18 Chapter18 333-351

Some of these shapes can be folded up to make a cube, others cannot.
Pick out the ones that will work as nets.

1 2
3 4
2-D and 3-D objects
In this chapter you will learn how to:
draw and construct 3-D objects
use coordinates in three dimensions
find areas and volumes of pyramids, cones and spheres
convert between systems of units.
You will also be challenged to:
investigate polyhedra.
Starter: Making cubes
CHAPTER 18
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5 6
7 8
9
18.1 Drawing and constructing 3-D objects
If you want to show a 3-D object as a drawing on paper, then you must
represent it using some kind of 2-D approach. There are several ways of doing
this. For example, a cuboid measuring 3 cm by 4 cm by 6 cm could be shown in
these ways:
Sketch of a cuboid
Chapter 18: 2-D and 3-D objects
334
6 cm
3 cm
4 cm
The sketch shows vertical and horizontal lines
and angles to scale, but the third dimension is
distorted to give the 3-D effect.
Isometric drawing of a cuboid
Plan and elevation of a cuboid
A plan is a birds-eye view, that is, a projection of the object to show how it looks
when viewed from a distance above. So the plan view of a cuboid is a rectangle.
You can make a similar projection from the front or side of the solid, to obtain a
front elevation or a side elevation.
335
6 cm
4 cm
3 cm
Here, all three dimensions of the cuboid
may be drawn to scale, but all the angles
are distorted to give the 3-D effect.
6 cm
Plan view
Look down from here
Side elevation
Look across from here
3 cm
4 cm
Front elevation
Look from here
3 cm
4 cm
Front elevation
3 cm
6 cm
Side elevation
Each projection shows all lengths and angles
to scale, but it is harder to visualise the object
in 3-D using this method. 4 cm
6 cm
Plan view
336
For a more complicated shape, there may be some edges running across the
projections (plan, front or side). Visible edges are shown as solid lines; invisible
edges (such as those round the back) are shown as dotted lines.
EXAMPLE
The isometric drawing shows
some cubes forming an L shape.
Draw:
a) a plan view as seen from A
b) a front elevation as seen
from B
c) a side elevation as seen
from C.
SOLUTION
a) From A, these two faces may be seen.
The plan view is of two rectangles.
b) From B, these two faces may be seen.
The front elevation is of two rectangles.
A
B
C
A
1
2
3
B
4
1
3
These numbers indicate the dimensions of
each side.
c) From C, a single L-shaped face may be seen.
The side elevation is the single face shown.
Nets
If you want to make a model of a 3-D object, you could draw its various faces
on a flat surface, or plane, then cut them out. A net is a drawing of this kind,
with each face connected to at least one other face, so the cut-out will fold up to
make the 3-D solid.
337
C
5
4
1
1
2
3
6 cm
4 cm
4 cm
6 cm
3 cm
3 cm
EXAMPLE
A pyramid has a square base whose sides are 6 cm long. The triangular faces
have sides 5 cm, 5 cm, 6 cm.
a) Draw a sketch of the pyramid.
b) Draw a plan view of the pyramid.
c) Draw a net for the pyramid.
SOLUTION
a) b)
c)
EXERCISE 18.1
1 A cuboid measures 3 cm by 4 cm by 7 cm.
a) Draw a sketch of the cuboid.
b) Make an isometric drawing of the cuboid.
c) Draw a net for the cuboid.
2 A pyramid is drawn on a rectangular base. The base is 6 cm by 8 cm.
The pyramid is 10 cm tall.
a) Draw a sketch of the pyramid.
b) Draw a plan view, a front elevation and a side elevation.
6 cm
5 cm
5 cm
5 cm 5 cm
6 cm
6 cm
6 cm
6 cm
6 cm
5 cm
5 cm
338
3 A triangular prism is 10 cm long. Its ends are equilateral triangles of side 4 cm.
a) Draw a sketch of the prism.
b) Draw an accurate net for the prism.
4 The diagram shows a sketch of a 3-D object. It is made from six cubes, each of side 1 cm.
a) Draw
(i) a side elevation to show the object as viewed along the direction of arrow A,
(ii) a front elevation as viewed along the direction of arrow B,
(iii) a plan view.
b) Draw an isometric representation to show how the object looks along the direction of arrow C.
5 Damini and Jonty have been building shapes with centimetre cubes on a square grid. The diagrams show
plan views of their shapes. The numbers 1, 2, 3 tell you how many cubes are stacked on top of each square.
a) Draw a front elevation to show how Daminis shape appears seen from direction A.
b) Make an isometric drawing of Jontys shape, viewed from direction B.
6 Here are three projections of a solid object.
a) Make a sketch of the solid object.
b) Make an isometric drawing of the solid object.
339
C
A
B
Damini
A
B
2 1
1 1
Jonty
3 2
1 1
1 cm
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
3 cm
4 cm
2 cm 1 cm
5 cm
Side elevation
Plan view
Front elevation
1 cm
1 cm
7 This is a practical question, requiring thin card and scissors.
A hexagonal prism is to be made. The prism is to be 10 cm long. Each end
is to be a regular hexagon of sides 8 cm.
a) Construct an accurate net for the prism.
b) Copy your net on to thin card, and add some tabs. Then cut it out and
assemble the prism.
c) Draw a sketch to show what the prism looks like in 3-D.
18.2 Coordinates in 3-D
Coordinates can be used to specify the position of a point in 3-D, in a similar
way to 2-D. You use x and y axes to mark out a horizontal grid, and a z axis to
specify height above the horizontal grid (or below, if negative).
EXAMPLE
The diagram shows a cuboid ABCOPQRS.
AB 5 units, BC 2 units, AP 8 units.
a) Write down the coordinates of B, C, P and Q.
b) M is the midpoint of BQ. State the coordinates of M.
SOLUTION
a) B is at (5, 2, 0).
C is at (5, 0, 0).
P is at (0, 2, 8).
Q is at (5, 2, 8).
b) M is midway between B (5, 2, 0) and Q (5, 2, 8).
Thus M is at (5, 2, 4).
As a general rule, you can find the coordinates of the midpoint of a line
segment by taking the average of the coordinates at each end:
The midpoint of the line segment joining (a, b, c) to (p, q, r) is:
a
2
p
,
b
2
q
,
c
2
r

340
S R
C
B
A
O
Q
M 8
2
5
P
y
z
x
EXERCISE 18.2
1 The diagram shows a cuboid OABCSRQP.
A has coordinates (7, 0, 0). P has coordinates (0, 6, 8).
a) Write down the coordinates of the points B, C, Q, R and S.
b) Point M is midway between O and Q. Find the coordinates of M.
c) Point N is midway between B and P. Find the coordinates of N.
2 The diagram shows a solid OABC.
PA and QC are parallel to the x axis, BC is parallel to the y axis, BA is parallel to the z axis.
OB 5 units, OQ4 units, OP 6 units.
a) Write down the coordinates of A, B and C.
M is the midpoint of BC, and N is the midpoint of AC.
b) Find the coordinates of M and N.
c) Use your answers to b) to explain how you can tell the line segment MN is horizontal.
d) What name best describes the solid OABC?
18.2 Coordinates in 3-D
341
S R
A
B
C
O
Q
8
6
7
P
y
z
x
P
A
B
C
Q
O
5
4
6
y
z
x
3 The diagram shows a building at a sports complex.
A is (50, 0, 0), P is (0, 10, 0), C is (0, 0, 80), with
all units in metres. Points U and V are 8 metres
higher than the plane formed by points P, Q, R
and S.
a) Write down the coordinates of R and S.
b) Find the coordinates of V.
A swimming pool is built centrally in the building.
The deepest point is at the centre of the pool.
The surface of the pool is at the same vertical level
as the plane formed by points O, A, B and C. The
pool is 2 metres deep.
c) Find the coordinates of the deepest point of
the pool.
4 Point A is at (5, 2, 4), B is at (7, 2, 0) and C is at (6, 0, 6).
M is the midpoint of line segment AB. N is the midpoint of line segment MC.
a) Work out the coordinates of the point M.
b) Work out the coordinates of the point N.
5 Here are the coordinates of six points:
P (4, 0, 2) Q (2, 0, 4) R (6, 1, 1) S (2, 0, 3) T (3, 0, 3) U (1, 1, 6)
a) Which of the points is the midpoint of the line segment PQ?
b) What can you say about the triangle QST?
18.3 Volume and surface area of pyramids, cones and
spheres
A pyramid has a base and an apex, or point. Rays drawn from the edge of the
base converge at the apex. Pyramids may have square or triangular bases, but
other polygons can be bases as well. A cone is like a pyramid with a circular
base.
342
C
S
B
R
A
Q P
U
V
O
y
z
x
Square-based pyramid
Apex
Triangular pyramid
tetrahedron
Cone
Base
A remarkable property of these shapes is that they fill exactly one-third of the
enveloping prism (or cylinder) that would just contain them:
Therefore, the volume of a pyramid is:
V
1
3
area of the base (perpendicular) height

In the case of a complex polygon, the area of the base is not always easy to
work out. For a cone of base radius r and height h, however, the base area will
be r
2
, so the volume of a cone is given by the formula:
V
1
3
r
2
h
EXAMPLE
Find the volume of these two shapes.
SOLUTION
For the pyramid:
area of base 4 4 16 cm
2
Therefore the volume V is:
V
1
3
area of base height
1
3
16 6
32 cm
3
18.3 Volume and surface area of pyramids, cones and spheres
343
Square-based pyramid Triangular pyramid
tetrahedron
Cone
5 cm 4 cm
6 cm
4 cm
7 cm
For the cone:
radius r 5 and height h 7
So the volume V is:
V
1
3
r
2
h
1
3
5
2
7
183.259 571 5
183 cm
3
(3 s.f.)
Remember to include
units with the answers,
e.g. mm
3
or cm
3
for
volumes and mm
2
or
cm
2
for areas.
To find the volume of a sphere, radius r, you may use this formula:
V
4
3
r
3
EXAMPLE
A spherical ball bearing has a diameter of 6 mm. Find its volume.
SOLUTION
Since d 6 we have r 3 mm, so the volume V is:
V
4
3
r
3
4
3
3
3
113.097 335 5
113 mm
3
(3 s.f.)
Finally, you may need to calculate the surface area of one of these shapes. For a
pyramid, there is no short cut: you simply find the area of each face and add
them up. For a cone or a sphere, these formulae may be used:
Surface area of a sphere (Curved) Surface area of a cone
A 4r
2
A rl
EXAMPLE
Find the total surface area of each of these shapes, giving your answers exactly
in terms of .
344
r r
r
h
l (slant height)
5 cm
10 cm
12 cm
a) b)
SOLUTION
a) For the sphere, r 5 cm, so:
A 4r
2
4 5
2
4 25
100 cm
2
b) For the cone, r 5 cm and h 12 cm, but the slant height h is needed.
By Pythagoras theorem:
l
2
r
2
h
2
25 144
169
l 13 cm
Then the curved surface area:
CSArl
5 13
65 cm
2
The circular base has area:
r
2
5
2
25 cm
2
Thus the total surface area is:
65 25 90 cm
2
EXERCISE 18.3
Find the volume and total surface area of each of these solids. Give your answers correct to 3 significant
figures.
1 2 3
10 cm
12 cm
8 cm
11 cm
9 cm
18.3 Volume and surface area of pyramids, cones and spheres
345
Find the volume and surface area of each of these solids, in terms of .
4 5 6
7 A pyramid has a square base of side 6 cm and a vertical height of 12 cm. Find its volume.
8 A square-based pyramid has a volume of 960 cm
3
. Its height is 45 cm. Find the dimensions of the base.
9 A sphere has surface area 900 cm
2
. Find its volume in terms of .
10 A cone of slant height 7 cm has curved surface area of 28 cm
2
. Find the area of its base in terms of .
18.4 Converting between units
Sometimes you may want to convert an area or a volume from one set of units
to another. This needs to be done carefully!
There are, for example, 10 millimetres in 1 centimetre, but there are not 10
square millimetres in 1 square centimetre. The diagram shows why:
Thus we have:
1 cm10 mm
1 cm
2
10 10 100 mm
2
1 cm
3
10 10 10 1000 mm
3
These results illustrate a general principle, that areas must be multiplied by the
square of the conversion factor, and volumes by its cube.
6 cm
4 cm
6 cm
12 cm
346
10 mm
1 cm
1 cm 10 mm
10 mm
1 cm
Area 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm
2
Area 10 mm 10 mm 100 mm
2
1 cm 10 mm
EXAMPLE
a) Convert 2 m
2
into cm
2
.
b) Convert 5000 cm
3
into m
3
.
SOLUTION
a) 2 m
2
2 100
2
cm
2
20 000 cm
2
b) 5000 cm
3
5000 100
3
m
3
5000 1 000 000 m
3
0.005 m
3
EXERCISE 18.4
1 Convert 2 m
3
into cm
3
.
2 Convert 5000 cm
2
into m
2
.
3 Convert 3 000 000 m
2
into km
2
.
4 Convert 660 mm
2
into cm
2
.
5 Convert 1 m
3
into mm
3
.
6 A sphere has a volume of 35 000 cm
3
. Express its volume in m
3
.
7 A cone has a surface area of 2.4 m
2
. Express its area in cm
2
.
For the next three questions, you may use the information that 1 litre 1000 cm
3
.
8 A bucket contains 20 litres of water.
a) Convert 20 litres into cm
3
.
b) Hence find the amount of water in the bucket in m
3
.
9 A water tank in the shape of a cuboid measures 1.4 m by 1.5 m by 2 m.
a) Find the volume of the tank, in m
3
.
b) Convert this answer into cm
3
.
c) How many litres of water can the tank hold?
10 A tank in the shape of a cube has a capacity of 512 litres.
a) Express this capacity in cm
3
.
b) Convert your answer to a) into m
3
.
c) Find the dimensions of the tank, in metres.
18.4 Converting between units
347
REVIEW EXERCISE 18
1 A cuboid measures 3 cm by 4 cm by 8 cm. Draw an accurate net for this cuboid.
2 The diagram shows a set of coordinate axes and
three points A, B, C.
OA4 units, OB 3 units, OC 6 units.
A cuboid is to be drawn with OA, OB and OC
as three of its sides.
a) Copy the grid, and complete a sketch of the cuboid.
b) Write down the coordinates of A, B and C.
c) M is the midpoint at the line segment BC.
Find the coordinates of M.
3 a) Convert 3500 mm
2
into cm
2
.
b) Convert 2.5 m
3
into cm
3
.
4 a) A sphere has radius 1.1 m. Calculate its volume, in m
3
. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
b) Convert your answer from a) into cm
3
.
c) Calculate the surface area of the sphere, in m
2
. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
d) Convert your answer from c) into cm
2
.
5 A cone has a volume of 10 m
3
. The vertical height of the cone is 1.5 m.
Calculate the radius of the base of the cone. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [Edexcel]
6 Here are the plan and front elevation of a prism. The front elevation shows the cross-section of the prism.
a) On squared paper, draw a side elevation of the prism.
b) Draw a 3-D sketch of the prism. [Edexcel]
348
A
O
C
B
y
z
x
Plan
Front elevation
Review exercise 18
349
7 The diagram shows a water tank. The tank is a hollow cylinder joined to a hollow hemisphere at the top.
The tank has a circular base.
Both the cylinder and the hemisphere have a diameter of 46 cm. The height of the tank is 90 cm.
Work out the volume of water which the tank holds when it is full. Give your answer, in cm
3
,
correct to 3 significant figures. [Edexcel]
8 A sphere has a radius of 5.4 cm. A cone has a height of 8 cm. The volume of the sphere is equal
to the volume of the cone. Calculate the radius of the base of the cone. Give your answer,
in centimetres, correct to 2 significant figures. [Edexcel]
9 A cone fits exactly on top of a hemisphere to form a solid toy.
The radius, CA, of the base of the cone is 3 cm. AB 5 cm.
Show that the total surface area of the toy is 33 cm
2
.
[Edexcel]
10
The radius of a sphere is 3 cm. The radius of the base of a cone is also 3 cm. The volume of the
sphere is three times the volume of the cone.
Work out the curved surface area of the cone. Give your answer as a multiple of . [Edexcel]
3 cm
Diagram not
accurately drawn
3 cm
46 cm
90 cm
Diagram not
accurately drawn
3 cm
C
A
B
5 cm
Diagram not
accurately drawn
350
Key points
1 3-D objects may be portrayed using sketches, isometric drawings and
plan/elevation views. They can also be represented using a 3-D coordinate system.
2 The midpoint of the line segment joining (a, b, c) to (p, q, r) is:
a
2
p
,
b
2
q
,
c
2
r
3 Volumes and surface areas of pyramids, cones and spheres may be found using
these formulae:
Volume of a pyramid: V
1
3
area of the base

(perpendicular) height
Volume of a cone, radius r, height h: V
1
3
r
2
h
Volume of a sphere, radius r: V
4
3
r
3
Surface area of a sphere, radius r: A 4r
2
Curved surface area of a cone, radius r, slant height l: A rl
4 When converting between different units of area, remember to square the ordinary
linear conversion factor. For example, 100 cm1 m, but 10000 cm
2
1 m
2
In a similar way, for volumes the factor must be cubed: 1 000 000 cm
3
1 m
3
Internet Challenge 18
351
Internet Challenge 18
Investigating polyhedra
Polyhedra are 3-D mathematical shapes made up of a number of 2-D plane faces. Many polyhedra exhibit
geometrical symmetries of various kinds. The tetrahedron and the cube are simple examples, but many more
exotic polyhedra exist. Constructing models of them can be quite challenging!
Use an internet search engine, such as Google, to look for information about Platonic solids. Then answer
these questions:
1 How many Platonic solids are known? Are we ever likely to find any more?
2 Why are they called Platonic solids?
3 Design nets for each of the Platonic solids, and trace them on to thin card. Then cut them out, and make
some models for your classroom. Remember to include tabs in suitable places.
Modern footballs are assembled from a net of pentagons and hexagons.
4 Find out how this net is made.
5 Is such a football an example of a Platonic solid?
The diagram shows a stellated octahedron. It is based on an octahedral core, though it also happens to look
like two interlocking tetrahedra.
6 Design a net for, and hence build, a model of a stellated octahedron.
7 Use the internet to find examples of other stellated polyhedra.
8 How many different fully symmetric stellations of an icosahedron are known?
9 Find images of Eschers prints Double Planet and Gravity. On which polyhedra are they based?
10 Use the internet to find out about fractal polyhedra. You should be able to find some animated models;
add the best ones to your computers bookmarks.

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18 Chapter18 333-351

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Some of these shapes can be folded up to make a cube, others cannot.

Pick out the ones that will work as nets.

Chapter 18: 2-D and 3-D objects

area of the base (perpendicular) height

area of base height

area of the base

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