New Evidence of Early Neanderthal Disappearance in The Iberian Peninsula

New evidence of early Neanderthal disappearance in the Iberian
Peninsula
Bertila Galv
an
a
, Cristo M. Hern
andez
a, *
, Carolina Mallol
a, b
, Norbert Mercier
c
,
Ainara Sistiaga
a, b
, Vicente Soler
d
a
U.D.I. de Prehistoria, Arqueologa e Historia Antigua, Facultad de Geografa e Historia, Universidad de La Laguna, Campus de Guajara,
38071 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
b
Instituto Universitario de Biorg anica Antonio Gonz alez, Av. Astrofsico Francisco S anchez n.
2, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

c
Institut de Recherche sur les Archeomateriaux, UMR 5060 CNRS-Universite de Bordeaux, Centre de Recherche en PhysiqueAppliquee a l'Archeologie
(CRP2A), Maison de l'Archeologie, 33607 PESSAC Cedex, France
d
Estaci on Volcanol ogica de Canarias, IPNA-CSIC, Av. Astrofsico Francisco S anchez n.
3, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 November 2013
Accepted 9 June 2014
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Middle Palaeolithic
TL dating
OSL dating
Geoarchaeology
El Salt
Spain
a b s t r a c t
The timing of the end of the Middle Palaeolithic and the disappearance of Neanderthals continue to be
strongly debated. Current chronometric evidence from different European sites pushes the end of the
Middle Palaeolithic throughout the continent back to around 42 thousand years ago (ka). This has called
into question some of the dates from the Iberian Peninsula, previously considered as one of the last
refuge zones of the Neanderthals. Evidence of Neanderthal occupation in Iberia after 42 ka is now very
scarce and open to debate on chronological and technological grounds. Here we report thermolumi-
nescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates from El Salt, a Middle Palaeolithic site in
Alicante, Spain, the archaeological sequence of which shows a transition from recurrent to sporadic
human occupation culminating in the abandonment of the site. The new dates place this sequence
within MIS 3, between ca. 60 and 45 ka. An abrupt sedimentary change towards the top of the sequence
suggests a strong aridication episode coinciding with the last Neanderthal occupation of the site. These
results are in agreement with current chronometric data from other sites in the Iberian Peninsula and
point towards possible breakdown and disappearance of the Neanderthal local population around the
time of the Heinrich 5 event. Iberian sites with recent dates (<40 ka) attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic
should be revised in the light of these data.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Current chronometric data are changing our views on the end of
the Middle Palaeolithic, the disappearance of Neanderthals and the
arrival of anatomically modern humans (AMH) in Europe. Previ-
ously, the dates for an assumed replacement or assimilation of
Neanderthals by a new European population uctuated broadly
between ca. 40 and 30 ka BP (thousands of years before present),
with some of the youngest dates being associated with sites in the
Iberian Peninsula (Hublin et al., 1995; Maroto et al., 2005; Vaquero,
2006; Zilh~ ao, 2006; Finlayson et al., 2008; Jennings et al., 2009;
J oris et al., 2011; Garca et al., 2012). This chronological
framework supported a persistence of the so-called Mousterian
techno-complex and allowed for models of co-existence of Nean-
derthals and AMH in this region.
However, recent chronometric data fromseveral key late Middle
Palaeolithic European sites using rened sample pretreatment
measures and suitable sample selection have pushed back some of
the most recent radiocarbon dates for the late Middle Palaeolithic
to roughly 42 ka BP, between Heinrich events 4 and 5 (Higham,
2011). The Iberian Peninsula has been subject to the same scru-
tiny, which affects previous arguments supporting Neanderthal
persistence in the south. Specically, young dates (<42 ka BP) such
as those from Sima de Las Palomas, Carihuela and Gorham's Cave
are now being questioned (Wood et al., 2013a), and the dates from
Jarama VI and Zafarraya, which are central to the persistence
argument, have been pushed back several millenia (Maroto et al.,
2012; Wood et al., 2013a). Although the young (<42 ka BP) dates
from Cueva Ant on and Esquilleu remain valid (Zilh~ ao et al., 2010a;
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chergomw@gmail.com, chergomw@gobiernodecanarias.org
(C.M. Hern andez).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Human Evolution
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ j hevol
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.06.002
0047-2484/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2014) 1e12
Please cite this article in press as: Galvan, B., et al., Newevidence of early Neanderthal disappearance in the Iberian Peninsula, Journal of Human
Evolution (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.06.002
Baena et al., 2012; Higham et al., 2012), these sites have yielded
very poor, undiagnostic lithic assemblages.
The new chronometric dates alone do not represent a suf-
ciently strong argument to refute hypotheses of Neanderthal
persistence in Iberia, i.e., those proposing a retreat of the Nean-
derthal population to marginal mountain areas (Baena et al., 2012),
the existence of refuge zones in the southwestern edge of the
Iberian Peninsula (Finlayson et al., 2008; Jennings et al., 2011) and
the Ebro Frontier hypothesis (Zilh~ao, 2006), which implies a
geographic separation between Neanderthals (in southern Europe)
and AMH (in northern Europe).
The occurrence of stratigraphic discontinuity and likely inci-
dence of signicant climatic cooling between the Middle and Upper
Palaeolithic in the majority of Iberian sites has recently been
pointed out (Aubry et al., 2011; Br adtmoller et al., 2012; Mallol
et al., 2012; Schmidt et al., 2012), suggesting the existence of a hi-
atus between the latest Neanderthals and earliest Upper Palae-
olithic in the Iberian Peninsula. In this context, El Salt, a Middle
Palaeolithic site in Alcoy, Spain (Fig. 1), has yielded signicant in-
formation that contributes to advance the ongoing debate. The site
contains evidence of Neanderthal presence consisting of rich lithic
and faunal assemblages, well preserved combustion structures and
isolated, probably Neanderthal, teeth (Garralda et al., 2014). The
archaeological record reveals a period of recurrent human occu-
pation followed by sparse occupation and subsequent abandon-
ment of the site (Garralda et al., 2014). Here we present new
thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence
(OSL) dates obtained for the entire sequence, coupled with sedi-
mentological data. These are relevant to the debate on the disap-
pearance of Neanderthals from the region.
El Salt
Archaeological excavations at El Salt have been carried out
systematically since 1986 by a research group based at the Uni-
versity of La Laguna, Spain, under the direction of one of the au-
thors (BG). Ongoing work involves a comprehensive
microstratigraphic study of the site towards reconstruction of site
formation processes, as well as archaeological palimpsest dissec-
tion through integrated multidisciplinary analyses of the archaeo-
logical and sedimentary records.
The site is located at 700.0 m above sea level (a.s.l.) and com-
prises an open-air, 6.3 m-thick stratied deposit. This deposit rests
against a 38 m-high Paleocene limestone wall formed at a thrust
fault and covered with tufa and travertine. The stratigraphic
sequence, under current investigation, was divided into 13 lithos-
tratigraphic units (XIIIeI) by Fumanal (1994) (Fig. 2). These units
can be grouped into ve different segments according to their
macroscopic textural appearance and archaeological content (from
base to top):
1 Unit XIII: Archaeologically sterile, horizontal travertine platform
(thickness unknown; top 50 cm are exposed). The top part has
been dated by uraniumethorium (UeTh) to 81.5 2.7 ka and
80.1 4 ka (Fumanal, 1994).
2 Units XIIeIX: 1.5 m-thick, horizontally bedded ne sand with
abundant archaeological remains and combustion residues
(Table 1). A clastic facies consisting of several large blocks is
found at its base. These units are characterized by a high pres-
ence of combustion features, including numerous simple com-
bustion structures or hearths of variable dimensions
(0.20e1.00 m in diameter) (Sistiaga et al., 2011; Mallol et al.,
2013). The hearths from Unit X are central to activity areas
concentrated near the travertine wall. They are commonly
associated with rich archaeological assemblages comprising
abundant faunal remains, int akes and anthropogenically
modied cobbles. Use-wear investigations have shown evi-
dence for butchery, as well as hide and wood work activity
(Rodrguez et al., 2002).
3 Unit VIII-middle of V: 1.5e2.8 m-thick horizontally bedded
predominantly geogenic sand with decreasing, spatially reduced
evidence of human input. Unit VI is capped by a signicant
accumulation of large blocks. This segment has yielded very few,
smaller, thinner combustion structures and signicantly smaller
Figure 1. A) Geographic location of El Salt site in the Iberian Peninsula. B: Site setting.
The excavation area is situated at the foot of the tall limestone wall (arrow). C: General
view of the excavation area.
B. Galv an et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2014) 1e12 2
Please cite this article in press as: Galv an, B., et al., Newevidence of early Neanderthal disappearance in the Iberian Peninsula, Journal of Human
faunal and lithic assemblages (Table 1). Noteworthy is a docu-
mented increase in the amount of rabbit bone recovered from
these units.
4 Upper Unit V: 50 cm-thick, truncated, massive sandy silt with
heterogeneous gravel in the top 20 cm. The bulk of this unit is
archaeologically sterile (Garralda et al., 2014). However, two
small int blades, a few undifferentiated d ebitage akes and a
small combustion feature were recovered from the gravelly
segment at the top.
5 Units IVeI: 1.3 m-thick segment consisting of irregular beds of
gravel and cobbles in a silty clayey matrix. The presence of
Neolithic pottery mixed with late Upper Palaeolithic, Epi-
palaeolithic and Mesolithic lithic remains indicates that this
deposit is of Holocene age.
Overall, the lithic and faunal record is homogeneous in nature
throughout the sequence up to the base of Unit V, although the
assemblages are signicantly smaller from Unit VIII and up. Lithic
production is based on the exploitation of blocks, nodules and
akes of different int types. Although the Levallois method pre-
vails, there is also a minor representation of the discoidal method
and other non-Levallois lithic reduction methods, with a predom-
inance of scrapers among retouched objects (Galv an et al., 2006)
(Fig. 3). There are no signs of change towards typically Upper
Palaeolithic models. A signicant change occurs at the top of Unit V,
overlying 30 cm of sterile sediment, where two small blades sug-
gestive of Upper Palaeolithic industry were found (Fig. 4).
Cervidae, Equidae and Caprinae all appear to have been pro-
cessed at the site (further details in Garralda et al., 2014). Six teeth,
probably best attributed to an adult Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
individual, were recovered from the base of Unit V (Garralda et al.,
2014). These specimens could represent an individual from one of
the last Neanderthal groups that occupied the site and perhaps the
region (Garralda et al., 2006, 2014).
Materials and methods
The archaeostratigraphic sequence was analyzed from a multi-
disciplinary perspective with the aim to explore the chronological
and paleoenvironmental context of the last Neanderthals of the
Iberian Mediterranean region. The TL and OSL chronometric data
were coupled with micromorphological observations of the dated
sediment, as well as with plant biomarker, magnetic susceptibility
and soil organic carbon (SOC) data.
TL dating
Flint objects showing signs of thermal alteration were selected
during the excavation process and tested using TL (Fig. 5, Fig. 6). A
total of 13 ints passed the plateau test (Aitken, 1985), indicating
that they had been heated in the past at a temperature sufciently
high to reset the latent TL signal accumulated since their formation
(typically 400e450

C). These burnt int objects were considered
suitable for dating.
The int objects were prepared following the standard proce-
dure described by Valladas (1992). This procedure consists of
extraction of a sample from the inner part of the int object, which
is shielded from alpha and beta surface radiation from decaying
radioactive elements (K-40, U, Th and daughter elements) present
in the sediment adhering to the int object. This inner portion was
Figure 2. Stratigraphic log showing sedimentary features, the position of the human remains, average chronometric dates, magnetic susceptibility and soil organic carbon (SOC).
Table 1
Archaeological remains from El Salt (SU IX, VIII, VII, VI and lower V).
Stratigraphic unit Lower V VI VII VIII IX X
Unit thickness (cm) 75 42 20 30 10 35
Lithics 412 294 580 623 781 2892
Faunal remains 529 257 28 298 622 1558
Anthropogenically modied cobbles e e 1 53 17 221
Combustion structures 0 0 3 4 8 46
crushed and a fraction of the powder was used to determine the U,
Th, K radio-isotopic content through Neutron Activation Analysis
(NAA). The remaining fractionwas treated with HCl and rinsed with
H
2
O, and a grain size fraction of 100e160 mm was selected by
sieving.
For each sample, the dose accumulated since they were last
heated in re (the paleodose) was determined by applying a stan-
dard additive-dose technique. Fig. 7a shows TL glow curves domi-
nated by the 380

C peak, typical of int. The integration of this
peak (between 350 and 410

C where the plateau test is veried)
allowed the building of the rst doseeresponse curve (Fig. 7b), the
extrapolation of which led to the paleodose estimation. In order to
take into account a potential supra-linearity behavior at low doses,
a correction was calculated by resetting a fraction of the powder
(by heating at 350

C for 90 min) and establishing the second
doseeresponse curve by irradiating sub-fractions with regenera-
tive doses.
In order to obtain the TL age of a burnt int, i.e., the time elapsed
since its last heating in the past, the average dose rate it received
during burial has to be known. The internal fraction of this dose rate
was calculated using the K, U, Th content determined by NAA. The
environmental dose rate was measured with Al
2
O
3
:C dosimeters
inserted in the proles adjacent to the squares where the burnt int
objects had been recovered (Fig. 5). These dosimeters recorded
both cosmic and gamma dose rates, which were found to vary
between 514 and 749 mGy/a. These variations were found to be
Figure 3. Drawings of representative Mousterian lithic objects from Unit V: scrapers (1, 4, 6), Mousterian point (2), notch (3), denticulate (5), and Levallois cores (7, 8, 9).
dependent on depth and on the mineralogy of the sedimentary
layers. The highest dose rates were recorded in Unit X and the
lowest in Unit XII.
OSL dating
In addition to TL dating, two OSL ages were obtained on quartz
grains extracted from sediments sampled in Unit V (sample OSL 1,
see Fig. 6), and in the overlying and sterile layer (sample OSL 2, see
Fig. 6). For these determinations, the selected quartz fractions
(20e40 mm for OSL 1 and 100e120 mm for OSL 2) have been
treated with HCl and H
2
O
2
in order to eliminate any carbonates
and organic matter, respectively, and with H
2
SiF
6
acid for dis-
solving feldspars. The determination of the dose accumulated by
the quartz grains since their last exposure to light, before their
burial by more recent sediments, was performed by applying a
standard Single-Aliquot Regenerative dose (SAR) protocol (Murray
and Wintle, 2003).
Figure 4. Photographs of two lithic objects found in upper Unit V. A) Pointed blade, B) blade.
Figure 5. Excavation proles showing the stratigraphic provenience of int objects selected for TL dating (yellow stars) and dosimeters (blue circles).
For that purpose, aliquots made of grains adhered with silicon
oil on 10 cm diameter stainless steel discs were prepared. Each disc
was measured with the SAR protocol and furnished a value of the
dose equivalent (DE) to the paleodose. This protocol was repeated
over seven cycles during which the signals induced by the natural
dose and regenerative (articial) doses were measured. A test dose,
the value of which was kept constant, was also systematically
measured to take into account any sensitivity change. The validity
of this protocol was tested by measuring a known dose given to
aliquots previously bleached with a solar simulator. This protocol
was also used to check for the absence of residual feldspars in the
analyzed fractions. Fig. 8 shows the radial plot of the individual DE
values for sample OSL 2. As these values exhibit a low scatter, the
DE used for computing the OSL age was calculated by applying the
Central Age model (Galbraith et al., 1999). The dose rate received by
the quartz grains was derived from the concentrations of the sed-
iments in U, Th and K, determined in the laboratory with a high-
purity gamma spectrometer.
Micromorphology
The micromorphological data presented here were obtained
from eight selected micromorphological samples (13 thin sections
in total) collected from stratigraphic Unit V (Fig. 9). These are part
of an ongoing microstratigraphic study that involved systematic
sampling of the entire sequence at different excavation areas and
proles of the El Salt site. Undisturbed, oriented sediment samples
were collected, oven-dried at 60

C for two days and subsequently
impregnated in a mix of polyester resin, styrene and a catalyzer
(MEKP) in a 7:3:0.1 ratio. After curing for two weeks, the hard-
ened blocks were cut into 1 cm-thick slabs, which were then
shipped to Spectrum Petrographics Inc. (Vancouver, WA, USA) for
medium sized (7 cm 5 cm 30 mm) thin section manufacture.
The thin sections were observed with a polarizing microscope at
20, 40, 100 and 200 magnications under plane and crossed
polarized light following standard descriptive guidelines (Courty
et al., 1989; Stoops, 2003) to describe the microstratigraphic
context.
Organic compound extraction and gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry analysis
Homogenized sediment samples taken from Units V, IX and X
were air dried and ultrasonically extracted twice with dichloro-
methane (DCM)/methanol (MeOH) (2:1 v/v) at 40

C for 45 min to
obtain a total lipid extract. Solvent was removed fromthe total lipid
extracts (TLEs) under a constant low-velocity streamof N
2
gas using
a Turbo VAP and dried samples were stored under nitrogen in glass
vials with Teon-lined caps. The TLE phase was separated into six
fractions by silica gel column chromatography using columns
fashioned from Pasteur glass pipettes with a bed volume of 1 mL of
100% activated anhydrous silica gel topped with small aliquots of
anhydrous Na
2
SO
4
and HCL-rinsed copper granules. The TLE sep-
arations were performed using 4-mL volumes of each eluting sol-
vent as follows: (F1) aliphatic hydrocarbons (hexane), (F2) aromatic
hydrocarbons [1:1 hexane:toluene (vol/vol)], (F3) alkenones/ke-
tones [15:85 ethyl acetate: hexane (vol/vol)], (F4) n-alkanols/ste-
rols/stanols (ethyl acetate), (F5) acids/bile acids (chloroform), and
(F6) polar compounds (methanol). Before GC analysis, alcohol/ste-
rol (F4) and acid fractions were derivatized to their trimethylsilyl
(TMS) ethers using N, O-bis (trimethylsilyl) triuoroacetamide
(BSTFA). Excess derivatization agent was removed under a gentle
stream of nitrogen. Samples were then diluted with an appropriate
volume of hexane prior to GC/MS analysis.
The analyses were carried at the Geobiology and Astrobiology
facilities of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
USAusing full scan, with the following parameters: 5 mL injected via
automatic liquid sampler; the oven was temperature programmed
with an initial isothermal of 2 min at 40

C followed by an increase
to 350

C at 10

C per minute followed by a nal isothermal at this
temperature for 15 min. Helium was used as the carrier gas and
held at a constant ow at 2.0 ml per minute throughout the anal-
ysis. Identication was performed using a Hewlett Packard 6890
series gas chromatographe mass spectrometer equipped with a 5%
phenyl methyl siloxane column (HP-5, 60 m

d0.25 mm i.d.; lm
thickness, 0.25 mm). Compound identication was achieved by
interpretation of characteristic mass spectra fragmentation
Figure 6. Plan view of excavation area showing the provenience of the TL (1), OSL (3, 5) and magnetic susceptibility (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) samples.
patterns, gas chromatographic relative retention times, and by
comparison with the literature.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons (n-alkanes) have proven to be a useful
tool in the reconstruction of vegetation dynamics (Magill et al.,
2012; D'Anjou et al., 2013) since long-chained n-alkanes
(C25 C33) having an odd-over-even predominance are charac-
teristic of higher order terrestrial plants (Collister et al., 1994) with
major constituents being C27 C29 for leafy vegetation (Cranwell
et al., 1987) and C31 for land grasses (Maffei, 1996). Several ratios
have been used to identify changes in the relative amounts of each
specic source type (Cranwell, 1973; Fisher et al., 2003; D'Anjou
et al., 2013). Here we used the ratio [([C25] [C27] [C29])/
([C29] [C31])] to reveal the transitions fromforested to grassland-
dominated landscapes.
Magnetic susceptibility and soil organic carbon (SOC)
Forty samples of standard dimensions, 25.4 22.0 mm
(11.15 cm
3
), were extracted along a vertical prole near the back
wall of the excavation, very close to the TL dating sample spots (see
Figs. 5 and 6). Mass specic magnetic susceptibility was measured
in a Kappabridge KLY-2 weak eld susceptibility meter. Soil organic
carbon (SOC) was determined using the Walkey-Black method
(Wang et al., 2012).
Results
The new dates, obtained from burnt int objects (13 TL dates)
and from quartz-containing sediment (two OSL dates) span the
entire sequence from Unit XII at the base to Unit V, the uppermost
Pleistocene deposit. The radiometric parameters and the derived TL
ages are given in Table 2. These ages range from ~60 to ~45 ka, and
increase as a function of depth. The two OSL ages (Table 3) are in
good agreement with the average TL ages computed for the upper
part of the archaeological sequence (VeVI and VIeVII).
These dates place the archaeological sequence in a timeframe
within MIS 3. The average dates of the lower units (XIIeX), which
have yielded archaeological evidence of recurrent human occupa-
tion of the site, cluster around the beginning of MIS 3 prior to
Heinrich Event 5 (H5) (50e47 ka BP) (S anchez Go~ ni and Harrison,
2010). Starting at Unit IX and especially between units VII and
base of V, the archaeological evidence has shown progressive
decrease in human occupation intensity. The new average dates
place this segment around and slightly after H5. Finally, OSL mea-
surements obtained for the middle of Unit V, archaeologically
sterile, yielded a date of 44.7 3.2 ka. This indicates that the last
Neanderthal occupations at the site took place prior to Heinrich 4
(H4) (40.2e38.3 ka BP).
Data from ongoing microstratigraphic investigations are in
agreement with the reported dates. First, micromorphological ev-
idence fromthe top of the dated sequence shows traits indicative of
an abrupt change in the style of sedimentation. Most of the
sequence is predominantly composed of organic-rich detritic,
heterometric sand derived from a mix of bedrock disaggregation
products, plant litter and biogenic action. Fromthe middle of Unit V
and upwards, the sediment is lithologically different. It comprises
massive to diffusely bedded, well sorted, fresh, calcitic ne and very
ne, organic-poor sand (Fig. 10). No archaeological materials were
found even at the microscopic scale. In contrast, a micro-ake and
several bone fragments were identied in thin sections from the
Figure 7. Chronometric data: A) TL glowcurves of the natural dose (smallest peak) and
natural added doses. These doses (82.3, 164.6 and 246.9 Gy) were given with a Cs-
137 gamma rays irradiator delivering a dose rate of 76 Gy/h to ints. Also shown in this
gure, the plateau test indicates the stability of the paleodose over the 380

C TL peak.
B) First and second dose response curves. The paleodose was obtained by tting and
extrapolating second order polynomial curves.
Figure 8. Radial plot of the DE values (in Gy) for sample OSL 2 showing their relatively
small scatter. The average value was calculated using the Central Age model.
top 20 cm-thick segment of Unit V, which show poor sorting and a
higher content in coarse sand and gravel (Fig. 11).
Data from lipid analysis and magnetic susceptibility of samples
collected throughout the stratigraphic sequence show a marked
difference between Unit V and the rest of the underlying sequence,
highlighting a sharp decrease in soil organic carbon and magnetic
susceptibility (Fig. 2), as well as a shift from leafy to grassland
vegetation (Fig. 12). Ongoing micromorphological analyses indicate
that the organic matter present in the sediment throughout the
sequence is predominantly pedogenic.
Discussion
Based on the reported TL and OSL dates, El Salt can be consid-
ered a late Middle Palaeolithic site chronologically framed between
the onset of MIS 3 and ca. 45 ka. The base of Unit V, which rests on a
bed of large blocks derived from roof collapse, yielded remains of
the last human occupations recorded at the site, including teeth
that are probably Neanderthal. The well sorted, very ne calcitic
sand of the bulk of Unit V above the hominin bearing layer is
derived from subsequent bedrock disaggregation and relatively
high rates of sedimentation, as indicated by the fresh state and
massive structure of the unit as a whole, although further dates and
research on site formation are required to establish howrapidly the
sediment accumulated.
According to the chronostratigraphic framework provided by
the TL dates, the roof spall episode and deposition of nes (middle
of Unit V) could correspond to H5, which has been hypothetically
associated with severe aridication in the region (S anchez Go~ ni
et al., 2008; S anchez Go~ ni and Harrison, 2010, Mller et al., 2011).
A dry or semi-dry climatic context is consistent with the disag-
gregation of the travertine and limestone bedrock, as well as with
the organic compounds identied, which show a hydrocarbon
distribution corresponding to grasses. The value obtained from the
Table 2
Dosimetric parameters and TL ages.
Sample n
Strat. Unit U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (%) S-alpha Dose rate (mGy/a) DE (Gy) Age (ka)
(/10^3 /cm
2
) Alpha Beta Internal External Annual
ES 50 VeVI 2.67 0.02 0.009 15.8 704 397 1129 88 696 91 1825 126 86.2 1.4 47.2 4.4
ES 49 VIeVII 0.48 0.19 0.048 9.8 87 113 204 12 717 95 921 95 48.5 3.6 52.6 6.8
ES 48 * 2.10 0.05 0.016 14.6 513 320 843 65 726 96 1569 116 71.8 3.4 45.8 4.5
ES 2 IX 0.77 0.25 0.047 17.5 249 156 409 28 695 19 1104 34 57.7 1.8 52.2 3.2
ES 3 * 0.83 0.11 0.033 20.6 300 149 453 35 695 19 1149 40 61.9 1.5 53.9 3.3
ES 25 * 0.51 0.17 0.081 12.9 121 142 268 16 684 18 951 25 45.2 4.0 47.5 4.3
ES 27 * 0.39 0.36 0.053 10.6 89 108 201 11 690 20 890 22 51.1 2.5 57.4 3.7
ES 10 XI 1.42 0.26 0.045 10.9 275 250 539 34 673 18 1212 39 53.3 3.4 44.0 3.3
ES 19 * 1.23 0.41 0.092 12.8 293 263 565 34 690 19 1255 39 60.5 6.5 48.2 4.8
ES 14 * 0.50 0.40 0.073 11.4 119 141 264 14 690 20 954 24 53.9 1.7 56.5 3.1
ES 34 * 4.40 0.17 0.028 17.1 1286 669 1981 259 690 19 2670 260 162.2 9.5 60.7 9.0
ES 4 XII 1.48 0.19 0.033 17.4 453 247 706 54 701 21 1407 57 69.0 3.6 49.0 3.7
ES 15b * 0.40 0.19 0.037 11.5 89 93 185 11 690 19 875 22 48.6 1.6 55.5 3.1
The U, Th, K contents determined by NAA have systematic errors of 10% each. The alpha efciency (S-alpha value) has been measured by comparing the TL signals induced by
known doses of alpha and beta rays, delivered by an Am-241 and anY-Sr90 source, respectively. The total dose rate includes a cosmic contribution of 150 mGy/a for all samples
calculated after Prescott and Hutton (1988). The average water content was estimated to 15 3% according to the measurements performed on sediment samples in the
laboratory. All errors are given at 1 sigma.
Figure 9. Different eld views indicating the provenience of the eight micromorphological samples from Unit V mentioned in the paper (yellow boxes).
Table 3
Dosimetric parameters and OSL ages.
Sediment sample Stratigraphic unit U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (%) Dose rate (mGy/a) DE (Gy) Age (ka)
Alpha Beta Gamma Total
OSL 2 Upper V 2.24 6.85 1.09 44 1109 742 1945 18 87 2 44.7 3.2
OSL 1 V 2.21 6.18 1.23 115 1179 713 2058 31 93 2 45.2 3.4
The alpha, beta and gamma contributions were calculated using the conversion factors given by Adamiec and Aitken (1998), and attenuation factors of Brennan et al. (1991) for
the alpha rays and Mejdahl (1979) for the beta rays. The total dose rate includes a cosmic contribution of 50 mGy/a. Systematic errors of 5.0% have been associated with the K, U,
Th contents, and 2.5% with the beta source calibration. All errors are given at 1 sigma.
n-alkane chain length ratio has been interpreted as a marker of the
Little Ice Age (1650 AD) in other contexts (D'Anjou et al., 2013).
Additional sources of evidence point in the same direction. Pre-
liminary results of an ongoing microfaunal study of the sequence
showa reduction in species diversity in Unit V compared with all of
the underlying units (Fagoaga et al., 2013). Likewise, there is a
higher representation of goat remains in Units VI and V and data
froma pilot palynological study of Units XIIIeVII reect a change in
pollen taxa at Unit VIII pointing to a drier climate. While the lower
units yielded pollen indicative of a Mediterranean mixed meso-
phytic forest, Units VIII and VII show a decrease in Mediterranean
taxa and predominance of holmoak and brushwood (Galv an, 1992).
In sum, complementary data indicate that Unit V represents a
shift towards an arid climate with prevailing grassland vegetation.
Accordingly, the archaeological sequence reveals a process of
decreasing human presence culminating in site abandonment at a
peak of aridication of the surrounding landscape. After a period of
human absence of unknown duration and in stratigraphic confor-
mity, a human population e so far documented by a combustion
feature and a small archaeological assemblage e occupied the site.
A similar pattern of Neanderthal disappearance in a context of
climatic deterioration followed by an occupational hiatus and a
weak, indeterminate human presence can be described for other
late Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Iberian Peninsula (Mallol et al.,
2012). Current absolute dates for some of these sites push back the
chronological framework of Neanderthal disappearance to a period
between H5 and H4, in line with the rest of the European continent
(Adler et al., 2008; Hoffecker, 2009; Benazzi et al., 2011; Higham,
2011; Mller et al., 2011; Pinhasi et al., 2011, 2012; Higham et al.,
2011a,b; Aubry et al., 2012; Benazzi, 2012).
This evidence is in disagreement with previously proposed
Neanderthal persistence in Spain and Portugal up to Heinrich 3
(H3) (Zilh~ao, 2006; Finlayson et al., 2008; Zilh~ ao et al., 2010a,b;
Jennings et al., 2011; Baena et al., 2012; Hoffmann et al., 2013). In
addition, a careful look at the Iberian record brings to light a lack of
cases in which persistence and contact scenarios are supported by a
solid combination of paleontological, chronological and techno-
logical data. Moreover, even the available independent data do not
support Neanderthal persistence. In our view, the following evi-
dence is key to the discussion: 1) Sites with directly dated Nean-
derthal fossils are older than 45 Ka; 2) There are no sites with
Neanderthal fossils and stratigraphically associated, reliably dated
contexts; 3) Lithic assemblages interpreted as Late Mousterian not
only lack associated Neanderthal fossils, but are also composed of
very few objects and these are not technologically diagnostic.
The three directly dated Iberian Neanderthal fossil remains,
Sima de Las Palomas (ca. 49 ka) (Walker et al., 2012), El Sidr on
(48.4 3.2 ka BP) (Wood et al., 2013b) and Cova del Gegant
(52.3 2.3 ka by U/Th) (Daura et al., 2010), are older than 45 ka BP.
Based on recently obtained dates and geostratigraphic evidence,
the sites (Cueva de la Carihuela, Zafarraya, Jarama VI and Sima de
Las Palomas) with dated sedimentary layers containing Mousterian
lithic assemblages and Neanderthal fossils, that provided the
principal support for the persistence hypothesis no longer do so.
For instance, the radiocarbon dates from Cueva de la Carihuela,
obtained from sediment, have been considered unreliable (Wood
et al., 2013a), and without a chronological framework, paleoenvir-
onmental evidence of aridity (Fern andez et al., 2007) is insufcient
to support persistence at the site (Wood et al., 2013c). Likewise, the
radiocarbon dates from Boquete de Zafarraya and Jarama VI have
been pushed back beyond the 45 ka threshold (Kehl et al., 2013;
Wood et al., 2013a). Finally, there is both chronometric and strati-
graphic ambiguity at Sima de Las Palomas (Wood et al., 2013a). The
deposit containing isolated human remains (known as the upper
cutting) has yielded contradictory radiocarbon, uraniumseries and
OSL dates (Walker et al., 2008). Radiocarbon dates on burnt bone
are very recent (<43 ka BP), possibly due to the inherent difculty
in extracting collagen from archaeological burnt bone. The other
techniques place the deposit between ca. 54.7 4.7 ka and
43.8 750.0 ka (Walker et al., 2008). One of the techniques used
was U-series on bone, which provides a minimum age as uranium
could have migrated to the bone a considerable amount of time
after it was deposited. Moreover, lack of reworking and other types
of stratigraphic disturbance in the upper cutting has not been
corroborated by site formation investigations.
Besides absolute dating and presence of Neanderthal fossil re-
mains, persistence arguments are also built on the basis of lithic
assemblages that are ascribed to the Middle Palaeolithic and
assumed to have been made by Neanderthals. Among the major
examples are Oliveira 8 (Marks et al., 2001), Gorham IV (Barton and
Jennings, 2012; Giles et al., 2012; Shipton et al., 2013) Higueral de
Valleja VIeV (Jennings et al., 2009), Ant on IK (Zilh~ ao et al., 2010a
SI-II) and Esquilleu 6-3 (Baena et al., 2012). With a few excep-
tions, these assemblages exhibit some common traits: they are
composed of very few objects, they are mainly akes displaying
discontinuous reduction chains (discoid, Levallois or expedient),
and they include very few, undiagnostic retouched items (Vaquero,
2006). The lithic assemblages from Esquilleu Units 6-3, dated to ca.
34.3e20.8 ka BP (Baena et al., 2012) exhibit a suite of technological,
typological and raw material features that differ from the under-
lying units. As Maroto and co-workers have pointed out, they might
represent an Upper Palaeolithic ake facies, such as the case of the
Late Gravettian of Lagar Velho, Portugal, which bears a similar
chronology (Maroto et al., 2012).
In short, the persistence hypothesis is not supported by recent
current evidence, which includes a lack of directly dated recent
Neanderthal fossils or Neanderthal-bearing, reliably dated archae-
ological contexts, as well as an ambiguous Late Mousterian lithic
Figure 10. Microphotographs of well sorted, very ne sand from the archaeologically sterile middle part of Stratigraphic Unit V. This sediment is mainly composed of calcitic sand
with fewquartz grains, rare microfaunal bone fragments and scattered phosphatic nodules possibly derived from guano. Thin section SALT-10-15. A) in plain polarized light (PPL); B)
in crossed polarized light (XPL).
record. This lithic record, composed by akes, becomes even more
ambiguous if we consider that the early Upper Palaeolithic lithic in
Iberia seems to comprise more elements than blade technology.
The signicant presence of akes in the earliest Iberian Upper
Paleolithic techno-complex is increasingly well documented (De la
Pe~ na and Vega, 2012; Maillo, 2012; Martnez-Moreno et al., 2012;
De la Pe~ na, 2013). Considering El Salt from this perspective,
although the Neanderthal teeth from Unit V have not been directly
dated due to low collagen yields (Wood et al., 2013a), the new TL
and OSL dates presented here provide a chronological framework
for their archaeological context. Furthermore, this context
comprises a lithic assemblage of clear Mousterian afnity. The data
from El Salt, alongside the evidence from other sites, allows us to
advance the debate on the disappearance of Iberian Neanderthals
by pointing towards their disappearance around the time of the
Heinrich 5 event.
Conclusion
We have presented new dates from the Middle Palaeolithic site
of El Salt (Spain), which has yielded fossil Neanderthal specimens.
The site has revealed a stratied sequence showing a decrease in
Figure 11. A) Field view of an excavation prole from El Salt (2012 season) showing the bulk of the Unit V sterile deposit. Gradation towards a more poorly sorted, gravelly sediment
can be observed at the top (at the position of the top micromorphological sample). Note the location of the OSL sample. B) Detail of the gravelly facies showing the occurrence of a
int micro-ake. C) Flint ake in crossed polarized light (XPL). D) Archaeologically sterile Unit V sediment (calcitic ne sand, few quartz grains and phosphatic guano) in plain
polarized light (PPL). E) Same as (D) in XPL.
evidence of Neanderthal presence overlain by archaeologically
sterile, windblown sediment with signicantly less soil organic
carbon and a predominance of grassland vegetation. Hence, there
are indications of climate change coinciding with the last Nean-
derthal occupations. The dates presented here, which place this
sequence between ca. 60 and 45 ka, are in agreement with current
chronometric data from other sites in the Iberian Peninsula and
indicate a possible breakdown of the regional Neanderthal popu-
lation around the Heinrich 5 event. More research along these lines
is needed to test this hypothesis. In our opinion, the chronometric,
geostratigraphic and archaeological context of Iberian sites with
dates <40 ka attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic should be revised
in the light of these and other recently obtained data. Ultimately, as
the timing of Neanderthal disappearance becomes clearer, we can
start to shift the focus of the debate from dates to other important
issues, such as the nature of the archaeological gap between the
Middle and the Upper Palaeolithic or the nature of the aky lithic
assemblages currently labeled as either late Middle Palaeolithic or
early Upper Palaeolithic at different Iberian sites.
Author contribution
BG, CMH, CM designed research.
NM, CM, AS, VS performed research.
NM, CM, AS, VS, BG, CMH analyzed data.
BG, CMH, CM, NM wrote the paper.
Acknowledgments
Archaeological research at El Salt is funded by the Spanish
Government project La Desaparici on de los grupos neandertales en
la region central del Mediterr aneo Ib erico. Una propuesta meto-
dol ogica de aproximaci on al proceso hist orico y al marco paleo-
ambiental (HAR2012-32703, MICINN-FEDER), and Direcci o
General de Cultura (Consellera de Educaci o, Cultura i Esports.
GeneralitatValenciana). We thank the members of the University of
La Laguna Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherer Research Group for their
participation in eld and laboratory tasks and E. Martn (ULPGC) for
the photographs of lithic materials. We also thank the Alcoy
Archaeological Museum and the Town Hall of Alcoy for their sup-
port and the anonymous reviewers who helped improve earlier
versions of the paper.
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New Evidence of Early Neanderthal Disappearance in The Iberian Peninsula

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