GEOGRAPHY

Combined surfaces of earths oceans cover nearly two-thirds of the earth Almost two-thirds of our
!lanets land area is located in the "orthern Hemis!here# while $%& of the 'outhern Hemis!here is
covered by water
Geolo(ists e)!lain the difference between *ocean+ and *continents+ is caused by the chemical and
!hysical differences in the roc,s# not whether they are covered by water
Ocean basins from lar(est to smallest are-
Pacific Ocean is the lar(est and dee!est ocean in the world and covers a third of the Earths surface .he
Pacific Ocean is bi((er than all of the Earths continents combined .he Pacific was named by /erdinand
0a(ellan# the Portu(uese e)!lorer who found the Pacific very !eaceful 1!acifi2ue# in /rench3 for most of
his 4ourney from the 'traits of 0a(ellan to the Phili!!ines .he Pacific Ocean is home to the lowest !oint
on Earth and dee!est !art of the Ocean ,nown as the 0ariana .rench# an area that is 56#$%% feet below
sea level
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-lar(est ocean 7ts name is derived from the Sea of Atlas in Gree,
mytholo(y .his ocean covers a!!ro)imately one-fifth of the entire (lobal ocean .he dee!est !art of the
Atlantic Ocean is the Puerto Rico .rench 8elow the surface# the ocean floor has an '-sha!e basin 7t
forms a (iant submarine mountain ran(e# called the 0id-Atlantic Rid(e
The Indian Ocean is the third lar(est# ma,es u! a!!ro)imately 9%& of the Earths water surface
:nderneath the surface of the 7ndian Ocean lies the conver(ence of the African# 7ndian# and Antarctic
!lates .he Y-sha!ed branches of the 0id-Oceanic Rid(e mar, this conver(ence
The Southern Ocean (Antarctic) is the worlds fourth-lar(est body of water# .he 7nternational
Hydro(ra!hic Or(ani;ation acce!ted it as an ocean in 9%%% because mariners have lon( referred to this
area as the 'outhern Ocean .his ocean is !redominantly dee! water# avera(in( <5#%%%-<=#6%% feet dee!
The Arctic Ocean lies at the to! of the world .he to!o(ra!hy of the Arctic Ocean bottom varies 7t
consists of fault-bloc, rid(es# abyssal !lains# and the ocean basin has an avera(e de!th of 5#>%= feet due
to the continental shelf on the Eurasian side 7ce covers most of the Arctic Ocean year round 7f the ice
melts# salinity and subfree;in( tem!eratures vary
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EAR.H' '.R:C.:RE
<
Core is believed to be com!osed !rimarily of iron# some nic,el
9 Outer core is li2uid due to lower !ressure and believed to !roduce earths ma(netic field
5 0antle is made u! of slowly movin( roc, near its meltin( !oint# sometimes called !lastic roc, because
it behaves li,e a solid and li2uid
> Crust *floats+ on to! of the mantle
6 Oceanic crust ? Portion of earths crust that !rimarily contains basalt 1solidified lava3# dar,er in color#
relatively dense# and about 6 ,ilometers thic,
= Continental crust ? Portion of earths crust that !rimarily contains (ranite# li(hter color# less dense
than oceanic crust# and 9% to 6% ,ilometers thic,
@ Aithos!hereBAsthenos!here ? !art of the earths outermost layer that is fra(mented into a do;en or
more lar(e and small solid slabs# called lithos!heric !lates or tectonic !lates# that are movin( relative to
one another as they ride ato! hotter# more mobile mantle material called the asthenos!here
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CO".7"E".AA CR7/. D PAA.E .EC.O"7C'
Pan(aea ? name of land mass
when all continents were 4oined
Continental drift - (radual
movement of the continents
across the earthEs surface throu(h
time 1Alfred Fe(ner# German
(eo!hysicist3
Plate tectonics ? !rocess that
moved the continents and
continues to move !lates on the
earthEs mantle
0id-ocean rid(e ? A continuous chain of underwater volcanic mountains encom!assin( the earth
'eafloor s!readin( ? !rocess that creates new sea floor as !lates move away from each other at the mid-
ocean rid(es
Rift - the crac, in the crust resultin( from se!aration of !lates
Rate of !late movement ? 'AOFG 9-<$ cm !er yearH about how lon( it ta,es your fin(ernails to (row
Earth2ua,es are common around rid(es Iolcanoes are found near trenches
Ocean sediment is older the further you move away from the rid(e
'ubduction ? downward movement of one !late into earthEs mantle when two !lates collide 1volcanoes3
Conver(ent boundary - !lates collideH <3 continental versus oceanic - oceanic 1heavier# denser3 moves
under continental# 93 two continental crusts - !ush u!ward a(ainst each other 1mountains3# 53 two
oceanic crusts - one di!s below 1subduction forms volcanoes# volcanic islands3
Civer(ent boundary ? !lates se!arate 1sea floor s!readin(# (eneration of new crust3
.ransform boundary 1also called shear# rotational3 - !lates slide !ast each other 1creates a fault3
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7".O .HE OCEA"
Continental shelf ? relatively smooth# (ently slo!ed# shallow section of the ed(e of a continent#
e)tendin( from the shore to the !oint where the slo!e (ets stee!erH ma,e u! $& of oceans surface area
but contain the richest !art of the ocean where most of its life is found due to more li(ht in area 1more
!roducers such as !lants and al(ae3
'helf brea, - outer ed(e of the shelf# where the bottom be(ins to become stee!erH occurs at de!ths of
<9% to 9%% meters and mar,s the be(innin( of the second re(ion# the continental slo!e
Continental slo!e ? stee!er section of continental ed(e# e)tendin( seaward from the continental shelfH
boundary between the continental masses and the true ocean basins# and it e)tends downward to the
dee! sea floor Cee! at the base of the continental slo!e is a buildu! of sediments resultin( in the third
re(ion# the continental rise
Continental rise ? .he (ently slo!in( area at the base of the continental slo!e where sediment and
debris collects
Abyssal !lain - (ently slo!es toward the mid-ocean rid(es creatin( a flat areaH area is dee!# but trenches
are dee!est !art of ocean
CREATION NOTE: :nderstandin( !late tectonics is crucial to determinin( a(e of earth and !rovides
!roof of the /lood in "oahs day .he Atlantic Ocean is believed to be a new ocean formed when Pan(aea
bro,e a!art 7f it always (rew at its !resent rate# it would have ta,en millions of years to (et to the si;e it
is today 1<#%%% miles3 However# there is no stron( evidence to su((est the rate of the oceanEs (rowth has
been constant 0any !arameters of our earth have not been constant# includin( earthEs ma(netic field
Evidence of ra!id !late movement- <3 Catastro!hic event# such as the /lood 93 ma(netic reversals of the
earth may have occurred 2uic,ly# in a matter of days 'cientists found evidence of a thin lava flow where
the outside cooled first 1dis!layin( one !articular ma(netic orientation3 and the inside cooled days later
with evidence of a ma(netic reversal 7f ma(netic reversals ha!!ened 2uic,ly# then the bands of ma(netic
!articles near the mid-ocean rid(e must have formed 2uic,ly as well# or the ma(netic reversals would not
have been *ca!tured+ in the roc,s .his is evidence the sea floor may have also s!read very 2uic,ly
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