Miniatura instrumentala romantica

After the deaths of Beethoven (1827) and Schubert (1828) the decline of the sonata
was swift and precipitous. Althouh its prestie remained enormous! larel" because of the
achievement of Beethoven! st"listic developments turned rapidl" in other directions. #he
sonatas of Schumann! $hopin and Brahms! however imainative in certain respects! pro%ect a
sense of imitation rather than continued evolution. Schumann was one of the first composers
to ive his character&pieces poetic titles rather than usin eneric titles such as 'impromptu( or
'baatelle(. )n *erman" the chief architect of this aesthetic shift was +obert Schumann! who
used his editorship of the Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik as a forum for proclaimin both $hopin
and the "oun Brahms. $omposed durin the 18,-s! Schumann(s first 2, opus numbers were
all for solo .e"board! includin several of his best&.nown wor.s. /rom his op.1 (the Abe
0ariations) on! the voice is clear and assured! characteri1ed b" an e2traordinaril" poetic
harmonic imaination! stron root movements! fre3uent doublins and a preference for the
middle rane of the piano. Althouh +obert and $lara did not receive the rand manufactured
b" $onrad *raf until their marriae in 184- (the instrument was later be3ueathed to Brahms)!
the music composed b" both demonstrates the warmth and intimac" of the 0iennese
instruments. Man" of his most successful wor.s! includin Papillons op.2! the
Davidsbndlertnze op.5! Carnaval op.6 and Kreisleriana op.15! consist of c"cles of
miniatures whose interdependenc" is analoous to that found in the later son c"cles li.e
Dichterliebe. )n Carnaval a series of epirammatic mottos provides a modicum of musical
connection! but the deeper unit" is more elusive! based on harmonicall" open beinnins or
closes and a .een sensitivit" to contrasts in mood. Alon with fiures from the commedia
dellarte! Schumann presents s"mpathetic portraits of $lara 7iec.! $hopin and 8aanini! as
well as of 9usebius and /lorestan! the introvert and e2trovert sides of his own musical
personalit". )t is surprisin to find the densit" of short internal repeats : betra"in binar"
oriins : in movements of wide&ranin harmonic freedom such as those in Kreisleriana
(inspired b" 9.#.A. ;offmann(s character and dedicated to $hopin). <ften accompan"in
these repetitive forms are the .inds of motoric rh"thm familiar from the Baro3ue (Schumann
ac.nowleded that his music was closer in spirit to Bach than to Mo1art). #he predilection for
buildin on short! s"mmetrical harmonic se3uences can lead to a mar.ed s3uareness! often
rescued b" hihl" oriinal fiuration. Apart from the openin movements of the three sonatas!
sonata form surfaces onl" rarel" in Schumann(s wor.s. An effective e2ample is the finale of
the aschin!ssch"ank aus #ien op.25! whose openin rondo remains one of the composer(s
freshest inspirations.
)n such wor.s as the $tudien nach Capricen von Pa!anini op.,! the #occata op.7! the
%tudes s&mphoni'ues op.1, and the Phantasie op.17! Schumann made important
contributions to an e2pansion of the piano(s rane and sonorit"! .eepin pace with the new
iron&framed instruments bein built in the 18,-s. #he Phantasie! dedicated to =is1t and whose
proceeds Schumann contributed to the fund for the Beethoven monument in Bonn! is
considered b" man" to be his masterpiece. 7ith its pointed references to the last of
Beethoven(s sons from (n die ferne )eliebte! it offers an elo3uent farewell to $lassicism. )n
spite of a reliance on structures of the da capo t"pe and stron subdominant leanins! it is one
of Schumann(s most successful lare&scale wor.s! concludin with a serene slow movement
in $ that evo.es the spirit of the Arietta finale of Beethoven(s op.111. Schumann(s
considerable reliance on the metronome has been attac.ed on numerous occasions! but used
with care (and sometimes modified b" $lara(s own editorial suestions) his mar.ins
provide a ver" useful uide. ;e was also one of the first composers to desinate lon passaes
as simpl" 'mit 8edal(! confirmin the shift of the dampers( function from that of a special
effect to a continuous inredient in the te2ture. /inall"! Schumann(s commitment to hih&
3ualit" pieces in his studies for children resulted in such welcome additions to this repertor"
as the Kinderszenen op.1> and most especiall" the (lbum fr die *u!end op.58.
Althouh Schumann(s innovations appeared less radical b" the end of the centur"! the"
remained more far&reachin than those of his contemporar" Mendelssohn. After leadin a
revival of Bach(s $t Matthe" Passion in 1826! Mendelssohn issued a series of .e"board
wor.s that included preludes and fuues (a set of si2 appeared in 18,7)! capriccios and
fantasias! evo.in a Baro3ue atmosphere overlaid with post&$lassical phrase structure. A
favourite arranement was the slow introductor" openin succeeded b" a fleet Allero or even
8resto! most familiar from the +ondo capriccioso op.14! composed when Mendelssohn was
onl" 1>. A 3uarter of his output consists of eiht boo.s of ,ieder ohne #orte! shorter l"ric
pieces predominantl" in simple ternar" form! whose moderate technical demands offered
sustenance to the amateur pla"er in daner of bein swamped in a sea of virtuosit".
#he desination 'revolutionar"( is properl" reserved in the 16th centur" for a fiure
such as $hopin. )n spite of precedents to be found in the music of ;ummel and /ield! even
$hopin(s earliest wor.s are stamped with an oriinalit" that could scarcel" have been
e2pected. All of his more than 2-- wor.s involve the piano (the vast ma%orit" are for piano
solo)! and in this respect he t"pifies the increasin speciali1ation of the +omantics. <nl" a
handful of concertos! sonatas and chamber wor.s emplo"ed what were b" now academic
forms. <therwise $hopin preferred eneric titles that readil" con%ured up poetic imaes
(ballade! barcarolle)! thouh he stopped short of overt prorammaticism! maintainin the
tradition of absolute music in the two composers he most revered! Bach and Mo1art. ;is
discomfort with lare! multi&movement forms is betra"ed in the two "outhful concertos!
whose openin movements reverse the customar" se3uence of modulations in e2position and
recapitulation. 0isits to 0ienna in 1826 and 18,1 saw the premi?re! on an instrument placed at
$hopin(s disposal b" $onrad *raf! of the variations on '=@ ci darem la mano( (the wor. to be
reeted b" Schumann(s prophetic reviewA ';ats off! entlemen! a eniusB(). #he 7alt1 in 9
op.18! the first of the lare concert walt1es! was also set down in 0ienna. But $hopin(s
decision in the autumn of 18,1 to ta.e up at least temporar" residence in 8aris sealed the
decline of the imperial capital and mar.ed the ascendanc" of the /rench metropolis to its
position as the centre of new musical fashion for the ne2t 6- "ears. Most importantl" for the
evolution of the piano! developments now shifted to the /rench&9nlish desin. Both the more
conservative 9nlish action retained b" 8le"el and the repitition action patented b" 9rard in
the 182-s (the model for virtuall" all modern rand actions) provided more leverae with less
effort than the increasinl" cumbersome 0iennese action! whose mechanical disadvantae
multiplied as the instruments rew in si1e and weiht. Man" of $hopin(s effects depend upon
the increased sustainin power! particularl" in the treble! of the newest /rench instruments. At
the same time! both 8le"el and 9rard(s flat&strun pianos retained a clarit" and transparenc"!
even in the bass! that was aided b" a more lihtweiht and efficient dampin s"stem. *one for
ood were the e2otic multiple pedal stops of the 0iennese instrumentsC +omantic pianists
made do with the damper and shift pedals now standard on 9nlish models. $hopin(s
preference for the more intimate sound of the 8le"el (whose action was slihtl" shallower
than that of the 9rard and had virtuall" no after&touch) shows that he resisted over&simplified
notions of 'proress(.
<n his arrival in 8aris! $hopin bean the reular and s"stematic cultivation of almost
ten different enres. Dominant amon the smaller forms were the ma1ur.as and nocturnes!
which collectivel" reveal an astonishinl" varied approach to ternar" form. #he modal
colourin of the Ma1ur.a in $ minor op.41 no.4 (caused b" the use of the lowered 2nd and
7th derees) sets up the return to the openin A section via the aumented 5th rather than the
dominant! a techni3ue that was to become a +omantic clichE. 7hile still a "outh in 7arsaw
$hopin had access to an intriuin new enre of composition b" the )rishman Fohn /ieldA the
nocturne. /ield(s first four compositions bearin this atmospheric title appeared in St
8etersbur and Moscow in 1812! and doubtless made their wa" to 7arsaw soon after. #o /ield
oes the credit for evolvin the arpeiated accompaniment over which an e2pressive melod"
is free to spin out. #races of the nocturne as it was inherited from /ield are evident in op.6
no.2 (a perennial favourite of amateurs) but $hopin soon transformed the species to
accommodate a much wider emotional rane. #he e2treme contrasts of op.1> no.1 provide a
memorable earl" e2ampleC 1> "ears later the hihl" ornamented return in the Gocturne in B
op.52 no.1 raises subtlet" to new heihts while assimilatin $hopin(s love of )talian bel canto.
Althouh performers fre3uentl" present them in different roups! man" of these sets were
arraned b" $hopin as collections unified in se3uence of mood and tonal plan. #he almost 2-
walt1es are more openl" sectional! as befits their dance oriins! and prompted some of the
composer(s most spontaneous melodies! reinforced in the larer concert walt1es b" inenious
repetition schemes. ;is most direct homae to Bach! the 24 8reludes! encompasses an arra" of
formal schemes far richer than their aphoristic character miht suest. A lare number are
built on a sinle phrase that re3uires onl" a sinle repetition rather than contrastin material to
attain completeness. An even more virtuoso treatment of repetition underlies the Berceuse
op.>7! where a simple alternatin pattern of tonic and dominant harmonies repeated >4
consecutive times supports a remar.abl" free and florid set of seamless melodic variations. A
similar union of circumscribed harmonies and operatic displa" (fre3uentl" in duet te2tures)
informs the e3uall" remar.able Barcarolle op.5-! which captures perfectl" the entle
undulations of a 0enetian ondola without the sentimentalit" so often attached to the enre.
Apart from his one "outhful sonata! $hopin(s e2periments in this form produced two
hihl" individual wor.s! both in the old&fashioned four movements thouh with the scher1o
placed second. )n both openin alleros the focus on thematic rather than tonal processes
leads to a mar.ed sectionali1ation between viorous first and l"rical second roups. #he finale
of the B Sonata is one of the most oriinal movements $hopin ever wrote! sub%uatin all the
traditional elements to a sinle bare! fleetin te2ture. ;is ten or so remainin lare&scale
wor.s (all in one movement) evince two opposed approaches. #he polonaises! the first three
scher1os and the second ballade emplo" lare&scale ternar" or rondo structures built around
hihl" contrasted material. ;owever! the three remainin ballades (in * minor! A and /
minor)! as well as the Scher1o in 9 op.>4! the /antas" op.46 and the 8olonaise&/antas" op.51!
each offer hihl" individual solutions to the special formal problems posed b" thematic
transformation and seamless transitions. #he influence of sonata procedures is obvious in the
first and last ballades and in the /antas"! thouh with a minimum of emphasis on resolvin
material from secondar" .e"s in the tonic. B" establishin A ma%or as emphaticall" at the
close as it does / minor in its openin! the /antas" promotes the interchaneabilit" of relative
ma%or and minorC the conclusion in A minor of the / ma%or Ballade! which made such an
impression upon Schumann! provides an even stroner e2ample of $hopin(s underminin of a
sinle! central tonalit". Althouh the /antas" )mpromptu! published posthumousl"! has alwa"s
been the most popular of $hopin(s compositions in this vein! his 'fantas"( masterpiece is
doubtless the 8olonaise&/antas"! in which the most heroic and e2trovert characteristics of the
enres cultivated b" $hopin are blended with the most intimate flihts of fanc". 8erformances
that inore the sinle basic tempo mar.in of Allero maestoso obscure the underl"in unit".
The age of virtuosity.
He"board virtuosos had travelled across 9urope since the mid&18th centur"! but the
bul. of published music was aimed at the amateur mar.et. Beinnin with Beethoven! the
situation was rapidl" transformedC $1ern" reported to the composer in a conversation boo.
that a woman in 0ienna could still not pla" the openin of the ;ammer.lavier Sonata even
thouh she had been practisin it for months. #he 84 studies of $ramer! published in 18-4 and
181-! were considered b" Beethoven to be the 'best preparation for his own wor.s(! receivin
praise in the ne2t eneration from Schumann. $1ern"(s -ollstndi!e theoretisch praktische
Pianoforte.$chule op.>--! althouh not published until 18,6! codified earlier practices. #he
era of the +omantic virtuoso was properl" launched with the publication of $hopin(s two sets
of Etudes in 18,, and 18,7 (thouh the earliest were composed in 1826). ;e combined the
solution to a sinle technical problem (includin rapid parallel ,rds! 5ths or octaves in the
same handC blac. .e"s! lare %umps) with wor.s of intrinsic artistic merit! worth" of
placement alonside an" others in the concert repertor". Schumann(s description of op.2> no.1
as 'a lovel" picture in a dream( ac.nowledes $hopin(s hihl" oriinal fiuration! in which 'it
would be a mista.e to suppose that he allowed us to hear ever" one of its small notes( (e2.1-).
;e was e3uall" adroit in studies that develop touch rather than bravura! especiall" evident in
the three composed in 18,6 for inclusion in Moscheles(s M/thode des m/thodes.
#he onl" 16th&centur" performer capable of doin %ustice to the e2pansive arpeios
of $hopin(s op.1- no.1 was said to have been /ran1 =is1t! and it was he who carried the
evolution of the +omantic pianist to its fever pitch. Beinnin at the astonishinl" earl" ae
of 1>! and inspired b" the e2ample of 8aanini! =is1t published between 1825 and 1846 (he
retired from concert tourin in 1848) almost three do1en studies encompassin a da11lin
spectrum of .e"board effects! an achievement not supplemented until the publication of
Debuss"(s 12 9tudes durin 7orld 7ar ). #he orchestral basis of these efforts is illustrated b"
the well&.nown Mazeppa! which demands three staves for the openin tune. A similar
orchestral effect is imparted b" the superhuman leaps in =is1t(s transcription of 8aanini(s ,a
campanella. Inli.e $hopin(s! =is1t(s studies are peppered with improvisator" caden1as and
flourishes remar.able for their constant inventiveness. More than an" other 16th&centur"
fiure! =is1t .ept the tradition of improvisation alive! and there is no doubt that the printed
version of the studies represent the distillation of "ears : perhaps even decades : of
performance e2perience. #he title 'transcendental( iven to the best&.nown set (final version!
18>2) proved an apt description of =is1t(s techni3ue! for onl" one that transcended the
capabilities of virtuall" all his contemporaries could do %ustice to his own music.
Apart from a rash of studies! =is1t produced a bewilderin arra" of wor.s for solo
piano! man" of which underwent continuous revision durin his lifetime! and man" of which
remain unavailable in an" reliable modern edition. #he proportion of 'salon music( amon his
output is far less than that found amon such contemporaries as #halber and ;enselt.
<utstandin amon the larer collections are the three volumes of (nn/es de p0lerina!e! aural
mementos of =is1t(s so%ourn in Swit1erland and )tal". ;is sources of inspiration were
fre3uentl" literar" (the three 8etrarch sonnets) or scenic ((u bord dune source! ,es cloches
de )en0ve)! but are prorammatic in onl" the most evocative sense. #he 'fantasia 3uasi
sonata( (the 'Dante( Sonata) that closes the second "ear is a lare&scale wor. of tremendous
intensit"! in which the s"mbolic interval of the tritone serves as a unif"in motto. #he series
of four Mephisto walt1es presents a comprehensive cataloue of the 'demonic( devices that
proved so attractive to =is1t. #he wor. now rec.oned his most impressive is the B minor
Sonata (18>2:,)! which succeeds in harnessin technical brilliance to the architectural
demands of four&movements&in&one. #he sonata is perhaps =is1t(s most impressive displa" of
thematic transformation! built upon an edifice of five mostl" cr"ptic and open&ended motifs. )t
would be a serious error! however! to overloo. the tremendous investment made b" =is1t in
arranements! transcriptions and wor.s based on previous material. Most important amon
the latter are the 21 ;unarian +hapsodies based on processed fol. material! plantin the
seeds for the nationalistic movements at the end of the centur". =is1t(s hih opinion of
Schubert is reflected in the more than 5- son transcriptions! includin the complete
$ch"anen!esan! and #interreise. ;is man" operatic transcriptions and paraphrases are now
rarel" heard! but in his own da" the" not onl" provided opportunit" for technical displa" but
served man" of the functions of the ramophone. =is1t lavished considerable care upon such
arranements! and in his +/miniscences de Don *uan (on Mo1art(s Don )iovanni) he left
behind a raphic representation of techni3ue as se2ual con3uest.
Althouh much has been made of =is1t(s enthusiastic endorsement of Steinwa"(s new
overstrun models in the 187-s! the vast ma%orit" of his music for piano was composed durin
the period in which he endorsed the flat&strun 9rards with e3ual enthusiasm. ;e even found
time to provide testimonials for $hic.erin! and for the BJsendorfer with its old&st"le
0iennese action. )n an" event! all the instruments used b" =is1t were e3uipped with softer
wire and more elastic accretions of felt and leather hammer coverins than modern concert
instruments. ;is lon career spanned a phenomenal period in the piano(s development! and he
never tired of dreamin up new and seeminl" unattainable effects! such as the 'vibrato assai(
in his transcription of Schumann(s #idmun!
=is1t(s achievements inspired both competitors and imitators. ;is sharpest competition
in the late 18,-s was from #halber! who da11led audiences with his novel device of placin
the melod" in the thumbs while surroundin it with a sea of arpeios! ivin the impression
that more than one piano was bein pla"ed. #halber speciali1ed in operatic paraphrases (that
on +ossini(s Mo1se en%o"ed particular popularit") and variations such as those on )od $ave
the 2ueenC none of his e2tensive output remains in the active repertor" toda". A similar fate
has befallen the transcriptions and salon pieces of two other celebrated virtuosos! ;er1 and
;enselt. #he most interestin and oriinal pianistic fiure ne2t to =is1t in the mid&centur" was
Al.an! who spent much of his life in obscurit". Govel (and sometimes epic) notions of
structure and harmon" have served to re.indle interest in Al.an(s music! whose variet" rivals
that of his better .nown contemporaries. ;is virtuosit" was uncompromisin! at times
re3uirin an almost superhuman stamina.
Brahms(s virtuosit" too. Beethoven(s ;ammer.lavier as its startin&point! as the
rh"thms and proportions of his $ ma%or Sonata! published when he was scarcel" 2-! show.
After the three earl" sonatas! however! Brahms turned his attentions elsewhere. #he chief
focus durin the late 18>-s and 185-s was variation form. #he 2> 0ariations and /uue on a
#heme of ;andel op.24 in%ected new life into a enre virtuall" moribund since Beethoven(s
set for Diabelli four decades earlier. Brahms summari1ed his techni3ue : more severe and less
effect&orientated than that of =is1t : in two stri.in sets of variations on 8aanini(s $aprice
no.24. #"pical amon the uncompromisin problems aired are the 'blind( octaves in no.11 of
the second boo. (e2.12). Beinnin with the 9iht 8iano 8ieces of op.75! published when he
was in his mid&4-s! Brahms focussed almost e2clusivel" for the ne2t 1> "ears on si2 roups of
smaller pieces described variousl" as $apriccio! )nterme11o! +hapsod"! Ballade or +oman1e.
Althouh he occasionall" included literar" inscriptions (from Sternau over the Andante of the
/ minor Sonata! from ;erder at the beinnin of op.117)! Brahms(s fundamental alleiance
remained with the absolute music tradition of the 0iennese $lassicists. Strife between him and
the avant&arde advocates of =is1t and 7aner proved inevitable. A few of these shorter
wor.s fulfil the dramatic demands of sonata form (the B minor $apriccio and the B
)nterme11o from op.75)! but Brahms relied most heavil"! as had $hopin and Schumann before
him! on the simple ternar" scaffoldin. )f he rarel" infused it with the endless fle2ibilit" of
$hopin! Brahms(s resourcefulness! particularl" in matters of rh"thm and phrase! rarel"
faltered. +eardless of mood! he ravitated towards the middle and lower reisters of the
piano! preferrin chains of closel" spaced! poinant dissonance to clearl" articulated te2tures.
)n spite of opportunities to e2periment with the newer! hih&leverae actions! Brahms
remained lo"al until the ver" end to the 0iennese models that soon after his death were to pass
into obscurit". ;e remains one of the few composers in the 7estern tradition for whom
nostalia for a b"one era provided a fresh and oriinal impulse.