UNIT I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional

machining processes.
A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by
cutting, boring, grinding, shearing or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of
tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the
workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine.
TYPES OF MACHINE
TOOLS
Turning Machines
Sawing Machines
Drilling Machines
Shaping Machines
Planing Machines
Grinding Machines
THEORY OF METAL
CUTTING
Chip Formation
All metals in the solid state
have a characteristic crystalline structure, freuently referred to as grain
structure. The grain or crystals vary in si!e from very "ne to very coarse,
depending upon the type of metal and its heat#treatment. The cutting tool
advances again in the work piece. $eavy forces are e%erted on the crystals in
front of the tool face. These crystals, in turn e%ert similar pressures on &rystals
ahead of them, in the direction of the cut or force applied 'y the cutter. As the
tool continues to advance, the material at sheared point is sheared 'y the
cutting edge of the tool or it may 'e torn loose 'y the action of the 'ending chip
which is 'eing formed. As the tool advances, ma%imum stress is e%erted along
sheared line, which is called the shear plane. This plane is appro%imately
perpendicular to the cutting face of the tool. There e%ists a shear !one on 'oth
sides of the shear plane, when the force of the tool e%ceeds the strength of
material at the shear plane, rupture or slippage of the crystalline grain structure
occurs, thus forming the metal chip. The chip gets separated from the workpiece
material and moves up along the tool face. (n addition, when the metal is
sheared, the crystals are elongated, the
direction of elongation 'eing di)erent from that of shear. The circles which
represent the crystals in the uncut metal get elongated into ellipses after leaving
the shearing plane.
TYPES OF CHIPS
*. Discontinuous or
segmental chips
+. &ontinuous chips
,. &ontinuous chips with
'uilt#up edge.
-. .on homogenous chips
.on homogenous chips are
developed during
machining highly hard alloys like titanium which su)ers a marked decrease in
yield strength with increase in temperature.
Orthogonal ctting
TOOL !EAR AN" LIFE
Gradual wearing of certain regions of
the face and /ank of the cutting tool.
A'rupt tool failure.
!EAR #ONES
&rater wear
0lank wear
&orner wear
!EAR CONTROL
SURFACE FINISH
The allowa'le deviation from a perfectly /at surface that is made 'y some
manufacturing process. All machining processes will produces some roughness
on the surface. This roughness can 'e caused 'y a cutting tool, cutting rate and
environmental conditions and the type of material you are working with. Surface
"nish is generally 'roken up into three components such as roughness, waviness,
and form.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

COOLENTS OR CUTTING FLUI"S OR EMULSIONS
During any machining or metal cutting process, enough heat is evolved in cutting
!one. To remove this heat from cutting !one, solu'le oils are used as cutting /uid
during machining. 1mulsions 2also known as solu'le oil3 cool the work#piece and
tool and thus relieved them from overheat. Air circulation is reuired so as to
remove the heat 'y evaporation. The remaining oil forms a protecting layer over
the machined work piece and save it from rust and corrosion. Such coolants
decrease adhesion 'etween chip and tool, provides lower friction and wear and a
smaller 'uilt up edge. They remove chips and hence help in keeping freshly
machined surface 'right.
Fnction$ or U$%$ o& Coolant$ or Ctting Fli'$
2i3 &utting /uid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting region free.
2ii3 (t helps in keeping freshly machined surface 'right 'y giving a protective
coating against atmospheric, o%ygen and thus protects the "nished surface from
corrosion.
2iii3 (t decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool life.
2iv3 (t improves machina'ility and reduces power reuirements
2v3 (t prevents e%pansion of work pieces.
2vi3 (t cools the tool and work piece and remove the generated heat from the
cutting !one.
2vii3 (t decreases adhesion 'etween chip and tool4 provide lower friction and
wear, and a smaller 'uilt#up edge.
UNIT II CENTRE LATHE AN" SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES
COMMON TYPES OF LATHES(
Engin% Lath%(
The most common form of lathe, motor driven and comes in large variety of
si!es and shapes.
)%nch Lath%(
A 'ench top model usually of low power used to make precision machine small
work pieces.
Trac%r Lath%(
A lathe that has the a'ility to follow a template to copy a shape or contour.
Atomatic Lath%(
The lathe in which the work piece is automatically fed and removed without use
of an operator. &utting operations are automatically controlled 'y a seuencer of
some form.
Trr%t Lath%(
The lathes which have multiple tools mounted on turrent either attached to the
tailstock or the cross#slide, which allows for uick changes in tooling and cutting
operations.
Compt%r Controll%'
Lath%(
$ighly automated lathes,
where cutting, loading, tool
changing, and part
unloading are
automatically controlled 'y
computer coding.
CENTRE LATHE
LATHE SPECIFICATIONS
Distance 'etween
centers
Swing over the 'ed
Swing over the cross
slide
$orse power of the
motor
.um'er of speeds
.um'er of feeds
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
5ed6 supports all ma7or components
&arriage6 slides along the ways and consists of the cross-slide, tool post, apron
$eadstock6 $olds the 7aws for the work piece, supplies power to the 7aws 8 has various
driveSpeeds
Tailstock6 supports the other end of the work piece
0eed 9od and :ead Screw6 0eed rod is powered 'y a set of gears from the headstock.
Rotating Sp%%'
(t e%presses with the num'er of rotations
2rpm3 of the chuck of a lathe. ;hen the
rotating speed is high, processing speed
'ecomes uick, and a processing surface
is "nely "nished. $owever, since a little
operation mistakes may lead to the
serious accident, it is 'etter to set low
rotating speed at the "rst stage.
Ctting "%pth
The cutting depth of the tool a)ects to
the processing speed and the roughness
of surface. ;hen the cutting depth is 'ig, the processing speed 'ecomes uick,
'ut the surface temperature 'ecomes high, and it has rough surface. Moreover, a
life of 'yte also 'ecomes short. (f you do not know a suita'le cutting depth, it is
'etter to set to small value.
F%%'
The sending speed of the tool also a)ects to the processing speed and the
roughness of surface. ;hen the sending speed is high, the processing speed
'ecomes uick. ;hen the sending speed is low, the surface is "nished 'eautiful.
There are <manual sending< which turns and operates a handle, and <automatic
sending< which advances a 'yte automatically. A 'eginner must use the manual
sending. 5ecause serious accidents may 'e caused, such as touching the
rotating chuck around the 'yte in automatic sending.
OPERATION IN LATHE
CUTTING TOOL
&utting tools performs the main machining operation. They comprise of single
pointcutting tool or multipoint cutting tools. (t is a 'ody having teeth or cutting
edges on it. Asingle point cutting tool 2such as a lathe, shaper and planner and
'oring tool3 has only onecutting edge, whereas a multi#point cutting tool 2such as
milling cutter, milling cutter, drill,reamer and 'roach3 has a num'er of teeth or
cutting edges on its periphery.
Nom%nclatr% Singl% Point Tool
The elements of tool signature or nomenclature single point tool is illustrated in
*i+ )ac, ra,% angl%
(t is the angle 'etween the face of the tool and a line parallel with 'ase of the
tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. (f the
slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative 'ack rake angle and if it is
upward toward nose, it is positive 'ack rake angle. This angle helps in removing
the chips away from the work piece.
*ii+ Si'% ra,% angl%
(t is the angle 'y which the face of tool is inclined sideways. This angle of tool
determines the thickness of the tool 'ehind the cutting edge. (t is provided on
tool to provide clearance 'etween work piece and tool so as to prevent the
ru''ing of work# piece with end /ake of tool. (t is the angle 'etween the surface
the /ank immediately 'elow the point and the line down from the point
perpendicular to the 'ase.
*iii+ En' r%li%& angl%
(t is the angle that allows the tool to cut without ru''ing on the work# piece. (t is
de"ned as the angle 'etween the portion of the end /ank immediately 'elow the
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the 'ase of the tool, measured at right
angles to the /ank. Some time e%tra end clearance is also provided on the tool
that is also known as end clearance angle. (t is the secondary angle directly
'elow the end relief angle
*i-+ Si'% r%li%& angl%
(t is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the material. (t is
the angle 'etween the portion of the side /ank immediately 'elow the side edge
and a line perpendicular to the 'ase of the tool measured at right angles to the
side. (t is incorporated on the tool to provide relief 'etween its /ank and the work
piece surface. Some time e%tra side clearance is also provided on the tool that is
also known as side clearance angle. (t is the secondary angle directly 'elow the
side relief angle.
*-+ En' ctting %'g% angl%
(t is the angle 'etween the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
shank of the tool. (t provides clearance 'etween tool cutting edge and work
piece.
*-i+ Si'% ctting %'g% angl%
(t is the angle 'etween straight cutting edge on the side of tool and the side of
the shank. (t is also known as lead angle. (t is responsi'le for turning the chip
away from the "nished surface.
*-ii+ No$% ra'i$
(t is the nose point connecting the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. (t
possesses small radius which is responsi'le for generating surface "nish on the
work#piece
Tool Signatr%
&onvenient way to specify tool angles 'y use of a standardi!ed a''reviated
system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature. (t indicates the angles
that a tool utili!es during the cut. (t speci"es the active angles of the tool normal
to the cutting edge. This will always 'e true as long as the tool shank is mounted
at right angles to the work#piece a%is.
The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool can
'e stated in the following order6
Tool signature =#>#?#@#*A#*?#=.@
*. 5ack rake angle 2=B3, +. Side rake angle 2>B3, ,. 1nd relief angle 2?B3, -. Side
relief angle 2@B3,
A. 1nd cutting edge angle 2*AB3, ?. Side cutting edge angle 2*?B3, >. .ose radius
2=.@ mm3
TAPER TURNING METHO"S
*35y a form tool.
+35y setting over the tailstock.
2
L l then , workpiece the of length entire on the turned is taper the if
2
conicity X work the of length entire
2
tan
tan sin
purposes, practical all for small, very is taper, of anle the , angle the If
sin
sin
: geometry From
d D
setover
setover
l
d D
L setover
L setover
L setover
AB BC
setover BC

=
=
=

=
=
=
=
=
=

,35y swiveling the compound rest -35y taper turning

attachment.

THREA" TERMINOLOGY THREA" CUTTING

CUTTING SPEE" 2C3 DED.F?=
MACHINING TIME 2T3 D :ength of &ut 2:3F0eed 2f3 G .o. Hf 9otation 2.3
PO!ER ESTIMATION2$.P3 D &ITT(.G 0H9&1 203 G &ITT(.G SP11D 2C3F>A
TURRET IN"E.ING MECHANISM

)AR FEE" MECHANISM
UNIT III MACHINE TOOLS
SHAPER

Cran, an' Slott%' Lin, M%chani$m
PLANER
SLOTTER
MILLING
A machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter.
TYPES
UP/Milling or Con-%ntional Milling "o0n/Milling or Clim1
Milling

OPERATIONS

TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS

IN"E.ING AN" "I2I"ING
HEA"S
The dividing heads are of three
types6
2*3 Plain or simple dividing head,
2+3 Iniversal dividing head and
2,3 Hptical dividing head.
"RILLING
Drilling is an operation of making a
circular hole 'y removing a volume of
metal from the 7o' 'y cutting tool called
drill. A drill is a rotary end#cutting tool with
one or more cutting lips and usually one or
more /utes for the passage of chips and the
admission of cutting /uid. A drilling machine
is a machine tool designed for drilling holes
in metals.
TYPES
2*3 Porta'le drilling machine
2+3 Sensitive drilling machine
2a3 5ench mounting
2'3 0loor mounting
2,3 Ipright drilling machine
2a3 9ound column section
2'3 5o% column section
machine
2-3 9adial drilling machine
2a3 Plain
2'3 Semi#universal
2c3 Iniversal
2A3 Gang drilling machine
2?3 Multiple spindle drilling machine
2>3 Automatic drilling machine
2@3 Deep#hole drilling machine
TYPES OF "RILLS
OPERATIONS
PUSH3 PULL )ROACHING MACHINES
GEAR CUTTING3 FORMING3 GENERATION AN" GEAR FINISHING PROCESS4
A)RASI2E PROCESSES
GRIN"ING !HEEL
SPECIFICATIONS AN" SELECTION
TYPES OF GRIN"ING PROCESS
CYLIN"RICAL GRIN"ING
SURFACE GRIN"ING
CENTRELESS GRIN"ING
HONING
LAPPING
SUPER FINISHING
POLISHING AN" )UFFING
UNIT I2 UNCON2ENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS
UNCON2ENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS CLASSIFICATION
A)RASI2E 5ET MACHINING
(n AJM a high velocity 7et of dry air, nitrogen or &H+ containing a'rasive
particles is aimed at the work piece.
The impact of the particles produces suKcient force to cut small hole or
slots, de'urring, trimming and removing o%ides and other surface "lms.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
(n IM the tip of the tool vi'rates at
low amplitude and at high freuency.
This vi'ration transmits a high
velocity to "ne a'rasive grains
'etween tool and the surface of the
work piece.
Material removed 'y erosion with
a'rasive particles.
The a'rasive grains are usually 'oron
car'ides.
This techniue is used to cut hard and
'rittle materials like ceramics,
car'ides, glass, precious stones and hardened steel.
ELECTRIC "ISCHARGE MACHINING
5ased on erosion of metals 'y spark
discharges.
1DM system consists of a tool
2electrode3 and work piece, connected
to a dc power supply and placed in a
dielectric /uid.
;hen potential di)erence 'etween
tool and work piece is high, a transient
spark discharges through the /uid,
removing a small amount of metal
from the work piece surface.
This process is repeated with capacitor
discharge rates of A=#A== k$!.
Dielectric /uid L mineral oils, kerosene, distilled and deioni!ed water etc.
role of the dielectric /uid
*. acts as a insulator until the potential is suKciently high.
+. acts as a /ushing medium and carries away the de'ris.
,. also acts as a cooling medium.
1lectrodes L usually made of graphite.
~
power
supply
o!!le
"#rasive
slurry
$ransducer
%p&down vi#ration of tool
hammers the a#rasive particles
against workpiece, causing cutting
~
power
supply
o!!le
"#rasive
slurry
$ransducer
~
power
supply
o!!le
"#rasive
slurry
$ransducer
%p&down vi#ration of tool
hammers the a#rasive particles
against workpiece, causing cutting
1DM can 'e used for die cavities, small diameter deep holes, tur'ine
'lades and various intricate shapes.
ELECTRON )EAM MACHINING
Similar to :5M e%cept laser
'eam is replaced 'y high
velocity electrons.
;hen electron 'eam
strikes the work piece
surface, heat is produced
and metal is vapori!ed.
Surface "nish achieved is
'etter than :5M.
Ised for very accurate
cutting of a wide variety of
metals.
LASER )EAM MACHINING
(n :5M laser is focused and the work
piece which melts and evaporates
portions of the work piece.
:ow re/ectivity and thermal
conductivity of the work piece surface,
and low speci"c heat and latent heat of
melting and evaporation L increases
process eKciency.
Application # holes with depth#to#
diameter ratios of A= to * can 'e
drilled. e.g. 'leeder holes for fuel#pump
covers, lu'rication holes in transmission hu's.
ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
9everse of electroplating
An electrolyte acts as a current
carrier and high electrolyte
movement in the tool#work#piece
gap washes metal ions away
from the work piece 2anode3
'efore they have a chance to
plate on to the tool 2cathode3.
Tool L generally made of 'ron!e,
copper, 'rass or stainless steel.
1lectrolyte L salt solutions like
sodium chloride or sodium
nitrate mi%ed in water.
Power L D& supply of A#+A C.
A'-antag%$ o& ECM
Process leaves a 'urr free surface.
Does not cause any thermal damage to
the parts.
:ack of tool force prevents distortion of parts.
&apa'le of machining comple% parts and hard materials
1&M systems are now availa'le as .umerically &ontrolled machining centers
with capa'ility for high production, high /e%i'ility and high tolerances.
UNIT 2 CNC MACHINE TOOLS AN" PART
PROGRAMMING

NUMERICAL CONTROL *NC+ MACHINE TOOLS
Programma'le automation in which the mechanical
actions of a Mmachine toolN are controlled 'y a
program containing coded alphanumeric data that
represents relative positions 'etween a work head
2e.g., cutting tool3 and a work part4
CONSTRUCTIONAL "ETAILS
NC Coor'inat% S6$t%m$
For 7at an' pri$matic *1loc,/li,%+ part$(
Milling and drilling operations
&onventional &artesian coordinate system
9otational a%es a'out each linear a%is
For rotational part$(
Turning operations
Hnly x# and z#a%es

Motion Control S6$t%m$
Point/to/Point $6$t%m$
Also called position systems
System moves to a location and performs an operation at that location
2e.g., drilling3
Also applica'le in ro'otics
Contino$ path $6$t%m$
Also called contouring systems in machining
System performs an operation during movement 2e.g., milling and turning3
Int%rpolation M%tho'$
*. :inear interpolation
Straight line 'etween two points in space
+. &ircular interpolation
&ircular arc de"ned 'y starting point, end point, center or radius,
and direction
,. $elical interpolation
&ircular plus linear motion
-. Para'olic and cu'ic interpolation
0ree form curves using higher order euations
Machin% Control Unit
CNC( TYPES
.umerical control 2.&3 L Data is sent to the machine tool 'y means of
pnch car'$ or tap%$. The reader at the machine performs no
calculations or interpolations.
&omputer .umerical control 2&.&3 L The idea of computer numerical
control is to po$ition a compt%r right at th% machin% tool. Most, if
not all machine tools that are numericaly controlled are &.& machine
tools.
Direct numerical control 2D.&3 L control of multiple machine tools 'y a
single 2mainframe3 computer through direct connection and in real time
*O?=s technology
Two way communication
Distri'uted numerical control 2D.&3 L network consisting of central
computer connected to machine tool M&Is, which are &.&
Present technology
Two way communication
NC Application Charact%ri$tic$ *Machining+
5atch and $igh Colume production
9epeat andFor 9epetitive orders
&omple% part geometries
Mundane operations
Many separate operations on one part
Co$t/)%n%8t$ o& NC
&osts
$igh investment cost
$igh maintenance e)ort
.eed for skilled programmers
$igh utili!ation reuired
5ene"ts
&ycle time reduction
.onproductive time reduction
Greater accuracy and repeata'ility
:ower scrap rates
9educed parts inventory and /oor space
Hperator skill#level reduced
PART PROGRAMMING FUN"AMENTALS
MANUAL PROGRAMMING
5inary &oded Decimal System
1ach of the ten digits in decimal system 2=#O3 is coded with four#digit
'inary num'er
The 'inary num'ers are added to give the value
5&D is compati'le with @ 'its across tape format, the original storage
medium for .& part programs
1ight 'its can also 'e used for letters and sym'ols
Cr%ating In$trction$ &or NC
5it # = or * D a'sence or presence of hole in the tape
&haracter # row of 'its across the tape
;ord # seuence of characters 2e.g., y#a%is position3
5lock # collection of words to form one complete instruction
Part program # seuence of instructions 2'locks3
)loc, Format
Hrgani!ation of words within a 'lock in .& part program
Also known as tape format 'ecause the original formats were designed for
punched tape
;ord address format # used on all modern &.& controllers
Ises a letter pre"% to identify each type of word
Spaces to separate words within the 'lock
Allows any order of words in a 'lock
;ords can 'e omitted if their values do not change from the
previous 'lock
T6p%$ o& !or'$
. # Seuence num'er pre"%
G # Preparatory words
1%ample6 G== D PTP rapid traverse move
G, P, Q # pre"%es for x, y, and z#a%es
0 # 0eed rate pre"%
S # Spindle speed
T # Tool selection
M # Miscellaneous command
1%ample6 M=> D turn cutting /uid on
COMPUTER ASSISTE" PART PROGRAMMING
;rite machine instructions using natural language type statements
Statements translated into machine code of the M&I
APT 2Automatically Programmed Tool3 :anguage
Sampl% Stat%m%nt$
Part is composed of 'asic geometric elements and mathematically de"ned
surfaces
1%amples of statements6
P- D PH(.TF,A,O=,=
:* D :(.1FP*,P+
&* D &(9&:1F&1.T19,P@,9AD(IS,,=
Tool path is seuence of points or connected line and arc segments
Point#to#Point command6 GHTHFP-
&ontinuous path command6 GH:0TF:*,TA.TH,&*