32 Chapter32 569-587

Calculus
Here are some sketches of straight line segments. Work out the gradient of each
one, and arrange them in order of steepness, lowest to highest.
Remember that gradient rise/run.
2 4 6 8 10
O
2
4
6
8
10
y
x
Run
Rise
A
2 4 6 8 10
O
2
4
6
8
10
y
x
B
2 4 6 8 10
O
2
4
6
8
10
y
x
C
2 4 6 8 10
O
2
4
6
8
10
y
x
D
CHAPTER 32
In this chapter you will learn how to:
estimate the gradient of the tangent to a curve by measurement
calculate the gradient of the tangent to a curve by differentiation
use calculus to find maximum and minimum points on curves
use turning points to help sketch parabolas
solve simple kinematics problems about distance, speed and
acceleration.
You will also be challenged to:
complete a calculus crossword.
Starter: Steeper and steeper
569
32_Chapter32_569-587.qxd 12/1/11 4:08 PM Page 569
Chapter 32: Calculus
570
32.1 Gradient of a curve
In Chapter 7 you measured the gradient of a straight line graph by dividing the
height (rise) by the horizontal distance (run). The gradient of a curve can be
measured in a similar way, but you have to draw a tangent first; this is a
straight line touching the curve at the point of interest. Then measure the
gradient of the tangent, and take this as the gradient of the curve at that point.
EXAMPLE
The diagram shows part of the curve
of y x
2
1. By drawing suitable
tangents, estimate the gradient of
the curve:
a) at the point (1, 2)
b) at the point (2, 5).
SOLUTION
a) b)
At the point (2, 5) the gradient of
the tangent is
9
3
1
1
8
2
4.
Hence the gradient of the curve at
(2, 5) is estimated as 4.
At the point (1, 2) the gradient of
the tangent is
4
2
0
0
4
2
2.
Hence the gradient of the curve at
(1, 2) is estimated as 2.
2
4
6
8
10
12
4 2 0 2
y
x
2
4
6
8
10
12
4 2 0 2
y
x
2
1
4
6
8
10
3
5
7
9
11
12
4 2 0 2
y
x
You can also use gradients to measure rate of change in real-life graphs, for
example, distancetime graphs. The gradient of a distancetime graph gives
velocity (speed), and the gradient of a velocitytime graph gives acceleration.
EXAMPLE
The distancetime graph shows the distance travelled by a cyclist during the
first 12 seconds of a journey. The distance s metres travelled is plotted against
the time t seconds.
a) At what times is the cyclist stationary?
b) Estimate the cyclists speed at time t 7 seconds.
SOLUTION
a) The cyclist is stationary when the graph is horizontal.
This occurs when t 0 and again when t 10.
b)
At time t 7 the gradient of the tangent is
11
8
0
6
80
3
2
0
15.
Hence the speed at time t 7 is estimated as 15 ms
1
.
40
80
120
20
60
100
4 6 8 10 12 2
0
s
t
40
80
120
20
60
100
4 6 8 10 12 2
0
s
t
32.1 Gradient of a curve
571
EXERCISE 32.1
1 The diagram shows part of the graph of y x
2
2.
a) Write down the gradient of the graph when x 0.
b) By drawing a suitable tangent on a copy of the
graph, estimate the gradient of the graph when x 1.
2
3x.
By drawing suitable tangents on a copy of the graph,
estimate the gradient of y x
2
3x when:
a) x 2
b) x 0
2
1.
a) Draw a tangent at the point (2, 3) on a copy of the
graph.
b) Hence estimate the gradient of y x
2
1 at
the point (2, 3).
4 The distancetime graph shows the distance
travelled by an athlete during the first 12 seconds
of a training run.
The athlete runs away from his start point for a
time, then turns around and runs back.
The distance s metres travelled is plotted against
the time t seconds.
a) At what time does the athlete turn around?
b) Write down the distance travelled when t 10.
c) By constructing a suitable tangent on a copy of the graph, estimate the velocity of the athlete
when t 6.
40
80
20
60
4 6 8 10 12 2
0
s
t
2
4
6
8
2 3 1 1 2
y
x O
2
1
1
2
3
4
3
2 3 4 1 1
y
x O
2
1
4
6
3
5
2 1 0 2 1
y
x
572
32.2 Gradient of a curve differentiation
If you were to draw the graph of y x
2
you would obtain a distinctive curve,
called a parabola:
The gradient of the curve may be found at various places, such as A, B, C, D
above, by constructing and measuring tangents. The table shows the results:
Note that in every case the gradient is twice the x value. It turns out that this
relationship holds at every point on the graph of y x
2
(though the IGCSE does
not require you to be able to prove this). We say that
y x
2
has a gradient function
d
d
y
x
2x
The process of finding a gradient function is called differentiation. Here is a
general rule you can use for differentiating any power of x:
if y ax
n
then
d
d
y
x
anx
n1
EXAMPLE
Differentiate:
a) y 9x
4
b) y 8x
3
4x
2
SOLUTION
a) If y 9x
4
then
d
d
y
x
(9 4) x
(41)
36x
3
b) If y 8x
3
4x
2
then
d
d
y
x
(8 3) x
(31)
(4 2) x
(21)
24x
2
8x
4
8
10
2
6
2 0
A C B
D
2
y
x
32.2 Gradient of a curve differentiation
573
Point A B C D
x coordinate 1 0 1 2
Gradient 2 0 2 4
If you need to differentiate a constant, for example y 4, think of it as y 4x
0
.
Then
d
d
y
x
(4 0) x
1
0.
It follows that any constant will differentiate to 0.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate:
a) y x
3
5x
2
2x 4 b) y x
8
5x
4
7
SOLUTION
a) y x
3
5x
2
2x 4 b) y x
8
5x
4
7
Then
d
d
y
x
3x
2
10x 2 Then
d
d
y
x
8x
7
20x
3
EXERCISE 32.2
Find
d
d
y
x
in each case:
1 y x
3
6x
2
2 y x
4
2x
3
x
2
3 y 2x
4
3x
3
10x 4 y x
5
5x
2
5 y 3x
4
4x
3
6 y x
2
6x 8 7 y x
10
3x
3
8 y 6x
3
12x
9 y 9x
3
4x 11 10 y x
3
x
4
2x
5
32.3 Harder differentiation
The rule that if y ax
n
then
d
d
y
x
nax
n1
may be extended to negative powers
of x as well.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate:
a) y
1
x
0
b) y
x
8
2
SOLUTION
a) y
1
x
0
b) y
x
8
2
10x
1
8x
2
d
d
y
x
(10 1)x
11
d
d
y
x
(8 2)x
21
10x
2
16x
3
x
1
2
0

x
1
3
6

574
Special care must be taken when expressions are written in brackets. If you
need to differentiate the product of two brackets you should multiply out and
simplify the brackets first.
EXAMPLE
a) Multiply out and simplify (x 5)(2x 1).
b) Differentiate y (x 5)(2x 1).
SOLUTION
a) (x 5)(2x 1) 2x
2
10x x 5
2x
2
9x 5
b) y (x 5)(2x 1)
2x
2
9x 5
Thus
d
d
y
x
4x 9
Some questions may give you a string of algebraic terms as the top of an algebraic
fraction, with a constant denominator. In such cases, simply differentiate the whole
of the top, and divide this by the same denominator at the end.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate
x
3
5
5
x
2
4x
.
SOLUTION
If y
x
3
5
5
x
2
4x
then
d
d
y
x

3x
2
1
5
0x 4
EXERCISE 32.3
1 Find
d
d
y
x
if y 4x
2
5x
1
x
.
2 Differentiate 8x
x
4
2
.
3 Find
d
d
y
x
if y x
2
3
x
.
4 Differentiate 2x 3
4
x

x
5
2
.
32.3 Harder differentiation
575
5 a) Multiply out and simplify (x 3)(2x 1).
b) Find
d
d
y
x
if y (x 3)(2x 1).
6 a) Multiply out and simplify (2x 5)(x 1).
b) Differentiate (2x 5)(x 1).
7 Find
d
d
y
x
if y
x
2
5
3
x 4
.
8 Differentiate
2x
3
3x
2
6
5x 1
.
9 y
3x
2
4
4x 7
. Find the value of
d
d
y
x
when x 2.
10 y
x
3
5
2
x 4
. Find the value of
d
d
y
x
when x 1.
32.4 Maximum and minimum points on
curves
When a curve passes through a maximum or minimum point, the gradient of
the tangent becomes zero. This means that such points can be found by solving
the equation
d
d
y
x
0.
Maximum and minimum points are known collectively as turning points, since
the curve changes direction there.
A quadratic will have only a single turning point. This will be a minimum if the
x
2
coefficient is positive, and a maximum if the x
2
coefficient is negative.
x
2
coefficient positive
e.g. y 2x
2
3x 2
x
2
coefficient negative
e.g. y 2x
2
3x 2
2
Maximum point
Gradient 0
1
2
2 3 4 1 1 2
y
x O
Minimum point
Gradient 0
576
EXAMPLE
A curve has equation y x
2
8x 3.
a) Find an expression for
d
d
y
x
.
b) Work out the value of x for which
d
d
y
x
0.
c) Find the coordinates of the turning point of this curve.
d) Sketch the curve.
SOLUTION
a)
d
d
y
x
2x 8
b) When
d
d
y
x
0,
2x 8 0
2x 8
x 4
c) At the turning point, x 4, so
y x
2
8x 3
16 32 3
13
The turning point is at (4, 13).
d) Since the curve has a positive x
2
coefficient, the turning point will be a
minimum.
EXAMPLE
A curve has equation y 2x
3
3x
2
36x 1.
d
d
y
x
.
b) Work out the values of x for which
d
d
y
x
0.
c) Find the coordinates of the turning points of this curve.
d) Sketch the curve.
0
Minimum
at (4, 13)
y
x
32.4 Maximum and minimum points on curves
577
SOLUTION
a)
d
d
y
x
6x
2
6x 36
b) When
d
d
y
x
0,
6x
2
6x 36 0
x
2
x 6 0
(x 3)(x 2) 0
x 3 or 2
c) At the turning point given by x 3:
y 2x
3
3x
2
36x 1
54 27 108 1
82
At the turning point given by x 2:
y 2x
3
3x
2
36x 1
16 12 72 1
43
The turning points are at (3, 82) and at (2, 43).
d) One of these turning points is a maximum and the other a minimum. The
greater y coordinate shows that (3, 82) is the maximum, and (2, 43) the
minimum, so the curve looks like this.
EXERCISE 32.4
1 Find the coordinates of the minimum point on the curve y x
2
6x 11.
2 Find the coordinates of the minimum point on the curve y 2x
2
8x 7.
3 Find the coordinates of the maximum point on the curve y x
2
10x 23.
4 Find the coordinates of the maximum point on the curve y 3 2x x
2
.
0
Minimum
at (2, 43)
y
x
Maximum
at (3, 82)
578
5 A curve is given by y 3x
2
6x 5.
a) Find
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the coordinates of the turning point on this curve.
c) State whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
6 a) Find the coordinates of the turning point of the curve y 2x
2
16x 28.
b) State whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
7 A curve is given by y x
2
12x 45.
a) Find
d
d
y
x
.
c) Sketch the curve.
2
8x 1.
a) Find
d
d
y
x
.
3
9x
2
12x 1.
a) Find
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the coordinates of the turning points on this curve.
3
15x
2
24x.
a) Find
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the coordinates of the turning points on this curve.
32.5 Further problems on maximum and
minimum
Calculus problems about graphs normally use x and y as the variables, but other
symbols might be encountered in different situations, especially practical
(or applied) problems.
EXAMPLE
An economist reckons that the total revenue R generated by selling goods at a
price of m each may be modelled by the equation R 2000 500m200m
2
.
a) Find the value of m for which the revenue R is a maximum.
b) Hence find the maximum revenue.
32.5 Further problems on maximum and minimum
579
SOLUTION
a) R 2000 500m200m
2
Thus
d
d
m
R
500 400m
0 for a maximum
Then 400m500
m
5
4
0
0
0
0
1.25
b) Then R is 2000 500 (1.25) 200 (1.25)
2
2312.5
So the maximum revenue is 2312.50.
In some questions you might not be given the expressions, but would need to
obtain them first from the context of a particular problem.
EXAMPLE
A rectangle has perimeter 40 cm. The length along one side is x cm.
a) Obtain an expression for the area, A cm
2
, in terms of x.
b) Find
d
d
A
x
, and hence determine the value of x for which the area is a maximum.
SOLUTION
a) Since the perimeter is 40 cm, the total length of two adjacent sides is 20 cm.
Thus if the length is x cm then the width is 20 x cm:
To obtain the area we multiply these two dimensions together, so
A x(20 x)
b) Since A x(20 x) 20x x
2
then
d
d
A
x
20 2x
0 for a maximum
Thus 2x 20
x 10
x cm
20 x cm
580
EXERCISE 32.5
1 The fuel economy E of a car travelling at v miles per hour is modelled by the equation Ev
2
100v 60.
d
d
E
v
in terms of v.
b) Hence find the value of v for which the fuel economy takes its maximum value.
2 A colony of bacteria is allowed to grow over a period of 100 hours. During this time, the number of
bacteria N in the colony at time t hours after the start is modelled by the equation N2000 80t t
2
.
a) Write down the number of bacteria at time t 0.
b) Find an expression for
d
d
N
t
in terms of t.
c) Find the maximum number of bacteria in the colony during the 100 hour period.
3 Two quantities P and n are related by the equation P n
2
40n 450.
a) Find the value of P:
(i) when n 10 (ii) when n 25.
d
d
P
n
.
c) Find the minimum value of P, and the value of n for which it occurs.
4 A mathematician is investigating the quality of a particular type of wine as it ages. He notices that the
quality of the wine seems to improve for a few years, then decline. He suggests that the quality Q of the
wine at age t years can be modelled by the equation Q36 16t t
2
.
a) Work out the value of Q when:
(i) t 5 (ii) t 10
d
d
Q
t
.
c) Work out the maximum value of Q.
5 Two quantities Q and z are related by the equation Q(z 8)(12 z).
d
d
Q
z
.
b) Find the maximum value of Q, and the value of z for which it occurs.
6 A square card of side 8 cm has four small squares of
side x cm removed from the corners as shown opposite.
The card is folded along the dashed lines to make an open box of
volume V cm
3
.
a) Show that V x(8 2x)
2
.
b) Expand this expression for V, and hence find
d
d
V
x
.
c) Find the maximum volume of the box.
x cm
x cm
8 cm
8 cm
32.5 Further problems on maximum and minimum
581
7 The diagram shows a rectangular field ABCD.
The sides AB, BC and CD are to be enclosed using fencing. The side AD does not need to be fenced,
as there is an existing wall along this side. The total length of fencing to be used is 60 metres.
a) Find an expression for the length BC, in terms of x.
b) Show that the area A of the field is given by A x(60 2x).
c) Multiply out and simplify this expression. Use your result to find an expression for
d
d
A
x
.
d) Hence find the value of x for which the area of the field is a maximum.
e) State the dimensions of the field when the area is a maximum.
8 The demand M for electricity t hours after midnight is modelled by the equation M1200t
19 2
t
00
.
d
d
M
t
.
b) Find the minimum value of M, and the value of t for which it occurs.
32.6 Distance, velocity and acceleration
Suppose a particle is travelling in a straight line the x axis and that its
distance s from the origin at any time is given in terms of t.
For example, s t
3
5t
2
.
The velocity is the rate at which distance changes, in other words,
d
d
s
t
.
So, for this example, the velocity v of the particle is v
d
d
s
t
3t
2
10t.
Similarly, the acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes, in other
words,
d
d
v
t
.
So, for this example, the acceleration a of the particle is a
d
d
v
t
6t 10.
You might be asked to find the distance, velocity and acceleration of a particle
at a specified value of t. The method is to use differentiation first, then
substitute the given value of t into the appropriate formula at the end.
EXAMPLE
A particle travels such that its distance s metres from the origin at time
t seconds is given by the equation s t
3
10t
2
3t.
a) Find expressions for:
(i) the velocity
(ii) the acceleration of the particle at time t.
b) Find the velocity when t 3.
c) Find the acceleration when t 4.
B
A
x x
C
D
Wall
582
SOLUTION
a) (i) Velocity v
d
d
s
t
3t
2
20t 3
(ii) Acceleration a
d
d
v
t
6t 20
b) When t 3,
velocity v 3 9 20 3 3
27 60 3
84 ms
1
c) When t 4,
acceleration a 6 4 20
24 20
44 ms
2
EXERCISE32.6
1 A particle moves so that its distance s metres from the origin at time t seconds is given by
s t
3
6t
2
5t 1.
a) Find expressions for:
(i) the velocity (ii) the acceleration of the particle at time t.
b) Find the velocity when t 2.
c) Find the acceleration when t 3.
2 A particle moves so that its distance s metres from the origin at time t seconds is given by the equation
s t
3
16t 2.
a) Find an expression for the velocity v in terms of t.
b) Find the value of the velocity when t 3, stating your units clearly.
c) Find the value of the acceleration when t 4, stating your units clearly.
3 The dispacement s metres of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation s t
3
14t
2
.
a) Find the velocity of the particle after 3 seconds.
b) Find the acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds.
4 The displacement s metres of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation s t
2
8t 10.
b) At what time is the velocity equal to zero?
5 A stone is thrown from a cliff. Its distance s metres from the point of projection at time t seconds is given
by s 4.9t
2
2t.
a) Find the velocity when t 0.
b) Prove that the acceleration is constant, and state its value.
32.6 Distance, velocity and acceleration
583
REVIEW EXERCISE 32
1 The diagram shows part of the graph of a function y f(x).
a) Copy the graph. Draw a tangent to the curve at the point (3, 0).
b) Hence estimate the gradient of the curve at
the point (3, 0).
2 Differentiate x
3
5x
2
.
3 Find
d
d
y
x
if y x
2
8x 3.
4 Differentiate
x
9
3

3
4
x
2
2
5
x
.
5 Find
d
d
y
x
if y 4x
2
10x
1
x
.
6 Differentiate
2
x

x
1
2
.
7 Find an expression for the gradient of y
x
3
5x
2
1
0
4x 7
.
8 Find the gradient of y 5x
3
12x 3 at the point where x 2.
9 Expand and differentiate (x 3)(2x 5).
10 Find the gradient of y 8x
4
12x
3
7x at the point (1, 3).
11 Expand and differentiate (2x 3)(3x 1).
12 A curve has equation y x
2
10x 1.
d
d
y
x
.
b) Work out the x coordinate of the minimum point on this curve.
c) Work out the y coordinate of the minimum point on the curve.
2
10x 4.
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the value of x for which
d
d
y
x
0.
c) Obtain the coordinates of the turning point of the curve y x
2
10x 4.
14 A curve has equation y 5 4x x
2
.
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the coordinates of the turning point of the curve y 5 4x x
2
.
c) Say whether this turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
Give a reason for your answer.
2
2
4
2 4
y
x O
584
15 A curve has the equation y (x 3)(2x 5).
a) Expand the brackets, and hence find an expression for
d
d
y
x
.
b) Find the value of x for which
d
d
y
x
0.
c) When the graph of y (x 3)(2x 5) is plotted,
the result is a parabola.
Explain briefly whether the graph looks like
parabola A or parabola B.
16 Two quantities P and z are related by the equation P z
2
(z 6) .
d
d
P
z
.
b) Find the two values of z for which
d
d
P
z
0.
c) Find the two corresponding values of P.
17 Two quantities E and r are related by the equation E 3r
2
24r 50.
Find the minimum possible value of E.
18 The displacement s metres of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation s t
3
5t 3.
State the units of your answers clearly.
19 The displacement s metres of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation s 4t
2
4t 1.
b) At what time is the velocity equal to zero?
20 The velocity v metres per second of a particle at time t seconds is given by the equation
v 2t
2
12t 20.
a) Find the velocity of the particle at time 4 seconds.
c) Find the minimum value of the velocity, giving the time at which this occurs.
2
4x 1.
a) For this curve find:
(i)
d
d
y
x
(ii) the coordinates of the turning point.
b) State, with a reason, whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
c) Find the equation of the line of symmetry of the curve y x
2
4x 1. [Edexcel]
22 A body is moving in a straight line which passes through a fixed point O.
The displacement, s metres, of the body from O at time t seconds is given by
s t
3
4t
2
5t.
a) Find an expression for the velocity, v m/s, at time t seconds.
b) Find the acceleration after 2 seconds. [Edexcel]
Parabola A Parabola B
Review exercise 32
585
586
Key points
1 The gradient of a curve at a point may be estimated by drawing a tangent at that
point; this is a straight line that touches the curve. The gradient of the tangent
(rise run) is used as an estimate of the gradient of the curve.
2 If the equation of a curve is known, then the gradient may be found using
differentiation. After differentiating the equation, substitute the x coordinate of the
point into the result.
3 The general rule for differentiating powers of x is
y ax
n
differentiates to
d
d
y
x
anx
n1
Some examples:
4 Differentiation is useful for finding maximum and minimum values of graphs;
these are known as turning points, and occur when
d
d
y
x
0.
5 If the displacement s of a particle at time t is given algebraically, then
differentiation may be used to find the velocity v and the acceleration a:
v
d
d
s
t
and a
d
d
v
t
For example, if s t
3
6t
2
5t
then v
d
d
s
t
3t
2
12t 5
and a
d
d
v
t
6t 12
6 Differentiation is part of a branch of mathematics called calculus. It is a central idea
in the first year of an A-level or IB mathematics course.
y
d
d
y
x
4x
2
10x 8x 10
x
3
10x
2
25x 3 3x
2
20x 25
1
x

x
1
2
x
1
2

x
2
3
2x
3
5x
2
5
4x 1

6x
2
1
5
0x 4

Internet Challenge 32
587
Internet Challenge 32
Calculus crossword
The answers to this crossword are key words and people in basic calculus; you have met some of these in
this chapter, but you may need the internet to help with others. When you have completed the ten across
clues, the shaded squares will spell another name for the result of carrying out a differentiation.
1 The process of finding the gradient function.
2 Gottfried Wilhelm von _______, German mathematician and co-discoverer of calculus.
3 Reverse process of 1 across, often used to find areas or volumes.
4 Turning point at which a curve has its greatest value.
5 If the function y ax
2
bx c has a minimum value, then the value of a will be this kind of number.
6 This kind of quantity has a gradient function of zero.
7 A straight line that touches a curve without crossing it.
8 Turning point at which a curve has its least value.
9 The gradient function of distance, with respect to time.
10 English mathematician, co-discoverer of calculus along with 2 across.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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