The Center For Stabilization and Reconstruction Studies

agriculture:
Promoting Livelihoods in Conflict-Affected Environments

Naval Postgraduate School

Monterey, California

Agriculture:

Promoting Livelihoods in
Conflict-Affected Environments
Jan 31 Feb 3, 2011
Table of Contents
Overview........................................................1
The Challenge of
Agricultural Development.........................3

ABOUT THIS EVENT

From January 31st to February 3rd,
2011, the Center for Stabilization and
Reconstruction Studies held an interactive

Focus on Land Tenure ..........................6

The Sequence of
Agricultural Development.................8
The Military Role in
Agriculture Development...........13
Infrastructure & Education.....14
Economic Multipliers..........16
Summary & Closing.........20

workshop, Agriculture: Promoting Livelihoods

in Conflict-Affected Environments, in Monterey,
California, that convened 45 experienced
agricultural practitioners to discuss strategies for
rebuilding broken agriculture sectors in post-conflict
societies, sharing best practices and lessons learned.
The workshop, which was designed by Dr. John
Mellor, Dr. Sophal Ear, and Mrs. Graseilah Coolidge,
provided participants with the opportunity to learn
from practitioners who had been involved in agricultural
redevelopment initiatives in such countries as Afghanistan,
Sudan, Timor-Leste, India, and Ethiopia, among others.

Overview
In societies emerging from conflict, agricultural development is a crucial
aspect of the reconstruction and stabilization process. Without a thriving
agricultural sector, most conflict-affected countries will be unable to achieve
the economic prosperity that is essential to genuine and long-lasting
stability. And yet, in spite of its importance, agriculture is often neglected
or misunderstood by the actors responsible for coordinating stabilization
and reconstruction efforts. Many actors have little direct experience with
agricultural production or policy. Others face difficult choices about how to

csrs
The Center for Stabilization and Reconstruction Studies (CSRS) is a teaching institute, which develops and conducts
educational programs for stabilization and reconstruction practitioners, including representatives from US and international

Course Objectives:

allocate their scarce resources in order to achieve the greatest impact on

agricultural growth. Some actors find themselves working in close quarters
with many other actors, unsure about how to best coordinate their efforts in

1. Develop a deeper knowledge

of the variables influencing
agriculture and its governance,
and the role of agricultural
development in establishing
political stability.

a hectic post-conflict environment.

nongovernmental organizations, intergovernmental organizations, government civilian agencies, and the armed forces.

To provide these stabilization and reconstruction practitioners with a chance

Established by the Naval Postgraduate School in 2004 through the vision and support of Representative Sam Farr (CA-17),

to share perspectives and find common ground, the Center for Stabilization

CSRS creates a wide array of programs to foster dialogue among practitioners, as well as to help them develop new strategies

and Reconstruction Studies (CSRS) of the Naval Postgraduate School

and refine best practices to improve the effectiveness of their important global work.

hosted the four day workshop, Agriculture: Promoting Livelihoods in

Conflict-Affected Environments. Facilitated by Dr. Sophal Ear and Dr. John

Located at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, CSRS also contributes to the universitys research and

Mellor and coordinated by Graseilah Coolidge of the CSRS, the workshop

graduate degree programs. For more information about CSRS, its philosophy, and programs, please visit www.csrs-nps.org.

brought together stabilization and reconstruction practitioners from a wide

variety of backgrounds, including government civilian agencies, active
military personnel, non-governmental organizations, inter-governmental

2. Explore a range of institutional

approaches for rebuilding
livelihoods and promoting
agricultural recovery.
3. Gain familiarity with grassroots
practices for designing
livelihood and agricultural
programs.

organizations, academia, think tanks, and private industry. From January 31st
to February 3rd, participants were given a unique opportunity to hear from
Workshop coordination by Graseilah Coolidge. Workshop design and facilitation by Dr. John W. Mellor and Sophal Ear. Writing and editing by Hal Hansen. Cover Design

some of the worlds leading experts on a range of agricultural topics. Just as

by Jesse Darling. Report Layout and graphics by Braden Coolidge. Photography by Nico Michael Mavris. Copyright 2011 Center for Stabilization and Reconstruction

importantly, it was also a chance for participants to hear from one anothera

Studies. All rights reserved. The opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied herein are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the

chance to listen to one anothers concerns and forge relationships which

views of the Naval Postgraduate School, the US Navy, US Defense Department, or any other agency or organization.

practitioners might not be able to forge while working in the field.

4. Enhance understanding of
and exposure to professional
networks among the
communities involved in
agricultural programs.

Overview: continued

Many of the countries that we call post-conflict are actually still in conflict.
Military Participant

Workshop Facilitators

The Challenge of Agricultural Development

DR. JOHN W. MELLOR is currently President of John Mellor Associates,

Sustainability

call post-conflict are actually still in conflict. Even with the signing

Inc, a policy consulting firm. Prior to that he was Vice-President of Abt

On the first evening of the workshop, lead facilitator Dr. Sophal

of peace treaties, sporadic violence often continues for years.

Associates, Director of the International Food Policy Research Institute, and

Ear asked participants to take a couple of minutes to write two

Chief Economist of the United States Agency for International Development

words that describe the vexing question that you would like to

This lingering need for security often leads to tension between

work towards answering this week.

military and civilian actors. Although the military is often involved

(USAID). At Cornell University he was Professor of Economics, Agricultural

Economics and Asian Studies, Director of the Comparative Economics
Program and the Center for International Studies. He was the recipient of

in reconstruction and stabilization efforts, they are often more

One participant, a member of the Texas Air National Guard

focused on short-term projects designed to win hearts and

working in Afghanistan, chose the words, Self sustaining. A

minds rather than long-term projects designed to have the largest

the Wihuri Prize (Finland) and the Presidential Award (The White House,

participant working with the Organization of American States in

aggregate impact. This need to reconcile the security objectives of

USA) for efforts to alleviate hunger in the world and is an elected Fellow

Colombia said, Sustainable comeback. Another participant

military actors with the development objectives of civilian actors

of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association

said, Sustainable livelihood.

was a frequent topic of discussion at the workshop.

This emphasis on sustainability was echoed by many other

Weve heard it talked about, said Howard Schauer, a National

participants asking variations of the same classic question: How

Guardsman who has worked in Afghanistan as a coordinator of

do I work myself out of a job? As Dr. Ear pointed out, The

Agricultural Development Teams (ADT). Its all about relationships.

word which you were hearing the most was sustainability. How

You have to check your ego at the door. ADT came about

do things work on their own without requiring perpetual donor

because there was a niche to be filled, and we filled it. Are we

assistance?

doing development work? Yes, but sometimes in a non-aggregate

for the Advancement of Science, and the American Agricultural Economics

Association. He is the recipient of numerous awards for the quality of his
research, the author and coauthor of nine books, and hundreds of journal
articles and conference papers.

DR. SOPHAL EAR is an Assistant Professor of National Security Affairs at

manner.
For many conflict-affected countries, this question is particularly

the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey, California, where he

crucial because stability isnt possible without a general economic

GATHERING INFORMATION

teaches courses on Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Research Methods, and

recovery, and agriculture frequently accounts for more than half of

After the establishment of security, the next obstacle to agricultural

Southeast Asia. Prior to joining NPS, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the

a countrys gross domestic product and as much as 70-90% of its

development is often a lack of information. In the chaos of war,

employment. For these countries, the pathway to stabilization and

records and maps are often lost or destroyed. Local leaders and

reconstruction can only run through agriculture. Unfortunately, for

scholars often leave the country. Central governments in capital

countries emerging from years and even decades of bitter and

cities have often lost track of whats happening in isolated rural

ruinous conflict, its a path which is often littered with obstacles.

areas. In this context of confusion and uncertainty, sometimes the

Maxwell School of Syracuse University. He has consulted for the World Bank,
the Asian Development Bank, and was an Assistant Resident Representative
for the United Nations Development Programme Timor-Leste in 2002-2003.

first and most important step is to stop and gather information.

A graduate of UC Berkeley (B.A., M.S., M.A., Ph.D.) and Princeton University

(M.P.A), he moved to the United States from France as a Cambodian refugee
at the age of 10. He is the author of numerous publications, including several
refereed articles on foreign aid and Cambodia all of which are available at:
http://faculty.nps.edu/sear.

SECURITY
Initially, the most important obstacle is often security. It isnt

With a very modest expenditure of time, you can gather a lot of

uncommon for practitioners to find themselves attempting to

facts about the context of your field operation, Dr. Mellor said.

restore agricultural productivity in a region where the disarmament,

Most of the people who make decisions in the government often

demobilization, and reintegration process is closer to its beginning

dont know anything about agriculture and you need to show

point than its ending point. As one participant with military

them the facts.

experience in Afghansistan said, Many of the countries that we

The Challenge of Agricultural Development: continued

During one workshop session, Dr. Ear asked participants, Generally, are
donors sufficiently focused on agriculture? The results were as follows:

Strongly agree: 0%
Agree: 8%
Neutral: 33%
Disagree: 44%
Strongly disagree: 14%
Following the vote, Dr. Ear asked participants, Why isnt there sufficient
focus on agriculture? One participant said: [Agriculture] isnt sexy and
This participant is using a hand-held electronic

theres a lack of patience. People want immediate impact.

transmitter to answer a survey question about

agricultural development. Data from the transmitters

Another participant pointed out that some Western donors dont want to

was sent wirelessly to a computer, where it was

contribute to farmers because their contributors often think, Farmers are

instantaneously developed into a chart and projected

Without collecting the relevant facts, it can be difficult for

Just as every conflict is unique, every agricultural region is also

reconstruction and stabilization actors to tailor their responses

unique, with its own particular combination of soil, weather, and

to the highly specific context theyre working in. There are no

history. Taking the time to gather data allows for practitioners to

cookie cutter responses, one participant said. Every conflict is

make better decisions about long-range strategic planning. In the

unique, and the response needs to be unique.

aftermath of conflict, practitioners often place much emphasis on

deficits of physical material, especially the lack of basic agricultural

One important new tool that can help practitioners tailor their

inputs like seed, feed, and fertilizer. Though these inputs are

responses was discussed by Sarah Olmstead of the Office of

vital to recovery and practitioners can often play a crucial role in

the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization. In her

providing them, the most profound deficit following a conflict is

presentation, GIS for Agriculture in Conflict-Affected Societies,

frequently a cognitive one: the lack of a clear vision and strategy

Olmstead

Geographic

for agricultural development. Whether practitioners can remedy

Information Systems (GIS), a spatial mapping system that can

this deficit often determines the difference between success and

show a broad range of information patterns, including the extent

failure.

demonstrated

the

advantages

of

of irrigation, paved and unpaved roads, permanent and nonpermanent cultivation, landmine distribution, food insecurity, and

Of all the post-conflict countries Ive looked at, I think Ethiopia

rainfall across time.

has done the best, Dr. Mellor said. And theres a particular
distinguishing feature of Ethiopia. The prime minister has a very

GIS can be very useful as a planning tool, Olmstead said.

clear vision of where he wants the country to be in 20 years, and

Because it can utilize imagery and data collected from space or

a strategy for getting there.

from airborne camera and sensor platforms, GIS is especially useful

in conflict-affected areas. In places that might be difficult to get
to or where its difficult to take a survey, GIS is an alternative.

The Challenge of Agricultural Development: continued

onto a screen so that participants could see how

evil. Theyre destroying the environment. But if you show a picture of a child

other practitioners view a range of topics.

and ask for health and welfare funding, everybody will contribute to that.

[Agriculture] isnt sexy and theres a lack of patience.

People want immediate impact.
Participant

Focus on Land Tenure: continued

Foreigners should be very careful meddling in land ownership.

Its very complicated and requires a lot of local knowledge.
You cant sit in Washington and make these decisions.
Dr. John Mellor, Facilitator

Focus on Land Tenure

Working together, participants identified some of the key barriers

In addition to these suggestions, two members of the group

Like many other participants commenting on land tenure issues, Joireman emphasized the importance of property rights as a pre-

to the stabilization of land tenure:

were also featured presenters at the workshop. Representing

condition of agricultural development while also emphasizing the need for caution and delicacy.

the UNDP-UNEP Joint Initiative, Ms. Adrienne Stork (third from

Illiteracy and lack of written records

right in adjacent photo) discussed a case study from Uganda in

As one participant noted, In Rwanda, what they did with property rights was seen as very political, and it probably caused more

Contending systems of land title documentation

which some of the problems relating to land tenure have been

tensions than it alleviated. It shows the potential double-edged sword of land tenure.

Womens pastoral and seasonal ownership rights

partially avoided by supporting successful reintegration through

Displacements followed by waves of returning refugees

employment and training on communal farms.

Land grabbing by both government and private sector

Lack of an agreed upon map on which to base land titles

Lead presenter Dr. John Mellor issued a similar caveat. In the process of titling, you might get exploitation. You have to be careful,
he said. Foreigners should be very careful meddling in land ownership. Its very complicated and requires a lot of local knowledge.

In her presentation, Property Rights and Agriculture in Post

You cant sit in Washington and make these decisions.

Conflict Settings, Professor Sandra Joireman of Wheaton

Some solutions proposed by the group included:

College (second from left in adjacent photo) urged participants

to be flexible in their definition of authority. For property rights

1. Activation of the court system. The courts are often mired

to be restored, there must be some kind of authority exerted over

In a break-out session, these participants are focusing on the problem of land tenure and property rights. As many participants pointed out, its difficult to stimulate agricultural

down and unresponsive, but many property cases will need to

the territory being resettled, but if practitioners wait for the central

growth without first establishing ownership of land, but the process of sorting out land tenure can be complex, divisive, and time consuming.

be adjudicated. The courts must take the initiative to act swiftly

government to establish this authority, they might be waiting for

and efficiently so that land tenure can be established and the

years. Sometimes, the authority of NGOs or of customary leaders

agricultural economy can begin its recovery.

in the community is a sufficient basis for interim recognition of

tenure until the central government has re-established itself in the

2. Recognition of womens seasonal and pastoral rights. Women

region.

often take the lead in pastoral agriculture, but their access to

grazing land is often jeopardized by a general lack of womens

Joireman also stressed the importance of developing human

rights in many developing societies and the complexity of pastoral

resources and strengthening institutional capacity to efficiently

land tenure.

resolve conflicts. Investing in conflict resolution systems is a

good response, Joireman said. Training mediators, working

3. Strengthening property rights. As one participant said, Without

with traditional leaders or the formal judicial system enables

adequate property rights, theres no incentive to invest in land.

communities to deal with conflicts over land.

The Sequence of Agricultural Development: continued

The Sequence of Agricultural Development

As practitioners go about the process of developing a strategic

that wont be possible without increasing productivity, and the

Although much agricultural research is already on the books in

In conflict-affected areas, extension agents are especially

vision, Dr. Mellor encouraged them to conceive of agricultural

key to increased productivity is substantial public investment

many of the worlds affluent, fully developed nations, most of

important because conflict often has the effect of disrupting the

development as a sequence. The first steps in this sequence

in applied agricultural research, well-trained extension agents

this research is tailored to the developed nations that funded it.

practical training of farmers. A large proportion of farmers will

are the establishment of security and the rule of law, usually

who can extend this research out into the countryside, and a

As Dr. Mellor points out, without a locally established research

not be very skilled, Dr. Mellor said. The standard of husbandry

followed by the distribution of food and medical relief and

customized, public-sector agricultural credit program that allows

operation, the research cant be imported and then converted to

is often very low In this context, investment in research and

the provision of basic agricultural inputs to farmers. Other

farmers to implement the advice of the extension agents.

local conditions. In this sense, developing countries can benefit

extension pays off very handsomely.

foundational steps might include the de-mining of agricultural

greatly from existing innovations in agricultural research, but only

land and the clarification of land tenure. Though these initial

RESEARCH

actions provide the necessary foundation for development,

Amidst the turbulent atmosphere of post-conflict triage, its

they do not automatically set into motion the other steps in the

perhaps not surprising that agricultural research is often

EXTENSION

service. He pointed to data showing that the rate of return on

sequence of development.

neglected. For government ministers trying desperately to

Once a local research infrastructure has been established,

agricultural research (40%) is higher than the rate of return on

establish law and order and meet the basic material needs of

the next question is: How does research get moved from the

agricultural extension (20%), but noted that research isnt done

According to Dr. Mellor, to activate the other steps in the

their citizens, agricultural research can seem like a luxury. And

university out into the countryside?

where people can see it. Because governments are often more

sequence, practitioners should organize their efforts around the

yet, without a locally established research infrastructure, it will

implementation of a comprehensive agricultural policy based upon

be difficult for developing economies to achieve the dramatic

Answering this question, one participant said, Once you have

results, the extension service is often over-funded and research

three key elements: research, extension, and credit. If targeted

increases in productivity that are needed to increase net farm

the applied research and technology, the extension service is the

is often under-funded.

to the needs of small commercial farmers, these three elements

income. In the United States and other developed countries,

key to operationalizing that research and technology. Without

can lead to rapid gains in agricultural productivity, and these

central governments have made substantial investments in

a nationwide corps of well-trained and experienced extension

In the United States, Dr. Mellor said, we spend about twice

productivity gains will trigger rapid economic development.

agricultural research, and the link between applied research

agents, its unlikely that the research innovations discovered in

as much on agricultural research as we do on extension, a ratio

and increased productivity is well established and understood.

universities will be implemented by farmers in the countryside.

which is about right. Most developing countries spend three

Why does agriculture matter? asked Dr. Mellor. Because thats

Governments continue to make these investments for a simple

In the United States, there is a long history of investing heavily

times as much on extension as on research. Why is that? If the

where you start. In most conflict-affected countries, agriculture

reason: they know from over a century of experience that

in extension agents who are expected to serve as the primary

government is sending people out into the field, they get credit

is the dominant economic activity, which means that overall

agricultural research is one of the most prudent investments a

conduit between researchers at land grant universities and

for that.

economic growth and development are unlikely to occur without

government can make.

farmers in the field.

substantial growth in the agricultural sector. But this is growth

if they have invested in research programs of their own.

Mellor also encouraged practitioners to be attuned to the complex

political situation that often surrounds funding for the extension

likely to favor programs that produce high-profile, conspicuous

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The Sequence of Agricultural Development: continued

CREDIT

have little interest in making agricultural loans. Overwhelmingly

The third crucial element of an effective agricultural development

in all the surveysfarmers want a convenient place to go to get

policy is credit. I dont know of any country that has a strongly

a loan, Dr. Mellor said. You need lots and lots of branches. The

developed commercial farm sector without government involved

big commercial banks dont like to set up branches in the middle

in credit, Dr. Mellor said. In the US, the government has been

of nowhere.

very involved in farm credit.

As with research, this extension service needs to be local. As

the special value of extension services in conflict-affected

one participant said, You cant do extension out of country.

countries. Many of the farmers in Afghanistan werent even

For an extension service to be successful, it needs to consist

born in Afghanistan, he said. They were born in Pakistan.

primarily of well-trained locals who intend to stay in the extension

This means they often lack training in even the most basic of

service long enough to acquire an advanced understanding of

farming procedures such as crop rotation and the incorporation

local agricultural conditions. In many countries with successful

of organic matter into the soil. Really, extension is the only way,

extension services, its not uncommon for extension agents to

he concluded.

have multi-decade careers.

In a break-out session of the workshop, one group of participants
One practitioner who had worked in Afghanistan was able to

focused on the question, What role should non governmental

share his first-hand knowledge of what happens when farmers

organizations (NGOs) play in agricultural extension programs?

dont have access to extension agents. Because of the lack of

extension, a lot of farmers get their advice at the bazaar, which

Following their discussion, the group shared several of their

leads to over fertilization, said Dr. Richard Byrne, a lecturer at

suggestions with the rest of the workshop. First, the group

the Centre for Rural Security at Harper Adams University College.

suggested, NGOs might be able to provide aid for initial inputs

People are trapped in this idea of: the more fertilizer you put on,

into extension services. The group also suggested that NGOs

the bigger your yield.

might fill in gaps in the extension service, and might work to

hold local governments accountable for promised infrastructure

In his presentation to the workshop, Dr. Byrne also underscored

projects that would be most useful to extension services.

Even in countries with a well-established private banking sector,

In many ways, agricultural credit is a highly specialized field.

there is often a specialized sector for agricultural finance, and

Making agricultural loans is different from other loans, Dr.

this specialized sector is often supported in part or in whole by

Mellor said. Agricultural loans typically have a different repayment

the government. Frequently, this public investment in agricultural

period, a different risk load, and are often very small, management

finance institutions is due to the fact that many commercial banks

intensive loans requiring specialized expertise in agriculture.

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13

The Sequence of Agricultural Development: continued

The Military Role in Agriculture Development

I dont know of any country that has a strongly developed commercial

farm sector without government involved in credit.
Dr. John Mellor, Facilitator

Although there are many micro-credit operations in the developing world, including in many conflict-affected areas, these operations
are not generally customized to the needs of small commercial farmers. Most of these operations target small entrepreneurs who are
able to pay back very high interest rates that small farmers wouldnt be able to afford.
Once a public sector agricultural finance program has been established, Dr. Mellor cautioned participants to be aware of certain
problems that might occur. One of these problems is excessively rapid expansion of the program. We have huge experience about
how to make these programs successful, Dr. Mellor said. Theres a lot of negativism on agricultural credit in part because it was so
important that governments expanded it very rapidly. McDonalds knows that if they expand too quickly, the quality of management is
going to go down. When credit programs expand at 20% a year, the management goes down in that process. As a result, repayment
lags.
Dr. Mellor said another potential problem is a failure to insulate agricultural credit programs from political interference. If politicians
are allowed to politicize the credit process by promising to forgive or reduce loans to farmers, its often hard to preserve the financial
integrity of the program.

In the above photos, Dr. John Mellor and Lt. Colonel Howard Schauer discuss stabilization and reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan. Schauer has worked in Afghanistan with
US Army Agricultural Development Teams. ADTs are small, ad hoc units that focus on specific stabilization and reconstruction projects. Many of the soldiers in ADTs have skill
sets relevant to agricultural development. We want to work ourselves out of a job, Schauer said. We want to go from military-led to Afghan-led.

During a workshop break-out session, one group of participants focused on the question, How can foreign military forces assist in
agricultural growth?
One participant said, First and foremost is security. If you dont have security, everything were trying to do is difficult if not impossible.
But after the fighting stops, the military can provide a sense of confidence, a belief in the value of investing long-term in the land.
Security is a huge psychological component.
During the workshop, participants frequently discussed coordination between military and civilian actors. One participant who had
served in the military in Afghanistan asked Dr. Mellor how the military can best assist in agricultural development.
What you need to do is talk to the local people and find out what you can do, and thats going to be a lot of small things that dont
mean much on the national level, and what you need to do is link those local things with bigger national things, Dr. Mellor said. Often
times, what the locals want is education, roads, and credit. They wont talk about research and extension because most of them wont
remember it.

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Infrastructure and Education: continued

The thing about building roads is that theres a short term benefit and a long term
benefit. A farmer who isnt planting right now can work on the road project. It can even
bring insurgents down from the mountainstheyll pick up a spade and work on the road.
Bruce Tolentino of The Asia Foundation.

Infrastructure and Education

Research, extension, credit these are the three most important

up a spade and work on the road. Tolentino also emphasized

One advantage of education is that farmers with even a minimal education are better able to understand the information distributed

things, but theres no reason all the money available to the

that the agricultural usefulness of roads will be increased if the

by extension agents. Scientific farming is a complex and technical business, and literacy and formal education can play a role in

government should be focused on these three things, Dr. Mellor

governments agricultural ministry is allowed to exert influence on

increasing productivity. As one participant who had worked in Afghanistan said, Everyone thinks agriculture is easy and anyone can

said. Just make sure these things are done well, then you can

where the roads are built.

do agriculture. But agriculture is actually really complex.

start talking about doing other things.

Other infrastructural improvements mentioned by participants

Another advantage of education is that once agricultural productivity starts to increase, and the rural economy begins to grow at a

On many occasions, workshop participants were asked to discuss

included irrigation, phone service, construction of ports, well-

rate of 8-10%, educated children from rural areas can find better employment opportunities by migrating to market towns and cities.

what some of these other things might be. Over the course of

digging, de-mining of farm land, and electricity. Probably

Without an education, this migration process is much more difficult and much less financially rewarding for the migrants.

the workshop, participants frequently identified two other key

the single largest issue we have is reliable, affordable power,

priorities: physical infrastructure and education.

said lieutenant colonel Howard Schauer, who has worked in

Afghanistan with US Army Agricultural Development Teams. Its

In terms of its effect on agricultural development, perhaps the

truly amazing what a little bit of electricity in a village will do for

most important improvement in physical infrastructure is road

stability. A little bit of security and you sprinkle it with governance

construction. When asked to identify what infrastructural request

and development, it goes a long way.

he hears the most, one participant said, Roads, roads, roads.

In spite of the importance of physical improvements like roads
To be of maximal use to farmers, roads should be all-weather

and electricity, perhaps the most important infrastructural

roads, and they should be inter-connected so that tertiary and

development should be inside the human mind. Unless rural

secondary all-weather roads eventually link up with an all-weather

citizens are given access to education and training, the pace

trunk road. For many farmers, access to roads often makes the

of development might be slowed considerably. In this sense,

difference between success and failure.

education is generally important in all developing countries. But

in conflict-affected areas, it is often doubly important. Because

In his presentation, What Ive Learned, Bruce Tolentino of the

they often have the resources to do so, well educated citizens are

Asia Foundation said, The thing about building roads is that

often the first refugees to leave a country during wartime. Their

theres a short term benefit and a long term benefit. A farmer

departure creates an educational deficit which is often intensified

who isnt planting right now can work on the road project. It can

by the tendency of many repressive regimes to target educated

even bring insurgents down from the mountainstheyll pick

citizens for political reasons.

These participants are discussing ways that practitioners can work together to improve agricultural infrastructure and achieve better market access for farmers.

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Economic Multipliers

In the short run, Dr. Mellor said, you have to come in with massive employment

Once research, extension, credit, infrastructure, and education

standards of the developed world but who are often not poor

have been established, what often ensues is a dramatic increase

by the standards of their own communities. This group of

in agricultural productivity. When productivity starts to rise, small

commercial farmers often constitutes 40% of the rural population

commercial farmers start earning more money, and they generally

but they often own more than 80% of the land. Once this group

spend this money locally. In contrast to a trickle-down effect,

starts achieving productivity gains, they often spend half of their

Dr. Mellor describes this spending as a flow-down effect

incremental income on the goods and services sold by rural non-

throughout the rural economy.

farmers. The key word in this situation is multipliers when

One example of a non-tradable commodity is transportation.

of extreme unemployment amongst the rural non-farm poor during

the small commercial farmers are thriving, their money begins to

When small commercial farmers are thriving, they often spend

the immediate aftermath of a conflict. In the short run, Dr. Mellor

multiply in the local economy.

their money on local bus service. When more people ride the

said, you have to come in with massive employment programs

To understand how this flow-down effect works, its important

programs before the multipliers from commercial farm development can take effect.
In the long run, agricultural growth will produce those multipliers.
Dr. John Mellor, Facilitator

bus, Dr. Mellor said, there are jobs for bus drivers, but also for

before the multipliers from commercial farm development can

affected countries. Usually, theres a large group of 40-50% of

Frequently, the rural non-poor derive most of their income from

local machinists who fix the bus when it breaks. Other examples

take effect. In the long run, agricultural growth will produce those

the rural population who are very poor but who only own about

non-tradable goods and services. These goods and services

include carpentry, ditch digging, road building, and roadside food

multipliers.

10% of the land. Most of this population is involved in agricultural

are things that cant be transported great distances and often

stands.

production, but at a subsistence level. Even with research,

have limited competition from global markets. Most of these

extension, and credit, its unlikely that this group will account for

goods and services are local in nature and are responsive to local

Sometimes, theres a lag of several years between the prospering

programs should focus on infrastructure projects such as roads

substantial increases in productivity.

demand. If youre concerned with poverty, Dr. Mellor said, you

of the commercial farmers and the multiplier effect reaching

and electricity that are integrated into a comprehensive plan for

have to be concerned with the rural non-farm sector, and that

the rural non-farm population. This lag time can be especially

agricultural development. Practitioners can play a positive role by

To achieve increases in productivity, the focus needs to be on

sector produces non-tradable commodities, and the best way to

difficult in conflict-affected areas because conflict tends to cause

helping to coordinate and provide inputs for these projects.

small commercial farmersfarmers who may be poor by the

grow that sector is to focus on the non-poor farmers.

commercial farmers to stop producing, which creates a situation

to understand the structure of the rural economy in most conflict-

To produce the greatest aggregate impact, these employment

18

19

Economic Multipliers: continued

Sequence of Agricultural Development

Flow Chart

Farm Organizations
During a workshop session, Dr. Ear asked participants to identify

the farmers in organizing a group that would work to improve

what farmers might need following a conflict. After hearing their

irrigation access.

list of physical and governance needs like roads and the rule of

Foundations

Policy

Security
Land Tenure
Relief

Research
Extension
Credit

law, Dr. Ear urged practitioners not to forget that many people

One way for practitioners to maximize the aggregate impact

in conflict-affected countries are also desperately in need

of their involvement with producer organizations is to link the

of trust. Social capital has been destroyed in post conflict

goals of these organizations with a comprehensive agricultural

situations. The trust people have in one another is destroyed.

policy based upon increased productivity. In many cases, this

Why is trust important? If they dont trust each other, they cant

is easy to do because the producers themselves are often

work together.

already focused on productivity. The primary concern is

production, Fisher said. Farmers want to improve the quality

In her presentation, Strengthening Producer Organizations

of their product, or they want to improve yields. Its the fastest

in Conflict-Affected Environments, Nona Fisher of Winrock

way to improve their livelihoods.

International discussed the many reasons why its important for

Physical & Social Infrastructure

Roads
Electricity
Irrigation
Ports
Phone Service

Education
Producer
Organizations
Social Capital

farmers and rural residents to work together, and the role that

Fisher also said that its common to combine producer

practitioners can play in developing producer organizations.

organizations with literacy programs. Literacy is one of the

Producer organizations can provide a lot of benefits to their

foundational things we need if want to improve productivity in

farmers, Fisher said.

conflict-affected environments.

Some of these benefits include access to higher value markets,

In the last few hours of the workshop, Dr. Ear interviewed Dr.

market assistance, government advocacy, a conduit of

Mellor about a range of topics, including the role of producer

information with extension services, bulk purchase of inputs,

organizations in social capital building. The thing that was

and economies of scale in storage and distribution. These

most underrepresented in all of my presentations was farmer

producer organizations can also be culturally transformative

organization, Dr. Mellor said. We see lots of organizing farmers

experiences for their members, often teaching farmers about

for no purpose and once the organizer leaves, the organization

how participatory democracy works and introducing ideas of

falls apart because theres no purpose. The best purpose for

gender equity by including and empowering women.

an organization is an economic interest. You need to organize

farmers if youre going to take advantage of the opportunities

One example mentioned by Ms. Fisher was the Tajikistan Water

in agriculture. You also can learn something about democracy.

Users Association. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and

If it runs properly, youre doing real democracy. Thats a major

the civil war that followed, the irrigation infrastructure in much

side benefit of agricultural growth.

of Tajikistan was crumbling. Practitioners were able to assist

Initial Effect

Increased
Agricultural
Activity

Later Effects

"Flow down" into rural non-farm poor

8 - 10 % Growth Rate
Self-Sustaining Economic Recovery

RECOVERY
The last stage in the sequence of agricultural development is recovery. As increases in productivity create increases in net farm
income, and the spending of that income triggers multipliers among the rural non-farm poor, growth rates should rise to around
8-10%. At this point, it isnt uncommon for educated expatriates who have left the country to start returning. In the market towns
of agriculturally productive areas, labor deficits will appear that can be filled by migrants from less productive areas. If productivity
continues to increase, there is likely to be a shrinking of the actual number of farmers involved in the agricultural sector. As the
agricultural economy continues to grow, this can lead the way to a general economic recovery and greater development in the
non-farm sector.

20

Summary
In most conflict-affected environments, agricultural development is the foundation on which a sustainable
recovery can be built. But this development wont happen unless security can be established, which must
then be followed by the establishment of an appropriate social and physical infrastructure. Socially, the most
important needs are often the resolution of land tenure issues, the development of an educational system,
and the creation of producer organizations. Physically, the most important needs are often roads, irrigation,
phone service, and rural electrification. This social and physical infrastructure creates an environment in
which an agricultural development policy of research, extension, and credit can trigger rapid increases in
agricultural productivity. Once these increases in productivity are triggered, the increased income earned by
small commercial farmers is spent in rural communities, which then triggers a flow down effect of increased
economic prosperity. Once the rural economy is thriving, the overall economy achieves rapid growth rates,
creating the foundation of an enduring and sustainable recovery.

21

Agriculture:
Promoting Livelihoods in Conflict-Affected Environments

Closing Thought: Sustainability

Towards the close of the workshop, Sigfrido Burgos of the Food and Agriculture Organization challenged
participants to stay focused on the problem of self-sustaining development. As long as were there throwing
money at it, things work, he said. But then the moment we leave, everything seems to fall apart It can be
addictive for you to be there too much.
One participant who had worked in Afghanistan said, Youre absolutely right. We build a building, but then we
leave, and it falls apart for some reason or another. He said Afghanistan is littered with abandoned projects.
Another participant who had also worked in Afghanistan said that in the early phase of his involvement, the
focus was on quick successes, but now hes focused more on working with extension agents as a way of
achieving sustainability. It takes generations sometimes. Were not a very patient society.

Jan 31 Feb 3, 2011

Event Participants
Ibrahim M. Ahmed
Expert
North Sudan DDR Commision
(NSDDRC)
Jeannette Allan
Project Coordinator
Sustainable Aviation Biofuels
Climate Solutions
Angela Archambault
Research Associate, Center on
Contemporary Conflict
Naval Postgraduate School
James Bright
Sr. Agricultural Advisor,
Foreign Ag Service (FAS)
United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA)
Jess Brown
Executive Director
Santa Cruz County Farm Bureau

Carrie Castro
Environmental Sales/ Consulting
Waste Management Inc.

Dollin W.O. Holt

President/ Founder
CAPRECON

Yolanda Manzone
Senior Sustainability Advocate
Fairfood International

Bill Ringe
President/ Agri-Culture Inc.
Agri-Culture Inc.

James Cook
Business Owner/ Farmer
Groundswell Community Farms

Hana Ivanhoe
Fairfood International
Advocacy Manager

David Matvay
Student
686 Stabilization and Reconstruction

Anthony Romano
ADT Action Officer
National Guard B

Richard Coplen
Professor of Economic Development,
Peacekeeping
and Stability Operations Institute
U.S. Army War College

Sandra Joireman
Professor
Wheaton College

Rutledge McClain
Agriculture Business Development
Team Leader
Agri-Business Development Team 5

Matthew Ross
Student, National Security Affairs
Naval Postgraduate School

Meghan Corneal
Program Development
Independent Consultant
Diane De Bernardo
Nutrition Advisor
International Medical Corporation
Nona Fisher
Senior Program Officer
Winrock International

Abraham Joseph
Senior Socio-Economic
Affairs Officer
United Nations Integrated Mission
in Timor-Leste
Weahdee Juana
Registered Nurse
United Nations Mission in Liberia
(UNMIL)
Josh Lueker
AG Expert
Illinois Army National Guard

Mark McDonald
AG Team Member
Agriculture Development Team V
Daniel Millares
Transitional Justice Manager
Organization of American States
(OAS)
John Mott
Senior Agriculture Advisor
US Department of Agriculture

Sigfrido Burgos
Coordinator, Animal Production
and Health Division
UN Food and Agriculture
Organization

Robert Gaudsmith
Agribusiness Development
Team Commander
Texas Army National Guard

Lana Lynn
Board of Directors
Kids for the Kingdom

Sarah Olmstead
Research Analyst
Office of the Coordinator for
Reconstruction and Stabilization

Richard Byrne
Senior Lecturer
Harper Adams University College

Ricardo Hernandez Auerbach

Country Manager
Winrock International

Scott Lystad
Civil Affairs Officer
Marine Forces Reserve

Arun Pal
Student, Naval Postgraduate School
Nepalese Army

Howard Schauer
ADT CDR
National Guard B
Timothy Sheehan
Program Officer
Civilian Response Corps
Seong Kyoon Shin
Student, National Security Affairs
Naval Postgraduate School
Chad Shipmaker
Hunger Solutions Officer
World Food Programme
Rolf Skar
Senior Campaigner
Greenpeace US

Peter Stebbing
Executive Officer
Texas A&M University - Corpus
Christi ROTC
Adrienne Stork
Project Advisor
UN Development Program UN
Environment Program
Bruce Tolentino
Director and Chief Economist
The Asia Foundation
Kinde Wakwaya Temesgen
Program Manager
Mercy Corps - Ethiopia Office
Brian Wei
Consultant, Local Economic
Development
Save the Children Somalia

CSRS Courses:
Agriculture:
Promoting Livelihoods
In Conflict Affected
Environments

Building Capacities
For Cross-Cultural
Communication

December 6 - 9, 2010
Monterey, CA

Jan. 31 - Feb. 3, 2011

Monterey, CA

February 13 - 17, 2011

Washington, DC Area

Working In The
Same Space

Joint Humanitarian
Operations Course

An Expansive
Approach to DDR

Exploring The
DDR-SSR Nexus
Exploring the DDR/SSR

NE US

CSRS Team

December 6-9, 2010

Monterey, California

D


Program Director

Graseilah Coolidge
Program Coordinator

Nick Tomb
Program Coordinator

Roseann Johnson
Program Coordinator

Matt Vaccaro

csrs

www . csrs - nps . org

S
THE CENTER FOR
STABILIZATION AND
RECONSTRUCTION STUDIES

JOINT HUMANITARIAN
OPERATIONS COURSE

Miriam Turlington

The Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA

Program Assistant

The Center for Stabilization and Reconstruction Studies

The Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA
Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization

March 14 - 17, 2011

Monterey, CA

United States
Agency for
International Development

THE CENTER FOR

STABILIZATION AND
RECONSTRUCTION STUDIES

March 21 - 24, 2011

Monterey, CA

April 10 - 15, 2011

Monterey, CA

For more information about CSRS and its programs, visit: www.csrs-nps.org