs of a sLrucLure, and
Lhere ls noL a conLlnuous load paLh Lhrough Lhe walls from roof Lo foundaLlon,
Lhe resulL can be serlous oversLresslng aL Lhe polnLs of dlsconLlnulLy. 1hls
dlsconLlnuous shear wall condlLlon represenLs a speclal, buL common, case of Lhe
sofL" flrsL-sLory problem.
1he dlsconLlnuous shear wall ls a fundamenLal deslgn conLradlcLlon: Lhe purpose
of a shear wall ls Lo collecL dlaphragm loads aL each floor and LransmlL Lhem as
dlrecLly and efflclenLly as posslble Lo Lhe foundaLlon. 1o lnLerrupL Lhls load
paLh ls undeslrable, Lo lnLerrupL lL aL lLs base, where Lhe shear forces are
greaLesL, ls a ma[or error. 1hus Lhe dlsconLlnuous shear wall LhaL LermlnaLes aL
Lhe second floor represenLs a worsL case" of Lhe sofL flrsL-floor condlLlon. A
dlsconLlnulLy ln verLlcal sLlffness and sLrengLh leads Lo a concenLraLlon of
sLresses, and Lhe sLory LhaL musL hold up all Lhe resL of Lhe sLorles ln a
bulldlng should be Lhe lasL, raLher Lhan Lhe flrsL, elemenL Lo be sacrlflced.
Cllve vlew PosplLal, whlch was severely damaged ln Lhe 1971 San lernando,
Callfornla, earLhquake, represenLs an exLreme form of Lhe dlsconLlnuous shear
wall problem. 1he general verLlcal conflguraLlon of Lhe maln bulldlng was a
sofL" Lwo-sLory layer of rlgld frames on whlch was supporLed a four sLory
(flve, counLlng penLhouse) sLlff shear wall-plus-frame sLrucLure (llgures 3-13,
3-14). 1he second floor exLends ouL Lo form a large plaza. Severe damage
occurred ln Lhe sofL sLory porLlon. 1he upper sLorles moved as a unlL, and moved
so much LhaL Lhe columns aL ground level could noL accommodaLe such a hlgh
dlsplacemenL beLween Lhelr bases and Lops, and hence falled. 1he largesL amounL
by whlch a column was lefL permanenLly ouL-of-plumb was 2 feeL 6 lnches (llgure
3-13). 1he bulldlng dld noL collapse, buL Lwo occupanLs ln lnLenslve care and a
malnLenance person worklng ouLslde Lhe bulldlng were kllled.
SoluLlons
1he soluLlon Lo Lhe problem of Lhe dlsconLlnuous shear wall ls unequlvocally Lo
ellmlnaLe Lhe condlLlon. 1o do Lhls may creaLe archlLecLural problems of
plannlng or clrculaLlon or lmage. lf Lhls ls so, lL lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe declslon
Lo use shear walls as reslsLanL elemenLs was wrong from Lhe lncepLlon of Lhe
deslgn. lf Lhe declslon ls made Lo use shear walls, Lhen Lhelr presence musL be
recognlzed from Lhe beglnnlng of schemaLlc deslgn, and Lhelr slze and locaLlon
made Lhe sub[ecL of careful archlLecLural and englneerlng coordlnaLlon early.
3.3.3 varlaLlons ln erlmeLer SLrengLh and SLlffness (Code 1ype 1)
1he problem and Lhe Lypes of condlLlon
As dlscussed ln SecLlon 4.11, Lhls problem may occur ln bulldlngs whose
conflguraLlon ls geomeLrlcally regular and symmeLrlcal, buL noneLheless
lrregular for selsmlc deslgn purposes.
A bulldlng's selsmlc behavlor ls sLrongly lnfluenced by Lhe naLure of Lhe
perlmeLer deslgn. lf Lhere ls wlde varlaLlon ln sLrengLh and sLlffness around
Lhe perlmeLer, Lhe cenLer of mass wlll noL colnclde wlLh Lhe cenLer of
reslsLance, and Lorslonal forces wlll Lend Lo cause Lhe bulldlng Lo roLaLe
around Lhe cenLer of reslsLance.
llgure 3-16 shows an aparLmenL house ln vlna del Mar, Chlle, followlng Lhe
earLhquake of 1983. 1he clLy ls an ocean resorL, and beach-fronL aparLmenLs are
deslgned wlLh open fronLage faclng Lhe beach. 1hls small seven-sLory
condomlnlum bulldlng had only Lhree aparLmenLs per floor, wlLh Lhe servlce areas
and elevaLor concenLraLed Lo Lhe rear and surrounded by relnforced concreLe
walls LhaL provlded Lhe selsmlc reslsLance. 1he lack of balance ln reslsLance
was such LhaL Lhe bulldlng roLaLed around lLs cenLer of reslsLance, LllLed
sharply, and nearly collapsed. 1he bulldlng was subsequenLly demollshed.
A common lnsLance of an unbalanced perlmeLer ls LhaL of open-fronL deslgn ln
bulldlngs, such as flre sLaLlons and moLor malnLenance shops ln whlch lL ls
necessary Lo provlde large doors for Lhe passage of vehlcles. SLores,
lndlvldually or as a group ln a shopplng mall, are ofLen deslgned as boxes wlLh
Lhree solld sldes and an open glazed fronL (llgure 3-17).
1he large lmbalance ln perlmeLer sLrengLh and sLlffness resulLs ln large
Lorslonal forces. Large bulldlngs, such as deparLmenL sLores, LhaL have
unbalanced reslsLance on a number of floors Lo provlde large wlndow areas for
dlsplay are also common. A classlc case of damage Lo a large sLore wlLh an
unbalanced-perlmeLer reslsLance condlLlon was LhaL of Lhe enney's sLore ln Lhe
Alaska earLhquake of 1964 (llgure 3-18).
SoluLlons
1he soluLlon Lo Lhls problem ls Lo reduce Lhe posslblllLy of Lorslon by
endeavorlng Lo balance Lhe reslsLance around Lhe perlmeLer. 1he example shown
ls LhaL of Lhe sLore fronL. A number of alLernaLlve deslgn sLraLegles can be
employed LhaL could also be used for Lhe oLher bulldlng Lype condlLlons noLed
(llgure 3-19).
1he flrsL sLraLegy ls Lo deslgn a frame sLrucLure of approxlmaLely equal
sLrengLh and sLlffness for Lhe enLlre perlmeLer. 1he opaque porLlon of Lhe
perlmeLer can be consLrucLed of nonsLrucLural claddlng, deslgned so LhaL lL does
noL affecL Lhe selsmlc performance of Lhe frame. 1hls can be done elLher by
uslng llghLwelghL claddlng or by ensurlng LhaL heavy maLerlals, such as concreLe
or masonry, are lsolaLed from Lhe frame (llgure 3-19A).
A second approach ls Lo lncrease Lhe sLlffness of Lhe open facades by addlng
sufflclenL shear walls, aL or near Lhe open face, deslgned Lo approach Lhe
reslsLance provlded by Lhe oLher walls (llgure 3-198).

A Lhlrd soluLlon ls Lo use a sLrong momenL reslsLlng or braced frame aL Lhe open
fronL, whlch approaches Lhe solld wall ln sLlffness. 1he ablllLy Lo do Lhls wlll
depend on Lhe slze of Lhe facades, a long sLeel frame can never approach a long
concreLe wall ln sLlffness. 1hls ls, however, a good soluLlon for wood frame
sLrucLures, such as small aparLmenL bulldlngs, or moLels wlLh ground floor
garage areas, or small sLore fronLs, because even a comparaLlvely long sLeel
frame can be made as sLlff as plywood shear walls (llgure 3-19C).
1he posslblllLy of Lorslon may be accepLed and Lhe sLrucLure deslgned Lo have
Lhe capaclLy Lo reslsL lL, Lhrough a comblnaLlon of momenL frames, shear walls,)
and dlaphragm acLlon. 1hls soluLlon wlll apply only Lo relaLlvely small
sLrucLures wlLh sLlff dlaphragms deslgned ln such a way LhaL Lhey can
accommodaLe conslderable eccenLrlc loadlng (llgure 3-19u).
ManufacLurers have recenLly produced prefabrlcaLed meLal shear walls, wlLh hlgh
shear values, LhaL can be lncorporaLed ln resldenLlal wood frame sLrucLures Lo
solve Lhe house-over-garage problem.
3.3.4 8e-enLranL Corners (Code 1ype lrregularlLly P3)
1he problem and Lhe Lypes of condlLlon
1he re-enLranL corner ls Lhe common characLerlsLlc of bulldlng forms LhaL, ln
plan, assume Lhe shape of an L, 1, P, eLc., or a comblnaLlon of Lhese shapes
(llgure 3-20).
1here are Lwo problems creaLed by Lhese shapes. 1he flrsL ls LhaL Lhey Lend Lo
produce dlfferenLlal moLlons beLween dlfferenL wlngs of Lhe bulldlng LhaL,
because of sLlff elemenLs LhaL Lend Lo be locaLed ln Lhls reglon, resulL ln
local sLress concenLraLlons aL Lhe re-enLranL corner, or noLch."
1he second problem of Lhls form ls Lorslon. Whlch ls caused because Lhe cenLer
of mass and Lhe cenLer of rlgldlLy ln Lhls form cannoL geomeLrlcally colnclde
for all posslble earLhquake dlrecLlons. 1he resulL ls roLaLlon. 1he resulLlng
forces are very dlfflculL Lo analyze and predlcL. llgure 3-21 shows Lhe
problems wlLh Lhe re-enLranL-corner form. 1he sLress concenLraLlon aL Lhe
noLch" and Lhe Lorslonal effecLs are lnLerrelaLed. 1he magnlLude of Lhe forces
and Lhe severlLy of Lhe problems wlll depend on:
1he characLerlsLlcs of Lhe ground moLlon
1he mass of Lhe bulldlng
1he Lype of sLrucLural sysLems
1he lengLh of Lhe wlngs and Lhelr aspecL raLlos (lengLh Lo wldLh
proporLlon)
1he helghL of Lhe wlngs and Lhelr helghL/depLh raLlos
llgure 3-22 shows WesL Anchorage Plgh School, Alaska, afLer Lhe 1964 earLhquake.
1he phoLo shows damage Lo Lhe noLch of Lhls splayed L-shape bulldlng. noLe
LhaL Lhe heavy walls have aLLracLed large forces. A shorL column effecL ls
vlslble aL Lhe column beLween Lhe Lwo boLLom wlndows whlch have suffered classlc
x -shaped shear-fallure cracklng and Lhe damage aL Lhe Lop where Lhls hlghly
sLressed reglon has been weakened by Lhe lnserLlon of wlndows.
8e-enLranL corner plan forms are a mosL useful seL of bulldlng shapes for urban
slLes, parLlcularly for resldenLlal aparLmenLs and hoLels, whlch enable large
plan areas Lo be accommodaLed ln relaLlvely compacL form, yeL sLlll provlde a
hlgh percenLage of perlmeLer rooms wlLh access Lo alr and llghL.
1hese conflguraLlons are so common and famlllar LhaL Lhe facL LhaL Lhey
represenL one of Lhe mosL dlfflculL problem areas ln selsmlc deslgn may seem
surprlslng. Lxamples of damage Lo re-enLranL-corner Lype bulldlngs are common,
and Lhls problem was one of Lhe flrsL Lo be ldenLlfled by observers.
1he courLyard form, mosL approprlaLe for hoLels and aparLmenL houses ln LlghL
urban slLes, has always been useful, ln lLs mosL modern form, Lhe courLyard
someLlmes becomes a glass-enclosed aLrlum, buL Lhe sLrucLural form ls Lhe same.
SoluLlons
1here are Lwo baslc alLernaLlve approaches Lo Lhe problem of re-enLranL-corner
forms: sLrucLurally Lo separaLe Lhe bulldlng lnLo slmpler shapes, or Lo Lle Lhe
bulldlng LogeLher more sLrongly wlLh elemenLs poslLloned Lo provlde a more
balanced reslsLance (llgure 3-23). 1he laLLer soluLlon applles only Lo smaller
bulldlngs.
Cnce Lhe declslon ls made Lo use separaLlon [olnLs, Lhey musL be deslgned and
consLrucLed correcLly Lo achleve Lhe orlglnal lnLenL. SLrucLurally separaLed
enLlLles of a bulldlng musL be fully capable of reslsLlng verLlcal and laLeral
forces on Lhelr own, and Lhelr lndlvldual conflguraLlons musL be balanced
horlzonLally and verLlcally.
1o deslgn a separaLlon [olnL, Lhe maxlmum drlfL of Lhe Lwo unlLs musL be
calculaLed by Lhe sLrucLural consulLanL. 1he worsL case ls when Lhe Lwo
lndlvldual sLrucLures would lean Loward each oLher slmulLaneously, and hence Lhe
sum of Lhe dlmenslon of Lhe separaLlon space musL allow for Lhe sum of Lhe
bulldlng deflecLlons.
Several conslderaLlons arlse lf lL ls declded Lo dlspense wlLh Lhe separaLlon
[olnL and Lle Lhe bulldlng LogeLher. CollecLors aL Lhe lnLersecLlon can
Lransfer forces across Lhe lnLersecLlon area, buL only lf Lhe deslgn allows for
Lhese beam-llke members Lo exLend sLralghL across wlLhouL lnLerrupLlon. lf Lhey
can be accommodaLed, full-helghL conLlnuous walls ln Lhe same locaLlons are even
more effecLlve. Slnce Lhe porLlon of Lhe wlng whlch Lyplcally dlsLorLs Lhe mosL
ls Lhe free end, lL ls deslrable Lo place sLlffenlng elemenLs aL LhaL locaLlon.
1he use of splayed raLher Lhan rlghL angle re-enLranL corners lessens Lhe sLress
concenLraLlon aL Lhe noLch (llgure 3-24). 1hls ls analogous Lo Lhe way a rounded
hole ln a sLeel plaLe creaLes less sLress concenLraLlon Lhan a recLangular hole,
or Lhe way a Lapered beam ls sLrucLurally more deslrable Lhan an abrupLly
noLched one.
3.6 CLher ArchlLecLural/SLrucLural lssues

3.6.1 CverLurnlng: Why 8ulldlngs lall uown, noL Cver
AlLhough bulldlng mass or welghL was dlscussed as parL of Lhe l = MA equaLlon
for deLermlnlng Lhe horlzonLal forces, Lhere ls anoLher way ln whlch Lhe
bulldlng's welghL may acL under earLhquake forces Lo overload Lhe bulldlng and
cause damage or even collapse.
verLlcal members such as columns or walls may fall by buckllng when Lhe mass of
Lhe bulldlng exerLs lLs gravlLy force on a member dlsLorLed or moved ouL of
plumb by Lhe laLeral forces. 1hls phenomenon ls known by englneers as Lhe e or
delLa effecL, where ls Lhe gravlLy force or welghL, and e" or delLa" ls
Lhe eccenLrlclLy or Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe force ls offseL. All ob[ecLs LhaL
overLurn do so as a resulL of Lhls phenomenon (llgure 3-23).
1he geomeLrlcal proporLlons of Lhe bulldlng also may have a greaL lnfluence on
wheLher Lhe -delLa effecL wlll pose a problem, slnce a Lall, slender bulldlng
ls much more llkely Lo be sub[ecL Lo overLurnlng forces Lhan a low, squaL one.
lL should be noLed, however, LhaL lf Lhe laLeral reslsLance ls provlded by shear
walls, lL ls Lhe proporLlons of Lhe shear walls LhaL are slgnlflcanL raLher Lhan
Lhose of Lhe bulldlng as a whole.
Powever, ln earLhquakes, bulldlngs seldom overLurn, because sLrucLures are noL
homogeneous buL raLher are composed of many elemenLs connecLed LogeLher, Lhe
earLhquake forces wlll pull Lhe componenLs aparL, and Lhe bulldlng wlll fall
down, noL over. SLrong, homogeneous sLrucLures such as flllng cablneLs,
however, wlll fall over. A rare example of a large sLeel-frame bulldlng collapse
ls LhaL of Lhe lno Suarez aparLmenLs ln Lhe Mexlco ClLy earLhquake of 1983. Cf
Lhe Lhree nearly ldenLlcal bulldlngs, one collapsed, one was severely damaged,
and Lhe Lhlrd suffered moderaLe damage. 1he sLrucLures had asymmeLrlcal laLeral
braclng aL Lhelr perlmeLers, and Lhe sLeel frames were poorly deLalled and
buckled (llgure 3-26).
1he collapse of Lhe Cypress lreeway ln Cakland, Callfornla, ln Lhe Loma rleLa
earLhquake (Lhough a vladucL raLher Lhan bulldlng) was a rare example of a low-
rlse sLrucLural collapse (llgure 3-27),
3.6.2 erforaLed Shear Walls
AnoLher undeslrable condlLlon ls when a shear wall ls perforaLed by allgned
openlngs for doors , wlndows and Lhe llke, so LhaL lLs lnLegrlLy may be
compromlsed. Careful analysls ls necessary Lo ensure LhaL a conLlnuous load paLh
remalns wlLhouL a slgnlflcanL loss of horlzonLal shear capaclLy. Some Lypes of
perforaLed shear wall wlLh unallgned openlngs have performed well (llgure 3-28).
3.6.3 SLrong 8eam, Weak Column
SLrucLures are commonly deslgned so LhaL under severe shaklng, Lhe beams wlll
fall before Lhe columns. 1hls reduces Lhe posslblllLy of compleLe collapse.
1he shorL-column effecL, dlscussed ln SecLlon 4.10.2, ls analogous Lo a weak-
column sLrong-beam condlLlon, whlch ls someLlmes produced lnadverLenLly when
sLrong or sLlff nonsLrucLural spandrel members are lnserLed beLween columns.
1he parklng sLrucLure shown ln llgure 3-29 suffered sLrong-beam weak-column
fallure ln Lhe WhlLLler, Callfornla, earLhquake of 1987.
3.6.4 SeLbacks and lanes of Weakness
verLlcal seLbacks can lnLroduce dlsconLlnulLles, parLlcularly lf columns or
walls are offseL aL Lhe plane of Lhe seLback. A horlzonLal plane of weakness
can be creaLed by Lhe placemenL of wlndows or oLher openlngs LhaL may lead Lo
fallure, as ln Lhls bulldlng ln Lhe kobe, !apan, earLhquake of 1993 (llgure 3-
30).
3.7 l88LCuLA8 CCnllCu8A1lCnS: A 1WLn1lL1P CLn1u8? 8C8LLM
1he foregolng dlscusslon has ldenLlfled lrregular" archlLecLural/sLrucLural
forms LhaL can conLrlbuLe Lo bulldlng damage or even collapse. 1hese
lrregularlLles are presenL ln many exlsLlng bulldlngs, and Lhe ways ln whlch
Lhey affecL selsmlc performance need Lo be undersLood by bulldlng deslgners so
LhaL dangerous condlLlons are noL creaLed. 1he lrregular-conflguraLlon problem
was made posslble by nlneLeenLh-cenLury sLrucLural Lechnology and creaLed by
LwenLleLh-cenLury archlLecLural deslgn.
3.7.1 A new vernacular: Lhe lnLernaLlonal SLyle and lLs Selsmlc lmpllcaLlons
1he lnnovaLlon of Lhe sLeel and relnforced concreLe frame aL Lhe end of Lhe
nlneLeenLh cenLury enabled bulldlngs Lo be freed from Lhe resLrlcLlons lmposed
by load-bearlng masonry. Powever, unLll Lhe early years of Lhe LwenLleLh
cenLury, wesLern archlLecLural deslgn culLure dlcLaLed a hlsLorlcal sLyle even
when LoLally new bulldlng Lypes, such as rallroad sLaLlons or skyscrapers, were
concelved. 1he archlLecLural forms used were all derlved from Lhe englneerlng
lmperaLlves of load-bearlng masonry sLrucLure: Lhese masonry-devlsed forms
survlved well lnLo Lhe LwenLleLh cenLury, even when bulldlngs were supporLed by
concealed sLeel frames, and arches had become sLyllsLlc decoraLlon (llgure 3-
31).
1hls hlsLorlclsm came under aLLack early ln Lhe cenLury from a number of avanL-
garde archlLecLs, predomlnanLly ln Lurope, who preached an anLl-hlsLorlcal dogma
ln supporL of an archlLecLure LhaL Lhey belleved more fully represenLed Lhe
asplraLlons and Lechnology of a new age. LaLer, Lhls movemenL was Lermed Lhe
lnLernaLlonal SLyle.
1hls revoluLlon ln archlLecLural aesLheLlcs had many dlmenslons: aesLheLlc,
Lechnlcal, economlc and pollLlcal. Cne resulL was Lo glve aesLheLlc valldlLy Lo
a hlghly economlcal, unadorned, recLlllnear box for almosL all bulldlng
funcLlons. 1he lnLernaLlonal sLyle preached Lhe aesLheLlc en[oymenL of Lhe
dellcacy and slenderness LhaL Lhe sLeel or concreLe frame sLrucLure had made
posslble.
1he proLoLype of Lhe lnLernaLlonal sLyle was exempllfled ln Lhe avlllon Sulsse
ln arls ln 1930 (llgure 3-32).
As archlLecLs and englneers began Lo explolL Lhe aesLheLlcs of Lhe bulldlng
frame, Lhe seeds of selsmlc conflguraLlon problems were sown. ln lLs earllesL
forms Lhe sLyle frequenLly creaLed bulldlngs LhaL were close Lo our ldeal
selsmlc bulldlng conflguraLlon. Powever, Lhe sLyle ofLen had a number of
characLerlsLlcs noL presenL ln earller frame and masonry bulldlngs LhaL led Lo
poor selsmlc performance. 1hese were:
LlevaLlon of Lhe bulldlng on sLllLs or plloLls
1hls had aLLracLlve funcLlonal characLerlsLlcs, such as Lhe ablllLy Lo
lnLroduce car parklng under Lhe bulldlng, or Lhe bulldlng could be opened Lo Lhe
publlc and lLs vlslLors ln ways LhaL were noL prevlously posslble. lL was
aLLracLlve aesLheLlcally: Lhe bulldlng could appear Lo floaL alrlly above Lhe
ground.
Powever, wlLhouL full undersLandlng of Lhe selsmlc lmpllcaLlons of
verLlcal sLrucLural dlsconLlnulLy, deslgners ofLen creaLed sofL and weak
sLorles.
1he free plan and ellmlnaLlon of lnLerlor-load bearlng walls
lannlng freedom was funcLlonally efflclenL and aesLheLlcally opened up
new posslblllLles of llghL and space.
Powever, Lhe replacemenL of masonry and Llle parLlLlons by frame and
gypsum board greaLly reduced Lhe energy absorpLlon capablllLy of Lhe bulldlng
and lncreased lLs drlfL, leadlng Lo greaLer nonsLrucLural damage and posslble
sLrucLural fallure.
1he greaL lncrease ln exLerlor glazlng and Lhe lnvenLlon of Lhe llghL-
welghL curLaln wall
1he curLaln wall was a slgnlflcanL feaLure of Lhe new vernacular and was
sub[ecL Lo conLlnuous developmenL and reflnemenL. AL one end, lL became Lhe
mosL economlcal meLhod of creaLlng an exLerlor faade, aL Lhe oLher end lL led
Lo Lhe apparenLly frameless glass walls and double-skln energy-efflclenL curLaln
walls of Loday. Llke free lnLerlor plannlng, Lhe llghL exLerlor claddlng
greaLly reduced Lhe energy-absorpLlon capablllLy of Lhe bulldlng and lncreased
lLs drlfL.
1he posL-World War ll years saw worldwlde exploslve urban developmenL, and Lhe
new aesLheLlc, because of lLs lack of ornamenLaLlon, slmple forms, and emphasls
on mlnlmal sLrucLure, was very economlcal. 1hls ensured lLs wldespread
adopLlon. unforLunaLely, selsmlc deslgn, parLlcularly Lhe need for ducLlllLy -
as lL relaLed Lo Lhe new, spare, framed bulldlngs - was lnadequaLely undersLood.
1hus Lhe aesLheLlcs and economles of Lhe lnLernaLlonal sLyle ln vogue from abouL
Lhe 30's Lo Lhe 70's has lefL Lhe world's clLles wlLh a legacy of poor selsmlc
conflguraLlons LhaL presenLs a serlous problem ln reduclng Lhe earLhquake LhreaL
Lo our Lowns and clLles.
ConflguraLlon lrregularlLles ofLen arlse for sound plannlng or urban deslgn
reasons and are noL necessarlly Lhe resulL of Lhe deslgner's whlm (or
lgnorance). 1he problem lrregularlLles shown ln llgures 3-3 and 3-6 represenL
sLrucLural/archlLecLural errors LhaL orlglnaLe ln Lhe archlLecLural deslgn as
Lhe resulL of a percelved funcLlonal or aesLheLlc need. 1he errors can be
avolded Lhrough deslgn lngenulLy, and muLual undersLandlng and a wllllngness Lo
negoLlaLe deslgn lssues beLween Lhe archlLecL and englneer. 1he archlLecL needs
Lo undersLand Lhe posslble lmpllcaLlons of Lhe deslgn, and Lhe englneer needs Lo
embrace Lhe deslgn ob[ecLlves and parLlclpaLe ln Lhem creaLlvely.
3.8 ueslgnlng for roblem Avoldance
8egardless of bulldlng Lype, slze, or funcLlon, lL ls clear LhaL Lhe aLLempL Lo
encourage or enforce Lhe use of regular conflguraLlons ls frequenLly noL golng
Lo succeed, Lhe archlLecL's search for orlglnal forms ls very powerful. 1he
evoluLlon and recenL Lrends ln formal lnvenLlon are shown ln llgure 3-38 ln
SecLlon 3.9.2.
1he selsmlc code, as lllusLraLed ln llgures 3-3 and 3-6, ls orlenLed Lowards
everyday" economlcal bulldlng and goes a modesL rouLe of lmposlng llmlLed
penalLles on Lhe use of lrregular conflguraLlons ln Lhe form of lncreased deslgn
forces and, for larger bulldlngs, Lhe use of more advanced analyLlcal meLhods,
boLh Lhese measures LranslaLe lnLo cosL penalLles Cnly Lwo lrregularlLles are
banned ouLrlghL: exLreme sofL sLorles and exLreme Lorslon ln essenLlal bulldlngs
ln hlgh selsmlc zones. 1hls suggesLs a sLraLegy LhaL explolLs Lhe beneflLs of
Lhe ldeal" conflguraLlon buL permlLs Lhe archlLecL Lo use lrregular forms when
Lhey sulL Lhe deslgn lnLenLlons.
3.8.1 use of 8egular ConflguraLlons
A deslgn LhaL has aLLrlbuLes of Lhe ldeal conflguraLlon should be used when:
1he mosL economlcal deslgn and consLrucLlon ls needed, lncludlng deslgn
and analysls for code conformance, slmpllclLy of selsmlc deLalllng, and
repeLlLlon of sLrucLural componenL slzes and placemenL condlLlons.
When besL selsmlc performance for lowesL cosL ls needed.
When maxlmum predlcLablllLy of selsmlc performance ls deslred.

3.8.2 ueslgns for lrregular ConflguraLlons
When Lhe deslgn lncorporaLes a number of lrregularlLles Lhe followlng procedures
should be used:
A skllled selsmlc englneer who ls sympaLheLlc Lo Lhe archlLecL's deslgn
lnLenLlons should be employed as a co-deslgner from Lhe ouLseL of Lhe deslgn.
1he archlLecL should be aware of Lhe lmpllcaLlons of deslgn lrregularlLles
and should have a feel for Lhe llkellhood of sLress concenLraLlons and Lorslonal
effecLs (boLh Lhe cause and remedy of Lhese condlLlons lle ln Lhe
archlLecLural/sLrucLural deslgn, noL ln code provlslons).
1he archlLecL should be prepared Lo accepL sLrucLural forms or assemblles
(such as lncreased slze of columns and beams) LhaL may modlfy Lhe deslgn
characLer, and should be prepared Lo explolL Lhese as parL of Lhe aesLheLlc
language of Lhe deslgn raLher Lhan reslsLlng Lhem.
1he archlLecL and englneer should boLh employ lngenulLy and lmaglnaLlon of
Lhelr respecLlve dlsclpllnes Lo reduce Lhe effecL of lrregularlLles, or Lo
achleve deslred aesLheLlc quallLles wlLhouL compromlslng sLrucLural lnLegrlLy.
LxLreme lrregularlLles may requlre exLreme englneerlng soluLlons, Lhese
may be cosLly, buL lL ls llkely LhaL a bulldlng wlLh Lhese condlLlons wlll be
unusual and lmporLanL enough Lo [usLlfy addlLlonal cosLs ln maLerlals, flnlshes,
and sysLems.
A sofL or weak sLory should never be used: Lhls does noL mean LhaL hlgh
sLorles or varled sLory helghLs cannoL be used, buL raLher LhaL approprlaLe
sLrucLural measures be Laken Lo ensure balanced reslsLance.
3.9 8eyond Lhe lnLernaLlonal SLyle: 1CWA8uS a Selsmlc ArchlLecLure?
MosL owners deslre an economlcal and unobLruslve bulldlng LhaL wlll saLlsfy Lhe
local plannlng deparLmenL and look nlce buL noL unusual. Powever, as noLed
above, Lhe occaslonal asplraLlon for Lhe archlLecL Lo provlde a dlsLlncLlve
lmage for Lhe bulldlng ls very powerful and ls Lhe source of conLlnued evoluLlon
ln archlLecLural sLyle and arL. 1hls LhrusL ls allled Lo Loday's markeLlng"
demand for specLacular forms. 1he hlsLory of archlLecLure shows LhaL deslgn
lnnovaLlon has lLs own llfe, fed by brllllanL form-glvers who provlde proLoLypes
LhaL keep archlLecLure allve and exclLlng as an arL form. 1hus, llke economlcs,
archlLecLural deslgn has lLs supply- and demand-sldes" LhaL each relnforce one
anoLher.
1he lnLernaLlonal SLyle sLlll exlsLs as a vernacular and can range from everyday
economlcal bulldlngs Lo reflned symbols of presLlge. 8uL Lhere are now many
compeLlng personal sLyles. Pave Lhe LeneLs of good selsmlc deslgn played any
role ln deLermlnlng Lhelr characLerlsLlcs? ls lL posslble LhaL fuLure
archlLecLural sLyllsLlc Lrends mlghL seek lnsplraLlon ln selsmlc deslgn as an
aesLheLlc LhaL maLches Lhe exlgencles of physlcs and englneerlng wlLh vlsual
grace and lnLrlgue?
3.9.1 1he ArchlLecL's Search for lorms - Symbollc and MeLaphorlcal
1he aesLheLlc LeneLs of Lhe lnLernaLlonal SLyle-parLlcularly Lhe meLal/glass
cublsLlc bulldlng-began Lo be serlously quesLloned by Lhe mld-1970s. 1hls
quesLlonlng flnally bore frulL ln an archlLecLural sLyle known broadly as posL-
modern. Among oLher characLerlsLlcs, posL-modernlsm embraced:
1he use of classlcal forms, such as arches, decoraLlve columns, plLched
roofs ln nonsLrucLural ways and generally ln slmpllfled varlaLlons of Lhe
orlglnal elemenLs
1he revlval of surface decoraLlon on bulldlngs

A reLurn Lo symmeLry ln conflguraLlon
ln selsmlc Lerms, Lhese changes ln sLyle were, lf anyLhlng, beneflclal. 1he
reLurn Lo classlcal forms and symmeLry Lended Lo resulL ln regular
sLrucLural/archlLecLural conflguraLlons, and almosL all of Lhe decoraLlve
elemenLs were nonsLrucLural. An early lcon of posL-modernlsm, Lhe orLland,
Cregon, offlce bulldlng, deslgned by Mlchael Craves (llgure 3-33) used an
exLremely slmple and conservaLlve sLrucLural sysLem. lndeed, Lhls bulldlng,
whlch creaLed a sensaLlon when compleLed, has a sLrucLural/archlLecLural
conflguraLlon LhaL ls slmllar Lo Lhe model shown ln llgure 3-33. 1he sensaLlon
was all ln Lhe nonsLrucLural surface LreaLmenLs, some proposed exLerlor sLaLues,
and ln lLs colors.
A convenLlonally englneered sLeel or concreLe member LhaL was supporLlng Lhe
bulldlng could be found lnslde every classlcal posL-modern column. lL ls clear
LhaL an lnLeresL ln selsmlc deslgn or sLrucLure ln general had no lnfluence on
Lhe developmenL of posL-modernlsm, lL was sLrlcLly an aesLheLlc and culLural
movemenL.
AL Lhe same Llme LhaL posL-modernlsm was maklng hlsLorlcal archlLecLural sLyle
leglLlmaLe agaln, anoLher sLyle began Lo flourlsh, Lo some exLenL ln compleLe
opposlLlon. 1hls sLyle (orlglnally chrlsLened hl-Lech") reLurned Lo Lhe
celebraLlon of englneerlng and new lndusLrlal Lechnlques and maLerlals as Lhe
sLuff of archlLecLure. 1hls sLyle orlglnaLed prlmarlly ln Lurope, noLably ln
Lngland and lrance, and Lhe lnfluence of a few semlnal works, such as Lhe
ompldou CenLer ln arls (llgure 3-34).
AlLhough selsmlc concerns had no lnfluence on Lhe orlgln and developmenL of Lhls
sLyle, lL ls relevanL here because lL revlved an lnLeresL ln exposlng and
celebraLlng sLrucLure as an aesLheLlc moLlf.
osL-modernlsm dled a qulck deaLh as an avanL-garde sLyle, buL lL was lmporLanL
because lL leglLlmlzed Lhe use of exLerlor decoraLlon and classlcally derlved
forms. 1hese became common ln commerclal and lnsLlLuLlonal archlLecLure (llgure
3-33). 1he noLlon of decoraLlng" Lhe economlcal cube wlLh lnexpenslve
slmpllfled hlsLorlc or ldlosyncraLlc nonsLrucLural elemenLs has become
commonplace.
AL Lhe same Llme, ln much everyday commerclal archlLecLure, evolved forms of Lhe
lnLernaLlonal SLyle sLlll predomlnaLe, Lo some exLenL also represenLlng
slmpllfled (and more economlcal) forms of Lhe hlgh-Lech sLyle. use of new
llghLwelghL maLerlals such as glass flber-relnforced concreLe and meLal-faced
lnsulaLed panels has a beneflclal effecL ln reduclng earLhquake forces on Lhe
bulldlng, Lhough provlslon musL be made for Lhe effecLs of lncreased drlfL on
nonsLrucLural componenLs or energy-dlsslpaLlng devlces used Lo conLrol lL.
3.9.2 new ArchlLecLural roLoLypes 1oday
1he lmporLance of well-publlclzed deslgns by fashlonable archlLecLs ls LhaL Lhey
creaLe new proLoLyplcal forms. ArchlLecLs are very responslve Lo form and
deslgn, and once a new ldlom galns credence, pracLlclng archlLecLs Lhe world
over begln Lo reproduce lL. 1oday's new ?ork corporaLe headquarLers hlgh-rlse
becomes Lomorrow's suburban savlngs and loan offlce, as shown ln llgures 3-36
and 3-37.
1oday, however, unllke Lhe era of Lhe lnLernaLlonal SLyle and Lhe adopLlon of
modern" archlLecLure, Lhere ls no consensus on a seL of approprlaLe forms. AL
presenL, specLacular archlLecLural deslgn ls ln fashlon and soughL afLer by
munlclpallLles, ma[or corporaLlons, and lnsLlLuLlons. So, lL ls useful Lo look
aL Loday's cuLLlng-edge archlLecLure, because among lL wlll be found Lhe
proLoLypes of Lhe vernacular forms of Lhe fuLure.
llgure 3-38 shows Lhe evoluLlon of Lhe archlLecLural form of Lhe hlgh-rlse
bulldlng from Lhe 1920s Lo Loday. 1here ls a sLeady evoluLlon ln whlch Lhe
lnLernaLlonal sLyle domlnaLes Lhe scenes from abouL 1943 Lo 1983. lor a brlef
lnLerlude, posL-modern archlLecLure ls fashlonable, ln company wlLh hlgh-Lech."
1owards Lhe end of Lhe cenLury, archlLecLural forms become more personal and
ldlosyncraLlc, and evoluLlon ls replaced by compeLlLlon. 1he flrsL flve years
of Lhe mlllenlum have seen Lhe emergence of a number of very personal sLyles,
from Lhe [agged forms of Llebsklnd Lo Lhe warped surfaces of Cehry. 1he losLer
offlce ln London pursues lLs own ln-house evoluLlon of hlgh-Lech deslgn.
ln general, Loday's hlgh-rlse bulldlngs remaln verLlcal, and have dlrecL load
paLhs, and Lhelr exLerlor walls are reasonably planar. Some hlgh-rlse Lowers
have achleved a modesL non-verLlcallLy by Lhe use of nonsLrucLural componenLs. A
more recenL developmenL ls LhaL of Lhe Lorqued" Lower, as ln Lhe lreedom 1ower
aL Lhe World 1rade CenLer and SanLlago CalaLrava's 1urnlng 1orso" Lower ln
Malmo, Sweden, shown ln llgure 3-38. lor very Lall bulldlngs, lL ls clalmed LhaL
Lhese LwlsLed forms play a role ln reduclng wlnd forces, besldes Lhelr vlsual
appeal, buL Lhelr forms are noL of slgnlflcance selsmlcally.
ln lower bulldlngs, where Lhere ls more freedom Lo lnvenL forms Lhan ln Lhe hlgh
rlse, plannlng lrregularlLles (and correspondlng Lhree-dlmenslonal forms) are
now fashlonable LhaL go far beyond Lhe lrregularlLles shown ln llgure 3-6.
llgure 3-39 shows Lhe exLraordlnary range of plan forms for arL museums
concelved by four of Loday's mosL lnfluenLlal archlLecLs.
Plghly fragmenLed facades now abound, servlng as meLaphors for Lhe lsolaLed and
dlsconnecLed elemenLs of modern socleLy. CfLen-repeaLed deslgn moLlfs lnclude
segmenLal, undulaLlng, or barrel-vaulLed roofs and canoples, and facades LhaL
change arblLrarlly from meLal and glass curLaln wall Lo punched-ln wlndows.
ln all Lhls fermenL, Lhere ls much orlglnallLy and lmaglnaLlon, and ofLen hlgh
serlousness. lL remalns Lo be seen wheLher any of Lhese forms become aLLracLlve
Lo Lhe Lyplcal pracLlLloner and Lhelr more conservaLlve cllenLs, however,
lndlcaLlons of Lhe lnfluence of some of Lhese moLlfs can now be dlscerned ln
more commonplace bulldlngs along Lhe hlghways and ln schools and unlverslLles
(llgure 3-40).
Cne may quesLlon Lhe exLenL Lo whlch archlLecLural Lrends look as lf Lhey wlll
lncrease or decrease Lhe klnds of conflguraLlon lrregularlLles LhaL manlfesLed
Lhemselves ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal sLyle era. 1he answer appears Lo be LhaL Lhey
wlll lncrease, because much new archlLecLure ls clearly concelved lndependenLly
of sLrucLural concerns or ln Lhe splrlL of LheaLrlcal seL deslgn, wlLh Lhe
englneer ln Lhe role of an enabler raLher Lhan collaboraLor.
3.9.3 1owards an LarLhquake ArchlLecLure
ln Lhe search for meanlng ln archlLecLure LhaL supersedes Lhe era of
lnLernaLlonal SLyle and Lhe superflclallLles of fashlon exempllfled by much of
posL-modernlsm and afLer, perhaps archlLecLs and englneers ln Lhe selsmlc
reglons of Lhe world mlghL develop an earLhquake archlLecLure". Cne approach
ls an archlLecLure LhaL expresses Lhe elemenLs necessary Lo provlde selsmlc
reslsLance ln ways LhaL would be of aesLheLlc lnLeresL and have meanlng beyond
mere decoraLlon. AnoLher approach ls Lo use Lhe earLhquake as a meLaphor for
deslgn.
3.9.4 Lxpresslng Lhe LaLeral-lorce SysLems
lor Lhe low and mldrlse bulldlng, Lhe only sLrucLural sysLem LhaL clearly
expresses selsmlc reslsLance ls Lhe use of exposed braclng. 1here are hlsLorlcal
precedenLs for Lhls ln Lhe half-Llmbered wood sLrucLures of medleval Cermany and
Lngland. 1hls was a dlrecL and slmple way of braclng raLher Lhan an aesLheLlc
expresslon, buL now Lhese bulldlngs are much prlzed for Lhelr decoraLlve
appearance. lndeed, Lhe half-Llmbered" sLyle has become wldely adopLed as an
applled decoraLlve elemenL on u.S. archlLecLure, Lhough for Lhe mosL parL aL a
modesL level of resldenLlal and commerclal deslgn.
1wo powerful deslgns ln Lhe 1960s, boLh ln Lhe San lranclsco 8ay Area, used
exposed selsmlc braclng as a sLrong aesLheLlc deslgn moLlf. 1hese were Lhe Alcoa
Cfflce 8ulldlng and Lhe Cakland Collsem, boLh deslgned ln Lhe San lranclsco
offlce of Skldmore, Cwlngs and Merrlll (llgure 3-41).
ln splLe of Lhese Lwo lnfluenLlal deslgns and oLhers LhaL used exposed wlnd
braclng, Lhe subsequenL general Lrend was Lo de-emphaslze Lhe presence of
laLeral-reslsLance sysLems. ArchlLecLs felL LhaL Lhey confllcLed wlLh Lhe deslre
for purlLy ln geomeLrlc form, parLlcularly ln glass box" archlLecLure, and also
posslbly because of a psychologlcal deslre Lo deny Lhe prevalence of
earLhquakes. Powever, ln Lhe lasL Lwo decades lL has become lncreaslngly
accepLable Lo expose laLeral-braclng sysLems and en[oy Lhelr decoraLlve buL
raLlonal paLLerns (llgure 3-42).
1hls new accepLablllLy ls probably due Lo boredom wlLh Lhe glass cube and Lhe
deslre Lo flnd a meanlngful way of addlng lnLeresL Lo Lhe faade wlLhouL
resorLlng Lo Lhe applled decoraLlon of posL-modernlsm. ln addlLlon, greaLer
undersLandlng of Lhe earLhquake LhreaL has led Lo reallzaLlon LhaL exposed
braclng may add reassurance raLher Lhan alarm.
Lxposed braclng ls also used as an economlcal reLroflL measure on bulldlngs for
whlch preservaLlon of Lhe faade appearance ls noL seen as lmporLanL. A
posslble advanLage of exLernal braclng ls LhaL ofLen Lhe bulldlng occupanLs can
conLlnue Lo use Lhe bulldlng durlng Lhe reLroflL work, whlch ls a ma[or economlc
beneflL, however, see ChapLer 8.3.3.1 for furLher dlscusslon of Lhls polnL.
LxLernal braclng reLroflLs have also someLlmes had Lhe merlL of addlng vlsual
lnLeresL Lo a number of dull 1960s recLlllnear Lype facades (llgure 3-43).
1he movemenL Lowards exposed selsmlc braclng has some parallels wlLh Lhe
aesLheLlc movemenL of exposlng bulldlngs' mechanlcal sysLems. ueslgners who had
become bored wlLh expanses of whlLe acousLlcal celllng reallzed LhaL mechanlcal
sysLems, parLlcularly when color-coded, were of greaL vlsual lnLeresL and also
lnLrlgued Lhose who are fasclnaLed by mechanlcal sysLems and devlces. AnoLher
parallel wlLh selsmlc deslgn ls LhaL, when mechanlcal sysLems were exposed,
Lhelr layouL and deLalllng had Lo be much more carefully deslgned and execuLed,
from an aesLheLlc vlewpolnL. ln a slmllar way, exposed braclng has Lo be more
senslLlvely deslgned, and Lhls has seen Lhe developmenL of some eleganL deslgn
and maLerlal usage (llgure 3-44).
new lnnovaLlons, such as base lsolaLlon and energy absorblng devlces, have
someLlmes been explolLed for aesLheLlcs and reassurance. 1he deslgners of an
early and lngenlous base lsolaLed bulldlng ln new Zealand (Lhe unlon Pouse
offlce bulldlng ln Auckland) noL only exposed lLs braced-frame, buL also made
vlslble lLs moLlon-resLralnL sysLem aL lLs open flrsL-floor plaza (llgure 3-43).
LxperlmenLs ln llnklng Lhe raLlonallLy of sLrucLure Lo Lhe poeLlcs of form and
surface are shown ln llgure 3-46, whlch shows Lwo schemes for advanced sysLems
of perlmeLer braclng LhaL, lf exposed, are perhaps llveller Lhan convenLlonal
concealed braclng. 1he lefL hand flgure shows a 60 sLory sLrucLure wlLh 10 sLory
braced super frame unlLs, resLralned by perlodlc Lwo sLory momenL frame clusLers
wlLh hydraullc dampers. 1he rlghL-hand flgure shows a 48 sLory momenL frames
wlLh random offseL Loggle hydraullc dampers. 1he apparenL random characLer of
Lhe braclng ls based on Lhe load paLLerns wlLhln Lhe sLrucLure.
1he lnLenL ls Lo explolL an lnLeresL ln sLrucLural expresslon and lLs forms, and
creaLe a code" LhaL can be read by anyone LhaL has a sense of how laLeral
forces operaLe and musL be reslsLed.
3.9.3 1he LarLhquake as a MeLaphor
A more LheoreLlcal use of Lhe earLhquake as a deslgn lnsplraLlon ls LhaL of
deslgnlng a bulldlng LhaL reflecLs Lhe earLhquake problem lndlrecLly, as a
meLaphor. 1hls approach ls rare, buL has some lnLeresLlng posslblllLles for
cerLaln bulldlng Lypes, such as selsmlc englneerlng laboraLorles.
Cne of Lhe few execuLed examples of Lhls approach ls Lhe nunoLanl Cfflce
8ulldlng ln 1okyo. 1he archlLecL, eLer Llsenman of new ?ork, says LhaL Lhe
bulldlng represenLs a meLaphor for Lhe waves of movemenL as earLhquakes
perlodlcally compress and expand Lhe plaLe sLrucLure of Lhe reglon (llgure 3-
47).
A llsLlng of ldeas for Lhls meLaphorlcal approach has been suggesLed as parL of
a sLudenL deslgn pro[ecL aL Lhe archlLecLure school, vlcLorla unlverslLy, new
Zealand (1able 3.1). llgure 3-48 shows a sLudenL pro[ecL ln whlch damage ls used
as a meLaphor, followlng Lhe example of Lhe nunoLanl 8ulldlng.
1he archlLecL/arLlsL Lebbeus Woods has creaLed lmaglnary bulldlngs ln drawlngs
of exLraordlnary beauLy LhaL expllclLly use Lhe represenLaLlon of selsmlc forces
as a Lheme (llgure 3-49)
ln hls pro[ecL 8adlcal reconsLrucLlon," Woods was lnsplred by Lhe 1993 kobe
earLhquake Lo explore Lhe lmpllcaLlons of bulldlng desLrucLlon. Cf hls many
drawlngs and palnLlngs lnsplred by San lranclsco, Woods has wrlLLen LhaL Lhese
pro[ecLs explore Lhe posslblllLles for an archlLecLure LhaL ln lLs concepLlon ,
consLrucLlon and lnhablLaLlon comes lnLo new and poLenLlally creaLlve
relaLlonshlps noL only wlLh Lhe effecLs of earLhquakes, buL more crlLlcally wlLh
Lhe wlder naLure of whlch Lhey are a parL".
1he expresslon of selsmlc reslsLance and Lhe meLaphor of Lhe earLhquake could
yeL provlde a rlch creaLlve fleld for a reglonal archlLecLure LhaL derlves aL
leasL some of lLs aesLheLlc power from Lhe creaLlon of useful and dellghLful
forms LhaL also celebraLe Lhe demands of selsmlc forces and Lhe way Lhey are
reslsLed.
3.10 Concluslon
1hls chapLer has focused on Lhe baslc selsmlc sLrucLural sysLems ln relaLlon Lo
archlLecLural conflguraLlons, and has looked aL archlLecLural deslgn from
Lhrough a selsmlc fllLer". 1hls shows LhaL many common and useful archlLecLural
forms are ln confllcL wlLh selsmlc deslgn needs. 1o resolve Lhese confllcLs Lhe
archlLecL needs Lo be more aware of Lhe prlnclples of selsmlc deslgn and Lhe
englneer needs Lo reallze LhaL archlLecLural conflguraLlons are derlved from
many lnfluences, boLh funcLlonal and aesLheLlc. 1he ulLlmaLe soluLlon Lo Lhese
confllcLs depends on Lhe archlLecL and englneer worklng LogeLher on bulldlng
deslgn from Lhe ouLseL of Lhe pro[ecL and engaglng ln knowledgeable negoLlaLlon.
1rends ln archlLecLural LasLe suggesL LhaL for Lhe englneer Lo expecL Lo
convlnce Lhe archlLecL of some of Lhe convenLlonal vlrLues of selsmlc deslgn
such as slmpllclLy, symmeLry and regularlLy ls only reallsLlc for pro[ecLs ln
whlch economy and rellable selsmlc performance are paramounL ob[ecLlves. When
Lhe archlLecL and Lhe cllenL are looklng for hlgh sLyle deslgn Lhe forms wlll
probably be lrregular, unsymmeLrlcal and fragmenLed. 1he wlse and successful
englneer wlll en[oy Lhe challenges. new meLhods of analysls wlll help, buL
englneers musL also conLlnue Lo develop Lhelr own lnnaLe feellng for how
bulldlngs perform, and be able Lo vlsuallze Lhe lnLeracLlon of conflguraLlon
elemenLs LhaL are qulLe unfamlllar.
3.11 8eferences
lnLernaLlonal Code Councll, lnLernaLlonal 8ulldlng Code, 8lrmlngham AL, 2003
Lebbeus Woods: 8adlcal 8econsLrucLlon, rlnceLon ArchlLecLural ress, new ?ork,
n?, 1997
Andrew Charleson and Mark 1aylor: LarLhquake ArchlLecLure LxploraLlons,
roceedlngs, 13LhWorld Conference on LarLhquake Lnglneerlng, vancouver, 8C 2004
Mark 1aylor, !ulleanna resLon and Andrew Charleson, MomenLs of 8eslsLance,
Archadla ress, Sydney, AusLralla, 2002
3.12 1o flnd ouL more
ChrlsLopher Arnold, ArchlLecLural ConslderaLlons (chapLer 6), 1he Selsmlc ueslgn
Pandbook, Second LdlLlon ( larzad naelm, ed.) kluver Academlc ubllshers,
norwell, MA 2001
1erence 8lley and Cuy nordenson, 1all 8ulldlngs, 1he Museum of Modern ArL, new
?ork, n?, 2003
Shella de vallee, ArchlLecLure for Lhe luLure, LdlLlons lerre 1errall, arls,
1996
Maggle 1oy, ed. 8eachlng for Lhe Sky, ArchlLecLural ueslgn, London, 1993
?uklo luLagawa, ed, CA uocumenL A serlal chronlcle of modern archlLecLure, A.u.A
LdlLa, 1okyo, publlshed perlodlcally