aGaBD

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

7 RUE ANCELLE 92 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE FRANCE
.. .
Hybrid Navigation Systems
NORTH A TL A NTI C TREATY ORGA NI ZA TI ON -
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I
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1
AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 54
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION
ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
(ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L ATLANTIQUE NORD)
HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Papers presented at the Guidance and Control Panel 9th Meeting held at Delft, Netherlands,
22-26 September 1969
r
.
The materi al i n t h i s publ i cat i on has been produced
di r e c t l y from copy supplied by each author.
Published January 1970
527.6: 621. 396. 93:629. 7. 051
Pr i nt e d by Techni cal Edi t i ng and Reproduct i on Lt d
Harfonl House, 7-9 Char l ot t e S t , London, W. 1
CHAIRMAN, GUIDANCE AND CONTROL PANEL
Professor Walter Wrigley
Department of Aeronautics and Astronauti cs
Massachusetts I nsti tute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 - USA
DEPUTY CHAIRMAN, GUIDANCE AND CONTROL PANEL
Mr H: G. R. Robinson
Head, Avionics Department
Royal Ai rcraft ,Establishment
Farnborough, Hampshire, England
CHAIRMAN, GUIDANCE AND CONTROL PANEL
(as of 22 September 1969)
Mr H. G. R. Robinson
Head, Avionics Department
Royal Ai rcraft Establishment
Farnborough, Hampshire, England
DEPUTY CHAIRMAN, GUIDANCE AND CONTROL PANEL
(as of 22 September 1969)
Professor, C. T. Leondes
Department of Engineering
Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a
Los Angeles, Cal i forni a 90024
CHAIRMAN OF PROGRAM COMMITTEE
Mr W. J. Rhine
NASA, El ectroni cs Research Center
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
HOST NATION COORDINATOR
Mr A. H. Geudeker
Nederlandse Del egati e B i j de AGARD
c/o Sti chti ng Nationaal Lucht-en
Ruimt evaart l abor at or ium
Kluyverweg 1
Del ft, Netherlands
EXECUTIVE, GUIDANCE AND CONTROL PANEL
Major C.D.Mount, USAF
AGARD
iii
FOREWORD
The evol uti on of guidance and control systems over the past decade has i ncl uded
the development of rather sophi sti cated hybri d systems.
hybri d systems as stel l ar monitored i nerti al systems, LORAN i nerti al systems, Doppler
i nerti al LORAN or DILS systems, vari ous combinations of satel l i te monitored i nerti al
systems, and numerous other combinations.
This has included such
The f uture w i l l undoubtedly bri ng many f urther si gni f i cant advanced developments
i n hybri d guidance and control systems. Neverthel ess the Guidance and Control Panel
of NATO-AGARD was well aware of the appropri ateness of a review of 'the status of the
f i el d at thi s time and so these conference proceedi ngs which evolved from a meeting
at the Del ft Uni versi ty of Technology, Del ft, Netherlands, September 22- 26, 1969. are
devoted to the general subj ect of current technology i n hybrid guidance and control
systems.
The subj ect was treated at the meeting i n f i ve broad categori es with f ul l sessi ons
devoted t o each category.
of Hybrid Navigation Techniques, A i r Traf f i c Control and Landing Systems Appl i cati ons,
the I nteracti on of Airborne and Ground Elements, Ai rcraft Experience and Appl i cati ons,
and Anal yti cal and Theoreti cal Consi derati ons of Hybrid Techniques. The net resul t is
a rather thorough treatment of the subj ect, and these Conference Proceedings should
therefore prove to be qui te val uabl e t o practi ci ng guidance and control engi neers.
These sessi ons i ncl uded sessi ons on Systems Appl i cati ons
A great deal of credi t f or the techni cal success of thi s conference must go to the
program committee of which Mr W. J .Rhine was Chairman.
Control Panel made val uabl e contri buti ons and thei r hel p is greatl y appreci ated.
Major C.D.Mount was outstandi ng i n hi s performance i n handl i ng hi s f i r st conference
i n hi s new capaci ty as the Executive, Guidance and Control Panel. Fi nal l y, grati tude
is al so expressed to the Netherl ands Government f or offeri ng t o serve as the host
country f or thi s Symposium.
cantl y to the success of the Symposium.
as host nati on coordi nator.
A l l members of the Guidance and
The faci l i ti es were excel l ent and contri buted si gni f i -
Mr A.H.Geudeker was outstandi ng i n hi s rol e
C. T. Leondes
Edi tor
Guidance and Control Panel
A G M
i v
CONTENTS
SESSI ON I . SYSTEMS APPLI CATI ONS OF HYBRI D NAVI GATI ON TECHNI QUES
HYBRI D GUI DANCE AND NAVI GATI ON SYSTEMS
by Dr G. R. Mar ner
CHARACTERI STI CS OF A SATELLI TE NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM OPERATED I N CONJ UNCTI ON WI TH
A USER I NERTI AL SYSTEM
by Dr B. P. Leonar d
GLOBAL NAVI GATI ON/ TRAFFI C SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION SATELLI TE SYSTEM FOR
MI LI TARY AND CI VI L VEHI CLES
by M. W. Mi t chel l
THE TMA ROLE OF HYBRI D SYSTEM RADI O SENSORS
by F. S. St r i nger
SESSI ON 11. AI R TRAFFI C CONTROL AND SYSTEMS APPLI CATI ONS
THE USE OF FI LTERI NG TECHNI QUES AND/ OR MI XED NAVI GATI ON SYSTEMS I N COMBI NATI ON
WI TH BAROMETRI C ALTI METRY TO GENERATE GLI DE SLOPES FOR PRECI SI ON APPROACH
by M. G. Pear son
THE USE OF I NERTI AL I NFORMATI ON TO I MPROVE AUTOMATI C I LS APPROACH PERFORMANCE
by N. H. - Hughes
I MPROVEMENT OF THE ACCURACY OF AUTOMATI C LANDI NG SYSTEMS BY USE OF KALMAN- FI LTERI NG
TECHNI QUES AND I NCORPORATI ON OF I NERTI AL DATA
by W. Schmi dt
COLLI SI ON AVOI DANCE AND THE AI R TRAFFI C CONTROL ENVI RONMENT
by A. Br owde
SESSI ON 111. THE I NTERACTI ON OF AI RBORNE AND GROUND ELEMENTS
I NTEGRATED HYBRI D- I NERTI AL AI RCRAFT NAVI GATI ON SYSTEMS
by R. C. St ow and B. Dani k
MODERN AI RCRAFT NAVI GATI ON SENSORS FOR HYBRI D SYSTEMS
by W. R. Fr i ed
LORAN SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY
by R. E. Weaver , J r
SYSTEME DE NAVI GATI ON A I NERTI E HYBRI DE OPTI MI SE
par P. Faur r e
TACTI CAL LORAN
by L. D. Hi ggi nbot ham
SESSI ON I V. AI RCRAFT EXPERI ENCE AND APPLI CATI ONS
THE C- . 5 NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM - AN APPLI CATI ON OF DI GI TAL SYNERGI STI C STOCHASTI C
HYBRI D NAVI GATI ON TECHNOLOGY
by Dr B. J . Mi l l er
THE HYBRI D NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM FOR THE NI MROD MARI TI ME PATROL AI RCRAFT
by R. P. G. Col l i nson
Ref er ence
1
2
9
1 0
11
1 2
13
1 4
1s
J
THE USE OF HY BRI D TECHNI QUES I N COMMERCI AL TRANSPORT AI RCRAFT
by S. B. P o r i t z k y
I NTEGRATED AVI ONI C SY STEM DESI GN FOR HEL I COPTERS A ND VTOL
by L A . K auf man
SESSI ON V. ANALY TI CAL A ND THEORETI CAL CONSI DERATI ONS OF HY BRI D TECHNI QUES
I NTEGRATED NAVI GATI ON BY L EAST SQUARE ADJ USTMENT
by Prof . Dr- I ng. K . R amsayer
A SI MPL E KALMAN F I L T ER FOR VOR/DME
by M . A . V . M at t hews
OPTI MAL CORRECTI ON OF STOCHASTI C ERRORS OF I NERTI AL SY STEMS
by R . Swi ck
DESI GN OF LOW SENSI T I V I T Y KALMAN F I L T ERS FOR HY BRI D NAVI GATI ON SY STEMS
by P r o f . C. E. H ut c hi ns on
R ef er enc e
16
17
18
19
20
21
vi
HYBRID SYSTEMS FOR GUIDANCE AND NAVIGATION
G. R.Marner
Di rector o f Research,
Col l i ns Radio Company,
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
1
1
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HYBRID SYSTEMS FOR GUIDANCE AND NAVIGATION
G. R. Marner
Di rector o f Research
Col 1 i ns Radio Company
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
SUMMARY
Developments i n sensors, computers, data transmission techniques and systems theory have greatl y
accelerated the trend tpward hybri d guidance and navigation systems. Operational needs f or new types of
data, f or accuracy and rel i abi l i ty, and f or multi-mode operation to complete missions despite f ai l ure or
lack o f i nput data have motivated thi s trend. General comments concerning the characteri sti cs of redun-
dant, complementary and synergi sti c systems are made, and a l i s t of important hybri d system examples i s
given. Operational needs f or some future hybri d systems are outlined. These include areas of ai rcraf t
landing, navigation and tr af f i c control, marine navigation and tr af f i c control and space navigation.
SOMMAI RE
L'Gvolution des techniques, en matiere de detecteurs sensibles, de calculateurs, de transmission de
donnCes et de thCorie des systsmes, a f o r d l a tendance en di recti on des systhes hybrides de guidage
e t de navigation.
1'achPvement de toute mission, quelles que soi ent l es dbfectuositbs ou pertes d'i nfomati ons. Pour
r6pondre 3 ce cri tsre, de nouvelles formes de donnCes e t des modes mul ti pl es de fonctionnement sont
ngcessaires, ai nsi qu'une amClioration de l a prkci si on e t de l a f i abi l i t6.
principes redondants, ccinplbmentaires et "synergetique" appliqu6s aux systemes hybrides majeurs donnCs
en exemple, de meme que l ' appl i cati on future 3 l a navigation e t au controle a6rien, maritime et spati al ,
de nouveaux systhes hybrides.
L ' uti l i s ati on des systemes hybrides est motivbe par l es besoins opbrationnels requbrant
Sont egalement tr ai t& l es
I ntroducti on
The use of hybri d guidance and navigation systems has been growing rapi dl y i n recent years. This
growth has been due t o both technological capabi l i ti es and operational requirements, On the technological
side we have seen the development o f many precise and rel i abl e components and sensors such as gyros, acceler-
ometers, readout devices, time and frequency standards, radi o receivers capable o f time, frequency or phase
comparisons, etc. S ol i d state and, recently, microelectronic techniques have permi tted use of more complex
el ectroni c ci rcui ts wi th greater s tabi l i ty and r el i abi l i ty and smaller size.
missions, processing and combination have developed rapi dl y and now gi ve the system designer great f l exi -
b i l i t y f or system combination. Development o f di gi tal techniques has been very important i n thi s connection.
Most recent
developments i n di gi tal data transmission and processing have opened so many possi bi l i ti es f or system i nte-
grati on that one has the feel i ng that system synthesis capabi l i ty expansion would yi el d considerable benefi t.
Operational needs i n the past 30 years have encouraged, and to a considerable extent, sponsoreCl. system
and hybri d system developments.
and a i r operations, mi ssi l e guidance and navigation, nuclear submarine operation, I CBM launch guidance, c i vi l
ai rcraf t operation, supersonic mi l i tary ai rcraft, hel i copter development, space operations, and supersonic
c i vi 1 ai rcraft. Future needs wi 11 continue to encourage hybrid systems.
plex combinations of sensors as a uni fi ed system, rather than a hybri d system. There i s , however, some bene-
fit i n system synthesis to consider a combination of sensors which i ndi vi dual l y make measurements of guidance
and navigation quanti ti es as a hybri d system. We include combinations o f i denti cal systems, and i n sane
instances, systems i n which the combination process i s carri ed out by man.
i n the defi ni ti on, then hybrid systems have ancient ori gi n.
Techniques f or data trans-
Development o f system analysis theory has progressed as equipment technology has developed.
Some of the pri nci pal needs came from the fol l owi ng areas: WW I 1 marine
The analysis techniques and data combination methods currentl y employed make it possible to consider com-
If we include the human element
Cl assi fi cati on of Hybrid Systems
There are several motivations f or the development and use of hybri d systems. While there are various
ways to cl assi fy systems, cl assi fi cati on and discussion wi th reference to the operational motivation i s con-
venient. It may also be hel pful to the design of new systems.
One important functi on of hybri d systems i s to attai n output quanti ti es which are not avai l abl e from
i ndi vi dual sensors. A system which synthesizes new quanti ti es from a combination o f measurable quanti ti es
i s cal l ed a synergi sti c system.
probably the oldest hybri d systems.
speed through the water, and a method f or determining time i nterval s permits determination o f l ati tude and
longitude changes.
gives l ati tude and longitude.
However, cel esti al data avai l abi l i ty i s l i mi ted by l i ghti ng and weather conditions, so continuous outputs are
not obtained.
I t s shortcomings are that it measures only differences i n posi ti on, and that the error sources (compass
heading, water current, speed measurement) cause increasing error as the time i nterval increases.
If the operator i s included as part of the system, synergi sti c systems are
For example, the magnetic compass, a method f or measuring the vessel's
Likewise, opti cal measurement of al ti tude angles of cel esti al objects combined wi th GMT
The cel esti al posi ti on determinations have been qui te accurate since precise timepieces became available.
The dead reckoning process, however, i s i n pri nci pl e capable of producing continuous data.
1- 2
Combination of these two systems to form a hybri d system resul ts i n greatl y improved posi ti on data.
i l l us trates another type of hybri d system i n which two systems which measure essenti al l y the same quanti ti es
but wi th di fferent data rates, and error spectra are combined to determine the same quanti ti es wi th improved
data avai l abi l i ty and improved error spectrum.
rudimentary example also i l l us trates that system formation can be compounded: we have combined two synergis-
t i c systems t o form a complementary system.
o f the subsystems involved, and the combination method. I n most systems the designer attempts to f i nd sub-
systems which are free from c mo n error sources and which i ndi vi dual l y have useful data characteri sti cs.
I n many instances si gni fi cant benefi ts i n accuracy and r el i abi l i ty can be obtained through combination
o f i denti cal systems.
cussion of such redundant systems i n thi s context i s convenient and f r ui tf ul . Again at the l evel o f manual
combination, many common examples of combined i denti cal or si mi l ar systems exi st. The dual ai rcraf t f l i ght
and engine instrument combinations are fami l i ar examples. The u t i l i t y of such dual combinations i s widely
recognized. To obtain the f u l l potenti al of such combinations it i s essential to minimize common modes of
error and fai l ure, and to provide means of detecting fai l ures i n the i ndi vi dual systems.
a complete, but not mutually exclusive, cl assi fi cati on.
and monitoring techniques have permitted the development of systems which change system confi gurati on i n re-
sponse to di fferent data avai l abi l i ty, to subsystem fai l ures and to changes i n desired operation.
tempted to l i s t such adaptable multi-mode systems as " f a i l operational" systems because of thei r remarkable
abi l i ty to complete missions successfully despite fai l ures and changing conditions.
This
We may cal l such arrangements complementary systems. This
Complementary systems have varying characteri sti cs depending upon the error spectra and data avai l abi l i ty
While these may not consti tute hybri d systems i n the s tri ctes t sense o f the word, di s-
This descri pti on of combined systems -- redundant, complementary, and synergi sti c -- probably consti tute
Recent advances i n system organization techniques
One i s
Characteristics o f Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems take so many forms that it i s di f f i c ul t to discuss general characteri sti cs. We certai nl y
cannot attempt t o outl i ne the general development of control theory which has now grown to a very sophi sti -
cated state.
some examples, parti cul arl y i l l us trati ng hybri d systems developed i n the United States.
l ocal i zer mode o f 1941, the gyro stabalized magnetic compasses o f 1942 and the f l i ght di rectors of the l ate
40's are good examples of complementary systems (See Table 1). Speaking speci fi cal l y of the gyro- stabi l -
ized magnetic compass and referri ng to Figure 1, we consider a fl uctuati ng magnetic heading plus noise as
the output of System I.
fl uctuati ng magnetic fi el ds caused by el ectri cal ci rcui ts i n the ai rcraft, etc.
However, we w i l l make some comments of parti cul ar appl i cabi l i ty to hybri d systems, and l i s t
A convenient and hi s tori cal l y important starti ng poi nt would be complementary systems. The autopi l ot
The compass i s sensi ti ve to ai rcraf t motions, f i ne structure i n the magnetic f i el d,
I f an average over time and
Figure 1 . Complementary Hybrid System'.
l ocati on could be determined, however, a reasonably accurate magnetic heading could be determined.
fore pass the compass output through a low pass f i l t e r wi th transfer functi on Ksn/(s+Km). This reduces the
noise but introduces a l ag i n the heading data.
and has very l i t t l e high frequency noise. It does have a slow d r i f t and no abi l i ty to seek magnetic north.
We accordingly pass thi s output through a high pass f i l t e r wi th transfer functi on s/(s+Km).
i s chosen as a compromise between the low frequency gyro errors and the hi gh frequency compass errors.
This choice of f i l t e r constants, wi th weighting constants K1 = K2 = 1/2, makes the overal l composite trans-
f er functi on f or the heading, the physical characteri sti c which both systems are measuring, be uni ty. That
i s, the output w i l l fol l ow any time heading changes wi th f i del i ty and without any time lag.
the compass has a systematic error during turns which can be corrected by disconnecting it f or turn rates
We there-
The di recti onal gyro output responds correctl y to maneuvers
The Km constant
I n practi ce
1-3
i n excess of a chosen threshold or by introducing a compensation from verti cal or di recti onal gyro data
since the functional nature of the error i s known.
ti on, to give unequal weighting i n the combination process (especially i f a f ai l ure or undesirable condi-
ti on develops on one channel), and more than two inputs may be uti l i zed. The f i l teri ng, weighting, and
combination process may be carri ed out i n a computer. The general characteri sti cs, however, o f combining
di f f erent types o f measurement of the same parameter,assessing the spectral preci si on and data avai l abi l i ty,
and combini ng according to the desired output characteri sti cs are the features of complementary systems.
Many systems have been designed wi th these characteri sti cs as they furni sh important operational advantages.
Improved spectral f i del i ty and precision (improved precision without averaging delay), reduced vulnerabil-
i ty to comnon modes of error and fai l ure, vers ati l i ty i n switching modes of operation as di fferent sets
of data are avai l abl e and/or as di fferent resul ts are desired, and the natural Combination o f various
data i n a more convenient form are typi cal o f modern, complex, multi-mode complementary systems.
models of f l i ght di rectors are excel l ent examples of thi s class of system. We should expect continual
growth o f complexity and scope of appl i cati on o f such systems.
A second class of systems are the redundant systems. These are si mi l ar t o the complementary systems
except that the error spectrum of each channel i s the same. It i s therefore impossible to eliminate por-
ti ons o f the noise spectrum by using di fferent f i l ter i ng i n each channel. There are some error reduction
benefits, however.
the system.
gain due to the correl ati on between the true quanti ti es and the l ack o f correl ati on between the two noises.
Figure 2 shows a si mpl i fi ed diagram of a redundant system.
One may choose t o shape the composite transfer func-
Recent
I n many systems the equivalent i nput noise i s l argel y due to processes i nternal to
I n thi s circumstance, as wel l as i n cases i nvol vi ng qui te independent sensors, there i s a
Figure 2. Redundant System
Subsystems I and I 1 are taken t o be si mi l ar.
example.
added. The subtracti on i s valuable f or f ai l ure detection as discussed l ater. The ns error i n the combined
output i s
Radar al ti meters f or ai rcraf t landing systems would be a good
The weighting of each channel would normally be equal, and the outputs are both subtracted and
1+P 112
"canbi ned = "(7)
where
noises of the two subsystems.
wi th independent inputs (p=O) there i s a noise reduction to 70% of the si ngl e system value. The system de-
signer, as always, seeks designs which minimize c mo n error modes and c mo n f ai l ure modes.
Through a combination
of monitoring and comparison i t i s possible f or the user to make a much more accurate asses.sment of the
condition of hi s equipment and the probabi l i ty f or successful completion o f a mission can be substanti al l y
increased.
discussion.
i s the rms error i n each subsystem output and i s the correl ati on coeffi ci ent between the i nput
With completely correlated noise (p=l ) there i s no improvement i n accuracy;
The chief advantages of redundant systems l i e i n improvements i n dependability.
Figure 3 shows a si mpl i fi ed diagram o f a dual monitored system appropriate f or dependability
Modern monitoring systems normally consist o f several i ndi vi dual monitors which tes t avai l abl e si gni -
f i cant quanti ti es.
i n the other subsystems.
ure rate cannot be ignored.
an attempt i s made to i denti f y the si gni fi cant f ai l ure modes and the probabi l i ty of thei r occurrance.
summing the probabi l i ti es of those that are monitored and those that are not, an estimate can be made o f
the probabi l i ty of detecting a f ai l ure i f one does occur.
threshold of some type to be set which involves a tradeoff between the number o f fal se f ai l ure alarms and the
number of missed alarms.
the tradeoff i s qui te di fferent i n di fferent si tuati ons.
few real fai l ures it i nevi tabl y gives more fal se alarms.
objective requi ri ng the system) i s given great pri ori ty i t i s customary to accept a substantial unnecessary
equipment removal rate i n order t o have a high degree of confidence i n the equipment.
Some of these tests may actual l y involve comparisons wi th the corresponding quanti ty
The monitoring ci rcui try and mechanisms may be rather complex, so that i t s f ai l -
The monitor can never tes t a l l possible f ai l ure modes. I n most modern systems
By
I n the "soft" f ai l ure modes there i s usually a
Very l i t t l e can be sai d about thi s tradeoff i n a general way as the character of
O f course, as the monitor i s set to miss very
I n operations i n which safety (or some mission
Unnecessary removal
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I1
Figure 3. Dual Monitored System
accounts f or about hal f o f the removals i n ai rl i ne operations. Whether these removal rates are essential
i n hi ghl y monitored dual systems would be a worthwhile subject f or further investigation.
adequate i n many circumstances. System characteri sti cs which tend to make thi s approach practi cal are:
(1) High r el i abi l i ty for the i ndi vi dual systems; (2) Normal output fl uctuati ons small compared wi th the
operational accuracy requirement so effecti ve comparison can be made without high fal se alarm rate; (3)
Output characteri sti cs which cause the output to reveal the most prevalent f ai l ure modes; and (4) P ossi bi l -
i ty of al ternate operation procedures. I n thi s connection it should be noted that the operator of most
systems acts as a monitor f or many f ai l ure modes, by i nterpreti ng
would be impractical to automate.
i s ti c, or to replace it adequately.
I n general, however, the dual monitored and compared system has superior operat i ng characteri sti cs,
both i n conveying to the user a more precise knowledge of i t s operating condition and i n increasing the
probabi l i ty of successfully completing a mission. The whole subject of monitoring i s very complex and
cannot be taken up i n detai l here. We w i l l make only a few observations. F i rst, we have the problem o f
informing the user of the operational condition. Second, there i s the matter of r el i abi l i ty, or proba-
b i l i t y of mission success. With regard to the f i r s t, i t i s i nteresti ng to note the fol l owi ng si tuati on:
suppose the monitoring performed by each monitor and comparator were complete and perfect, that monitor
f ai l ure always caused an alarm (i denti cal wi th system f ai l ure alarm) , and that comparator fai l ures were
negl i gi bl e. Then a dual monitored system could be i n any one of 16 possible operating conditions: a l l
uni ts operable, a l l uni ts operable except monitor 1 , . . . , a l l uni ts inoperable.
parator can only i ndi cate 8 di fferent conditions, s o they are obviously unable to give a f u l l descri pti on
of the system. However, the ambiguities are grouped i n such a way that the correct operational decisions
are made. Deviations fromthi s i deal si tuati on are associated wi th incomplete and imperfect monitoring,
lack of alarm when a monitor f ai l s , and faul ty output due to faul ty i nput that cannot be assessed by the
monitoring system (comon mode errors).
each i ndi vi dual system A , o f each monitor Am, and of the comparator x .
f ai l ure w i l l resul t i n erroneous f ai l ure i ndi cati on and that monitor fai l ures f a i l to give alarms.
the probabi l i ty that the functi on w i l l be l os t during a mission of length t i s
The combination o f -two i denti cal systems wi th output comparison but without i ndi vi dual monitoring i s
the nature of the output i n ways that
I n combining systems i t i s qui te important to preserve thi s character-
The monitors and the com-
Turning now to the probabi l i ty o f loss of functi on during a mission, we define the f ai l ure rate of
We also assume that comparator
Then
(3)
-it
si ngl e monitored system: 1 - e = ~ t
dual unmonitored system
corn para t or :
dual monitored system w
comparator:
th
( 4)
1- 5
For numerical comparison, assume x = 0. 24~10- ~ per hour, x = 0. 15~10- ~ per hour, xC = 0. 05~10- ~ per hour,
and t = 1.75 hours.
three configurations. Thus, we would ef f ect an order of magnitude reduction i n mission fai l ures wi th the
assumed dual monitored system.
With the increased use of microelectronic ci rcui try we can expect to see continued development of moni-
tori ng techniques and greater use of dual monitored systems.
For missions o f c r i ti c al nature or of long duration, where al ternate systems are not available (e.g. ,
category I11 ai rcraf t landing systems , nuclear submarine navigation) , extensions o f these techniques i nto
tr i pl e and dual-dual systems have been made.
brati on o f i nternal functions whi l e operating, and further increase the probabi l i ty f or mission success.
Widespread use of such systems depends upon continuation of the mi ni aturi zati on trend, and the development
o f automatic tes t techniques to hol d maintenance costs t o defensible levels. Trends i n those di recti ons
are very encouraging, and we can look forward to a new era of dependability i n guidance and navigation.
we obtain an output which i s not measured di rectl y by ei ther subsystem.
meaning to work together.
courses of treatment rei nforce each other.
An important example i s the airborne doppler system which measures speed over the ground, and combines
thi s wi th time and heading to compute east and north distance traveled.
gati on system which uses angular data from the VOR, range from DME and al ti tude fromthe al ti meter t o com-
pute a 3-dimensional f i x.
or increasing r el i abi l i ty as the redundant and complementary systems do.
abi l i ty to provide a needed output which i s not available di rectl y fromany sensor. I n some systems re-
dundacy i s introduced by using mul ti pl e or al ternate subsystems t o insure that the needed measured para-
meters w i l l be available.
redundant, complementary and synergistic.
and uti l i ty, and of f er possi bi l i ti es f or reducing common mode fai l ures and errors.
wi th mul ti pl e inputs, mul ti pl e outputs, and considerable abi l i ty f or data smoothing without introducing
lags, f or performing i nternal cal i brati ons and adjustments, and f or complex processing to accomplish de-
si red combinations. Such systems typi cal l y exhi bi t a l l o f the characteri sti cs we have been describing.
Figure 4 i s a generalized block diagram o f such a system. Here the signal l i nes may represent more than
one quantity, and there could be more than two subsystems. It i s frequently convenient to perform trans-
formations represented by the blocks M1 and M2 so that the data coming from subsystems I and I 1 represent
the same parameters, even though derived fromdi fferent sensors,
sent the di fference i n measurement error i n the two subsystems and the effect of any errors i n any assumed
parameters i n the transformations. Any noiseless component of thi s difference should be a slowly varying
quantity, and smoothing processes w i l l not cause appreciable l ag i n the main data f l ow.
tem design enough systems and enough outputs should be chosen to permit the data f i l t e r to make a unique
sol uti on f or slow adjustment o f parameters that are subject to dr i f t, or are basi cal l y unknown and requi re
determination. The output o f the data f i l t e r i s shown as making adjustments i n the subsystems (the block
M i and M2 could be included) and also sending data t o K1 and K2.
and error subtraction processes, and the f i nal output data may not be combined. There may be f i nal trans-
formations i nto other quanti ti es so that the two system outputs may not have pai rs of si mi l ar quantities.
I f the data f i l t e r can be supplied wi th a mathematical model o f the dynamics of the system and a model
o f the rel ati onshi p between the measurement errors and the state o f the system i t i s possible f or the f i l t e r
to perform an optimal estimation process which minimizes errors i n the l east squares sense and redetermines
parameters used i n the model of the system. For a l i near system such a f i l t e r i s cal l ed a Kalman f i l t e r (1,
2). Nonlinear systems, may often be l i neari zed by introducing a model of the nominal desired performance
and forming the system as a l i near approximation uti l i z i ng the small differences between nominal and actua .
This i s expeci al l y useful i n space navigation ( 3 ) .
Then i n 10,000 f l i ghts we would expec? 4.4, 9.6, and 0.9 losses of functi on f or the
These increase the possi bi l i ti es f or monitoring and cal i -
We turn now t o the thi rd major class o f hybrid systems -- the synergi sti c systems. I n these systems
It i s used i n medical practi ce to describe a si tuati on i n which two di fferent
The word comes from a Greek word
The extension to hybri d systems i s straightforward.
Another example i s an area navi-
I n thei r most rudimentary form, synergi sti c systems do not have any special means f or reducing errors
Their benefi ci al feature i s the
It i s possible -- indeed, desirable, to make compound hybri d systems which are
Such systems can be designed f or great precision, rel i abi l i ty,
Rapid improvements i n data transmission and computer techniques have made it possible t o form systems
The differences should be small and repre-
I n the hybri d sys-
These represent both gai n adjustments
This method o f system organization has many desirable features besides the accuracy benefi t of the opt
mal estimate process.
which involves data rates slower than the main signal flow, and the mathematical models can be changed i n
the computer t o implement various modes involved i n s tart up, use o f al ternate subsystem inputs, degraded
subsystem performance, stoppage of data i n one subsystem, etc.
corrections can be made i n both the 84 minute and 24 hour loops on an i ntermi ttant basis without exci ti ng
osci 11 ati ons.
The data f i l ter i ng i s normally implemented with an i terati ve, sampled procedure
I f one subsystem i s an i nerti al system,
Future Hybrid Sys tems
I n the past there have been reasons f or avoiding hybri d combination of systems, and the combination
often was l e f t to the operators.
automation involved was one deterrent, and the r el i abi l i ty required o f the common elements were two
important factors. With considerable gains i n both o f these areas we can expect to see more use made o f
hybri d systems. Table 1 l i s t s some examples o f automatic hybri d systems developed i n the United States.
A considerable time span exi sts from conception to completion, and i t was not possible to obtain equiva-
l ent dates f or each system.
The canplexity, wi th attendant cost and maintenance requirements, o f the
No claim o f completeness i s made, and it i s real i zed that many equivalent
t
- 1 - Ml
Figure 4. Generalized Hybrid System.
* Kl I
c
-
systems were developed i n other countries, i n some cases earl i er.
complexity and the increasing use of redundancy and optimal estimation techniques i n recent years.
Experience wi th these systems has been so faverable that these trends can be expected to continue.
Landing accidents
s t i l l are the major safety hazard i n c i vi l aviation, and they are qui te important i n mi l i tary aviation.
Variation i n ai rport acceptance rates wi th variable weather conditions i s a serious problem i n a i r tr af f i c
control. Diversion to al ternate ai rports i s costl y to ai rcraf t operators and passengers. Reserve fuel
requirements i n anti ci pati on of diversion i s a continual operational cost. Rough landing i n l arge ai r-
craf t causes substantial maintenance cost. The increase i n ai rcraf t wi th di fferent glideslope charac-
teri s ti cs and the need for operation wi th cl oser runway spacing and curved paths on f i nal approach a l l
require a di fferent type o f reference signal. A substantial number of accidents occur close i n, but
before acquiring glideslope signal.
development effort w i l l be needed during the next decade. Landing requirements are parti cul arl y sui ted
for hybri d systems. Mul ti pl e redundant sources o f data, processed i n a complementary fashion i n mul ti pl e
channels wi th extensive output comparisons are typi cal of new f l i ght control systems.
inputs are used i n the f l are phase.
and careful monitoring t o detect fai l ures are also being developed.
degree of r el i abi l i ty and preci si on wi th the present I LS and permit landings under Category I11 conditions.
As new radi o guidance systems provide f l exi bl e and precise gl i de slopes, the f l i ght control systems o f
the future should provide a l l the desired features.
terrai n avoidance and runway surveillance system. This depends upon the radi o guidance system uti l i z ed
i n the future.
The area of a i r tr af f i c control, both mi l i tary and c i vi l , i s another f i el d requi ri ng hybri d systems.
I n the United States the overal l a i r tr af f i c control system cannot real l y be considered a system from the
control theory viewpoint. Some aspects of i t s operation can be modeled as systems, some i nvol vi ng i nter-
actions wi th pi l ots and control l ers. The most urgent need i s , of course, t o increase ai rport capacity i n
major transportation hubs. The landing system improvements ci ted above w i l l be qui te hel pful , especially
i f accompanied wi th compatible construction o f runways and taxiways. Further ef f orts are needed t o
upgrade the control system by ti ghter connection of surveillance, navigation, pi l ot and control l er.
Besides the upgrading o f survei l l ance and navigation, i t seems essential to improve the comnunication
between the pi l ot and control l er, as wel l as between control l ers. An integrated message switching and
processing network incorporating a pol l ed air-ground-air di gi tal data transmission l i nk appears appropriate.
Such a l i nk could transmit i denti ty, position, al ti tude, ETA f or the next checkpoint, and perhaps other
parameters, and permit short pi l ot messages.
and control l er i nstructi ons.
transceivers and the remote ground UHF stations i n such a way that could be extended to s atel l i te use
l ater i f that became feasible.
It i s i nteresti ng to note the growing
One o f the areas wi th intense hybri d system acti vi ty i s ai rcraf t landing systems.
I n view o f a l l these problems it seems evident that i ntensi ve
Radar al ti meter
Extensive capabi l i ty f o r system reconfiguration i n case o f fai l ures
These new systems w i l l bri ng a new
I t may be necessary t o add some type o f independent
The upl i nk could transmit information such as weather data
It would seem most practi cal to s tart by modi fi cati on o f airborne VHF
DATA
FILTER.
It should be possible by ti ghteni ng the comnunication, posi ti on reporting, surveillance, and data
processing loops to form functional subsystems wi th abi l i ty to handle more tr af f i c safely. With thi s
functional capabi l i ty it should be possible t o develop and implement a more canprehensive strategy o f
a i r tr af f i c control (4).
control environment an area navigation capabi l i ty uti l i z i ng VOR/DME and a i r data, as wel l as i nerti al
navigation i n some instances, would appear to be qui te useful. More airways f or enroute use could be
reduced. Studies have shown (5) that si gni fi cant improvements i n accuracy and control characteri sti cs
can be obtained by optimal combination of a i r data wi th VOR/DME, and even greater improvements are
avai l abl e wi th i nerti al navigation combined wi th the radi o data (6).
Ai rcraf t navigation i s i n need o f upgrading f or several applications.
I n the domestic a i r tr af f i c
- I1 - M2 '
t
I
' K2
c
I - 7
One of the major steps f or increasing capacity l i es i n achieving greater regul ari ty i n arri val
spacing a t the landing decision point. Without having a f ul l y developed theory as a basis i t s t i l l
seems possible t o foresee some useful aspects. The runway capacity increases as the regul ari ty of.
arri val increases.
design. It would usually be benefi ci al i f ai rcraf t could arri ve a t a decision poi nt a t the assigned
time wi th a standard deviation o f about 3 - 5 seconds. Since the cost o f assigning and control l i ng
ai rcraft throughout the airspace to thi s precision would be prohi bi ti ve, it seems essential to seek
means for improving the regul ari zi ng functi on as ai rcraf t near the ai rport. If a widespread strategi c
scheduling of ai rcraf t (i ncl udi ng the effect of any uncontrolled f l i ght which would be permitted) could
prevent severe peaks i n arri val rates and parti al l y regul ari ze the traf f i c, it might be feasi bl e to
bui l d an effecti ve regul ari zi ng procedure around area navigation systems. Discrete, predefined routes,
wi th shortcut and stretched alternates, and a small amount of speed control could be used wi th an area
navigation system capable o f canputing ETA'S and deri vi ng steering information f or a small set o f pre-
defined three-dimensional routes. The route- structure should include transi ti ons to other runways since
shi.fts i n runway use cause severe delays at congested ai rports.
and helicopters i n c i vi l operation may possibly fit i nto the area navigation comnents above, but there
may be a problem of adequate geographical coverage due t o the lower al ti tude operation.
geographical extreme there s t i l l exi sts a need f or improved ai rcraf t navigation over ocean areas.
it i s very di f f i c ul t to predi ct which approaches w i l l be favored i n the future.
i nerti al systems w i l l be used by many ai rcraft, and that the total system w i l l be a hybri d system.
There are points made i n favor o f mul ti pl e i nerti al systems, or i nerti al i n combination wi th Loran C y
Omega, or s atel l i te systems. Preference w i l l depend upon economic factors, the extent to which radi o
ai d coverage i s extended, and the value placed on surveillance and communication.
Dependence
upon i nerti al techniques w i l l continue to expand. The precision o f the position, atti tude, and vel oci ty
data desired requires augmenting data from one or more other sources.
most used systems.
provide practi cal augmentation.
Strandings and col l i si ons s t i l l cause heavy
losses i n both c i vi l and naval operations.
attenti on and resources to navigational equipment, that a si gni fi cant amount o f tr af f i c control should
be used i n congested areas, and that automatic means of col l i s i on hazard evaluation should be attached
to marine radars. A l l o f these areas could benefi t from hybri d systems.
We have seen si gni fi cant demonstrations o f space navigation capabi l i ty i n the past year. The use
o f several sensors i n various combinations i n the di fferent mission phases i s essential. It i s i nter-
esti ng t o note that we are l earni ng t o use man more effecti vel y i n space navigation whi l e we are learning
to automate more extensively i n ai rcraf t navigation.
The poi nt of diminishing return i n regul ari ty depends upon ai rcraf t mix and runway
There are, o f course, other navigational needs which should be met. The special needs of V/STOL
A t the other
Here
It i s evident that
There i s considerable need f or improvement i n tacti cal mi l i tary ai rcraf t navigation.
Doppler and Loran have been the
We await the resul ts o f the 6216 development program to see i f that system w i l l
We should make bri ef mention of marine requirements.
It would seem that ship operators should devote more
I have attempted to i l l us trate hybri d system approaches wi th examples of common i nterest to both
c i vi l and mi l i tary operations.
detai l ed t o treat here. We can look forward to an extensive sampling o f present progress i n the papers
to follow.
There are, o f course, many other, more specialized requirements too
References
(1)
R. E. Kalman, A New Approach to Linear F i l teri ng and P rediction Problems. J . Basic Engr. gJ:
I 35-45. 1960.
(2) H. W. Sorenson, Kalman F i l teri ng Techniques.
- 3: 219-292. Academic Press, New York. 1966.
(3) S. F. Schmidt, Application of State-space Methods to Navigation Problems.
Advances i n Control S stems 3: 293-340. Academic Press. 1966.
I n Leondes, C. T. ed. Advances i n Control Systems
I n Leondes, C. T. ed.
I
' - T o r n o T k 3 - t an Gene R. Marner, Separation Hazard Cri teri a. Col l i ns Radio ReDort. Dec. 1968.
(5) Norbert B. Hemesath, The Optimum Complementation o f VOR/DME wi th A i r Data, J oi nt Automatic
(6) D. H. Meyer, N. B. Hemesath and H. M. Schweighofer, Complementing VOR/DME wi th INS--an improved
Control Conference, Princeton, August 1969.
navigation system, National Business Ai rcraf t Meeting, Wichita, March 1969.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement i s given f or assistance from, and sti mul ati ng discussion with, colleagues E. 0. Frye,
N. B. Hemesath, J . M. Hol t and R. L. Sebeny.
questionnaire.
Thanks are also due many fri ends who repl i ed t o a system
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I
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM
OPERATED I N CONJ UNCTION WITH A USER INERTIAL SYSTEM
B P. Leonard* and J B Woodford**
* Systems Engineering Operations, Aerospace CorporAtion,
El Segundo, California
** Advanced Orbital Systems Di rectorate, System Planning Division,
Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California
2
i
2- 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATELLI TE NAVIGATION SYSTEM
OPERATED I N CONJ UNCTION WITH A USER INERTIAL SYSTEM
B. P. Leonard*, J . B. Woodford
The Aerospace Corporation
t
1. Introduction
Navigation systems, because of thei r relatively high cost, are preferably designed to serve a broad
class of users.
navigation systems are given below:
Wide Area or Global Coverage
Continuous Availability
Three-dimension Position and Velocity Fixes
Real Time Measurements
Accuracy to a Few Tens of Feet i n Position
Accuracy to a Fraction of a Foot Per Second i n Velocity
Usable on Rapidly Maneuvering Vehicles
No Radiation from User - - No System Saturation
Equipment Adaptable to Many Cl asses of Users
Totally Self -Contained
A set of system properti es which will satisfy the requirements of virtually all users of
No system possesses all of these features.
satellite-based navigation aid coupled with an inertial navigator can provide a viable approximation to
them.
performance of this system when coupled with an inertial platform.
However, a hybrid system composed of a high precision
This paper will first descri be such a satellite-based navigation aid and will indicate the attainable
2. Satellite -Based Navigation Aid
Many possible satellite-based navigation systems have been defined. This section descri bes a
specific system concept which possesses all but the last feature listed above, and al so is available with
present technology. The system uses what is termed pseudo range and range-rate measurements which
are defined as one-way range and range-rate measurements made by the use of a non-synchronized user
clock.
four satellites in order to obtain a 3-dimensional fix.
order to maintain deployment flexibility.
established which can be extended to global coverage.
Four satellites are placed i n 24 hour orbits, three of which are elliptical inclined orbits, so phased that
The user is passive while making a navigational fix. Simultaneous measurements are made on
Twenty-four hour satellite periods are used in
By the use of these orbits, wide area coverage can initially be
A conceptual di agram of the system approach as deployed for regional coverage is shown in Fig. 1.
//-COMMAND 8 TRACKING
Fig. .l . Navigation System Configuration
*
Vice Presi dent and General Manager, Systems Engineering Operations, Aerospace Corporation,
El Segundo, Calif.
Aerospace Corporation, El Segundo, Calif.
'Associate Group Director, Advanced Orbital Systems Directorate, System Planning Division,
2 -2
\y ....... .....,. . .
.......
....... .
EARTH-FIXED COORDINATES ......
INERTIAL COORDINATES
Fig. 2 . Orbital Deployment--Two Views
Fig. 3 . Pseudo-Ranging to Four Satellites
they appear from the earth to follow a common ci rcul ar path.
equatorial orbit appears to be in the center of the configuration.
"Y" in the sky.
Figure 2 shows two views.of the orbital deployment.
constellation to an observer rotating with the earth.
i nerti al coordinates.
that thei r positions be accurately determined in geodetic coordinates. Figure 1 indicates the method by
which satellite positions are determined.
tially acquires the four satel l i tes and, for a period of several minutes, measures range and range-rate
using the 2-way path from the master station to the satel l i tes.
gravitational potential, the satellite ephemerides are determined.
An arbi trary
set of coordinates, X, Y, and Z , are introduced i n which the satel l i te positions are assumed to be known
and i n which the user wishes to obtain his position and velocity.
user.
modulation.
modulation.
i n order that the signals may be distinguished by the user.
position fix is determined from these signals.
the same signal as generated by the user's unsynchronized clock.
quality quartz crystal oscillator of the type commonly incorporated in high-grade field equipment.
The fourth satellite i n near synchronous-
The four satel l i tes appear as a rotating
Such a constellation of satellites provides a near optimum geometry for navigation.
The left hand drawing shows the appearance of the
The right hand figure shows the same situation i n
Since the satellite positions form the reference from which navigation is performed, i t is essenti al
A master tracking station containing a tracking antenna sequen-
From these data and a model of the-earth's
Figure 3 i l l ustrates the process by which the user obtains a position and velocity fix.
Each satellite transmi ts a signal to the
These signals contain identifiable range codes modulated upon the carri er, typically by biphase
The signals al so contain the equivalent of satellite ephemerides as a low data rate, additipnal
The signals are ei ther at different carri er frequencies or are modulated by orthogonal codes
Figure 4 i l l ustrates the method by which a
This clock typically would be a high
By
A typical signal from one satellite is shown together with
i
2 - 3
I
--TINE
SIGNAL FROM 1 1 1 L I L 1 1 1 1 I
ONE SATELLITE
SIGNAL FROM tT-i
USER CLOCK a- -
PSEUDO-RANGE Tj *C= J(X-Xj )' t (Y-Yj )' + ( Z- Zj ) * - 6 . C
C IS SPEED OF LIGHT
'IiERE A IS LAG OF USER CLOCK
SINCE Xj,Yj,Zj:S ARE KNOWN, 4 Tj k ALLOW SOLUTION FOR
USER POSITION ( X ,Y, Z AND A
Fig. 4. Position Determination
WHERE THE DOT INDICATES TIME DIFFERENTIATION
0 SINCE X,Y,Z, Xj , yi , Zj , Xj,j,ij, ARE KNOWN,4 i's ALLOW SOLUTION
FOR USER VELOCITY ( X, i , Z ) AND A (USER CLOCK FREOUENCY BIAS )
Fig. 5. Velocity Determination
means of a correlation detector, the time shift between a satellite signal and the user clock i s determined.
This time shift ("T" in Fig. 4) i s the difference between the time of travel of light from e satellite to the
tions of the four satellites can be expressed as a set of four non-linear algebraic equations in four unknowns
(three components of user position and the clock bias).
chronized as one of the ground station functions, the user clock bias i s the same in each of these equations.
If the geometry of the user relative to the satellites i s appropriate, these equations can be solved for the
user position and the clock bias. In particular, the satellite geometry shown in Fig. 2 i nsures the exis-
tence of this solution.
Doppler extraction techniques, four equations with user velocity as unknown may be written and solved for
the user velocity in three dimensions.
position and velocity is normally made in a modest digital computer of the sort used in an integrated
avionics system.
in more modest user equipment.
The desi red accuracy of a few tens of feet in position and a fraction of a foot-per-second in velocity
requi res a more careful system calibration than has s o far been implied.
by which this can be accomplished. The same navigation signal which i s received by the user is received
at the master station and at two or more calibration stations. Although Fig. 6 shows the reception of the
signal from a single satellite, in actuality the signals are received at each station from al l four satellites.
Pseudo range measurements 'at each station are made and the resul ts of these measurements are returned
using a data link through the center satellite to the master station. At the master station, the implied
position of each station is computed in the same manner as a user would compute his position. These are
compared with the surveyed position of each station and corrections are made in the assumed satellite
positions and satellite clock bi ases in order to eliminate the difference between apparent and surveyed
station locations. This process, in addition, removes residual errors due to ionospheric propagation
anomalies. The system calibration procedure i s summarized in Fig. 7.
ibility of four satellites allows continuous 3 -dimensional navigation.
are continuously visible provides navigation all of the time providing user altitude i s independently known,
and provides continuous 3-dimensional navigation during portions of the day when four satellites are vis -
ible. Figure 9 shows global system coverage when three constellations of five satellites each are
deployed. In each constellation, four satellites are placed in the inclined elliptic orbit and the additional
satellite i s in near synchronous-equatorial orbit.
Fig. 10.
introduction can be achieved using present technology.
user and the lag of the user clock. Four T.'s as measured from the four satellites toget 4Rer with the posi-
Since the signals from the four satellites a're syn-
If, at the same time as the pseudo ranges are measured, the rate of change is measured by normal
This process i s summarized in Fig. 5. The computation of user
If l ess than full accuracy i s required, many simplifications are possible which result
1
Figure 6 i l l ustrates a means
Figure 8 shows the coverage from a single constellation as described. The area of continuous vi s-
The area in which three satellites
The error performance' of this system has been analyzed considering the error sources listed in
It has been determined that, within the area of coverage, the desired accuracy as given in the
1
1
2- 4
Fig. 6. System Calibration
0 ORBITS DETERMINED FROM MASTER STATION
RANGE MEASUREMENTS
oSATfLLITE CLOCK BIAS DETERMINED AT MASTER
STATION BY COMPARING NAVIGATION SIGNAL
WITH MEASURED RANGE
Fig. 8. Continuous Coverage' Contours and Satellite Ground Trace
for a Four-Satellite Constellation
\
0ORBl T AND CLOCK PARAMETERS ADJUSTED TO
GIVE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN REAL AND
APPARENT LOCATION OF MASTER AND
CALIBRATION STATIONS
Fig. 7. System Calibration Summary
2- 5
014 TO 7 I3-DIMENSIONS
i NTERYITrENl COVERAGE
WVERAGE FOR i =30&, 8 =a30
MINIMUM ELEVATION MGLE 3 5d89
THREE CONSWTI ONS OF FIVE SATELLITES EACH
Fig. 9. Coverage for Fifteen Deployed Satellites
SATELLITE TRACKING ERRORS 3. Hybrid Systems
STATION LOCATION
RANGE MEASUREMENT
0 EARTHMOML
SATELLITE CLOCK DRiFT
AUXILIARY STATION CLOCK DRIFT
As has been mentioned, a satellite naviga-
tion system possesses many desirable features,
but is not completely self-contained. Reliance
on external signal sources makes the system
vulnerable to loss of satellite signals through
ground station or satellite failure, interference,
or other causes.
system i s totally self-contained but has irreduo-
ible drift characteristics which become signific-
MULTIPATH
ant over a few tens of minutes to a few hours of
IONOSPHERIC UNCERTAINTIES operation depending upon user requirements. A
TROPOSPHERIC UNCERTAINTIES
hybrid system in which an inertial system is
updated by means of a satellite-based radio navi-
gation system possesses a number of features
RECEIVER NOISE
RECEIVER PRECISION which neither system bas alone. In particular,
the high accuracy and freedom from drift of the
satellite-based system are retained and the
inertial system provides the means for continued
navigation if the satellite signals should be lost.
Owing to the precision with which an inertial
system can be aligned by making use of the satel-
On the other hand an inertial
RANGE MEASUREMENT ERRORS
GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION
Fig. 10. Error Sources Considered
lite system, the inertial navigation accuracy, even with the loss of the satellite signal, exceeds that of
the inertial platform alone. Figure 11 shows a simplified block diagram of such a hybrid system. The
position and velocity outputs of the t wo systems are applied to a Kalman filter. I n the example illustrated.
a 21 -element state vector is used.
the 21 parameters. The initial errors are then subtracted from the inertially derived position and veloc-
i ty to obtain a beet preeent estimate of position and velocity. In addition, the estimates of the other
errors can be used to align and calibrate the inertial system and to make fine corrections to the satellite
navigation receiver clock.
4.
The state vector consists of the optimum entimate of the errors of
Performance of theHybrid System
A covariant matrix error analysis of the hybrid system has been performed.* The errors utilimed
in this analysis are listed in Fig. 12. These values armconsidered representative of attainableperfor-
mance, but should not be considered to be the performance of any specific system.
Figure 13 shows the hybrid wvigation syetem errors for 400 seconds. Also shown i s the inertial
system performance from 200 to 400 seconds assuming the satellite system is not in use during that
period.
the 400-second period the velocity accuracies approach the order of 0.1 foot-per-second.
ations in the carrier result from the sequential filter update process used in the analysis.
It can be seen that the position accuracies rapidly approach the level of a few tens of feet. Over
The undul-
With the loss
*
The authors acknowledge the contribution of Dr. L. L. Hagerman, Aerospace Corporation, who
performed the error analyeis.
2- 6
----------
STATE VECTOR ! PLATFORY ERRORS !
0 INERTIAL SYSTEM fl5 PARAMETERS)
I
3 POSITIONS
3 VELOCITIES
3 TILTS
3 GYRO DRIFTS
3 ACCELEROMETER BIASES
1 1 I i
VELOCITY FILTER
0 SATELLITE SYSTEM (6 PARAMETERS)
4 RANGE BIASES I
CLOCK TIME
CLOCK FREQUENCY
Fig. 11. Kalman Filter Used With Hybrid System
INERTIAL SYSTEM SATELLllE S m E M of the satellite system, the inertial system errorB
grow rapidly.
later.
0 MEASUREMEW UNCERTAINTIES
Figure 14 shows the inertial system alignment
noRn mmow 141 n RANGE 5 F l
errors utilising the satellite system.
VERT POSITION l WFl RANGE RITE 0.2 FPS
HORlZ VUOCm 1.4 FPS
are the errors assuming loss of the satellite system
VERT VELOCIW IO F K at 200 seconds. Wi th the satellite system. the
errors approach the order of 0. 001 radians over
the 400-second period. Also, it can be seen that
TILT 2.
Ul" 3. A f l F
YERT ~ . O! A s lo$ losing the satellite system after having made the
initial improvement in alignment causes a relatively
slow propagation of the errors.
the inertial system accuracies will be better, even
with loss of the satellite system. than they would
have been without the benefit of the satellite system
initially. Figure 15 demonstrates thi. effect. It
can be seen that, for each parameter, the perform-
ance with initial alignment by the satellite system
lies between that following a sophisticated initial
More will be said about this cane
INITIAL ERRORS
Shown also
0 CLOCK ERROR
10-0
This implies that
DISNRYNCES
KCELEROYETERS 10ARC SEC
61RoS 0.01 ' / MR
Fig. 12. Errors Used i n Analysis
alignment and an assumed perfect alignment.
system aligned performance closely approaches that of perfect alignment.
Also, with the exception of horiaontal position. the satellite
summary
In summary. a hybrid satellitelinertial navigation system can provide virtually all of the desirable
Finally, the inertial system provides greater performance if
features for a navigation system.
be used separately, providing redundancy.
initialized by the satellite system rather than by conventional methods.
Used together. they provide great precision. If necessary. either can
HORIZONTAL
POSITION ERROR
FT,CEP
3.6 A
3.0
2.4 '-
1.8 - -
1.2 -.
z o . 0
-
0
,
HORIZONTAL
VELOCITY ERROR
FPS, CEP
ALTITUDE
ERROR
FT, IC
VERTICAL
VELOCITY ERROR
FPS, I c
60
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
40
I
I
eo c I
I
I
I
I
I
60 ' 7
I
I
I
/
/
.
40 -
- 0 100 so0 400
TIME FCONDS
- HYBRID PERFORMANCE ---- HYBRID PERFORMASE
0 - 400 SEC 0-200 SEC
INERTIALOWLY zoo-400 sa
Fig. 13. Hybrid Navigation Errors
0.06 1
n
AZIMUTH
ERROR
RADIANS, l o
ALIGNMENT 0.04
ERROR 0.02
VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
TIME- SECONDS
- HYBRID PERFORMINCE 0-400 SEC
----- ni eni o PERFORMANCE 0-200 SEC
INERTIAL ONLY 200-400 SEC
Fig. 14. Alignment Errors
TIME-SECONDS
2- 7
2.- 8
16 r A
30
2 5 1
HORIZONTAL
VELOCITY
ERROR-
FPS-CEP
i i
I I
i'
VERTICAL
VELOCITY
ERROR-
FPS. I E
" 0 I 2 3 4 5
TIME-HOURS
---- PERFECT ALIGNMENT ' -.-.- OPTICALGROUND ALIGNMENT
20 SLC TILT
0 SEC Ul YUTW
- NAV SAT ALIGNMENT mn QO SEC
Fig. 15. Errors--Inertial System Onl y
3
A G L O B A L NAVIGATION/TRAFFIC SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION
S A T E L L I T E SYSTEM FOR MILITARY A N D C I V I L V E H I C L E S
Michael W.Mitchel1
RCA, Defense Electronic Products,
Plans and Systems Development
3
'I
3-1
A GLOBAL NAVI GATI ON/ TRAFFI C SURVEILLANCE/COMMUNICATION
SATELLI TE SYSTEMFOR MI LI TARY AND CI VI L VEHI CLES
Mi chael W. Mi t chel l
RCA, Def ense El ect r oni c Pr oduct s,
Pl ans and Syst ems Devel opment
summar y
The Speed, Posi t i on and Tr ack ( SPOT) syst emsi mul t aneousl y pr ovi des pr eci se posi t i on
and vel oci t y det er mi nat i ons of vehi cl es on or near t he sur f ace of t he ear t h and dat a
communi cat i ons bet ween t hese vehi cl es and r emot el y l ocat ed gr ound st at i ons. By empl oyi ng
speci al l y f or mat t ed RF si gnal s, t he same RF channel s pr ovi de passi ve ( sel f ) navi gat i on
ser vi ces t o user s i n l i ne of si ght of t he sat el l i t es, and t r af f i c sur vei l l ance and
dat a t r ansf er bet ween cooper at i ve user s and gr ound cont r ol cent er s.
gener at ed and t r ansmi t t ed t o sat el l i t es, and r et ur n si gnal s ar e pr ocessed f or t r af f i c
sur vei l l ance, dat a t r ansf er and synchr oni zat i on pur poses: ( 2) a net wor k of synchr onous
( 24- hour or bi t s) sat el l i t es whi ch r el ay RF si gnal s f r omt he gr ound st at i ons t o a f i el d
of user s and back: and ( 3 ) t he user i nst r ument at i on wher e t he navi gat i on and dat a si gnal s
ar e pr ocessed f or a posi t i on f i x, and/ or t r ansponded back t hr ough t he sat el l i t es t o t he
gr ound cont r ol st at i on f or t r af f i c sur vei l l ance pur poses.
t hat t he RF band bet ween 1000 and 3000 MHz of f er ed a good choi ce f or car r i er f r equenci es.
At L- band, posi t i on f i x accur aci es of 500 f eet can be achi eved over t f ansoceani c di st ances,
and i mpr ovement s of an or der of magni t ude ar e possi bl e wi t hi n r el at i ve di st ances of a
f ewhundr ed mi l es.
The syst emi s composed of ( 1) gr ound cont r ol st at i ons wher e t he RF si gnal s ar e
Anal yses and t r adeof f s of syst emer r or sour ces and equi pment r equi r ement s i ndi cat ed
For anal og voi ce communi cat i ons st eer abl e phased ar r ay ant ennas on t he sat el l i t es
pr ovi de r el at i vel y l ow power r equi r ement s f or t he sat el l i t e t o ai r cr af t l i nks whi l e
mai nt ai ni ng f ul l ear t h cover age.
I nt r oduct i on
Pr oj ect i ons of ai r and mar i ne t r af f i c over ocean ar eas and bet ween cont i nent s
dur i ng t he next decade have caused many gr oups concer ned wi t h t he saf et y and cont r ol
of i nt er nat i onal vehi cul ar t r af f i c t o r e- exami ne t he adequacy of exi st i ng navi gat i on
and t r af f i c cont r ol syst ems (1). The consensus has been t hat t her e i s a r equi r ement
f or :
1. Reduci ng ai r cr af t separ at i on st andar ds i n t r ansoceani c t r avel t o accommodat e
i ncr eased t r af f i c, par t i cul ar l y i n t he pr ef er r ed r out es bet ween Nor t h
Amer i ca and Eur ope dur i ng peak per i ods.
2. Pr ovi di ng sur vei l l ance of ai r cr af t at gr ound based t r af f i c cont r ol cent er s
on a cont i nuous avai l abi l i t y basi s.
3. Pr ovi di ng i mpr oved ai r t o gr ound communi cat i ons t o assur e r el i abl e, di r ect
pi l ot - t o- cont r ol l er i nf or mat i on t r ansf er , especi al l y over ocean ar eas wher e
pr esent HF communi cat i ons ar e i nadequat e.
Space syst ems appear t o of f er ver y pr omi si ng, cost ef f ect i ve sol ut i ons t o t he
above pr obl ems and can be i mpl ement ed wel l wi t hi n t he t i me f r ame of i nt er est . Thei r
pr i nci pal advant age i s t he ext r emel y l ar ge cover age ar ea wi t hi n l i ne- of - si ght of
sat el l i t es, par t i cul ar l y at synchr onous al t i t ude. The sel ect i on of RF car r i er
f r equenci es f or t r ansmi t t i ng or r el ayi ng si gnal s f r omt hese pl at f or ms t o vehi cl es on
or near t he sur f ace of t he ear t h i s not r est r i ct ed t o t hose f r equenci es associ at ed
wi t h gr ound based RF syst ems whi ch use gr ound waves t o achi eve ext ended r ange cover age.
I nst ead, hi gher f r equenci es can be ut i l i zed t o mi ni mi ze t he ef f ect s of at mospher i c,
i onospher i c and mul t i pat h at t enuat i on and di st or t i on. These hi gher f r equenci es
ar e i nst r ument al i n pr ovi di ng t he r el i abl e, 24 hour / day ser vi ces demanded of f ut ur e
syst ems.
ext ensi ve st udy ( 2) t o pr ovi de t he essent i al ser vi ces of a gl obal navi gat i on/ t r af f i c
cont r ol syst emwhi l e meet i ng cr i t er i a of hi gh r el i abi l i t y, l ong l i f e, RF spect r um
conser vat i on, si mpl e aut omat i c oper at i on, and gr owt h pot ent i al at a cost whi ch woul d
be at t r act i ve t o a mul t i t ude of pr ospect i ve user s,
Syst emConcept
si de t ones. Phase angl es of t he si de t ones ar e compar ed wi t h a r ef er enke t o det er mi ne
r ange bet ween t he sat el l i t es and user . The syst emel ement s ar e gr ound cont r ol st at i ons,
a space segment composed of sat el l i t es i n 24- hour or bi t s, and t he user equi pment s.
The SPOT sat el l i t e syst emconcept descr i bed i n t hi s paper i s t he r esul t of an
SPOT i s a sat el l i t e- r angi ng t echni que whi ch ut i l i zes a CWcar r i er modul at ed wi t h
3- 2
Pr eci se posi t i on and vel oci t y measur ement s of mobi l e vehi cl es ar e achi eved i n bot h
a sur vei l l ance ( i ndependent det er mi nat i on by a gr ound t r af f i c cont r ol cent er ) and
user - navi gat i on mode. Al so, t wo way di gi t al dat a communi cat i ons f or shor t r epor t s and
advi sor i es ar e obt ai ned f r omt he same channel s by phase shi f t keyi ng ( PSK) t he t ones.
For wi de band di gi t al dat a or anal og voi ce communi cat i ons, addi t i onal r el ay equi pment
can be pl aced i n t he same sat el l i t es.
RF Sel ect i on
Anal ysi s and t r adeof f s of envi r onment al and desi gn par amet er s associ at ed wi t h
i onospher i c r ef r act i on, at mospher i cs, ext r at er r est i al and manmade noi se, space l oss
( ant enna aper t ur e si ze) , and t he st at e- of - t he- ar t of RF equi pment l ed t o t he sel ect i on
of car r i er f r equenci es bet ween 1 t o 3 GHz f or t he f unct i ons of navi gat i on and sur vei l l ance
( 3) . The aer onaut i cal r adi o- navi gat i on band bet ween 1540 MHz and 1660 MHz ( L- band)
pr esent s a good choi ce f or t hi s ser vi ce. Posi t i on f i x accur aci es ( 1 nmi ) ar e r eal i zabl e
f or most navi gat i on/ t r af f i c cont r ol r equi r ement s wi t hout t he need f or i onospher i c
cal i br at i ons or speci al cor r ect i on t abl es, and much bet t er pr eci si ons ar e achi evabl e
wi t h appr opr i at el y desi gned equi pment and oper at i ons. Equi pment si ze and wei ght i s
smal l ( an i mpor t ant f eat ur e f or ai r cr af t ) , and power r equi r ement s at t he sat el l i t e and
user ar e modest f or t he nar r ow band si gnal s used i n t he navigation/surveillance/data
f unct i ons. Al so, consi der abl e r oomf or gr owt h i s avai l abl e at L- band f or i ncr eased
demands beyond t he next decade.
For t he anal og voi ce channel s, however , RF power r equi r ement s ar e r el at i vel y hi gh
at L- band compar ed t o VHF ( 130 MHz) . t he i mpor t ant l i nks under consi der at i on her e ar e
t hose bet ween sat el l i t es and ai r cr af t . I t became evi dent ear l y i n t hi s st udy t hat si mpl i ci t y
i n user equi pment desi gn and oper at i on i s ver y i mpor t ant t o t he encour agement of br oad
user par t i ci pat i on. For ai r cr af t , i t i s pr ef er r abl e t o use omni di r ect i onal or hemi -
spher i cal beamant ennas t o avoi d t he need f or sat el l i t e t r acki ng or beamswi t chi ng i n
mi dj our ney. Al so, smal l ant enna si zes keep i nst al l at i on cost s down and l end t hemsel ves
t o bet t er mul t i pat h r ej ect i on. The appar ent quest i on was how t o synt hesi ze t he var i ous
el ement s i n t he syst emt o achi eve t hese goal s at L- band. A sol ut i on was of f er ed by
i ncor por at i ng phased ar r ay ant ennas wi t h aut omat i c st eer i ng capabi l i t i es on t he sat el l i t es.
The desi gn f eat ur es of t hi s subsyst emar e di scussed l at er i n t he sect i on deal i ng wi t h
voi ce communi cat i on.
The net r esul t of t he above t r adeof f s l ed t o t he sel ect i on of an L- band sat el l i t e
syst emf or al l f unct i ons of navi gat i on and t r af f i c cont r ol .
Measur ement Techni que
i n Fi gur e 1. The gr ound cont r ol cent er ( GCC) cont i nuousl y t r ansmi t s an RF car r i er
modul at ed by a t one of l ower f r equency t o Sat el l i t e A. Ther e, t he si gnal i s f r equency
t r ansl at ed and r epeat ed t o a f i el d of user s on or near t he ear t h' s sur f ace. At any
i nst ant of t i me, poi nt s i n t he user f i el d havi ng t he same l i ne- of - si ght r ange f r omt he
sat el l i t e wi l l exper i ence t he same phase of t he t one.
The phase angl e can be measur ed by compar i son wi t h an osci l l at or at t he user
l ocat i on ( passi ve navi gat i on mode) whi ch i s i n t i me- synchr oni zat i on wi t h t he GCC' s osci l l a-
t or , or by havi ng t he user t r anspond t he si gnal back t o t he GCC ( sur vei l l ance mode)
wher e t he r et ur n si gnal can be compar ed wi t h t he gener at ed si gnal . By connect i ng t he
poi nt s of equal phase i n t he user f i el d, a sur f ace of a spher e i s gener at ed wi t h t he
sat el l i t e at t he cent er . The i nt er sect i on of t hi s spher e wi t h t he sur f ace of t he ear t h
or a geocent r i c spher e of know al t i t ude, wi l l r esul t i n a ci r cul ar l i ne of posi t i on ( LOP) .
By i ncl udi ng a second sat el l i t e ( b) i n t he syst em, a second LOP can be gener at ed and t he
i nt er sect i on of t he t wo LOP' S wi l l r esul t i n t he l ocat i on of t wo poi nt s, I t i s assumed
t hat suf f i ci ent dat a wi l l be avai l abl e t o t he GCC or navi gat or t o det er mi ne whi ch poi nt
r epr esent s t he user . For i nst ance, i f bot h sat el l i t es ar e i n synchr onous equat or i al
or bi t s, one poi nt woul d be i n t he Nor t her n Hemi spher e and t he ot her i n t he Sout her n
Hemi spher e. A t hi r d sat el l i t e woul d pr ovi de unambi guous posi t i on l ocat i on, i ncl udi ng
al t i t ude f or ai r cr af t . A t hi r d sat el l i t e can be used al so t o pr ovi de a t i mi ng r ef er ence,
al l owi ng f or a hyper bol i c f i x mode. Thi s i s descr i bed i n a subsequent par agr aph.
The pr i nci pl e i nvol ved i n navi gat i ng by phase angl e measur ement s i s demonst r at ed
Ambi gui t i es r esul t i ng f r omt he r epet i t i on of phase angl e measur ement s ever y t one
cycl e need t o be r esol ved al so. Thi s can be done by addi ng t ones of l ower f r equency
unt i l t he equi val ent r ange of t he l owest t one ( wavel engt h) i s suf f i ci ent l y l ong f or
non- ambi guous posi t i on f i xes. Fi gur e 2 i l l ust r at es t he r el at i onshi p of t one f r equency
t o l ane wi dt hs and r ange pr eci si on, t he l at t er based on r esol vi ng phase angl es t o 5 0 . Not e
t hat t he t r af f i c sur vei l l ance mode l ane wi dt hs and r ange pr eci si ons ar e one- hal f as
l ong as t he passi ve navi gat i on mode. Thi s i s due t o t he doubl i ng of r ange f or t he RF
si gnal i n t he sur vei l l ance mode. Fr omFi gur e 2 a hi gh t one of 8 kHz pr ovi des a r ange
pr eci si on of . 517 km ( . 2 8 nmi ) , suf f i ci ent t o meet a r equi r ement of 1 nmi ( 1. 85 km)
posi t i on f i x accur acy i n t he user ' s navi gat i onal ( hor i zont al ) pl ane. Thi s t one has
a l ane wi dt h of . 20. 4 nmi ( 37. 7 km) , t hus r equi r i ng t he l ower t one t o have a r ange
pr eci si on wi t hi n t hi s l i mi t t o assur e t hat t he cor r ect hi gh t one l ane i s i dent i f i ed
dur i ng t he posi t i on det er mi nat i on pr ocess. Pr act i cal equi pment consi der at i ons, however ,
l i mi t t he hi gh- t o- l ow t one r at i o t o appr oxi mat el y 16, i ndi cat i ng a l ow t one of 500 Hz. Thi s
t one pr ovi des a non- ambi guous l ane wi dt h of at l east 326 nrni ( 603 km) and can be r esol ved
wel l wi t hi n t he f i ne t one r equi r ement s. As a gr owt h f eat ur e addi t i onal t ones can be
added, such as a 64 kHz t one t o pr ovi de 0. 1 nrni ( . 185 km) posi t i on f i x accur aci es, by
t he GCC wi t hout r equi r i ng any modi f i cat i ons t o t he sat el l i t e and user equi pment s,
expect f or t he speci al user who want s t o t ake advant age of t he hi gher pr eci si on.
3- 3
Tr af f i c Sur vei l l ance Mode
A schemat i c of t he t r af f i c sur vei l l ance mode appear s i n Fi gur e 3. By obt ai ni ng
al t i t ude dat a f r omon- boar d i nst r ument at i on, onl y t wo sat el l i t es ar e r equi r ed.
Synchr onous sat el l i t es separ at ed by 500 t o 60 of ar c pr ovi de good navi gat i on geomet r i cs.
The oper at i onal sequence of t hi s mode i s as f ol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The GCC t r ansmi t s a CWsi gnal at L- band t o sat el l i t e A. Thi s car r i er i s
modul at ed wi t h t wo t ones: f or exampl e, a hi gh t one of 8 kHz and a l ow t one
at 500 Hz. I n addi t i on, bi nar y phase shi f t keyi ng i s empl oyed on t he l ow
t one t o ser ve as a di gi t al dat a channel . The dat a channel al so f unct i ons as
a command l i nk by i nst r uct i ng each use' r when t o r et ur n t he NAV/ TC si gnal .
The GCC dat a pr ocessi ng and cont r ol equi pment , i n accor dance wi t h a pr e- det er mi ned
r ol e cal l schedul e, sel ect s a par t i cul ar user f or a sur vei l l ance check by t r ans-
mi t t i ng hi s uni que addr ess code.
Sat el l i t e A , af t er f r equency shi f t i ng, r el ays t he RF si gnal t o t he f i el d
wher e i t i s cont i nuousl y avai l abl e t o ever y user .
When a par t i cul ar user r ecei ves hi s addr ess code vi a t he dat a channel ,
hi s t r ansmi t t er i s t ur ned on aut omat i cal l y f or a br i ef per i od ( 1- 2 seconds)
and he t r ansponds t he r ecei ved si gnal , addi ng hi s addr ess code, al t i t ude and
ot her r out i ne st at us dat a back t o sat el l i t es A and B.
Bot h sat el l i t es t hen r el ay t hei r r espect i ve r et ur n si gnal s t o t he GCC af t er
f r equency shi f t i ng.
The GCC compar es t he phases of t he r et ur ned t ones t o t he r ef er ence t ones
t o obt ai n t he r ange dat a whi ch i dent i f i es t he user ' s posi t i on. The sat el l i t e
empher i des ar e assumed t o be known by t he GCC.
Passi ve Navi gat i on Mode
The syst emoper at i on f or t he passi ve mode i s depi ct ed i n Fi gur e 4 . Thi s r esembl es
t he f or war d l i nk of t he sur vei l l ance mode wi t h t he except i on t hat now t he GCC t r ansmi t s
si gnal s cont i nuousl y t o sat el l i t e B as wel l as A. Af t er f r equency t r ansl at i on, sat el l i t e
B r el ays i t s si gnal t o t he user f i el d. Sat el l i t e A oper at es exact l y as bef or e because
i t i s st i l l per f or mi ng a sur vei l l ance f unct i on as wel l as pr ovi di ng a navi gat i on si gnal
t o passi ve user s. The user r ecei ver s ar e cont i nuousl y l ocked ont o t he si gnal s f r om
bot h sat el l i t es. When maki ng a posi t i on f i x, t he RF car r i er s ar e demodul at ed and t he
t ones ar e ext r act ed t o be compar ed wi t h a l ocal r ef er ence osci l l at or i n synchr oni sm
wi t h t he GCC t one gener at or . The dat a l i nk pr ovi des updat ed i nf or mat i on on t he sat el l i t e
ephemer i des t o compl et e t he dat a i nput s r equi r ed by t he user t o comput e hi s posi t i on.
The t ypi cal met hod of oper at i on i s vi sual i zed as f ol l ows. Pr i or t o depar t ur e f r om
a t er mi nal or a known geodet i c r ef er ence, t he user cal i br at es or set s hi s phase met er s
at zer o. Dur i ng hi s t r i p t he zer o cr ossi ngs of phase ar e aut omat i cal l y r ecor ded, t hus
pr ovi di ng l ane i dent i t y at al l t i mes. For a pr eci si on posi t i on f i x, t he phase angl es
ar e r ead t o t he r equi r ed accur acy. The user r ef er ence osci l l at or dr i f t or i nst abi l i t i es
wi l l i nt r oduce er r or s. However , of f - t he- shel f , t emper at ur e- cont r ol l ed cr yst al osci l l at or s
ar e r epor t ed t o yi el d f r equency st abi l i t i es on t he or der of 5 x 10- 11 f or per i ods up t o
24 hour s ( 4 ) . For 1 nmi accur acy, an ai r cr af t woul d not r equi r e r ecal i br at i on of such
an osci l l at or whi l e i n r out e. For mar i ne user s who may be on t he hi gh seas f or per i ods
of many days or weeks, however , a dai l y r ecal i br at i on of t he phase met er or l ocal r ef er ence
osci l l at or coul d be accompl i shed t hr ough use of t he sur vei l l ance mode, par t i cul ar l y
dur i ng t hose dai l y per i ods when ai r t r af f i c densi t i es ar e l ow. .
Hyper bol i c Navi gat i on Mode
The need f or a l ong- t er mst abl e pr eci si on r ef er ence osci l l at or f or t he passi ve
navi gat or can be el i mi nat ed by t he i nt r oduct i on of a t hi r d sat el l i t e. I n t hi s mode,
t he GCC t r ansmi t s navi gat i on si gnal s i n synchr oni smt o t hr ee sat el l i t es so t hat t he t ones
emanat i ng f r omeach sat el l i t e ar e i n phase or have a known phase di f f er ence r el at i onshi p.
The navi gat or compar es t he r ecei ved si gnal s f r ompai r s of sat el l i t es and obt ai ns measur e-
ment s of phase angl e di f f er ences. These cor r espond t o r ange di f f er ences bet ween each
pai r of sat el l i t es, def i ni ng a hyper bol i c LOP on t he ear t h' s sur f ace or a geocent r i c
spher e at known al t i t ude. The i nt er sect i on of t wo LOP' S f r omt wo pai r s of sat el l i t es
( 3 sat el l i t es pr ovi de t he necessar y pai r s) and an on- boar d al t i met er wi l l pr ovi de a user
wi t h a posi t i on f i x. As bef or e, t he sat el l i t e epher mer i des must be known t o t he user .
coi nci de wi t h r angi ng syst ems whi ch pr ovi de f ul l gl obal cover age.
ar e t hose wher e t he sat el l i t e l ocat i ons f r omequi l at er al t r i angl es. Such i s t he case
f or a space syst emcomposed of t hr ee or t hogonal synchr onous or bi t s: one equat or i al and
t wo pol ar wi t h f i ve or si x sat el l i t es equal l y spaced i n each or bi t . Hyper bol i c as wel l
as ci r cul ar navi gat i on can be achi eved i n any par t of t he gl obe wi t hout exceedi ng a
geomet r i c di l ut i on of pr eci si on ( GOP) f act or of t hr ee. Ot her const el l at i ons have been
devi sed f or l ocal r egi ons, such as f our t o f i ve sat el l i t es i n i ncl i ned synchr onous
or bi t s, but most of t hese schemes have exceedi ngl y hi gh GDOP' s whenever t he user i s l ocat ed
i n t he out er r egi ons of t he cover age ar ea.
The sat el l i t e const el l at i ons whi ch of f er good geomet r i es f or hyper bol i c navi gat i on
The pr ef er r abl e geomet r i es
I 3- 4
Li nk Anal ysi s
A sampl e l i nk anal ysi s of t he L- band posi t i on det er mi nat i on and nar r ow band dat a
l i nks appear s i n Fi gur e 5. Al l t he f i gur es ar e based upon ear t h cover age ant ennas
at synchr onous al t i t ude f or t he sat el l i t es and hemi spher i cal beamant ennas l ooki ng
upwar ds f or t he user s. Al l l i nk gai ns wer e r educed by appr oxi mat el y 6 dB i n t hi s
anal ysi s t o al l ow f or t he user on t he f r i nge of t he hal f - power envel opes of t he
ant ennas.
The GCC t o sat el l i t e l i nks ar e ser ved by 37 dB gr ound ant ennas, keepi ng RF power
r equi r ement s at t he sat el l i t e at l ow l evel s. For t he sat el l i t e t o user l i nks, 20 wat t s
of RF power ar e needed t o obt ai n desi r abl e l evel s of si gnal t o noi se f or t he dat a l i nk
and navi gat i on t ones.
The f our bl ocks at t he t op of t he f i gur e r epr esent t he f or war d pat h l i nk. For a
passi ve navi gat i on f unct i on, t he l i nk t er mi nat es wi t h t he user r ecei ver . For t he
sur vei l l ance mode, t he l i nk cont i nues t hr ough t he r et ur n pat h as depi ct ed by t he bl ocks
i n t he bot t ompor t i on of t he f i gur e.
Over al l Syst emConf i gur at i on
A compl et e wor l d wi de r angi ng navi gat i on syst emr equi r es 15 t o 18 synchr onous
sat el l i t es. Thr ee mut ual l y or t hogonal or bi t s pr ovi de t he best over al l ar r angement f or
l ow GDOP' s and r edundant cover age. A mor e modest depl oyment of onl y si x equat or i al
synchr onous sat el l i t es i s depi ct ed i n Fi gur e 6. Thi s conf i gur at i on pr ovi des gl obal
cover age wi t h t he except i on of pol ar r egi ons above 7 0 0 t o 750 of l at i t ude. Pr eci se
posi t i on l ocat i on i s at t ai nabl e t hr oughout t he cover age ar ea wi t h t he except i on of a
nar r ow band (+ 100 l at i t ude) ar ound t he equat or wher e GDOP' s become l ar ge, appr oachi ng
i nf i ni t y at t he equat or . However , l ongi t ude det er mi nat i ons ar e st i l l f easi bl e i n t hi s
r egi on.
The const el l at i on i n Fi gur e 6 can l ogi cal l y be t he r esul t of evol ut i onar y gr owt h
i n whi ch an i nt er i msyst emcan be a pai r of sat el l i t es ser vi ng t he At l ant i c Ocean or
t he cent r al par t of t he Paci f i c Ocean. Al l t he sat el l i t es can have si mi l ar desi gns
so t hat l aunchi ng new spacecr af t woul d add t o t he cover age and ser vi ce wi t hout i nt er r upt i ng
exi st i ng oper at i ons. The basi c el ement s of t hi s syst emar e shown i n Fi gur e 7. The
bl ocks descr i be t he desi gn char act er i st i cs of t he communi cat i on equi pment at each
t er mi nal .
Each spacecr af t i s desi gned t o r el ay si x FMvoi ce channel s f or mobi l e user s
and t he navigation/surveillance/data si gnal s. The spacecr af t ar e t hr ee- axi s st abi l i zed
and have sol ar cel l power gener at i on equi pment . The over al l wei ght of each spacecr af t
i s est i mat ed t o be 760 pounds and t wo can be i nser t ed i nt o or bi t wi t h one At l as-
Cent aur - Bur ner I 1 l aunch vehi cl e. Nomi nal oper at i onal l i f e i s est i mat ed t o be 3 t o
5 year s. The RF power s shown i n t he f i gur e i ncl ude i nt er modul at i on l osses.
The user equi pment s ar e composed of var i ous set s dependi ng upon t he ser vi ces
desi r ed. The t r af f i c sur vei l l ance r ecei ver - t r ansmi t t er set ar e est i mat ed t o wei gh
appr oxi mat el y 13 pounds and r equi r e 48 wat t s of DC bus power . The passi ve navi gat i on
set of t wo r ecei ver s, a r ef er ence osci l l at or , i ndi cat or s and a comput er wei gh
appr oxi mat el y 46 pounds and r equi r e 142 wat t s of DC bus power . The mar i t i me user can
pr obabl y di spense wi t h t he el ect r oni c comput er and use char t s and ot her manual ai ds
f or det er mi ni ng posi t i on. The voi ce r ecei ver and t r ansmi t t er set was est i mat ed t o
wei gh about 45 pounds and r equi r e 260 wat t s of bus power when t he t r ansmi t t er i s i n
use. The avi at i on user L- band ant enna assembl y wi l l f i t i n an openi ng about 8 i nches
i n di amet er and wei ghs onl y a f ewpounds.
The Gr ound Cont r ol Cent er r equi r ement s f or t he nomi nal f unct i ons of t r ansmi t t i ng,
r ecei vi ng and pr ocessi ng dat a ar e ver y modest and do not const i t ut e any cr i t i cal par t
of t he syst emi n t er ms of desi gn, oper at i on or cost . The r eal chal l enge i n t he gr ound
compl ex i s r ef l ect ed i n t he t echni ques and met hods needed t o make use of t he massi ve amount
of dat a t he syst emi s capabi l e of gener at i ng.
- User I nst r ument at i on
Fi gur e 8 shows a si mpl i f i ed bl ock di agr amof t he basi c user equi pment s associ at ed
wi t h t he navi gat i on- sur vei l l ance f unct i on. The ant enna i s ci r cul ar l y pol ar i zed wi t h
a hemi spher i cal beaml ooki ng upwar d. Some beamshapi ng i s r equi r ed t o l i mi t t he ef f ect s
of mul t i pat h r ef l ect i on. The di pl exer al l ows f or si mul t aneous r ecei ve and t r ansmi t
f unct i ons wi t h t he same ant enna. The r ecei ver consi st s of l ow- noi se, hi gh- gai n, sol i d-
st at e ci r cui t r y. Car r i er r ef er ence ext r act i on i s per f or med i n a phase- l ock l oop t o
negat e doppl er ef f ect s. Coher ent mul t i pl i cat i on of t he composi t e si gnal af t er car r i er
ext r act i on pr ovi des t he t ones demodul at i on. Tone f i l t er bandwi dt hs of about 10 Hz
i nsur e a hi gh si gnal - t o- noi se r at i o at t he out put of t he r ecei ver . Addi t i onal
ci r cui t r y i s pr ovi ded f or decodi ng and pr ocessi ng i nt er r ogat i ons, l ocal osci l l at or
f r equency gener at i on, and encodi ng si gnal s t o be t r ansmi t t ed. The t ones and r et ur n dat a
ar e modul at ed on t he r et ur n car r i er and t r ansmi t t ed i n a bur st of one t o t wo seconds
t o bot h sat el l i t es.
For passi ve navi gat i on anot her set of I F r ecei ver ci r cui t r y i s r equi r ed t o obt ai n
r ange dat a f r omot her sat el l i t es.
3-5
Based on a pr el i mi nar y desi gn st udy, L- band user equi pment cost s i n pr oduct i on
l ot s of a t housand or mor e pr oj ect ed t o 1975- 1980 wer e est i mat ed t o be as f ol l ows:
Tr ansmi t t er
Recei ver
Pr eci si on Cl ock
Di pl exer
Ant enna Assembl y
$ 1200
3200
1000
250
500
I nst al l at i on cost s wer e not i ncl uded i n t he above f i gur es si nce t hey depend upon
vehi cl e char act er i st i cs. However , t he equi pment i s r el at i vel y smal l and shoul d not
ent ai l any hi gh assembl y cost s, even f or ai r cr af t .
Spacecr af t Navi gat i on/ Sur vei l l ance I nst r ument at i on
Fi gur e 9 shows a si mpl i f i ed di agr amof t he sat el l i t e r el ay equi pment . A l ow- noi se
har d- l i mi t i ng r ecei ver i s empl oyed wi t h f r equency si dest eppi ng t o i nsur e t hat er r or s
due t o t he car r i er i nj ect i on chai n ar e essent i al l y cancel l ed. The di pl exer pr ovi des
f or i sol at i on of t he r ecei ver and t r ansmi t si gnal s. The 19 dB gai n, L- band ant enna
pr ovi des f or f ul l ear t h cover age and a smal l addi t i onal mar gi n f or sat el l i t e at t i t ude
er r or s. The t r ansmi t t er RF power r equi r ement s ar e 20 wat t s f or t he f or war d pat h t o t he
user s and onl y 10 wat t s f or t he backwar d pat h t o t he GCC. Hi ghl y r el i abl e l ong l i f e
oper at i on i n space has been exper i enced by si mi l ar ci r cui t r y.
Gr ound Cont r ol Cent er ( GCC) Equi pment
A si mpl i f i ed di agr amof t he GCC i nst r ument at i on i s shown i n Fi gur e 10. The sat el l i t e
l i nks ar e ser ved by 37- dB- gai n ant ennas wi t h beamwi dt hs of 2. 7O. RF t r ansmi t t er power
r equi r ement s ar e on t he or der of 5 wat t s. A common f r equency st andar d i s ut i l i zed t o
gener at e t he t ones and car r i er f r equenci es. For t he sur vei l l ance mode, t hi s st andar d
need onl y meet hi gh pr eci si on r equi r ement s f or t he dur at i on of a t ypi cal posi t i on f i x
of 1 or 2 seconds. However , f or t he passi ve navi gat i on mode, i t i s desi r abl e t o use
an at omi c f r equency st andar d.
The di gi t al dat a channel ( l ow- t one PSK) i n i t s si mpl est f or m, cont ai ns a
synchr oni zat i on si gnal , a coded addr ess f or each user i n t he net wor k, and a shor t
i nst r uct i on or st at us message. For t hi s pr el i mi nar y conf i gur at i on, 200 bi t s of dat a
wer e al l owed f or t he f or war d message at a bi t r at e of 100 bi t s per second. The r et ur n
message f r omt he user al so ut i l i zes 200 bi t s. Thi s al l ows f or appr oxi mat el y 1800
posi t i on f i xes per hour usi ng a si mpl e sequent i al i nt er r ogat i on scheme wi t h a si ngl e
channel . The GCC r ecei ver f or t he r et ur ned si gnal s f r omt he user empl oys a phase- l ock-
l oop and demodul at or si mi l ar t o t hat of t he user . To acqui r e t he r et ur n bur st s, t he
GCC r ecei ver must per f or ma sear ch- and- t r ack oper at i on ever y i nt er r ogat i on per i od si nce
each user has a uni que doppl er f r equency of f set .
a 1600 MHz car r i er and a Mach 3 ai r cr af t . However , t hi s pot ent i al uncer t ai nt y can be
r educed t o l ess t han 100 Hz by user i nst r ument at i on desi gn or pr i or knowl edge of user
t r af f i c pat t er ns, as woul d be t he case dur i ng nor mal oper at i on.
and demodul at i on t he phase angl es of t he ext r act ed t ones ar e compar ed wi t h t he r ef er ence
t ones t o pr ovi de i nput s t o t he r ange comput er . The decoded dat a l i nk pr ovi des t he
i dent i f i cat i on and al t i t ude dat a necessar y f or a posi t i on det er mi nat i on.
Al t hough Fi gur e 10 shows i dent i cal t r ansmi t and r ecei ve ci r cui t s ser vi ng each
sat el l i t e l i nk t he sur vei l l ance mode i s ser ved by one t r ansmi t t er wi t h i t s uni que dat a
st r eam, and t he ot her t r ansmi t t er pr ovi des t he dat a st r eamf or t he passi ve user .
Thi s shi f t can be as hi gh as -5 KHz f or
Af t er acqui st i on
Vel oci t y Det er mi nat i on
The r el at i ve vel oci t y bet ween a mobi l e vehi cl e and sat el l i t es i s obt ai ned by measur i ng
t he doppl er f r equency of f set s of t he navi gat i on si gnal s f r omeach sat el l i t e. These
doppl er s cor r espond t o r ange r at es. By knowi ng t he sat el l i t e or bi t par amet er s wi t h
r espect t o t he geoi d, i t i s possi bl e t o comput e t he vel oci t y of t he user by t aki ng t he
vect or di f f er ence.
A f unct i onal bl ock di agr amof doppl er ext r act i on i s depi ct ed i n Fi gur e 11. The
car r i er vol t age cont r ol osci l l at or ( VCO) , compr i sed of t he car r i er nomi nal ( st at i onar y)
f r equency ( f o) and t he doppl er of f - set f r equency ( f d) , i s mi xed wi t h t he f i xed f r equency
f r omt he vel oci t y r ef er ence osci l l at or ( VRO) . A f i s a bi as f r equency t o gi ve si gn
as wel l as magni t ude t o t he doppl er measur ement . Af t er f i l t er i ng, t he di f f er ence
bet ween t he VCO and VRO f r equenci es i s pr eser ved. I f Af i s gr eat er t han f d, t he
r esul t ant f r equency i s posi t i ve and t he ' si gn of t he doppl er , whet her t owar d or away
f r oma sat el l i t e, wi l l be r et ai ned t hr ough t he pr ocess of f r equency f ol d- over . The
doppl er i s f i nal l y ext r act ed f r omt he count er out put . The count er per f or ms an
i nt egr at i on f unct i on and pr ovi des doppl er si gnal - t o- noi se r at i os whi ch ar e di r ect l y
pr opor t i onal t o t he t i me i nt er val of measur ment . A one second i nt er val i s suf f i ci ent
t o pr ovi de an RMS vel oci t y er r or of 1. 0%of t he t ot al .
3-6
I n t he sur vei l l ance mode, user vel oci t y can be det er mi ned by t he same pr ocess
at t he GCC. The doppl er i n t hi s case woul d be doubl e t hat f ound at t he user r ecei ver .
Sat el l i t e Tr acki ng
A maj or cont r i but i on t o posi t i on f i x er r or s i s t he uncer t ai nt y associ at ed wi t h
t he l ocat i on of t he sat el l i t es. One met hod of achi evi ng a gr eat deal of pr eci si on
i n sat el l i t e t r acki ng i s t o use a t r i l at er at i on net wor k of gr ound st at i ons at
known l ocat i ons and measur e r ange t o each sat el l i t e. An at t r act i ve f eat ur e of t he
SPOT syst emi s t hat t hese gr ound st at i ons can be l ow- cost user t r ansponder s oper at i ng
i n t he sur vei l l ance mode. The GCC woul d i nt er r ogat e t he gr ound st at i ons i n t he same
manner as a user . The r esul t ant r ange measur ement s woul d det er mi ne t he posi t i on of
t he sat el l i t es. For gr eat er pr eci si on t he t r i l at er at i on st at i ons, can be enchanced
wi t h 10- &- gai n ant ennas wi t hout compl i cat i ng t he si mpl i ci t y of t hei r oper at i on.
Voi ce Communi cat i ons
The sat el l i t e posi t i on sur vei l l ance and dat a l i nks ar e capabl e of pr ovi di ng most ,
i f not al l , of t he r out i ne i nf or mat i on r equi r ed by a t r af f i c cont r ol cent er or pi l ot .
One f or war d and one backwar d channel i s suf f i ci ent t o convey posi t i on, i dent i f i cat i on,
and 200 bi t s of di gi t al dat a bet ween t wo or t hr ee hundr ed ai r cr af t and a t r af f i c
cont r ol cent er ever y sever al mi nut es. Thi s coul d el i mi nat e t he need f or r out i ne voi ce
messages and r el egat e t he voi ce f unct i on t o non- r out i ne and emer gency messages. At
t hi s poi nt i n t i me i t i s di f f i cul t t o assess t he number of voi ce channel s needed
f or t he mi d 1970' s and beyond. Some r ecent st udi es r epor t a need f or 5 t o 10 voi ce
channel s per ocean ( 5) ( 2 ) ar ea. The spacecr af t desi gn sel ect ed f or t he syst emdescr i bed
i n t hi s paper has si x anal og voi ce channel s per sat el l i t e di vi ded bet ween ai r cr af t
user s and mar i ne or ot her l ess demandi ng mobi l e user s.
At L- band, a t r ansmi t t er power pr obl emexi st s f or t he voi ce l i nks bet ween t he
sat el l i t es and user s i f t he ant enna desi gns associ at ed wi t h t he navi gat i on and dat a
si gnal s ar e used.
t o t he i ncor por at i on of a phased ar r ay ant enna at t he sat el l i t e whi ch pr ovi ded t he
desi r ed spacecr af t ant enna gai n i n conj unct i on wi t h a sel f - st eer i ng f eat ur e t hat
al l owed t he ant enna beamt o be poi nt ed at any user on t he ear t h wi t hi n vi ew of t he
sat el l i t e. The l i nk power budget i n Tabl e I shows t hat t he 30 dB ant enna sel ect ed
r equi r es 17 wat t s of FtF power per voi ce channel based on a 6 dB r ecei ver noi se f i gur e
and medi umqual i t y voi ce char act er i st i cs. For t he voi ce modul at i on scheme, FMwas
sel ect ed as a pr ef er r abl e choi ce over AM and PPM ( Pul se- Posi t i on Modul at i on) on t he
basi s t hat i t pr ovi ded t he best combi nat i on of noi se suppr essi on, good qual i t y,
moder at e power , and good oper at i on wi t h phase l ock l oop r ecei ver s and sat el l i t e har d
l i mi t i ng r epeat er s.
For t he mar i t i me and st at i onar y user , i t was assumed t hat a 10 dB ant enna gai n
woul d not i nconveni ence oper at i ons and t he net savi ngs i n sat el l i t e power r equi r ement s
was suf f i ci ent l y i mpor t ant t o war r ant t hi s t r adeof f . Thus t he spacecr af t RF t r ans-
mi t t er power f or t hi s l i nk was r educed t o 2 wat t s per channel .
The desi r e t o keep t he avi at i on user ant ennas si mpl e and smal l l ed
Ret r odi r ect i ve ( Phase Conj ugat i ng) Ar r ay
The ar r ay r ef er r ed t o above oper at es as a hi ghl y di r ect i onal ant enna whi ch f or ms
The ar r ay i s compr i sed of i ndi vi dual el ement s or ant ennul es, each wi t h cover age
equi val ent t o t he over al l st eer i ng r equi r ement s ( ear t h cover age 2 90 i n t he pr esent
case) . The nar r owbeamcor r espondi ng t o t he combi ned ant ennul e out put s i s f or med
and st eer ed el ect r oni cal l y usi ng separ at e t r ansponder s at each ant ennul e. The
pi l ot si gnal t r ansmi t t ed by t he user pr ovi des a r ef er ence f or phase conj ugat i on at
each ant ennul e so t hat t he beami s di r ect ed back t owar ds t he user . Thi s t echni que
al so al l ows t he f or mat i on of mul t i pl e beams f or sever al si mul t aneous user s by t he
addi t i on of sui t abl e ci r cui t r y at t he t r ansponder s.
a t r ansmi t and/ or r ecei ve beami n t he di r ect i on of an i ncomi ng pi l ot si gnal .
The over al l gai n i s appr oxi mat el y equal t o t he i ndi vi dual ant ennul e gai n ( 19 dB)
mul t i pl i ed by t he number of ant ennul es. A f ai l ur e of one ant ennul e does not
dest r oy t he ar r ay per f or mance, but si mpl y r educes t he over al l gai n pr opor t i onal l y.
Al so, t he ar r ay per f or mance i s not dependent upon t he mai nt enance of pr eci se ar r ay
geomet r y.
The pi l ot t one acqui si t i on net wor k i s pr ovi ded i n one ant ennul e onl y, t he r equi r ed
si gnal st r engt h f or pi l ot acqui si t i on bei ng r oughl y equi val ent t o t he voi ce FtF power
( appr oxi mat el y 20 wat t s f or t he avi at i on user and 2 wat t s or t he mar i ne user) . The
t r ansponder at each ant ennul e i n t he spacecr af t ar r ay r equi r es a separ at e si gnal
pr ocessor f or each voi ce channel . For a si x channel syst emt he i nt er modul at i on l oss
may r each 2 dB, r ai si ng t he per channel t r ansmi t t er power demand f r om17 wat t s t o
26 wat t s of RF power f or t he avi at i on l i nks and f r om1. 7 wat t s t o 3 wat t s f or t he mar i ne
l i nks.
For t hi s appl i cat i on, each ant ennul e has a sub- ar r ay of 16 di pol es and woul d
measur e about 2 f eet by 2 f eet . The over al l spacecr af t ant enna ar r ay r equi r es 16
ant ennul es f or a gai n of 30 dB. The t ot al ar r ay measur es appr oxi mat el y 8 f eet by
8 f eet by t wo or t hr ee i nches i n t hi ckness. I t can be conveni ent l y st or ed i n a
3-7,
l aunch f ai r i ng measur i ng 10 f eet i n di amet er .
Posi t i on Er r or Summar y
par amet er s amenabl e t o some cont r ol by t he desi gner , such as t r ansmi t t er power s, RF
car r i er and t one f r equenci es, bandwi dt h, osci l l at or st abi l i t i es and r ecei ver noi se;
( 2 ) r el at i vel y non- cont r ol l abl e f act or s such as RF r ef r act i on, absor pt i on, Far aday
r ot at i on, mul t i pat h, noi se sour ces f r omat mospher i c, cosmi c and man- made i nt er f er ence,
dat a i nput er r or s on sat el l i t e posi t i on, geodet i c anomal i es and user al t i t ude: and
( 3) t he l mi t at i ons of geomet r y associ at ed wi t h sat el l i t e depl oyment and t he t r ans-
l at i on of l i ne- of - si ght r ange measur ement s t o coor di nat es i n t he user ' s navi gat i on
pl ane, known as GDOP ( geomet r i c di l ut i on of preci si on) .
The r esul t s of a syst emanal ysi s of r ange er r or s t o det er mi ne t he over al l
pot ent i al of t he SPOT syst emi s shown i n Tabl e 11. The sensi t i vi t y of er r or s t o
el evat i on angl e l ed t o t he pr esent at i on of dat a as a f unct i on of el evat i on angl e.
Two i onospher i c model s ar e depi ct ed because of t he di f f i cul t y i n i nt er pr et i ng spat i al
and t i me var i at i ons of i on densi t i es f r omexi st i ng dat a. The assumpt i on of a nor mal
di st r i but i on f or t he i onospher e i s consi der ed t o be conser vat i ve.
on t he or der of 100 t o 130 f eet (30 t o 40 met er s) even at l ow el evat i on angl es, pr ovi ded
t he i onospher e i s as pr edi ct abl e as t he model i ndi cat es.
t o t he measur ement of r ange r educes by one t o t wo or der s of magni t ude. Al so, some
r educt i on i n t he uncer t ai nt y i n pr edi ct i ng i onospher i c densi t i es i s ant i ci pat ed.
Under t hese ci r cumst ances, r ange measur ement accur aci es of 40 t o 50 f eet ( 15 met er s)
may be f easi bl e.
Fi gur e 12 shows t he pr oduct of r ange er r or s and GDOP coef f i ci ent s f or a t ypi cal
pai r of st at i onar y sat el l i t es separ at ed by 600 i n l ongi t ude. The l ower user l at i t udes
ar e af f ect ed by r el at i vel y hi gh GDOP' s, whi l e t he shar p i ncr eases at t he f r i nges
of l ongi t ude cover age ar e i nf l uenced by t he ef f ect s of l owel evat i on angl es f or t he
RF l i nks. For t he bul k of t he cover age ar ea, accur aci es of 160 f eet ( 50 met er s)
or bet t er ar e i ndi cat ed.
The accur acy of a r adi o navi gat i on syst emi s a f unct i on of ( 1) equi pment
The t abl e shows t hat an L- band syst emcan pr ovi de r ange measur ement accur aci es
For r el at i ve di st ances wi t hi n a f ewhundr ed mi l es, t he sat el l i t e er r or cont r i but i on
Syst emCost s
The l ar gest par t of t he devel opment and i mpl ement at i on cost s i s i nvol ved wi t h t he
space segment . Wi t hi n t he spacecr af t , t he most demandi ng f unct i on on t he basi s of
wei ght and cost i s t he voi ce communi cat i on subsyst em. For exampl e, an ear l i er space-
cr af t desi gn ( 2) whi ch i ncor por at ed onl y t he f unct i ons. of navi gat i on, sur vei l l ance
and dat a t r ansf er wei ghed onl y 350 pounds i n cont r ast t o 760 pounds f or t he spacecr af t
model descr i bed i n t hi s paper . Compar at i ve cost est i mat es wer e al most t hr ee t i mes
gr eat er f or t he voi ce- r el ay syst em. Fur t her st udy i s r equi r ed t o det er mi ne t he
opt i mumar r angement or di vi si on bet ween t he voi ce and posi t i on det er mi nat i on/ dat a
channel s.
Concl usi ons
The syst emconf i gur at i on descr i bed i n t hi s paper of f er s an evol ut i onar y appr oach
f or i mpl ement i ng a gl obal navi gat i on/ t r af f i c cont r ol oper at i on f or t he 1975 t o 1980
per i od. The sur vei l l ance f eat ur es can ser ve sear ch and r escue oper at i ons and pr ovi de
col l i si on avoi dance i nf or mat i on t o a t r af f i c cont r ol cent er . The combi ned posi t i on
det er mi nat i on and dat a f eat ur es el i mi nat e t he necessi t y f or much of t he cur r ent
r equi r ement s f or voi ce communi cat i on, t hus al l owi ng voi ce channel s t o ser ve a mor e
cost ef f ect i ve f unct i on such as i nst r uct i ons and non- r out i ne advi sor i es. Expansi on
of t he syst emgl obal l y can be accompl i shed by addi ng synchr onous equat or i al sat el l i t es
at pr oper i nt er val s, so t hat wi t h si x sat el l i t es near l y t he ent i r e ear t h can be ser ved.
Passi ve navi gat i on i s avai l abl e t o an unl i mi t ed number of user s and t he pr eci si on of
t he syst emcan be i ncr eased by addi ng hi gher t ones t o t he modul at ed car r i er s at t he
Gr ound Cont r ol Cent er wi t hout obsol et i ng exi st i ng user equi pment s. Onl y t he speci al i zed
user r equi r i ng t hese hi gher pr eci si ons needs t o i ncor por at e equi pment modi f i cat i ons.
The SPOT syst emcan be i mpl ement ed wi t h cur r ent t echnol ogi es and equi pment s and
empl oys desi gns whi ch have demonst r at ed l ong l i f e. The onl y except i on i s t he phased
ar r ay f or t he sat el l i t e voi ce r el ay f unct i on whi ch has not been demonst r at ed i n space.
However , t her e i s not hi ng i nher ent i n t hi s t echnol ogy whi ch i ndi cat es any hi gh degr ee
of r i sk i n i t s i mpl ement at i on. I n pr i nci pal , a phased ar r ay has t he advant age of
gr acef ul degr adat i on si nce any ant ennul e f ai l ur e degr ades t he syst emi n a pr opor t i onal
way.
ver y at t r act i ve compar ed wi t h pr esent compet i t i ve gr ound- based navi gat i on syst ems.
I n addi t i on, wi t h pr ospect s of i mpr ovement as new sol i d- st at e component s and ci r cui t s
evol ve f or L- band equi pment , i t can be ant i ci pat ed t hat t he user i nt er est ed i n one or
User equi pment cost s, i n manuf act ur ed l ot s of 1, 000 or mor e, ar e expect ed t o be
3- 0
two miles of accuracy will be able to purchase a navigation set for $5000. This
price level should encourage participation by many classes of users, and help to
justify the implementation of a satellite navigation/surveillance system.
Acknowledgements
NASA under contracts listed in references 2 and 3. The opinions expressed, however,
are strictly those of the author.
The author is grateful to Messrs. L. Keane, and E. Steele of NASA-ERC and
E. Ehrlich of NASA-Headquarters for their critiques in the studies undertaken for
NASA. Also, the author wishes to thank his colleagues J. Barnla, J. Breckman,
S. Durrani, C. Heldwein, J. Kiesling, M. Levinson, H. Rose, A. Smith, B. Stockwell,
R. Tangradi, J. Zerfas and others who contributed to these studies.
References
The material reported in this paper was largely the results of studies for
I
1. Interagency Group on Int'l Aviation, IGIA 77/1.29F Document, dated
September 4 , 1968, DOT, FAS, Washington, D. C.
2. Final Report, Navigation/Traffic Control Satellite Mission Study,
dated December 1968, by RCA, M. W. Mitchell, et all NASA Contract
NAS 12-596
3. Final Report, Phase Difference Satellite Navigation Study,
dated December 1967, by RCA, J. Barnla and J. Breckman, et all
NASA Contract NAS 12-509
I
4. Hewlett Packard Application Note 52, Nov. 1965
5. Final Report, Systems Engineering Study of Aeronautical Satellite Services
dated December, 1967, by Philco Ford Corp., COMSAT Corp. Report No. TR-DA-i585
3-9
SATELLITE A SATELLITE B .
TO USER FIELD
GROUND CONTROL CENTER
TO USER FIELD
LANE/
SAT B
LINES OF CONSTANT PHASE
(LOP'S) (LOP'S)
Fi gure 1 Phase Angle Navigation
1 I I II 111
\
1
I I I I 1 1 1 1 I I I l l
.lo 1 .o 10.0 100
TONE FREQUENCY (kHz)
10.0
1 .o
.lo
.Ol
E
n
Fi gure 2 Tone Ranging
I 3- 10
SATELLITE A SATELLITE B
Figure 3. Traffic Surveillance
PRESENT POSITION
=-/-- 7
PHASE A FROM D
PHASE B FROM D
KNOWJ
POINT
OF
DEPARTURE
Figure 4 Passive Navigation
3-11
t
N
-
1 ;
I S
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
a
>,
::
a
2
w
w
v)
z
(3
d
a
"I
PI"
3 5 5
P
\
m m m
U U P
m 0 0
m m~
Y
N
3-12
3-13
0 100 bps DATA LI NK
0100 bps DATA LI NK
0 19 dB ANTENNA IPOSl Tl ON LOCATI ON)
0 26 W ( VOI CE) TO AI RCRAFT
0 3 W RF (VOI CE) TO SHIPPING
0 20 W RF (POSITION LOCATI ON) TO USER
0 10 W RF (POSITION LOCATI ON) TO GCC
Figure 7 Total System Configuration
Ant.
O.C.C.
Transmitter
-
Modulator
4 I
I--- -- 1
--
I I
Navigation
Ref. sync.
O h a t or Phase Conparatom Cm?uter
* I I
Data
PASSIVE NAVICATIQ COWONZNTS
I
I -- - - --
Figure 8 User Equipment Block Diagram
3- 14
Lo1
IF WMIXER e-
INJEIX
2
II-
PLELEB
I o 2
CnRRIW
OFFSET
t
*
A
FORWARD PkTH TONE AND DATA CHANNEL
Figure 9 Satellite Instrumentation Block Diagram
Roll C a l l &
Sat B
Figure 10 Ground Control Center Block Diagram
.
+
CARR I ER
vco
4 1
I
VELOC I TY
OSCI LLATOR
BUFFER II) MI XER 1 BUFFER +- REFERENCE
2 - IO dB
N LOU-PASS
FI L TER
" + fdmex - 24 kH2
nf - fdmax - 6 kHz
res = I bn/hr =2.5 Ht /sec
I I
3-15
Freq. 1
SCHM ITV
TRI GGER
TO COMPUTER
Fi gure 11 Functi onal Block Diagram of Vel oci ty Extracti on
3-16
k
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
3-17
Path l oss
Scan edge l oss
Pol ari zati on l oss
Relay degradation
Multipath fading
Ai rcraft cable l oss, etc.*
Total l osses
user gain
Spacecraft gai n
Total l i nk gain
user recei ver noise l evel
Table I
Satel l i te to User Voice Link Power Budget
Frequency (nominally) 1560 MHZ
188.9 dB
3.0 dB
0.3 dB 5 dB user el l i pti ci ty
0.4 dB N oi se i n down l i nk
0.5 dB "Shaped" antenna
1.0 dB
194.1 dB
0.0 dB
30.0 dB
-164.1 dB
-158.2 dBW 6 dB noise fi gure recei ver
U ser normally at beamcenter
and 9.5 k"z modulation
bandwidth
Desired S/ N rati o at user** 6.5 dB
Hence radi ated paver 12.4 dBW
17 watts
+Preamplifier at antenna
*+I n 9.5 lcHz bandwidth
15 17 -4
45 7.3
90 4.4
( m)
-
9.2
8.6
7.3
5.3
2.2
1.3
-
Table I1
Summary of Range Error Variances and RMS Values
Normal
-
( ft)
103.2
95.1
80.6
58.5
24.9
14.9
-
Total I
THE 'IMA ROLE OF HYBRID-SYSTEM RADIO SENSORS
F.S.Stringer, B.Sc., F. I nst. Nav.
Royal Ai rcraf t Est ab1 i shrnent ,
Farnborough, Hants.
Bri ti sh Crown Copyright, reproduced wi th the penni'ssion of the Control l er, Her Bri tanni c Majesty's
Stati onery Office
4 I
4
SUMMARY
The point-source ai ds as presentl y used defi ne ri gi d airways structures.
To meet the i ncreasi ng traf f i c densi ti es over conti nents such as Europe and
North America, external l y refereqced area coverage systems such as lkcca, Omega
or Loran are l i kel y to provide a better common frame of reference than poi nt
source ai ds because of the f l exi bi l i ty i n accurate routi ng offered. This
f l exi bi l i ty w i l l match that of the DR components.
al so have suf f i ci ent accuracy to meet the rel ati vel y stri ngent traf f i c
requirements of the conti nental areas.
America may need to be considered as termi nal areas f or the purpose of naviga-
ti on.
an ai rcraf t can j oi n the approach guidance system unaided by ground radar. I f
high rel i abi l i ty and suf f i ci ent accuracy i s provided by the ai rborne system,
then the ground radar rol e can be reduced to one of monitoring, with consequent
al l evi ati on of high tiorkload upon the ground radar operators.
The combined hybrid must
I n time the whole of Europe and North
The ul ti mate accuracy to aimf or w i l l be that necessary to ensure that
The same stri ngent rel i abi l i ty and accuracy requirements should be demanded
over areas where navi eati on rather than traf f i c separati on is the prime requi re-
ment. Spch areas include those currentl y and poorly served by exi sti ng ground
based ai ds where let-down nnd climb-out procedures, parti cul arl y over mountainous
regi ons, pose a potenti al l y dangerous environment.
There is therefore strong i ncenti ve to examine the provi si on of an area
coverage l atti ce radi o sensor which w i l l gi ve good+coverage (preferabl y world
wide) at al l al ti tudes, with an accuracy of about -2.. mi l e (2.S.D.) by day
and by ni ght, i n all conventional and VTOL types of ai rcraf t.
be coupled with the DR components by an appropri ate technique such as K a l ma n
f i l teri ng or a modified form of it.
This sensor should
4- 1
Air Traf f i c Control requirements di ctate the use of ai d6 to ai rcraf t navigation pmti cul ul j . over
hi ghl y developed areas of the world.
as the traf f i c densi ty has pown. aevelopment has been concentrated so f ar upon the short and medium
rnriee radi o ai ds because over long trunk routes there has been insuf'flcient traf f i c to warrant ri gi d
control and hi therto, sui tabl e equipment has not been avai l abl e to permit a reduction i n the exi sti ng
separati on standards. Safety has therefore been achieved by wide separation.
The degree of control has i ncreased during the past twenty years
The forecast i ncrease i n traf f i c densi ty i n the mid 1970' s requi res inproved navigation which w i l l
permit a reducti on i n both long and short range separati on standards. "here are l i kel y to be continued
attempts to improve nnvication saf ety over mountains and spu-sel y populated areas and to provide
improved f l exi bi l i ty of routi ng and standard of track-keepine especi al l y over Terminal keas.
and techniques are currentl y being offered by desi gners and manufacturers, some before long term
performance testi ng and with the provi si on of l i ttl e rel i abi l i ty or costi ng information. Operati ond
planning organi sati ons, i ncl udi ng the airlifies, are presented with a confusing pi cture of the present
state of the art, and i t is not surpri si ng that tho sel ecti on of a rati onal and cost ef f ecti ve system is
di f f i cul t.
would be reasonable f or them to demand that any new systems should provide an opportunity f or the
removal of a si gni f i cant quanti ty of obsolescent equipments from the ai rcraf t.
New i deas
"here is a natural reluctctrce by operators to i ntroduce new and costl y equipment, and it
Past experience shows that a consi derabl e time el apses between the approval of an operati onal
requirement and the i n-servi ce date of the equipment.
the state of the art at the earl i est opportunity.
The operators should therefore be made aware of
Due to the mul ti pl e techni cal and even i nternati onal admi ni strati ve problems involved i n the
i ntroducti on of new equipment -i nto servi ce, parti cul arl y problems of cost and rati onal i sati on, real
progress tends to be slow.
appears to have trai l ed behind the aerodynamic and engine progress. A s an example, seri ous dangers
such as col l i si on with high ground have still not been eliminated.
countri es toward ai rcrart col l i si on avoidance and the future reducti on of separati on standards over
long di stances. These problems must be solved i n t i me, but there is need f or examination of the
immediate di f f i cul ti es first.
routes, although not yet f ul l y developed, may be capable of earl i er though l i mi ted implementation f or
the sol uti on of some of the problems associ ated with medium and short range operation. The provi si on
of a more rel i abl e navigation system with appropri ate accuracy could reduce the hazards caused by
failure on the part of the pi l ot to follow the fl i ght plan, parti cul arl y when not under cl ose primary
or secondary survei l l ance radar control .
I n f act the implementation of el ectroni c technology i n ci vi l avi ati on
I
Attenti on is being di rected i n some
It is probable that some of the devi ces postul ated f or use on long range
Thi s paper,bri ef l y surveys the status of ai rcraf t navigation ai ds today parti cul arl y where they
are appl i cabl e to the Continental Terminal Area. The fundamental characteri sti cs af f ecti ng thei r
choice as part of a hybrid system are then discussed on the assumption that a di gi tal computer or
processor w i l l be used and al ternati vel y that i t w i l l not be used.
Areas of prof i tabl e future research are then considered and some mention is made of the current
programme at the Royal Ai rcraft Establiehment.
The concept of the hybrid navigation system has been introduced pri mari l y to provide improved
rel i abi l i ty i n the adherence by pi l ots to a f l i ght pl an compared with that to be expected from a si ngl e
navi gati on ai d or col l ecti on of ai df i used i ndi vi dual l y.
j udi ci ousl y to ensure that a maxi mum of redundancy is achieved and. that the appropri ate system stabi l i ty
is avai l abl e f or both ai rcraf t control and long term posi ti on fixing.
dead reckoning i nstal l ati on, then as the n.IA is approached, separate reference must be made to some
frame of reference common to al l ai rcraf t i n the traf f i c complex to allow an update or gr os s error check
of the ai rborne system.
reference to short range radi o navigation ai ds, parti cul arl y VOR, which is a point-source ai d, each
beacon providing one l i ne of posi ti on of rel ati vel y low order of preci si on.
I
The sel ecti on of hybrid sensors must be made
I f the hybrid comprises a mul ti pl e
Current regul ati ons di ctate navi gati on i n the EL'. and its surroundings by
The point-source ai ds defi ne ri gi d airways structures. To meet the i ncreasi ng traf f i c densi ti es
over conti nents such as &rope and North America, external l y referenced area coverage systenis such as
Decca, Omega or Loran are lilcely to provide a better common frame of reference than the poi nt source
ai ds because of the f l exi bi l i ty i n routi ng offered.
components.
traf f i c requirements of the conti nental areas.
to be considered as termi nal areas f or the purpose of navigation.
that necessary to ensure that an ai rcraf t can j oi n the approach guidance system unaided by ground radar.
If high rel i abi l i ty and suf f i ci ent accuracy is provided by the ai rborne system, then the ground radar
rol e can be reduced to one of monitoring, with consequent al l evi ati on of high workload upon the ground
radar operators.
"his f l exi bi l i ty w i l l match that of the ER
The combined hybrid must al so have suf f i ci ent accuracy to meet the rel ati vel y stri ngent
I n time the whole of Lurope and North America may need
The system accuracy requi red w i l l be
I deal l y the same stri ngent rel i abi l i ty and accuracy requirements should be demanded over areas
where navigation rather than traf f i c separati on is the prime requi remnt.
currentl y but poorly served by exi sti ng ground based ai ds where let-down and climb-out procedures,
parti cul arl y over mountainous regi ons, pose a potenti al l y dangerous environment.
2. SHORT AND MEDIUM RANGE AIDS To NAVI GATI ON 'JDDAY
2.1
ei ther ground radar i nf orkti on or radi o ai ds which employ beacons posi ti oned along the airways and in
the termi nal areas.
worth considering the rol e of radi o ai ds at the present time.
Such areas i ncl ude those
Most short or mediumrange ci vi l 'transport ai rcraf t navigation at the present time depends upon
It is i nappropri ate to gi ve detai l ed descri pti ons of such systems here but it is
VOR, the Visual hi Xange "F system,
i
4-2
i s n st andar d I.C.A.O. appr oved eqi i i pi ncnt mor e wi del y depl oyed tliari any othci r nit1 to ri : wi (pti on. I t i s
R poi nt - sour ce syst em, l i mi t ed to l i ne- of - si cht cove$a6pe, wi t h a t ot al syst emaccur acy of - 7
or ill otl i or wor ds 99.9%; of r eadi nCS wi l l be wi t hi n - 7
f roman ai r bor ne recei ver.
t he wor l d, par t i cul ar l y at ai r por t s, makes i t an i deal ai d to gener al avi at i on si nce i t i s omni -
di rect i onal .
i t i s usual l y used as an ai r way beacon.
t hat i s spat i al l y osci l l at or y behavi our whi ch r esul t s i n oper at i onal r est r i ct i ons i n al l - r ound cover.
VOH f r equency al l ocat i ons ar e a const ant di f f i cul t y but t he syst emi s pr ot ect ed by I.C.A.O. unt i l 1975.
Techni cal i mpr ovement s have been devel oped t o i ncr ease t he accur acy
pr obl ems, but such t echni ques i ncr ease t he cost of gr ound i nst al l at i ons and some of t hemi ncr ease t he
r eal est at e probl ems.
pi l ot wi t h t he ai d of an of f set comput er. Such ar r angement s usual l y r equi r e t he use of a second VOX
or Di st ance Measur i ng Equi pment (DI E).
Car t esi an or any ot her gr i d can be ar r anged, t he angul ar bear i ng er r or of t he poi nt sour ce syst emi s
f undament al and r emai ns i r r espect i ve of subsequent processi ng.
2.2 BIE i s usual l y co- l ocat ed wi t h t he VOR, and al t hough conveni ent , i t s ef f ect i veness coul d be
quest i oned.
r ecei ver i n t he ai r as wel l as on t he ground.
equi pment i s al s o r est r i ct ed t o l i ne of si ght r anges, but i n addi t i on t he t r af f i c capaci t y i s l i mi t ed.
2.3 The r adi o compass (ADF) wi t h cover age ar ea of up t o a f ewhundr ed, mi l es f r omt he gr ound based
t r ansmi t t er cont i nues to ser ve most of t he worl d' s ai r l i nes over spar sel y popul at ed areas.
r el at i vel y l ese sophi st i cat ed non- di r ect i onal beacon equi pment ( NDB) on t he gr ound al t hough t he ai r cr af t
i nst al l at i on i s subst ant i al on some ai r cr af t and i s f r equent l y dupl i cat ed t o pr ovi de posi t i on dat a by
t wo si mul t aneousl y measur ed beari ngs. The l i mi t at i ons of NDB and ADF have been known f or many year s,
and al t hough i nst r ument at i on has been i mpr oved consi der abl y, f undament al pr obl ems caused. by pr opaga-
t i onal ef f ect s at MF, domi nat e t he per f or mance char act er i st i cs.
f romt hunder st or ms, hi gh at mospher i c noi se . condi t i ons and pr eci pi t at i on st at i c, and at l ong r anges at
ni ght from i onospher i c ref l ect i ons.
cont i nues t o f l ouri sh.
+ o
(3. 5 .,.a.),
of t he mapet i c bear i ng of t he gr ound t r ansmi t t er
The ext ensi ve use of VU12 t hr oughout t he t echnol ogi cal l y advanced r egi ons of
Unf or t unat el y t he omni di r ect i onal pr oper t i es of VOR ar e not ut i l i sed ef f i ci ent l y si nce
I n addi t i on si t i ng di f f i cul t i es somet i mes cause ' Scal l opi ng' ,
and r educe scal l opi ng and ot her
Poi nt sour ce syst ems can be ar r anged t o pr ovi de ar ea cover ace i nf or mat i on to t he
Al t hough t he conver si on of di st ance- bear i ng co- or di nat es i nt o
DME i s an L Band (l oo0 Nc/ s) act i ve, pul sed el ect r oni c ai d r equi r i ng+a t r ansmi t t er
I t i s accur at e by many st andar ds (-&I S.D.). Thi s
I t r equi r es
Lar ge bear i ng er r or s can r esul t anywher e
I.C.A.O. has no mandat e t o decl ar e syst ems obsol et e, and kDF
VI@ voi ce communi cat i on pl ays a consi der abl e r ol e i n ai r cr af t navi gat i on at l i ne- of - si ght
di st ances.
t he ai r cr af t pr ovi des al t i t ude i nf or mat i on t o t he gr ound vi a t he SSR wi t h t he ai d of a bar omet r i c
sensor.
i n t he ai r.
i ncr ease t he dat a rate.
2.5
wave l ow- f r equency ai ds oper at i ng i n t he 70- 100 kHz f r equency band.
accur acy (200- 300 yd) can be achi eved at t he cent r e of t he 200- mnm I I arco cover age ar ea, but t he
accur acy i s r educed at ni ght at t he edges of cover.
a f l i ght l og pi ct or i al di spl ay.
addi t i onal f aci l i t i es, such as sensor mi xi ng and aut opi l ot cont rol .
descr i bi ng t he r el at i ve mer i t s of Decca compar ed wi t h VOR and l%lZ and t he ar gument s wi l l not be
r epeat ed here.
I t i s used t o pass pr i mar y and secondar y r adar f i xes t o t he pi l ot. The IFF t r ansponder i n
Unl ess t her e i s a r et ur n communi cat i on l i nk t o t he pi l ot , SSR pr ovi des no cont i nuous ser vi ce
Fi xes can be t r ansmi t t ed on r equest however , and t he advent of a r adi o l i nk woul d
Decca or var i ant s of t hi s syst emsuch as Har co and Dect r a ar e hyper bol i c ar ea- cover age cont i nuous-
A hi gh or der of posi t i on f i xi ng
Gener al l y t he dat a i s i nt er pr et ed wi t h t he ai d of
Huch l i t er at ur e has been pr oduced
Wi t h t he l at er ver si ons of t he syst ema navi gat i on comput er pr ovi des
Loran k and Lor an C ar e avai l abl e t o navi gat or s par t i cul ar l y over t he Nor t h At l ant i c and par t s of
t he Yaci f i c.
r adi o f r equency band 1- 2 PlHz and pr ovi des an unambi guous posi t i on f i x al t hough t he si gnal s suf f er f r om
i onospher i c ef f ect s par t i cul ar l y at ni ght.
of data.
der i ved f r omt wo hyper bol i c l i nes of posi t i on.
mat chi ng t echni que per mi t s t he measur ement of t i me- di f f er ence bet ween t he gr ound wave r adi at ed f romany
pai r of t r ansmi t t er s i n al vance of t he sky- wave cont ami nat ed si gnal s. A mi l i t ar y var i ant , Lor an D, f or
shor t r ange oper at i on apgear s t o be st i l l under devel opment .
Lorzn i s a pul sed t i me- di f f er ence hyper bol i c- l at t i ce ai d. The Lor an A oper at es i n t he
Ski l l ed oper at i on i s needed t o ensur e cor r ect i nt er pr et at i on
Lor an C oper at i ng at a r adi o f r equency of 110 kHz pr ovi des a hi ghl y accur at e posi t i on f i x
Oper at i on can be aut omat i c or semi - aut omat i c. A cycl e
Omega i s a cont i nuous- wave ver y l ow f r equency (VLF) syst emoper at i ng i n t he f r equency band
10.2-13.6 kHz.
phase di f f er ences of si pal s r adi at ed f rompai r s of t ransmi t t ers.
st at i ons, whi ch have oper at i onal st at us, pr ovi des cover age over about one qumt er of t he worl d' s
surf ace. i i ventual pr ovi si on of ei ght st at i ons shoul d meet mar i ne and avi at i on r equi r ement s worl d- wi de.
The posi t i on- f i xi ng accur acy i s i n t he or der of 1 nm S.D. i f pr opagat i onal cor r ect i ons ar e appl i ed t o
t he si gnal s t o r educe t he ef f ect s of i onospher i c di ur nal vari at i ons. A f ur t her i mpr ovement i n accur acy
can be achi eved by l ocal cor r ect i ons appl i ed t o ai r bor ne r ecei ver s and obt ai ned as a r esul t of gr ound
moni t or i ng of t he si gnal s.
Omega i s i nher ent l y ambi guous; t he basi c l at t i ce der i ved f romt he 10.2 kHz si gnal s i s r epeat ed ever y
8 nmal ong t he' base l i ne and t he l at t i ce gr adual l y expands as t he di st ance f romt he base l i ne i ncreases.
Par t i al r esol ut i on of t he ambi gui t i es can be at t empt ed by t he r adi at i on of si gnal s of 13.6 kHz and
11.33 ldiz t o pr ovi de beat f r equenci es of 3.4 kHz and 1. 133 kHz respect i vel y.
equi val ent l ane wi dt hs of 24 and 72 nm t o per mi t a sequent i al pr ocess of posi t i on f i xi ng i n st eps.
Lhr r ent syst emexper i ment s have r eveal ed a var i at i on i n t he r el at i ve posi t i ons of t he phase l i nes
der i ved f romt he beat s at ni ght as compar ed wi t h t he basi c 10.2 kHz pat t ern.
spat i al and t hei r mapni t u8e i s t he subj ect of cur r ent i nvest i gat i ons.
I t pr ovi des a hyper bol i c l at t i ce of posi t i on l i nes, at al l al t i t udes, der i ved f r omt he
"he pr esent depl oyment of f our
Thi s t echni que has acqui r ed t he t i t l e ' Di f f er ent i al or Cor r ect ed Omega' .
These woul d gi ve
The var i at i ons ar e
Xesol ut i on of ambi gui t i es has been at t empt ed wi t h some euccess by compar i sons of i ncr ement al
Omep r eadi ngs compar ed wi t h i ncr ement al dead r eckoni ng i nf or mat i on measur ed over si mi l ar i ncr ement s of
ti me. The t echni que cont i nues to be st udi ed.
4- 3
I t i o possi bl e that poi nt- source beacons such a6 Volt, NDB or I LS coul d provi de ambi gui t y
resol ut i on over say Europe or Nort h Ameri ca and current research i s exami ni ng the f easi bi l i ty of such a
techni que.
3. ALTEXNATI VE AND ALLI ED TECHNIQUES
Al l of the navi gat i on ai ds menti oned so f ar are ext ernal l y ref erenced f romsome poi nt out si de the
ai rcraf t.
i nt roduced the possi bi l i t y of compl et e f l exi bi l i t y of rout i ng i nt o the navi gat i on of t ransport ai rcraf t.
The advent of i nert i al navi gat i on, Doppl er radar and i mproved headi ng ref erences has
The coverage area i s unl i mi ted. Tot al rel i ance on these sel f - cont ai ned ai ds i s not advi sabl e
however because the probabl e fi xi n(S error i ncreases wi t h t i me, the accuracy i s dependent on the i ni t i al
f i xi ng ref erence, and gr oss errors caused by mal f unct i on or mi shandl i ng are possi bl e.
pref erabl y t ri pl i cat i on, of such ai ds woul d al l evi at e some of t hese di sadvantages.
to be produced i n the neap f ut ure wi l l al most cert ai nl y requi re a vert i cal ref erence deri ved f roma
st abl e pl at f orm, to Gi ve themthe necessary f aci l i t i es f or aut opi l ot and i nst rument al control .
t heref ore most l i kel y that many t ransport ai rcraf t wi l l cont ai n hi gh- qual i t y sel f - cont ai ned ai ds to
navi gat i on, whi ch take advant age of the provi si on of the st abl e pl atf orm. Ai r Traf f i c Cont rol wi l l
extend to ai rcraf t of al l si zes however, and i t i s unl i kel y that we shal l see hi gh- qual i t y dead-
reckoni ng i nst rument s i n the smal l er ai rcraf t , even though they occupy the same ai r space as the l arger
types.
3.2
bi l i ty.
f undament al di sadvant ages al ready descri bed, or by some ext ernal l y- ref erenced system.
ni ques empl oy ground radar wi t h SYR over l arge t ermi nal areas.
ME, Decca or AilF are al so used f or t hi s purpose.
dependence upon the ground- based ai ds f or navi gat i on wi thi n the ai r l anes.
reason however, why the sel f - cont ai ned ai ds shoul d not be used f or pri mary navi gat i on, wi th the radi o
ai d used f or redundant checki ng onl y.
routi ng.
i n the ai rcref t.
Dupl i cat i on, or
Advanced ai rcraf t
I t i s
The t i me- dependent qual i t i es of sel f - cont ai ned ai ds demand redundant i nf ormat i on to ensure rel i a-
Thi s i nf ormat i on can be provi ded ei ther f romot her sel f - cont ai ned devi ces whi ch ret ai n t he
Short - range radi o ai ds such as VOR,
Current tech-
At the present t i me ATC Regul at i ons demand
There seems no t echni cal
Thi s woul d gi ve R consi derabl e i mprovement i n f l exi bi l i t y and
A maj or pract i cal and operat i onal probl emhowever, i s the l ack of uni f ormi t y of equi pment
4. DESI GN FEATURES AFFECPI NG SENSOR SELECTI ON
Al l ai ds to navi gat i on have charact eri st i c advant ages and di sadvantages. The di sadvant ages are
probabl y most apparent i n the at t empt to meet the l ong range requi rement but care i s st i l l requi red i n
sel ect i on of sensors f or the I MA rol e.
Cont i nuous wave ai ds have i nherent ambi gui t y characteri sti cs. The resol ut i on of ambi gui t i es i s
af f ect ed by the i onospheri c ref l ect i ons of the radi at ed si gnal s part i cul arl y at ni ght.
f requency t ransmi ssi ons are used to provi de coarse l at t i ce pat t erns deri ved f romthe beat f requenci es
to assi st i n ambi gui t y resol ut i on but t hi o t echni que has been shown to i nt roduce f urther propagat i onal
probl ems i n cert ai n ci rcumst ances;
the probl em.
Mul t i pl e-
i n f act the proposed sol ut i on somet i mes aggravat es rat her t han sol ves
The beat - f requency method of resol ut i on has been empl oyed by the Decca and t he Omega systems.
The ef f ect s of second- mode VW propagat i on at ni ght however upon the beat f requenci es deri ved f or
resol ut i on purposes f romthe vari ous carri ers have demonstrated a possi bl e reduct i on i n the rel i abi l i t y
of resol ut i on i n 6ome ci rcumst ances compared wi th the perf ormance t hought possi bl e i ni ti al l y.
An al t ernat i ve i s to empl oy the sel f - cont ai ned ai ds such as ai r dat a, a hi ghl y st abl e osci l l at or
be dead reckoni ng t echni que has shown consi derabl e promi se when appl i ed t o Omega used i n
or Doppl er radar to assi st i n the det ermi nat i on of the correct l ane count af t er an i nt errupt i on of
servi ce.
conj unct i on wi t h a di gi t al comput er and an i nert i al navi gat or or Doppl er radar.
Diurnal propagat i on ef f ect s upon l owand very l owf requency ai ds i nt roduce syst emat i c f i xi ne
errors whi ch are most evi dent at the f ri nges of cover of t he l owf requency Decca syst emand at al l
di st ances f romthe very l owf requency. Gmega transmi tters.
predi ct abl e and can be removed by the appl i cat i on of st andard correcti one.
al so experi enced at LF and VLF at pound l evel in cert ai n geophysi cal condi t i ons;
removed by survey and cal i brati on.
Di urnal ef f ect s upon Omega are uni f ormand
Fi xed syst emat i c errors are
these are agai n
Kandomerrors due to noi se, the ef f ect s of preci pi t at i on st at i c, such as those i mposed by rat e-
These i ncl ude:
ai di ng t echni ques and sel ect i on of servo response t i mes are experi enced wi th the conti nuous: wave
devi ces. These are count ered however by thei r f undament al systemadvantages.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) Mul t i pl e posi t i on- l i ne f i xi ng.
k ea coverage at al l al ti tudes.
A hi gh order of accuracy i f requi red.
Good coverage area per transmi tter.
Passi ve operat i on wi th consequent unl i mi t ed traf f i c capaci ty.
The pul sed t ypes of hyperbol i c ai d such as Loran A and C provi de a l i mi t ed number of posi t i on l i nes,
they have l i mi t ed coverage area and they somet i mes suf f er f roml ock- on del ays.
tend to be compl ex i n the f ul l y aut omat i c vari ety wi t h consequent ri sk of reduced rel i abi l i ty.
The recei ver ci rcui t s
These
4- 4
ai ds however have t he i mpor t ant advant ages of unambi guous f i xi ng, wi t h a hi gh or der of accur acy wher e t he
l at t i ce geomet r y i s r cnsonabl y good, but t hey have poor over l and per f or mnnce and ar e t hus not at t r act i ve
as ai ds to Cont i nent al navi gat i on.
, Cur r ent devel opment s of t he wel l known poi nt - sour ce syst ems such ns VOR, ADF and DME, ar e
i nt ended t o Gi ve an i mproved perf ormance.
ment i oned al r eady but a mor e compr ehensi ve l i st woul d i ncl ude:
Some of t he f undament al weaknesses of mc h Syst ems have been
l i mi t ed r ange due t o t he necessar y empl oyment of hi gh f r equenci es,
t er r ai n scal l opi ng,
geomet r i cal non- l i near i t y due t o t he conver si on er r or s f r ompoi nt sour ce t o ar ea navi gat i on,
hi gh pi l ot wor kl oad and f r equency channel al l ocat i on pr obl ems,
t he l i mi t ed t r af f i c capaci t y of t he DME: component .
The pr i mar y advant ages of t he poi nt - sour ce syst ems ar e t he r el at i ve economy of ai r cr af t i nst al l at i on and
t hei r wi de depl oyment i n some par t s of t he worl d.
Sat el l i t e syst ems ar e possi bl e sensor s f or f ut ur e ai r cr af t navi gat i on. Ther e i s no concer t ed
pl an at pr esent f or t he devel opment of a si ngl e syst emf or ci vi l use so f ar as t he aut hor i s aware.
Such syst ems ar e l i kel y t o be expensi ve and some f i ndment al pr obl ems of pr opagat i on aer i al desi gn
and dat a handl i ng ar e st i l l i n t he ear l y r esear ch stage.
t echni cal f easi bi l i t y i n t he ci vi l t r anspor t r ol e has yet t o be est abl i shed, uni ver sal adopt i on i n t he
near f ut ur e i s unl i kel y.
sat el l i t e syst emunt i l t he vi abi l i t y of gr ound based syst ems have been exami ned t hor oughl y and
pract i cal l y.
Si nce t hei r pot ent i al ef f ect i veness and
I t woul d seeh pr udent t her ef or e t o def er deci si ons upon t he adopt i on of a
I t may be ar gued t hat t he f i xi ng dat a coul d be suppl i ed t o a pi l ot f r omgr ound r adar f or coupl i ng
Fact or s whi ch r esi st t hi s t endency ar e bei ng r ecogni sed as: wi t h t he ai r bor ne data.
(a)
(b)
An ext r eme pr obl emof i dent i f i cat i on especi al l y at l owal t i t ude.
A non- cont i nuous ser vi ce whi ch coul d l eave t he pi l ot wi t hout vi t al i nf or mat i on at a cr i t i cal
t i me due t o ot her pri ori t i es.
A cont i nued i ncr ease i n wor kl oad of gr ound operat ors.
A ser vi ce avai l abl e t o some ar eas but not ot hers.
I ncr eased communi cat i on r equi r ement s over t hose avai l abl e today.
(c)
(d)
(e)
Al l t he r adi o f i xi ng ai ds consi der ed r el y on si gnal s or i gi nat i ng f romf i xed gr ound st at i ons and
as a r esul t suf f er - wi t h t he possi bl e except i on of Omega - f r omhavi ng l i mi t ed r ange and decr easi ng
posi t i on accur acy wi t h di st ance f r omt he t ransmi t t er.
t o oper at i ons i n cer t ai n par t s of t he worl d.
known and consi st ent ( i f a cer t ai n ' randomnoi se' cont ent i s al l owed for).
r eckoni ng or sel f - cont ai ned ai ds gi ve wor l d wi de cover and ar e not dependent on gr ound st at i ons.
chi ef di sadvant age i s t hat t hey r el y on memor y, and comput e t he newposi t i on by ext r apol at i on f r omt he
pr evi ous known posi t i on usi ng a knowl edge of t he ai r cr af t speed and di rect i on.
t he posi t i on er r or s t end t o i ncr ease wi t h ti me.
f i xi ng r ef er ence, and undet ect ed er r or s due t o mal f unct i on or mi shandl i ng ar e possi bl e.
Thus ai r cr af t r el yi ng on t hemar e r est r i ct ed
However , wi t hi n t he cover age ar ea, t hei r accur acy i s
On t he ot her hand, t he dead
Thei r
Thus on any gi ven f l i ght ,
I n addi t i on t he accur acy i s dependent on t he i ni t i al
These consi der at i ons l ead nat ur al l y t o t he concept of mi xed or ' Hybri d' syst ems cont ai ni ng sensor s
f r ombot h gr oups of navi gat i on ai ds.
5. THE HYBRI DSYSTm
Ther e i s a st r ong i ncent i ve t o sel ect a navi gat i on syst en f or t he cont i nent al Dt A compr i si ng an
Such a hybr i d woul d coupl e t he component s wi t h Kal man f i l t er i ng or a modi f i ed f or mof i t.
ar ea cover age l at t i ce r adi o sensor , a DR component and an appr opr i at e ai gi t al comput er or sensor
processor.
To some ext ent , t he l i mi t at i ons of bot h t ypes of navi gat i on syst ems can be mi t i gat ed by dupl i ca-
t i on or t r i pl i cat i on of the syst ems.
of t he same t ype but di f f er ent capabi l i t i es such as a l ong r ange wi t h a shor t r ange r adi o f i xi ng ai d,
or a Doppl er r adar wi t h an i ner t i al navi gat or. But i t i s cl ear t hat t he best sol ut i on i s t o car r y
syst ems of bot h t ypes so th?.t t he f i xi ng ai d can be used t o updat e t he d.r. ai d and t he d.r. ai d used
t o gi ve a cont i nuous out put of posi t i on bet ween f i xes.
f i xi ng sensor i s compl ement ar y to t he shor t t er mst abi l i t y of t he d.r. sensor.
A f ~t her i m2r ovement can be obt ai ned by a combi nat i on of t wo ai ds
Addi t i onal l y t he l ong t er mst abi l i t y of t he
Syst ems of t hi s t ype ar e i n ser vi ce at t he pr esent t i me, f or exampl e ai r cr af t f l yi ng basi cal l y
on Doppl er use Loran or Decca f or f i xi ng.
navi gat i on ai ds r emai n compl et el y separ at e and t he out put s ar e ohl y compar ed t hr ough t he human navi -
gat or.
I I owever t hi s i s not st r i ct l y a hybr i d syst emas t he t wo
I n pr act i ce al l ai r cr af t have ef f ect i vel y a combi nat i on of dead r eckoni ng and f i xi ng even i f t he
f or mer i s on ai r speed i ndi cat or and. t he l at t er i s a map.
requi rei cent s ri ust be sat i sf i ed f or sat i sf act or y navi sat i on t o t ake pl ace.
gat i on i s achi eved by t he combi nat i on of a good shor t t ermst abi l i t y syst emf or ai r cr af t cont r ol ,
I t i s not al ways r ecogni sed t hat t hese
The best cont r ol and navi -
coupl ed wi t h a f i xi ng component havi ne good l onl : t ermst abi l i t y.
by dead r eckoni ng t echni ques, and advocat es of aut opi l ot cont r ol by r adi o syst ems. The l at t er met hod
causes pr obl ems such as f l i ght pat h devi at i on due to pr opagat i onal anomal i es no mat t er how smal l , and
t ot al l y dead r eckoni n6 t echni ques can pr oduce t i me dependent er r or s i n navi gat i on.
'here arc fJ dVOCntI ?S of t ot al cont r ol
I n t he hybr i d syst ems whi ch ar e evol vi ng at t he pr esent t i me, t he out put s of t he navi gat i on ai ds
' are compar ed cont i nuousl y and aut omat i cal l y i n a comput er whi ch by means of opt i mal mi xi ng or
f i l t er i ng pr oduces navi eat i on i nf or mat i on whi ch i s bet t er t han ei t her ai d coul d produce separat el y.
The pr ogr ess t owar ds a f ul l y i nt egr at ed navi gat i on syst emhas been accel er at ed by t he ar r i val of t he
ai r wor t hy gener al pur poue comput er of adequat e capaci t y.
6 .
THE ARM COVERAGE FI XI NGSENSOR
On t he basi s of t he desi gn f eat ur es al r eady descr i bed i t woul d appear t hat t he r adi o sensor shoul d
meet t he f ol l owi ng i deal speci f i cat i on.
(a)
(b)
Ar ea cover age - pr ef er abl y wor l d wi de.
A n accur acy sui t abl e f or j oi ni ng any of t he expect ed gui dance syst ems t o be used f or ai r f i el d
appr oach ( say :$n mi l e S.D.)
I
(c) Cover age at al l al t i t udes.
(d) Unambi guous f i xes.
( e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Ot her r equi r ement s wi l l no doubt come t o mi nd but t he above ar e suf f i ci ent t o per mi t a sel ect i on
Non suscept i bi l i t y t o pr opagat i onal anomal i es.
Compat i bi l i t y wi t h t he DR ai ds.
Redundancy of r adi o f i x data.
Dependence upon an exi st i ng or devel opi ng gr ound compl ex.
of ai ds most l i kel y t o pr ovi de t he servi ce.
speci f i ed poi nt s, i n f act t hat i s why a hybr i d i s t hought necessary.
si ngl e sensors but hybr i ds whi ch t oget her can achi eve most i f not al l of t he f i xi ng requi rement s.
I t i s not l i kel y t hat one ai d wi l l meet al l of t he
I t i s wor t h consi der i ng not onl y
A 1975 t i me scal e i s consi der ed essent i al i f such an i mpr oved syst emi s t o make a t i mel y i mpact.
Si nce an agr eed sat el l i t e navi gat i on syst emi s unl i kel y t o be avai l abl e i n t i me t he onl y opt i ons as
sensor s ar e Decca, Lor an or Omega i n cor r ect ed or di f f er ent i al f orm.
compl et i on of di f f er ent i al st udi es, Omega of f er s consi der abl e pr omi se because of i t s pot ent i al wor l d
coverage. For hyper bol i c syst ems gener al l y i t i s consi der ed t hat cer t ai n, l i nes of devel opment woul d
l ead t o gr eat l y i mpr oved 'IMA capabi l i t i es.
Subj ect t o t he successf ul
These i ncl ude
(a)
A r educt i on i n t he compl exi t y of t he exi st i ng ai ds t o gi ve t hemsensor qual i t i es wi t h l ane
i dent i f i cat i on pr ovi ded i f necessar y by i ncr ement al dead r eckoni ng procedures.
(b) An al t er nat i ve abi l i t y t o r esol ve l ane ambi gui t i es by r ef er ence t o poi nt sour ce ai ds.
Ther e i s wi descal e depl oyment of t hese ai ds and al t hough t he bear i ng accur acy of dat a pr esent ed
i s l owi t i s suf f i ci ent t o i ndi cat e t he cor r ect Omega l ane or Decca zone.
(c)
The successf ul desi gn of el ect r omechani cal or di gi t al ser vo syst ems t o ensur e suf f i ci ent l y
r api d r esponse f or t er mi nal operat i on.
Ver i f i cat i on t hat di f f er ent i al met hods wi l l r emove absol ut e er r or s associ at ed wi t h cer t ai n
geophysi cal envi r onment s at r adi o f r equenci es bel ow200 kHz.
(d)
(e) Whet her i nt er nal l y gener at ed ai r cr af t noi se can be l i mi t ed i n i t s ef f ect t o ensur e cont i nuous
ser vi ce f r omt he r adi o sensors.
That t he dat a l i nk demanded by t he cor r ect ed or t he di f f er ent i al t echni ques i s l i kel y t o be
avai l abl e i n t he t i me scal e.
(f )
I f t he dat a l i nk i s not pr ovi ded i n t i me, t hen t he pr ospect s f or Decca i mpr ove compar ed wi t h Omega
si nce t he f or mer has bet t er " MA accur acy i n i t s basi c f orm.
lost however.
The advant age of worl d cover age woul d be
Ekper i ment s at RAE cont i nue t o i ncl ude an exami nat i on of t he er r or char act er i st i cs of cor r ect ed
and di f f er ent i al Omega bet ween f i xed and gr ound moni t or s and bet ween ai r bor ne y d gr ound recei vers.
Ther e i s an i ndi cat i on f romt hi s wor k and cur r ent st udi es i n t he USA t hat t he -2-3 nmS.D. di f f er ent i al
er r or di st r i but i on exper i enced so f ar coul d be r educed by i mpr oved i nst r ument al desi gn, and a r educt i on
of t he el ect r i cal noi se envi ronment .
The aut hor i s not awar e of any st udy of a si mpl e Decca sensor wi t h DH mi xi ng but an exami nat i on
of i t s f easi bi l i t y woul d seema wor t hwhi l e exerci se.
Recent r esear ch at RAE has i ncl uded t he exami nat i on of a di st ance measur i ng f aci l i t y i n t er ms of
4- 5
4-6
ci r cul ar co- or di nat es gener at ed wi t h a gr ound t r ansmi t t er as t he ori gi n.
mi tt' ers r adi at i nc i n t he l owf r equency band i s ext r emel y hi gh si nce t he car r i er i s cont r ol l ed by an
at omi c source. I f a si gnal at t he car r i er f r equency or some sub- mul t i pl e of i t i s gener at ed i n t he
ai r cr af t f r oma hi ghl y st abl e cr yst al osci l l at or of avai l abl e qual i t y, t hen t he di st ance- gone i n t er ms
of vavel engt hs t r aver sed can be det er mi ned by a beat t echni que.
sel ect ed poi nt whi ch coul d be t he ai r f i el d of depart ure. The dr i f t bet ween t he sour ces can be kept t o
an accept abl e l i mi t over a per i od of about one hour whi ch i s a r easonabl e dur at i on i n t he I MA envi r on-
ment.
Dr oi t wi ch t ransmi t t er.
overcome.
50-100 yar ds af t er one hour of f l i ght.
The st abi l i t y of many t r am-
The di st ance wi l l be measur ed f r omany
Exper i ment s at RAE' have i ncl uded measur ement s agai nst Decca navi gat or t r ansmi t t er s and t he BBC
Resul t s have been encour agi ng al t hough some engi neer i ng pr obl emhave had t o be
Recent exper i ment s i n an Aust er ai r cr af t have r eml t ed i n some si ngl e M P er r or s of some
An at t r act i ve ext ensi on of t hi s t echni que woul d be t he appl i cat i on to VHF car r i er s of ampl i t ude
A st andar d modi f i cat i on i n t he f or mof a ki t woul d per mi t an
or phase modul at i on at sever al f r equenci es of say I kHz* I00 kHz and I O kHz.
woul d be about 0.15, 15 and 15 n mi l es.
ext ensi on of t he exi st i ng gr ound t r ansmi t t er f aci l i t i es wi t hout t he need of al t er at i on t o t he exi st i ng
f r equency al l ocat i ons.
addi t i on of such a f aci l i t y t o any VHF t r ansmi t t er s woul d be of consi der abl e val ue f or t he compl et i on
of l et down pr ocedur es and f or t he est i mat e of wi nd f roma knowl edge of gr ound speed.
t hat t hi s i s basi cal l y a dead r eckoni ng devi ce but i t coul d be of gr eat val ue as a hybr i d sensor ,
par t i cul ar l y t o t he smal l er ai rcraf t .
The l ane wi dt hs avai l abl e
The t echni que wi l l be exami ned wi t h VOH and I LS t r ansmi t t er s i n mi nd. The
I t i s r ecogni sed
One of t he most t r oubl esome hi ndr ances t o t he appl i cat i on of mor e advanced syst ems of navi gat i on
i s t he phasi ng of t he newequi pment or oper at i onal pr ocedur e i nt o exi st i ng f aci l i t i es.
emphasi ses t he val ue of evol ut i onar y advances.
t o t he exi st i ng ai ds t o navi gat i on and communi cat i on. I t i s sensi bl e t o consi der howbest t hese s i ml s
can be adapt ed t o t he t ot al ai r cr af t navi gat i on syst embacked up by gr ound r adar moni t ori ng.
l i nes of posi t i on der i ved f rompoi nt sour ces such as VOR, ILS, NDB, Decca and br oadcast t r ansmi t t er s ar e
coupl ed vi a mi cr omi ni at ur e sensor s i nt o t he navi gat i on syst emt hr ough t he ai r bor ne comput er , pr ogr ammed
t o seek t hi s i nf or mat i on al ong t he r out e, t hen t he dat a can be used t o r ef er ence, updat e or gr oss er r or
check t he DR component s of t he ai r bor ne syst em. I f hyper bol i c l at t i ce sensor s ar e avai l abl e t hen t he
poi nt sour ce l i nes of posi t i on can r esol ve ambi gui t i es. I f t he gr ound and ai r bor ne st abl e osci l l at or
beat f r equency ar r angement pr oves oper at i onal l y vi abl e t hen cont i nui t y of dat a coul d be car r i ed over
f romone gr ound r ef er ence t o anot her.
Thi s pr obl em
A l ar ge capi t al i nvest ment has al r eady been commi t t ed
I f t he
The r edepl oyment of gr ound f aci l i t i es i s a maj or i mpedi ment t o t he i nt r oduct i on of i mpr oved r adi o
f aci l i t i es t o back up t he DR sensors.
hybr i d used i magi nat i vel y.
gat i on syst ems wi t h bot h l ar ge and smal l ai r cr af t i n mi nd.
A l i t t l e consi der at i on wi l l r eveal t he exci t i ng pot ent i al of a
Cur r ent exper i ment s at RAE ar e exami ni ng al l pr act i cal aspect s of such navi -
The advanced concept s consi der ed wi l l be ver y much l ess ef f ect i ve i f a dat a l i nk f or aut omat i c
Di f f er ent i al , Cor r ect ed Omega and t hr ee di mensi onal di gi t al communi cat i ons i s not avai l abl e soon.
posi t i on br oadcast s f or ATC r edundant moni t or i ng and i dent i f i cat i on ar e some of t he dat a l i nk needs
cr eat ed by t he navi gat i on of ai r cr af t i n t he dense t r af f i c envi ronment .
The pi l ot must be abl e to moni t or t he dat a he r ecei ves and have avai l abl e a common di spl ay f or
f l i ght di r ect i on and i nf or mat i on of t he ai r cr af t posi t i on.
have t he f ol l owi ng:
I t i s suggest ed however t hat he must al so
(a)
An assur ance t hat r edundant t echni ques ensur e t hat r adi o sensor ambi gui t i es ar e posi t i vel y
r esol ved even i f onl y at speci f i ed poi nt s al ong a route.
A r ever si onar y di spl ay of t he r adi o sensor dat a f or emer gency use.
I mpr oved cont r ol of r adi o sensor s t o r educe cockpi t cl ut t er and t o r educe workl oad.
(b)
(c)
7. CONCLUSI ONS
The consi der at i ons t hat have been i ncl uded i n t hi s paper f i r st l y assume t hat a hybr i d navi gat i on
syst emwi l l be needed f or t he saf e navi gat i on of ai r cr af t over t he t er mi nal ar eas and t hei r i mmedi at e
sur r oundi ngs t o sever al hundr ed mi l es f r omt he maj or ai rport s. Such a hybr i d woul d i deal l y cont ai n a
l ar ge per cent age of equi pment used f or long r ange navi gat i on.
cont i nent s such as Eur ope or Nor t h Ameri ca. The navi gat i onal abi l i t y of t he ai r cr af t f i t t ed wi t h such
a hybr i d shoul d gi ve compl et e f l exi bi l i t y, r el i abi l i t y and an enhanced degr ee of accur acy suf f i ci ent t o
al l owt he pi l ot to j oi n t he l andi ng gui dance syst em.
The MAs may wel l cover t he whol e of some
The sel f - cont ai ned sensor s wi l l pr ovi de good cont r ol of aut opi l ot s f or t he per i ods of f l i ght wi t hi n
t he " MA envi ronment .
ensur e t hat t he gui dance syst emcan be j oi ned wi t hout r adar assi st ance and t hi s r ef er ence must be common
t o al l traf f i c.
Accur at e ext er nal posi t i on r ef er ence must be cont i nuousl y avai l abl e however to
I t i s bel i eved t hat by 1975 a navi gat i on syst emof t hi s sor t wi l l be needed. Of t he r adi o sensor s
consi der ed i t i s bel i eved t hat onl y Decca, Omega and t he poi nt - sour ce ai ds wi l l be avai l abl e i n t he t i me
scal e.
LF, MF and VHF t r ansmi ssi ons t o t he over al l benef i t of t he navi gat i on syst em.
be coupl ed t o sensor s pr ovi di ng onl y l i mi t ed dat a t o back up t hat obt ai ned f romanot her r edundant r adi o
ai d.
I t i s bel i eved however t hat mor e i nf or mat i on coul d be ext r act ed f romal l of t he exi st i ng VLF,
The hybr i d coul d t her ef or e
I t i s essent i al t hat t he wor kl oad of bot h pi l ot and pound raci ar oper at or be r educed but i t shoul d
be r ecogni sed t hat emer gency r ever si onar y modes must not demand a l evel of per f or mance out si de t he pi l ot s'
abi l i t y i n t he ci r cumst ances whi ch demand t hei r use.
t her ef or e be coupl ed wi t h t he i nt r oduct i on of a di gi t al dat a r adi o l i nk, i nt egr at ed cockpi t cont r ol s
and di spl ays, and t he di spl ay of si mpl e r awr adi o posi t i on dat a f or emer gency purposes.
The devel opment of t he r adi o sensor s shoul d
5 I
\
THE USE OF FILTERING TECHNIQUES AND/OR MIXED NAVIGATION
SYSTEMS IN COMBINATION WITH BAROMETRIC ALTIMETRY TO
GENERATE GLIDE SLOPES FOR PRECISION APPROACH
M. G. Pearson
The Decca Navigator Company Lt d. ,
England
5
5- I
THE USE OF FILTERING TECHNIQUES AN
.................................. A ! ! !!!
M. G. PEARSON
I NT R ODUC T I ON
-_-------__-
The paper des cri bes an ai r bor ne navi gati on system, based on t h e Omni trac d' i gi t a l
The system combines a means f o r determi ni ng accurate p o s i t i o n f i x i n g i n t h e ho r i z o nt a l
pl ane, wi t h a v e r t i c a l gui dance f a c i l i t y u t i l i s i n g barometri c input and t h e r e s ul t a nt data
i s l i nke d wi t h t he a i r c r a f t f l i g h t system. The requi rements and probl ems i nvol ved i n
handl i ng data f r om a v a r i e t y o f s t a t i o n ref erenced and/ or s el f - c ontai ned navi gati on sensors
ar e consi dered, as ar e the techni ques empl oyed i n t he data f i l t e r i n g and mi xi ng processes.
F i l t e r i n g i n t h i s context i mpl i es d i g i t a l s i gna l proces s i ng o r t h e a ppl i c a t i o n o f
s t a t i s t i c a l techni ques t o t he navi gati on sensors u t i l i s e d . The bas i s f o r both t h e f i l t e r i n g
and t h e mi xi ng processes i s t he f or mul ati on o f a pr e di c t i o n vector, produced f r om
pr evi ous l y computed wind vec tor s and t r u e ai rs peed f o r a s i ngl e s ens or system, o r computed
by a Do ppl e r / I ne r t i a l mi x when t h i s i s used i n conj unctS on wi th a r adi o p o s i t i o n f i x i n g
s ens or such as Decca, Loran, VOR/ DME .
computer, whi ch i nc or por ates a techni que f o r t he pr o vi s i o n o f p r o f i l e gui dance.
P r o f i l e gui dance i s obtai ned by compari son between t he achi eved g l i d e path, (computed
f rom t h e ground speed vec tor der i ved f r om t he navi gati on sensors, and t he r a t e o f ascent o r
descent f r om s ucces s i ve di f f er enc es o f t he barometri c a l t i me t e r ) and the r equi r ed g l i d e
path.
The paper o ut l i ne s t he bas i s f o r t he c onf i gur ati on o f t h e navi gati on sensors, computers
and di s pl ays and des cri bes t he gui dance techni ques employed.
An exampl e o f t he system concerned has been appl i ed i n p r a c t i c e t o a i r c r a f t havi ng STOL
c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s oper ati ng i n a hi gh dens i ty ter mi nal area envi ronment. An i n d i c a t i o n i s
gi ven o f t he performance obtai ned under oper ati onal condi ti ons , dur i ng extens i ve f l i g h t
eval uati on.
PROFILE GUIDANCE
----------------
The pr i mar y purpose o f t h e p r o f i l e gui dance i s t o enabl e t he p i l o t t o def i ne both
s t r a i g h t and curved approach paths. There ar e two s i mpl e models t h a t can be generated i n
the computer. The f i r s t one can be cons i dered t o be a pl ane i n t e r s e c t i n g t he s ur f ac e o f
t h e e a r t h a t the g l i d e s l ope angl e. An I L S beam i s an exampl e o f t h i s type o f geometry.
I t has t he obvi ous advantage t h a t i t woul d be exac tl y l i k e a conventi onal I L S t o i nt e r pr e t ,
but i t has t h e di s advantage o f r e qui r i ng a gr eat many po i nt s t o def i ne a curved g l i d e sl ope.
An a l t e r n a t i v e way, i s t o cons i der the g l i d e s l ope as bei ng t he generator of a cone
whose apex i s t he de s t i na t i o n poi nt. A f l y up i n d i c a t i o n i s gi ven i f t he a i r c r a f t i s out-
s i de t he cone, and the cone i s concave up (as i s al ways t he case on t he approach), and a
f l y down i n d i c a t i o n i s gi ven i'f t he a i r c r a f t i s i ns i de t h e cone. I t i s now pos s i bl e t o
f l y a curved descent path by us i ng t he p i c t o r i a l di s pl ay and the v e r t i c a l di s pl acement
i ndi c ator , o r F l i g h t Di r ec tor , pr ovi di ng t h e ho r i z o nt a l di s pl acement i n d i c a t o r i s i gnored.
F or s t r a i g h t i n approaches (i . e. ones t h a t ar e not curved) t h e F l i g h t Di r e c t o r o r I L S meter
may be us ed normal l y. T hi s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1. F or obvi ous reasons t h i s has
been des i gnated as t he Mar ti n Gl ass pr i nc i pl e .
I f t he a i r c r a f t were t o be f l y i n g a s t r a i g h t i n approach, then ther e woul d be a s mal l
v e r t i c a l di spl acement e r r o r r egi s ter ed whenever ther e was some l a t e r a l er r or . I n t h i s
res pect t he meter i ndi c a t i o ns ar e d i f f e r e n t f r om thos e o f a normal IbS. Thi s, however,
woul d onl y be per c epti bl e a t l ar ge angl es o f descent, above about 18 , wi t h t h e s c al i ng and
s e n s i t i v i t i e s t h a t obtai ns on t he meter. I n p r a c t i c e t h i s was f ound t o c o ns t i t ut e no
a ddi t i o na l hazard, such as i nduc i ng i n s t a b i l i t y due t o overcorrecti ng, and i n f a c t di d not
worry t he p i l o t s a t a l l .
These l ar ge angl es o f approach ar e achi evabl e wi t h an STOL a i r c r a f t , i ndeed hi gher ones
are, but t h e ques ti on i s l i k e l y t o be academic on conventi onal a i r c r a f t .
Duri ng t he en- route phase, the p r o f i l e gui dance f a c i l i t y can be used i n exac tl y t h e
same way as i n t h e approach phase, and was s o used i n s p i t e o f t he f a c t t h a t the l i n e a r
c l i mb and descent paths as def i ned ar e no t nec es s ar i l y the bes t ones f o r f u e l consumpti on,
ti me t o reach f l i g h t l e v e l and so on. T hi s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2.
The programme i n t he computer i s so wr i t t e n t h a t t he output s e n s i t i v i t i e s f o r t he across
t r a c k di s tanc e i s one n a u t i c a l mi l e pe r dot i n t h e en- route case and 118 na ut i c a l mi l e
pe r dot i n t he approach case. The v e r t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y i s * 1 0 0 ft. f u l l s c al e i n both
cases. To achi eve t h e s e . s e n s i t i v i t i e s wi t h VOR / DME i t i s necessary t o process t h e r adi o
i nf or mati on through a d i g i t a l f i l t e r t o gi ve a vari ance r a t i o (i . e. r a t i o o f the vari ance
5-2
o f t he o u t w s i gna l o t h e vari ance o f t he inDu s i gna l ) o f a t l e a s t 0.0025. The response
o f t he f i l t e r s houl d obvi ous l y be as f a s t as pos s i bl e.
FILTERING AND M I X I N G
....................
The bas i s of t h e f i l t e r i n g techni ques i s t o f or m a pr e di c t i o n vec tor f r om t h e raw data.
T hi s vec tor i s appl i ed t o t he l a s t f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n and a box o f gi ven s i z e i s appl i ed
round t he new p o s i t i o n so deri ved. I f t he next raw r adi o p o s i t i o n f a l l s outs i de t h i s box,
then t h e n.ew f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n i s taken as t he edge o f t he box neares t t o t h e r adi o p o s i t i o n
and t he vec tor f rom t h e r adi o p o s i t i o n t o t he f i l t e r e d p o s i t i o n i s t he f i l t e r f unc ti on.
Thus:
Raw P o s i t i o n + F i l t e r F uncti on = F i l t e r e d P o s i t i o n
I f t h e raw r adi o p o s i t i o n f a l l s wi t h i n t h e box, then t he f i l t e r f unc t i o n i.s z ero and
the raw and f i l t e r e d po s i t i o ns a r e i denti c al . P r ovi di ng ramp and s tep e r r o r s a r e c or r ec ted
qui c kl y enough, t h i s proces s w i l l al ways ensure t h a t t he box i s po s i t i o ne d i n such a way
t h a t t he sum o f t he square o f t h e f i l t e r f unc t i o n i s a minimum, hence t he proces s w i l l
al ways detec t t h e mean o f t h e observed r adi o i nputs .
The p r e d i c t i o n vec tor i t s e l f i s formed f r om t he raw i nf or mati on by processes whi ch
reduce t h e vari ance o f t h e i nput s i gna l by a f a c t o r o f 0.0025. i.e.
T hi s i s achi eved by t h e use o f as s i s ted recurrence r el ati ons .
The response o f t h e proces s t o a uni t step, i s such t h a t output i s wi t h i n 90% o f t h e
s tep a f t e r 50 seconds. The response t o a uni t ramp i s such t h a t t he output i s wi t h i n 10%
o f t he ac tual ramp val ue a f t e r 50 seconds. Thus. t he process used on t h e pure navi gati on
input, woul d c a l c ul a t e a c or r ec t t r a c k vector, and hence a p o s i t i o n wh i l s t t he a i r c r a f t was
f l y i n g i n a s t r a i g h t l i ne, but c oul d be i n e r r o r f o r s hor t per i ods o f ti me a f t e r a turn.
The a c t ua l ti me dur ati on o f t h e e r r o r woul d depend on the amount o f t he headi ng change and
t he a b i l i t y o f t h e box t o make up f o r some o f t h i s e r r o r wh i l s t t h e p r e d i c t i o n vec tor i s
s e t t l i n g down.
If t he vari ance r a t i o i s i ncreased, t h e response ti mes reduce, though not pr opor ti on-
atel y, f o r i ns tance,
i f
then t h e corres pondi ng response ti mes reduce t o 28 seconds.
The vari ance r ati o. however. has been s et s o as t o g i v e a p g s i t i o n f i x o f 0.35 NM 2
Sigma a t 50 mi l es f r om a VOR t h a t has a s tandard devi ati on o f 4 . By way o f comparison, a
vari ance r a t i o o f 0.0025 can be achi eved by us i ng a? R C pas s i ve network wi t h a ti me
cons tant of 200 seconds. I t s response t o uni t step, i n t h e same terms as above, i s 4 6 0
seconds. and i t never a t t a i n s t h e ramp.
E xac tl y t he same processes a r e us ed i n mi xi ng VOR/DME and Doppl er o r VOR/ DME and A i r
Data. I n t h i s case t he p r e d i c t i o n vec tor i s t h e sum o f t h e a i r data o r i n e r t i a l l y der i ved
p o s i t i o n i ncrement and t h e wind vector. The wind vec tor i s der i ved by appl yi ng thes e
f i l t e r i n g processes t o t he di f f e r e nc e between t he VOR/ DME i ncrement and t he Doppl er o r a i r
data i ncrement. Combined i n t h i s way, ther e ar e no p o s i t i o n del ays due t o tur ns o r
manoeuvres, and the box s i z e can now be reduced s i nc e i t need onl y accommodate s hor t
dur ati on (i . e. l es s than 50 secs. ) wind changes, t he l ong ter m ones bei ng automati c al l y
detec ted by t h e f i l t e r i n g process. T hi s arrangement a l s o y i e l d s t he wind vec tor t h a t i s
us ed t o compute both ground speed and t r a c k e r r o r f o r t he auto- pi l ot s t e e r i ng s i gnal . I t
i s t h i s l a t t e r process, as d i s t i n c t f r om t h e proces s des cri bed i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s
paragraph t h a t was used dur i ng t h e eval uati on.
nec es s i ty r a t he r than a l uxury. If ai rways s tr uc tur es i nvo l vi ng p a r a l l e d t r a c k f l y i n g ar e
goi ng t o be l a i d down on t he bas i s o f f i l t e r e d VOR/DME s i gnal s . t h e ti me dependent ef f ec ts
o f t he f i l t e r must be taken i n t o account when c a l c ul a t i ng s eparati ons . The f i l t e r i t s e l f
mi ght reduce t h e vari ance o f t he r adi o s i gna l t o a l e v e l whi ch makes i t pos s i bl e t o def i ne
a r oute s tr uc tur e. but not a l l o f t h i s advantage can be used. The ti me dependent e f f e c t s
o f t he f i l t e r i t s e l f , (and wi t h some techni ques thes e e f f e c t s can be c y c l i c ) i ntr oduc e an
unc er tai nty, a l b e i t smal l , whi ch i s aki n t o a bounded dr i f t e r r o r on an i ncremental system.
These e f f e c t s ar e r a t he r more c o nt r o l l a bl e than thos e t h a t o bt a i n wi t h t h e pure i ncremental
systems, but neverthel es s mi ght need t o be taken i n t o cons i derati on.
The a ppl i c a t i o n o f f i l t e r i n g techni ques t o r adi o i nf or mati on i s now v i r t u a l l y a
The achi eved g l i d e s l ope i s computed f r om the ground speed vec tor der i ved e i t h e r f r om
f i l t e r e d Radi o i nf or mati on and r a t e o f ascent o r descent deri - ved f r om s ucces s i ve
di f f er enc es o f t h e barometri c al ti meter . Thus a l t i me t e r e r r o r s a f f e c t t he accuracy of t h e
di s pl ayed i nf ormati on. The main sources o f a l t i me t e r abs ol ute e r r o r ar e due to:
5-3
Mi s s etti ng t h e QFE
Non s tandard atmosphere
C al i b r a t i o n
S t a t i c pres s ure er r or .
The main sources o f e r r o r i n t h e r a t e o f change o f t h e barometri c a l t i me t e r are:
S t a t i c pres s ure e r r o r ( po s i t i o n e r r o r ) i f t he
a i r c r a f t changes a t t i t u d e o r c onf i gur ati on
dur i ng descent.
Hys teres i s i n t he capsul e.
O f these, t he two most s er i ous are due t o p o s i t i v e e r r o r and c a l i br a t i o n. The RMS val ues
o f t h e random e r r o r s i s 70 ft. T hi s takes account of e r r o r s i n t he QFE when i t i s as,sumed
t o have been s et c or r ec tl y, but does not i nc l ude ac tual mi s s etti ng. (see Ref. l a nd 2) .
I n vi ew o f t hi s , i t seems reasonabl e t o use barometri c a l t i me t r y i n an approach gui dance
s ys tem down t o 200 ft. T hi s means t h a t such a f a c i l i t y mi ght prove t o be o f cons i derabl e
be ne f i t i n mai ntai ni ng r e g u l a r i t y a t des ti nati ons wi t h no I L S i n s t a l l a t i o n
An i n d i c a t i o n o f t he way a l t i me t e r e r r o r s vary i s shown i n f i g u r e 11.
show t he di f f er enc e between an I D C encodi ng al ti meter , gi vi ng barometri c a
ac tual a i r c r a f t a l t i t u d e as gi ven by a T ermi nal Area I ns tr umentati on Radar
The accuracy o f t h e TAIR f a c i l i t y was * 1.6 mi l es pe r n a u t i c a l mi l e, whi ch
experi ment amounted t o * 3 ft.
These curves
ti tude, and t he
F aci t i t y (TAI R).
f o r t h i s
IMPLEMENTATION
--------------
A system i ec or por ati ng a t 1 thes e f eatures was f l i g h t t e s t e d and demonstrated on a
Breguet 941 ( M Donnett - Dougl as 188) . Test and demons trati on programmes were c a r r i e d
out by E as tern A i r l i n e s and Ameri can A i r l i ne s .
B R I E F DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT
..................................
Two compl etel y i ndependent Decca Omni trac systems were i n s t a l l e d on t h e MDC-188. Each
s ys tem c ons i s ted o f t h e f ol l owi ng:
( a) Omni trac Type 2A D i g i t a l Computer
( b) P i c t o r i a l Di s pl ay Type 966
( c) C ontr ol Box Type 914A ( F i gur e 3 )
( d) C ontr ol Box Type 917A ( F i gure 4)
(e) D i g i t a l Di s pl ay U n i t ( F i gur e 5 )
( f ) VOR-DME d i g i t i z e r Type 975
A ddi ti onal l y, a HAR C O MK-16 R ecei ver and a Decca ADL-21 L oran C / A R ecei ver were i ns t a l l e d.
The Omni trac computer was programmed t o convert i n t o X and Y co- ordi nates, the outputs o f
t he f o l l o wi ng s p e c i f i c sensors:
VOR-DME - VOR r ec ei ver bear i ng and di s tanc e outputs al ong wi t h f l a g warni ngs
were s uppl i ed t o t he d i g i t i z e r whi ch converted t he i nf or mati on i n t o d i g i t a l
f or m and f e d i t t o t h e computer. Geographi c i nf or mati on r e l a t i v e t o ni ne
VORTAC po s i t i o ns uere obtai ned f r om each c har t s ecti on. These uere numbered
a r b i t r a r i l y . A s wi tc h on t he 914A c o n t r o l l e r i nf ormed t he computer t o whi ch
o f t he ni ne s t a t i o ns t he beari ng and di s tanc e were r e l a t e d and t he computer
then c al c ul ated a i r c r a f t pos i ti on.
Hyperbol i c Systems
New Y ork area. A c har t s ec ti on o f t he p i c t o r i a l di s pl ay s uppl i es i nf or mati on
t o t h e computer pe r t a i ni ng t o t h e HAR C O chai n t o be used, i nc l udi ng s t a t i o n
p o s i t i o n and frequency. The computer c ontr ol s t h e MARK 16 HAR C O r ec ei ver and
pr ovi des automati c f requency s el ec ti on. The hyper bol i c co- ordi nates ar e
converted i n t o X and Y co- ordi nates.
( 1) HARCO - T hi s i s a medium ranged hyper bol i c navi gati on a i d coveri ng t h e
( 2 ) L oran C - U nl i ke t he HARCO r ec ei ver whi ch i s c o nt r o l l e d by t h e computer, t he
A D L - ~ ~ L oran r ec ei ver i s operated s eparatel y. Once tuned, i t s output can be
f e d t o t he computer wherei n i t i s converted i n t o X and Y co- ordi nates.
Dead Reckoni ng (Memory Mode)
A t r u e ai r s peed f a c t o r and compass headi ng ar e us ed t o f or m a conti nuous a i r pl o t .
The po s i t i o ns gi ven by t h e s el ec ted s ens or and t he a i r pl ot, ar e u t i l i z e d t o der i ve a wind
f ac tor . I f t h e s ens or s i gna l i s l os t, t h e computer conti nues i t s normal outputs us i ng
ai rspeed, compass headi ng and t he wind vector. I n c a l c ul a t i ng ti me t o a poi nt, thes e
f a c t o r s ar e used. The s ys tem bl oc k di agram i s shoun i n f i g u r e 6, and i s s el f - expl anatory.
The computer programme was a s tandard omni trac navi gati on s ys tem programme, but i t
i nc l uded a modi f i ed ver s i on o f auto- pi l ot and F l i g h t Di r e c t o r computati ons. F or t he
purpose o f t he t r i a l , t h e A R I N C def i ned s heeri ng s i gna l was appl i ed t o t h e AUX NAV Input
t o t h e a ut o pi l o t and command p o r t i o n of t he F l i g h t Di r ec tor . T hi s s i gna l a ppl i e d a t thes e
i nputs e s s e nt i a l l y requi res t he absence o f hi gh f requency noi s e components.
The Autopi l o t S teer i ng S i gnal
T hi s was an A.C. phase r ever s i ng anal ogue o f r o l l command. The f u l l s c al e de f l e c t i o n
was 7.5 v o l t s a t 300 mi l l i v o t s pe r degree. The s c a l i ng was adj us tabl e.
5-4
The computed s i gna l i s as f ol l ows : -
= 0. 298186 S - 0. 0033778 V
where i s bank output i n radi ans
S i s cros s - track di s tanc e i n na ut i c a l mi l es
V i s a i r c r a f t g'round speed i n knots
i s t r a c k e r r o r i n radi ans.
The computer programme l i mi t s t he val ue o f t o a maximum, and al s o ensures t h a t the
maxi mum, ' i s not exceeded. The c a l c ul a t i o n i s so arranged, t h a t a t l ar ge di s tances
f r om t r a c k i . e. di s tances such t h a t
the a i r c r a f t w i l l approach t r a c k a t a pr es et angl e
regardl es s o f t he pr evai l i n g wind,
S i nce t h e expres s i on uses ground speed and t r a c k er r or , ther e i s al s o prov, i s i on i n t h e
computer programme f o r wi nd computati on. Track changi ng was automati c. The a n t i c i p a t i o n
r equi r ed i s c al c ul ated f o r opti mum t r a c k ac qui s i ti on. A t t h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n poi nt, t he
computer banks t he a i r c r a f t s o as t o ac qui r e t he new track, thus t h e ac tual waypoi nt t h a t
def i nes t h e end o f t he c ur r ent t r a c k and t he begi nni ng o f t he next i s not overf l own. TO
do so woul d l ead t o cons i derabl e overs hoot i n hi gh speed a i r c r a f t . The an' ti c i pati bn po i nt
i s computed as a f unc t i o n o f t he a i r c r a f t ground speed, t he ti me cons tant o f t he a i l e r o n
LOOP,
t i mi t
max
( us ual l y approach ,= 4 5 ' )
- - - - - - - - -
and t he angl e between t he o l d and new l eg. T hi s output can a l s o connect d i r e c t l y wi t h t he
command p o s i t i o n o f a f l i g h t d i r e c t o r o r a z ero reader.
I n or der t o achi eve t h e des i r ed accuracy and s e n s i t i v i t i e s f o r the di s pl ays and t o
e l i mi na t e t he hi gh frequency noi s e components t h a t ar e nor mal l y pres ent i n t he c a l c ul a t i o n
of t he cros s - track di s tanc e f r om t he r adi o i nf ormati on, both F i L ter i ng and Mi xi ng techni ques
were i nc l uded i n t he programme. The mi xed s ys tem cons i s ted o f a combi nati on o f Doppl er and
VOR/ DME . The E as tern A i r l i n e s E val uati on d i d not use t h i s f a c i l i t y , but t he same A i r c r a f t
was s ubs equentl y operated by Ameri can A i r l i n e s and i t was i nc l uded i n t h a t eval uati on.
F i gures 7 t o 1 5 i l l u s t r a t e d t he f l i g h t t e s t r es ul ts . F i gs. 7 and 8 show t he compari son
between t he Omni trac computers and the TAIR datum. They a l s o show t h e p i l o t s a b i l i t y t o
mai ntai n pr edef i ned t r a c k us i ng s ol ey the command p o r t i o n o f t he f l i g h t di r ec tor . I n
f i g u r e 7 , t he way po i nt s def i ni ng t he corners o f t he predetermi ned track, were de l i be r a t e l y
overf l own, the r e s ul t a nt i n s t a b i l i t y i n mai ntai ni ng t r a c k i s c l e a r l y shown. F i gur e 8 shows
t he i mprovement i n t r a c k keepi ng r e s u l t i n g f r om f a mi l i a r i s a t i o n, and changi ng headi ng a t
t he a n t i c i p a t i o n po i nt determi ned by t he computer. I n n e i t h e r case was t he a ut o pi l o t used.
F i gs. 9 and 10 show t h e same t h i n g i n t he v e r t i c a l pl ane. A t 0 . 4 n a u t i c a l mi l es f r om t h e
TAIR s i t e , t he a i r c r a f t broke o f f t he approach. F i gur e 11 shows pure a l t i me t e r e r r o r s
wi t h a c or r ec t s e t t i n g o f t he QFE. F i gs. 12 and 13 ar e tabul ati ons o f t h e ho r i z o nt a l and
v e r t i c a l devi ati ons . F i gs. 14 and 15 show t he e r r o r s above and bel ow t he g l i d e sl ope.
These e r r o r s i nc l ude a l t i me t e r er r or s , computati on errors , s ys tem data tr ans mi s s i on er r or s ,
and di s pl ay er r or s . I n a l l thes e cases, t he ac tual a i r c r a f t p o s i t i o n was measured by t h e
TAIR f a c i l i t y . F i g. 14 shows t he e f f e c t o f combi ni ng Barometri c a l t i me t r y wi t h a VOR / DME
and A i r Data Mix, whi l e f i g u r e 1 5 shows t he i mprovement t h a t can be obtai ned by us i ng
Doppl er i n pl ac e o f Ai rs peed f o r t he Mi x. A very much gr eater i mprovement c oul d be
obtai ned by us i ng an i n e r t i a l headi ng ref erence i n. t he Mix.
The advent o f computer as s i s ted navi gati on systems wi t h pr ec i s e knowl edge o f a i r c r a f t
p o s i t i o n i n range and azi muth r e l a t i v e t o any s el ec ted p o i n t opens new p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n
de f i ni ng t he g l i d e s l ope obtai ned.
The same computer t h a t gi ves t he f a c i l i t y f o r accurate navi gati on can al s o be used t o
r e f i n e t h e pres s ure hei ght i nf or mati on and so remove most o f t h e e r r o r s as s oci ated wi t h con-
vent i o n a l pres s ure al ti metr y. I
Computer programmi ng s houl d be abl e t o take care o f t he s t a t i c pres s ure e r r o r s pr ovi ded
angl e o f attac k and a i r c r a f t c onf i gur ati on were f e d i n. Some o f t h e hys ter es i s e r r o r c oul d
al s o be removed if t he computer had memory f o r t he ti me the a i r c r a f t had been a t var i ous
hei ghts and t h e r a t e o f change. However, e r r o r s due t o t h i s cause are smal l .
A check o f t h e pres s ure hei ght by a s i n g l e r adi o a l t i me t e r readi ng a t a pl ac e wi t h a
known s pot hei ght wi t h i n two mi nutes o f touchdown c oul d take out some o f t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
er r or , t he ground pres s ure s e t t i n g e r r o r and t he caps ul e er r or . ' I t woul d al s o reduce
e r r o r s due t o f a u l t y ground pres s ure i nf ormati on. By i nc or por ati ng r outi nes i n t h e
computer programme t o per f or m thes e c al c ul ati ons t h e f i n a l R.M.S. e r r o r val ue mi ght be as
l ow as 10 ft. - c e r t a i n l y 3 0 ft. woul d seem obtai nabl e wi t h onl y t he us e o f angl e attac k
5-5
i nformati on. coupled u i t h a spot check by radi o al ti metry.
deri ved vel oci ti es u i t h radi o i nformati on.
sl ope i nformati on both f or human and auto pi l ots . of better accuracy and i nt egr i t y than
that gi ven by any of the current I.L.S. systems. Furthermore. such i nformati on uoul d be
I n better form f or accurate control of the f l i ght path.
Navi gati onal accuracy i n the hori z ontal pl ana coul d be achieved by mi xi ng i ne r t i a l l y
Thus i t appears possi bl e t o provi de gl i de
ACKNOULEOGEMENTS
--_____-________
I would l i k e t o record my appreci ati on of the hel p gi ven me by Mr. A.E. Cornford, a
Master Navi gator on the s taf f of Decca, who uas responsi bl e f o r the successful tr ai ni ng
of the creus and the producti on of the t r i a l s resul ts, and wi thout whose contl nued energy
and enthusiasm, the t r i a l s uoul d not have been as i nformati ve nor as successful as they
uere.
I
1. Anal ysi s of Pressure Al ti meter errors duri ng
approaches by short- haul j e t ai r c r af t
by D.J.M. Wi l l i ams and L.I.C. Davies
B.O.T. O.R. Note NO. 252 - November 1968.
2. Use of Ground Atnwsphere Pressure as 8 Hei ght
reference f or preci s i on approach and l andi ng
3. E.A.L. STOL proj ect Report by A.E. Cornford
4. P rel i mi nary report on the Use of omni trac i n a
OeCCa Tech. Note - H.P. Ruffel - smi th
DC-9 Ai r cr af t operated by E.A.L.
Or. H.P. Ruffel - Smi th
5. American Ai rl i nes STOL Eval uati on.
Fi g . 2 T ri p gul danc e and c o n t r o l
5-1
PUSH VO?.pdE CHECK and D.R. MODE
BUTlONS SWIlCH BUTTON
SENSOR
. SELECTOR
\ I I
Fl g . 3 Control box t y p e 914P
PANEL RED
LIGHT WARN IN G
LIGHT RHEOSTAT SELECTOR
Fl g . 4 Co n t r o l box t y p e 91lA
Fi g . 5 Di gi tal d i s p l a y uni t
CONTROL DIGITAL
UNIT DISPLAY
r
3MNIl R4C
COMFUlER
I
I
I
BAR 1
I I
SYSTEM
LORAN " c"
SYSTEM
COMPASS HEADING
T X FACTOR
I
Fi g. 6 hnnitrac sensor data f l o w diagram
5-9
Fi g. 7 25 A p r i i 1969. Run I.. Omnitrac gui danc e
5-10
.
Fi g . 8 14 May 1969. Run I. Omni t r ac gui dance
5-1 I
Fl gs.9 and 10 RI 8. Oakbr ook. Omnitrac VOR/OOP made. Run 4. I3 May 1969.
j
Fi g . 11 IDC A l t i met er er r o r s
DEVIATION
PBST
I
NA?VRC - ATLANTIC CITY VOBTAC
VOB/tUE MODE VOkl/DOP YUDE
P No. OF SllltpLES I P
No. 03 SAKPLES
0 - 120
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
190 47.00 171 67.57
121 - 240 1 76 18.60 76 26.25
241 - 360 68
14.40
361 - 480 30 7.43
481 - 600 8 1.98
601 ' - 720 16 I S.76
1.73
28 8.75
13 4.38
7 2.38
2 0.07
-
1. APPBOACBILS TO ms k AYS 18 - 22 AND 3i .
Fig.12 Omnitrac syst em
721 - 840
=TICAL DEVIATION OF OWITRAC GLIDE SLOPK PBOM WAU DATUM
I
NAFEC - ATLANTIC CITY VOBTAC
15 S.76
t V@B/D/ouE YODE
841 - 960
No. OF SAUPLES I $
6 1.26
~ ~_ _ _ _ _ _ _
0 - 26 114 30.60
28 - SO 107 28.80
I 51 - 76
~~
76 - 100 48 12 .Bo
101 - 126 24 6.40
68 I 16.90
126 - < 18 4.80
VOB/WP MODE 1
e. or SiwPLes
168
~
77
38
20
9
B
Y1B
I
52.10 I
24.15
12.45
2.72 I
1. APPROACES TO EUNlAYS 13 - 22 AND 31.
F i g. 13 Omnitrac syst em
_____
5-1 4
Fi g. 14 TAIR distance t o t ouchdown - N. M. ' S
Fi g. 15 TAIR di st ance t o touchdown - N.M.'9
!&e Use of Inertial Information to Improve Automtic
Us Approach Performance
B. E. Hughes &A.
Blind Landing Experimental Unit
Royal Alrcraft Establishment, Bedford
Paper to be presented to the ninth meeting of the
AGARD Guidance and Contml Panel, 22-26 September, 1969
6
summary
I n t h i s paper, the ldnds of noise and interference which can occur on the ILS l ocal i zer si gnal reoeived
in an aircraft approach- to land axe reviewed.
insensitive to l ocal i zer noise and interference are described. Cri teri a for an acceptable design of coupler
axe defined and it is shown that these cri teri a can be met if information from a hi& quality inertial navi-
gation system is used to complement the ILS l ocal i zer deviation signal. Results are shown of f l i ght evalua-
tion of an ILS-inertial system with and without interference on the l ocal i zer si gd. .
improviq the system design through the use of optimumfiltering teohniques are bri efl y discussed.
The problems of designing an approaoh coupler which is
The possi bi l i ti es of
6 - 1
1. INTRODUCTION
The internationally accepted radio ai d f or defining the desired track to an instnunent mw s y is the
ILS localizer. The course l i ne of thi s V" radio aid can be distorted or bent by refl ecti ons f r om fixed
and
To enable satis-
faotory automatic landings to be performed on the ILS l ocal i zer with .' &e present generation of autopilot
approach coyplers, i t i s necessary f or the l ocal i zer bends to be small, and stringent bend amplitude require-
ments are l ai d down by I CAO f or the Category 11and 111l ocdi zers intended f or low vi si bi l i ty and 'blind'
landing. Problems are arising however, because of the di f f i cul Q of adjusting and mslntaining l ocal i zer
bends to within these requirements on real ci vi l ai rfi el d si tes where each new building which i s erected
adds a contribution to the bend structure of the beam.
objects on or around the si te and within the transmitter radiation pattern.
A typical actual bend structure i s shown in Figure 1.
Furthemore, a l ocal i zer beam, even if i t is acceptable on the day it i s calibrated, can suffer i nter-
mittent severe degradation from reflections from moving cbjecta, such as ai rcraft txxqdng in front of or
-off over the l ocal i zer, and from external radio interference. Examples of interference received in
a landing ai rcraft caused by aircraft taking-off axe shown i n Figwe 2.
autopilot to generate ai rcraft lateral displacements of 100 f eet (30 metres) from the centre l i ne and also
produce large bank angles and tracking velocities.
Such interferences can cause the
The interferences from moving objects can be eliminated by careful Air Traffic Control, particular*
with regard to spacing between incoming and taking-off aircraft.
rence of spurious radio interference w i l l be i n a real environment, but i f it i s si gni fi cant it should be
detectable by ILS monitoring.
vi si bi l i ty landings i n Category I I I A , subject to a restri cted avai l abi l i ty and movement rate.
It i s not yet known how serious the OCCUP
Therefore it i s generally accepted that the ILS l ocal i zer can be used f or bad
There is, however, a strong desire to make automatic landing the normal means of operating the ai rcraft,
and the present and projected cl ear weather movement rates make it impossible to guarantee the required land-
ing/take-off sepaxation to reduce interference to acceptable proportions without introducing unacceptable
delays. It i s also desirable that the automatic syst em should be operable, at least i n cl ear weather, on
sites which do not meet the bend amplitude requirements of I CAO Category I1 or 111.
themtol erate more noise on the radio guidance si& or replacing the ILS l ocal i zer with a new guidance ai d
which i s l ess vulnerable to interference.
it wi l l be some years before any replacement can be widely available and i t i s therefore worth considering
what can be done to improve automatic landing performance on the localizer. This i s parti cul arl y relevant
since rel i abl e I nerti al Navigation Systems (INS) are now being f i tted to ai rl i ne long range aircraft and the
existence of these systems provides an independent means of measuring the ai rcraft's 'velocity and position
with di fferent error characteri sti cs to the ILS.
from these sensors i n such a way that better performance can be obtained.
we w i l l first discuss the limitations of existing autopilot couplers i n the presence of noisy guidance.
The key to enabling automatic landing systems to be used more regularly and widely l i es ei ther i n making
Discussions are already taking place on replacements f or ILS but
There i s therefore the possi bi l i ty of combining information
To put thi s problem i n perspective,
2. THE RESPONSE OF PRESENT-DAY AUTOPILOTSTO GUIDANCE NOISE
I n order to obtain stabl e l ateral fl i ght path control of an ai rcraft it i s necessasy to provide a bank
The first generation of approach couplers generated a bank command pro-
angle command which contains terms proportional to both displacement and rate of change of displacement of
the ai rcraft from the centre line.
portional to ILS l ocal i zer deviation plus heading, the heading t er m giving the velocity informaticn required
f or stabi l i ty.
but, unfortunately, i n a crosswind or lateral wind shear and turbulence, the headin@; term i s no l c wr equal
to crosstrack velocity and performance becomes unacceptable. To overcome thi s problem, more recent approach
couplers obtained the velocity t er m by di fferenti ati ng the l ocal i zer displacement signal (the ' beamrate'
system). I nevitably thi s makes the approach coupler more sensitive to high frequency l ocal i zer noise and
even when the signal has been smoothed as far as possible within the requirements for closed-loop stabi l i ty,
the bank command is very sensi ti ve to noise in the frequency range around 1 radian per second (0.16&) as
shown i n Figure 3. The roll rate command l i mi t ma^ be saturated by low levels of noise at frequencies above
about 1 radian per second (0.16Hz).
This control l aw avoided any peaks i n the response of the bank command to l ocal i zer noise,
Alternative approaches to the problem have been developed in the so-called 'I ntegral Bank' or 'Lagged
Roll' couplers i n which the cross-track velocity i s approximated by integrating the rol l angle cutput of a
verti cal gyro. I n the absence of si desl i p or gyro errors, f or smal l bank angles this would be an accurate
i nerti d measureinent of crosstrack velocity. However, problems with offsets and dri f ts on conventional
verti cal gyros used so far means that pure integration cannot be carried out and i t is only possible to
obtain the velocity information at high frequencies, and then only approximately. Because the hi& frequency
velooity information i s derived from the verti cal gyro, the amount of velocity information required from the
ILS l ocal i zer can be reduced, but as shown in Figure 3, the improvements obtained i n comparison with the beam
rate system are sl i ght.
3.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DESI GN OF AN INERTIAI, APPROACH COUPLER
It was apparent from a study of the characteristics of all exi sti ng automatic landing l ocal i zer couplers
that whi l e some of themmight be able to tol erate high frequency beambends sl i ghtl y outside the Category II/
I11amplitude specification, ncne would be able to survive interferences of the type i l l ustrated i n R'igure2
which contain l arge amounts of energy around 1 radian per second (0.16Hz) and below.
described here was to see if by using information from a navigational quality i nerti al pl atform it would be
possible to obtain suffi ci ent noise f i l teri ng i n the approach coupler to enable severe interferences to be
sunrived.
f er function from bank command to l ocal i zer deviation could be designed to approximate to a 1% with a time
constant of at l east 10 seconds.
The purpose cf the study
It wm considered that a useful improvement i n noise rej ecti on would only be obtained i f the trans-
6- 2
The above considerations essenti al l y define the required frequency response to the l ocal i zer input,
but f or the system to be useful it muet have an acceptable transi ent response to i ni ti al errors as well.
Whether the i nerti al navigator has been updated by radio ai ds such as VOR/ BE or not, it i s l i kel y to have
bui l t up displacement and vel oci ty errors which are l arge in comparison with the required touchdown accu-
racy of the overal l landing system, so the approach coupler must be able to accept laxge initial i nerti al
system errors.
a conventional capture control law before switching to the I LS-inertial f i nal approach coupler. Since
capture may not be complete at the point where the change i s made to I LS-i nerti al control, because of cross-
wind or ATC requiring capture at short range, i t is necessary for the I LS-inertial coupler to be abl e to
accept a l arge i ni ti al l ocal i zer deviation.
I t was assumed f or thi s study that the i ni ti al capture of the l ocal i zer would be made with
To be useful in the ai rl i ne environment, it i s necessary that the duration of the f i nal approach should
A design aim of 2 minutes or l ess was set f or this st udy, corresponding to an approach be reasonably short.
s t ar t i n g at a distance of about 5 nauti cal miles f r om threshold.
suggests that f or acceptance by the pi l ots, the system should be essenti al l y settl ed on the l ocal i zer beam
centre l i ne before the ai rcraf t reaches a height of 500 feet, implying a settl i ng time f or initial errors
in the region of 80 seconds.
that the closed-loop response should not contain ti ma constants greater than about 40 seconds.
Experience wi t h A l l Weather Landing Systems
If the system transi ent response i s to settl e i n 80 seconds i t i s apparent
It i s essenti al that the overal l touchdown performance including the effects of beamnoise, turbulence,
wind shear, gain tolerances etc. should be up to the stri ngent standards f or automatic landing, that i s a
standard deviation of better than 14 f eet lateral displacement and 2ft/sec lateral vel oci ty at touchdown.
It is considered that a design ai mf or an automatic landing system should be to minimize the number of selec-
ti ons the pi l ot has to make before the system w i l l work properly. I t i s therefore f el t that i t i s undesir-
able that the pi l ot should have to sel ect or dial up information about the parti cul ar site and runway at
which he i s landing.
present ai rcraft.
be possible to rel ax this condition.
marized i n Figure 4.
to a platform tilt of 1 mad or an acceleration error of lO-3g, about an order worse than current ARI NC 561
INS.
experiments.
during the study and the advantages of using a better pl atforn w i l l be discussed l ater.
This i s regarded as true f or any simple I LS-inertial system which might be added to
In the long term, with si gni fi cant digital data storage on board the aircraft i t may well
The overal l design requirements f or the I LS-inertial system are sum-
For the purposes of these studi es, the qual i ty of INS information available was assumed to correspond
The reason f or thi s was that a platform of the lower qual i ty was readi l y available f or the f l i ght
However, the restri cti ons imposed by using the lower qual i ty platform were careful l y watched
4.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ILS INERTIAL SYSTEM
A t the ti me the airborne i nstal l ati on was planned, analogue hardware was more fl exi bl e and rel i abl e
than di gi tal .
initial studi es of an I LS-inertial system would be based on analogue techniques. It was al so considered
that i f a simple analogue system were feasi bl e, there was more chance of such a system being implemented
in the range of aircraft currently being equipped with ARINC 561 INS.
sophi sti cated digital opt M l y f i l tered system w i l l be discussed l ater. The form of system chosen was
one i n which ILS l ocal i zer deviation and i nerti al crosstrack acceleration were fed i nto a complementery
f i l ter (Figure 5). The bank command wa s
formed by summing the complementary filter displacement and rate si gnal s with the i ntegral of l ocal i zer
deviation.
For thi s reason and because BLEU already had the required expertise i t was decided that the
The possible advantages of more
The outputs of the f i l ter were crosstrack deviation and rate.
The characteri sti c error pattern f or the i nerti d platform used f or these studi es was a Schuler osci l -
l ati on (84 minute period) of about 10-3, amplitude with a drift of about 70-3g per hour.
of an approach, however, the platform can be assumed to have a fi xed acceleration error.
vel oci ty error w i l l therefore be a ramp.
containing a ramp, which would produce steady state offsets of the ai rcraft-autopi l ot system f r o m the beam
centre l i ne, i t was necessary to DC block the platform si gnal s and, to meet the settl i ng time requirement,
the DC block time constant was set to 30 seconds.
cates the design of the f i l ter and to avoid generating l i ghtl y damped very low frequency modes of osci l l ati on
which would seri ousl y degrade the system transi ent response, it i s necessary to shape the l ocal i zer deviation
si gnal at low frequencies to compensate f or the absence of low frequency i nerti al infornation.
For the duration
The platform
I n order to avoid the complementary f i l ter vel oci ty output a l s o
The need f or the DC block on the platform signd compli-
The ILS l ocal i zer deviation si gnal i s a measurement of the angle of offset of the ai rcraf t from the
centre l i ne, with the l ocal i zer transmi tter as an origin. The information f r o m the INS i s a measurement in
l i near Cartesian axes.
measurements into the same axi s system and f or thi s study i t was decided to make a continuous correction to
l ocal i zer deviation as a function of range from the transmi tter to convert l ocal i zer deviation i nto feet.
To avoid poor low frequency damping i t was found necessary to convert both deviation
The transfer function f r om l ocal i zer input to bank command f or the I LS-inertial system i s shown i n
Figure 6 with the transfer functions of the present generation couplers repeated f or comparison.
seen that the achieved curve corresponds cl osel y to the desired characteri sti c and represents an improvement
of between 10 and 100 times i n noise rej ecti on i n the frequency range above 1 r.adian per second (0.16h).
I t can be
5.
THE PERFORLlANCE OF THE SYSTEU
To enable the performance of the developed system to be measured i t was implenented with the Versati l e
Autopilot system i n BLEU Comet I I I B W 915 (Figure 7).
i nterface equipment capable of convsrting the di fferi ng types of out2ut from all sensors i n the ai rcraf t
i nto 210 Volts DC fl oati ng, and a 50 amplifier analogue computer which can process si gnal s from the i nter-
face and drive standard autopi l ot servos attached to rudder, ai l erons and elevatos.
The Versatile Autopilot (Figure 8) consists of
6 - 3
The analogue computer was programmed to form the fi xed gain I LS-inertial complementary filter and bank
command control equation and delivered an amplitude and rate l i mi ted bank command output to the servo system.
It al so performed the resol- operation necessary to convert N-S and E-W acceleration f r om the platform
i nto crosstrack acceleration and performed the Dc blocked i ntegrati on to give crosstrack velocity.
The computer was al so progrenmed with an analogue model of the servo syst em and drframe dynamics.
Switchhg was included to enable the control equation part of the computer to drive ei ther the d w servo
and aeroplane, f or ground test, or the real servo and aeroplane in fl i ght.
l ocal i zer i s examined.
match i s obtained.
fi gure 9 shows a ground test standard run i n which the system transi ent response to an offset f r om the
For comparison a f l i ght run i s al so shown and i t can be seen that a @od dynamic
It should be noticed that the settl i ng time requirement of 80 seconde has been met.
The 'norad' performance of the system on a Cat I11 beamwithout interference i n a wide r w of wind
conditions i s i l l ustrated i n Fi we 10.
Enetheodol i tes axe superimposed.
stati sti cs of performance are summarized i n Table I.
I n thi s fi gure actual f l i ght paths recorded by the Bedford
It can be seen that the performance i s consistent and repeatable. The
The behaviour of the system under conditions of noisy guidance was examined both wi t h randomnoise
superimposed on the l ocal i zer signal to represent severe beambends and with real interference generated by
a takh+poff ai rcraft.
replayed in fl i ght.
The noise spectrum was obtained by passing randomwhite noise through two 0.5 second l q s .
peak noise power contribution i n the band 1-2 radians per second (0.16-0.32Hz) where l ocal i zer couplers
have been parti cul arl y sensi ti ve i n the past.
The randomnoise was pre-recorded on magnetic tape from a noise generator and
The noise replsyed was summed with the ILS l ocal i zer receiver output i n the ai rcraft.
This provides
Airborne records of the behaviour of the i nerti al and the beamrate systems i n the presence of thi s
type of noise are shown i n Fi gure 11.
28 f eet rms at threshold, and f or the beamrate run 7 microamps rms - 164 f eet rms.
reduction i n bank angle and control activity obtained with the i nerti al system, i n spi te of the increased
noise l evel , i s striking.
apparent that considerably greater bend amplitudes than those presently tolerable can be accepted by the
i nerti al system.
The l evel of noise i n the I L SAerti al run is 12 microamps rms -
Thevery considerable
I hetheodol i te f l i ght paths f or the two runs axe given i n Figure 12. It i s
I nterference f r om ai rcraf t taking-off can have two basic forms as was shown on Figure 2. Both forns
cause serious trouble wi th conventional couplers.
swept si ne wave with only a moderate very low frequency component occurs when the landing aircraft i s on
the approach above about 200 f eet
the landing ai rcraf t decends i t encounters lower and lower di rect signal strength and strong i ndi rect
i nterferi ng si gnal s may swamp the receiver.
as a hardover deviation wi th a slow osci l l atory start.
The first type, appearing as a large amplitude frequency
As and therefore i n a region of f ai rl y hi& l ocal i zer simal strength.
This generates the second type of interference which appears
The behaviour of the i nerti al system i n the presence of the osci l l atory type of interference i s shown
i n fi gure 13 and i t can be seen that i ts effect i s very di ght.
Even the i nerti al system in i ts purely l i near form does not provide suffi ci ent interference rej ecti on
to ignore the hardover type of interference. I n simple terms, we axe asking the system to fi nd and hold
the long t er m l ocal i zer centre l i ne to an accuracy of a few feet, but at the same time to be prepared to
ignore an interference of 350 f eet amplitude lmting f or 5-10 seconds.
however, a non-linear adaptation of the l i near f i l tered syst em was devised and with this modification the
performance i l l ustrated i n Figure 14waa obtained.
actual interference runs with the f i nal syst em i n which interferences were timed to occu at heights between
100 and 400 feet.
During the course of the s t u d y
Table I1 summarizes the performance obtained in 18
The overall noise rej ecti on characteri sti cs seemvery promising and it certai nl y appears that very real
improvements in performance can be obtained.
ai rl i nes, i t must be proved that i t w i l l work on a wide range of actual ILS beams.
wi th the i nerti al system we have considered i s the need to convert ILS deviation i nto feet, with the atten-
dant requirement of knowing both range from l ocal i zer and the l ocal i zer angular sensi ti vi ty.
studi es on the system have shown that errors i n the sensi ti vi ty correction greater than plus or minus 2%
cause si gni fi cant degradation of the system response to initial l ocal i zer deviation errors.
d *e experiments, range from l ocal i zer was estimated by measrrring ai rcraft height on the glidepath, from
a barometric altimeter, and cal cul ati ng range from gl i de path ori gi n through knowledge of gl i de path angle.
The distance from l ocal i zer to gl i de path origin was added to give an estimate of range from l ocal i zer.
However, before any system can be seriously offered to the
The important factor
Tolerance
For the purposes
Angular sensi ti vi ty of an I CAO Cat I1 or I11l ocal i zer i s primarily a function of runway length, since
the l ocal i zers are adjusted to provide a given displacement sensi ti vi ty in microamps per foot at ms y
threshold. A t long range the displacement sensi ti vi ty in microamps per foot of such l ocal i zers w i l l tend
to be proportional to the runway length of the si te i n question. It i s apparent that site to si te vari ati on
i n l ocal i zer beamangular sensi ti vi ty alone, corresponding to runway lengths between 6000 and 12000 feet,
w i l l cause errors in sensi ti vi ty correction much greater than those tolerable by the system we have studied.
'Jhen uncertainties i n range measurement axe added, whether from i nerti al , barometric or redio sources, it
i s apparent that the system i s unacceptable.
Detailed analysis of the system was undertaken to see whether the sensi ti vi ty to gain V ar i at i OM could
be reduced and i t was found that f or the type of fi xed ti me constant complementary f i l ter system studied,
ei ther the platform signal M: block time constant would have t o be increased very si gni fi cantl y, with the
attendant penalty on system settl i ng time, or the ILS f i l teri ng time constants would have to be reduced,
which i s equally unacceptable. However, i f the i nerti al acceleration information were available to an
6-4
accuracy of 10-4g rather than
system would probably then become suffi ci entl y tol erant of ILS sensi ti vi ty vari ati on to become a practi cal
proposition. Current INS to ARI NC 561 standard appear to be achieving accuracies of the order of lO-4g i n
senrice.
which i s available in the guise of track -le error i s believed to have been used successfully by other
workers f or I LS-inertial mixing.
6. DISCUSSION
i t would be possible to dispense with the DC block enti rel y and the
Although an acceleration output i s not available from the AElINC 561 system, the vel oci ty signcil
The design of the I LS-inertial system we have described was restri cted to consideration of a fi xed
ti me constant analogue complementay f i l ter scheme.
use the low accuracy i nerti al platform vhich was available f or f l i ght test.
The design was further constrained by the need to
W i t h a fi xed time constant filter, even if an extremely accurate i nerti al sensor i s available, the
amount of l i near f i l teri ng which can be achieved i s restri cted by the settl i ng time requirement f or the
system.
strong pressures to reduce the length of the approach rather than increase i t and thi s tends to discourage
the design of approach coyplers which take a long time to settl e down on the approach. Even when the ILS
fi l ter time constants are increased to the point where the settl i ng time becomes a l i mi ti ng factor, it i s
doubtful whether the purely l i near time i nvari ant f i l teri ng i s adequate to cope with the hardover type of
ILS i nterference which appears i n the region of low signal strength at the end of the approach, and sone
kind of non-lineax or time varying f i l teri ng has to be adopted. With long ILS f i l ter ti ne constants a
further problem mq,r ari se. As the ILS f i l teri ng i s increased, the datum of the approach coupler i s set
by ILS i nformati on which i s obtained further and further back up the approach from touchdown. I n other
words, f or defining dis2lacenent at touchdown we are using ILS information obtained well before touchdown.
The present ILS beamspeci fi cati ons are ti ghtest i n the runway threshold region and allow the beam to
degrade at longer range. If we encountered a beamwith very low frequency bends or long term curvature at
long range, as i s permitted by the speci fi cati on, then a heavily f i l tered I LS-inertial system could provide
poorer touchdown accuracy than a more conventional coupler i n conditions of zero interference.
such beems are l egal l y possible, i n practi se the bends tend to reduce with increasing range and in flying
the experimental BLmT I LS-i nerti sl system on a number of UK beams there was no evidence of long term beam
curvature being a problem.
Indeed i n the worsening Air Traffi c Control environment f or cl ear weather operation there are
Although
However, the UK beans do not seemto be the worst i n the world.
Recently, powerful techniques have been developed f or optimumfiltering, of which perhaps the Kalman
filter i s the best known.
to require an on-board digital computer and while an analogue I LS-inertial system might be implemented in
the near future in ai rcraft now enteri ng production, ;it w i l l be some years yet before a digital system can
be implemented in a civil ai rcraft.
theoreti cal l y the possible advantages of Kalman f i l teri ng f or the ILS problem. Since it appears that very
considerable improvements over the performance of conventional couplers can be obtained with rel ati vel y
inexpensive analogue f i l ters, when high accuracy i nerti al information i s available, i t i s suggested that
the more sophi sti cated filter- techniques should be di rected towards the possi bi l i ty of obtaining a similar
improvement i n performance with cruder sensors. A t present, only the transoceanic ai rcraf t axe l i kel y to
be equipped with full I nerti al Navigation Systems and there i s a strong demand f or improvements in approach
perfornance i n ai rcraft operating domestic routes f or which I nerti al Navigators are not j usti fi ed.
The implementation of a Kalman f i l tered I LS-inertial system i s almost certdn
However, ELFX and other organizations are currentl y examining
Regarbless of the type of f i l teri ng scheme employed i t i s vital that the performance design constrai nts
discussed i n the paper should be careful l y considered.
requirement and the abi l i ty to operate on a wide range of sites, preferably without speci al adjustment.
However, no amount of performance improvement i s useful i f it cannot be matched by adequate rel i abi l i ty and
avai l abi l i ty.
INS cen be adequately monitored to achieve the rel i abi l i ty required f or automatic landing and operators are
natural l y concerned that i t should not be necessary for, say, three INS to be a dispatch i t em f or the ai r
craft.
philosophy f or a complex autopi l ot system i ntegrated with i nerti al navigators.
Parti cul ar emphasis i s placed on the settl i w ti me
There i s serious concern among autopi l ot designers and ai rcraft operators as to whether an
Clearly a great deal of work remains to be done to establ i sh an acceptable overal l monitoring
7. CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that very great improvements i n the tolerance of ILS approach couplers to l ocal i zer
noise can be obtained by combining information from a good qual i ty i nerti al platform with the ILS l ocal i zer
deviation signal.
predictions.
i n the ai rl i ne environment and which i s practi cal l y immune to the effects of ILS bends and i nterference
provided that rel i abl e i nerti al information i s available to the accuracy provided by the present AFUNC 561
haxdware.
a b of achieving the same kind of performance with l ess costl y and sophi sti cated sensors.
Results of ful l -scal e f l i ght experiments have been shown which confirm the theoreti cal
It i s concluded that i t i s possible to design an analogue approach coupler which i s usable
It is recommended that studi es continue i nto more sophisticated f i l teri ng techniques with the
MICROAMPS FROM BEAM CENTRE
5 -
0 -
- 5
-I 0
6-5
I
- -
I
CAT II LI MI T
I I I I I I 1
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
RANGE FROM THRESHOLD X 1000 FT.
1 - 10SECS.-i
FIG= 2 'sypioal LooaUzer Interferences from an Aircraft Taking-off
6 - 6
GAIN
DEGREES PER MICROAMP
1.0
0.1
0.01
LAGGED ROLL I BEAM RATE
AGGED ROLL 2
:D c HEADING STABILISE
I
0.001 I I , I FREQUENCY
0.01 0. I 1.0 10.0 RAD/SEC.
FI GuRe 3
Lateral Coupler Transfer Functions
I O SEC. LAG FROM LOCALIZER TO BANK COMMAND.
ABILITY TO ACCEPT LARGE I NI TI AL LOCALIZER AND INS DEVIATION.
APPROACH DURATION NOT MORE THAN 2MI NS .
SETTLI NG TIME NOT MORE THAN 80SECS.
NO DEGRADATION OF PERFORMANCE ON GOOD BEAMS.
FIGURE 4 Desired Features for an ILS-InertLal Approach Coupler
RANGE FROM
TRANSMITTER
MULTIPLIER INTEGRATOR
LOCALIZER
DEVIATION DISPLACEMENT
I
I
PHASE I
ADVANCE I RATE
I
I
I
I
I
ADVANCE I RATE
I
I
I
I
' DISPLACEMENT
I
I
I
COMMAND
-
ACCELERATION COMPLEMENTARY FILTER
-Flcm 5 ILS-Inertial Coupler Block Diagram
GAIN
DEGREES PER M ICROAMP
I.(
0
0.0
0.00
\ / BEAM RATE
HEAD I NG STAB I LI 2 ED
INERTIAL' \
ROLL 2
I I FREQUENCY
0.01 0. I 1.0 10.0 RADISEC.
FI Gm 6
bteral Coupler Transfer hmotions
-
I
FIcvJm a Vereatlle Aubpilot Equipment In Comet
6 - 9
L
E-
E
I
+I50 r
SIMULATED
o t I
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
- 150
+25
BANK
COMMAND 0
DEGREES -25
+5
CROSSTRACK
ACCEL 0
-5
FTISEC?
+ I50
I I
O b
OE -
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
BANK
COMMAND
DEGREES
CROSSTRACK
ACCEL.2
FT/SEC.
- I50
+25
-25
REAL
-5
FIGURE 9
Comparison between Simulated and Real Approaoh Performance
-100
1
-5
,200
2 0 0
DISPLACEMENT
F T.
I00
FIm10 ILS-Inertial Systems. Elighht Paths of Normal Performance Approaches
6-10
- 150
-10
BANK
ANGLE
+I S0
LOC.
PA
FI GURE 11 Comparison of Noise Sensi ti vi ty of Beam Rate and I nerti al Systems. Fl i ght Records.
1200
BEAM RATE SYSTEM
7pA RMS NOISE
I 1 1
X 1000 FT.
W
v L oo
- 5 0
INERTIAL SYSTEM
DISPLACEMENT FT
1
FIGORE 12 Comparison of Noise Sensitivity. Kine Fl i ght Path Recordings.
6-11
+I50
.E
OE
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
DEGREES . E- -
BANK
ANGLE
+25
DEGREES -25
BANK
COMMAND
-25
ROLL RATE
Y
- 150
-10
I
I I
I
-
1 - 1 MIN.-I
+IO
DEGREES -lo
AILERON
ANGLE
TOUCHDOWN
FIGURE 13 Performance of I LS-I nertial System in I nterference from a Taking-off Aircraft
LOCALIZER
MICROAMPS
BANK
ANGLE
DEGREES
BANK
COMMAND
DEGREES
- 150 "t
-10
+IO
+ 25
A
- 25 I I
ROLL RATE
COMMAND
-25 r
1 - 1 MIN.-I
I I
*
I I
DEGREES/SEC. + 25 "t
+IO
f
DEGREES
AILERON
ANGLE
TOUCHDOWN
FIGURE 14 Performance of I LS-I nertial Systems i n I nterference fmm a Taking-off Aircraft
6- 12
I
TABU3 1
ILS-Inertial System Normal Performance 36 &ns
5 0 0 FEET
HEIGHT
200 FEET
HEIGHT
TOUCHDOWN
DISPLACEMENT
FT. S.D.
14-3
9.4
6.1
TRACKING
VELOCITY
FT/SEC. S.D.
1.0
I *o
1.0
- 2
ILS-Inertial System Performance in Interference from Taking-off Aircraft. 18 Runs.
DISPLACEMENT
FT S.D.
5 0 0 FEET
HEIGHT
15.0
200 FEET
HEIGHT
14.25
TOUCHDOWN 1 8.9
TRACKING
VELOCITY
FT/SEC. S.O.
1-9
1.3
1.2
7
IMPROVEMENT OF THE ACCURACY OF AUTOMATIC LANDING SYSTEMS
BY USE OF KALMAN-FILTERING-TECHNIQUES AND INCORPORATION
OF INERTIAL DATA
W. Schmidt and Dr Kanarachos
Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke Gmbb
Bremen, West Germany
7
SUMMARY
Thi s paper deal s wi t h t he i nvest i gat i on of t he t er mi nal appr oach and l andi ng of a j et f i ght er
wi t h an aut omat i c l andi ng syst em. I t i s assumed t hat onl y t he l ongi t udi nal mot i on must be
consi der ed. At f i r st an opt i mi zat i on of t he aut opi l ot i s car r i ed out by sol vi ng t he det er mi ni st i c
cont r ol pr obl emusi ng dynami c pr ogr ammi ng. The opt i mal f eed back gai ns ar e obt ai ned by mi ni mi zi ng
a quadr at i c per f or mance cr i t er i on.
The accur acy of t he l andi ng i s essent i al l y i nf l uenced by ef f ect s of aer odynami c, I L S and r adar
al t i met er di st ur bances. As t he I L S r espect i vel y t he r adar al t i met er noi se- i s t he domi nant f act or
r educi ng t he accur acy of l andi ng emphasi s i s put t o t he f i l t er pr obl em of est i mat i ng t he st at e
var i abl es. Her eby t wo met hods ar e empl oyed
a) The i ncor por at i on of I MU- Dat a
b) The i nt r oduct i on of Kal man- Fi l t er s
t hei r r esul t s bei ng di scussed i n t hi s paper .
1. DEFI NI TI ON OF THE PPOBLEM
I n t hi s paper we ar e onl y concer ned wi t h t he f i nal appr oach and f l ar e- out phases of l andi ng
( see f i g. 1) .
At some di st ance f r omt he t ouchdown poi nt and l i ned up wi t h t he r unway, t he ai r cr af t ent er s t he
f i el d of act i on of t he gr ound- cont r ol l ed beamof t he i nst r ument l andi ng syst em(I.L.S.). The
ai r cr af t i s f ur ni shed wi t h st andar d I LS equi pment , i ncl udi ng an accessor y devi ce whi ch coupl es
t he I LS si gnal s t o t he aut opi l ot and aut omat i cal l y causes t he ai r cr af t t o be gui ded down t he
pr oper gl i de sl ope.
At an al t i t ude of appr oxi mat el y 37 mt he f l ar e- out phase of t he l andi ng begi ns. Dur i ng t hi s
phase, t he I LS i s no l onger ef f ect i ve f or gui di ng t he ai r cr af t . The mai n i nf or mat i on t o keep t he
ai r cr af t al ong t he desi r ed f l ar e pat h comes f r oma r adar al t i met er .
I t i s assumed t hat t he ai r cr af t has an aut o- t hr ot t l e syst emand t hat onl y t he l ongi t udi nal
mot i on must be consi der ed as a f i r st appr oxi mat i on f or our i nvest i gat i ons.
Ther e ar e sever al f act or s t hat i nf l uence t he per f or mance of t he ai r cr af t dur i ng t he l andi ng,
t he most i mpor t ant of whi ch ar e:
1) The at mospher i c t ur bul ence whi ch i s assumed t o be r epr esent ed by t he power spect r al densi t i es
of t he gust component Wg al ong t he z- axi s and i t s gr adi ent WgX al ong t he axi s ( see f i g. 2).
2) The beamnoi se E, whi ch i s super i mposed t o t he gl i de pat h. and whi ch i s descr i bed by i t s
power spect r al densi t y ( see f i g. 2).
3) The r adar al t i met er noi se
4) The gr ound pr of i l er r or s. , These ar r or s ar e due t o t he f act t hat t he desi r ed pat h i s def i ned
i n a coor di nat e syst emOxyz t he X- axi s of whi ch doe6 not coi nci de wi t h t he gr ound pr of i l e.
For t hi s r eason we ar e not abl e t o det er mi ne exact l y t he Z- coor di nat e of t he ai r cr af t ' s
posi t i on t hr ough r adar al t i met er measur ement s.
To descr i be t he t wo l ast ment i oned er r or s by means of one quant i t y (e), t he f ol l owi ng equat i on
of t he f or mf i l t er has been used i n t he pr esent st udy ( n = whi t e noi se) :
7.27 k' + 8.63 d + 5.30 e = n. X/850 ( 1)
Now, i t i s known t hat i ner t i al dat a measur ement s cannot be used f or pr eci se t r aj ect or y
det er mi nat i on, t he r eason bei ng er r or s due f or exampl e t o gyr o dr i f t s, DC of f set et c. ( see fi g.3).
These er r or s have a ver y l ow f r equency ( see f i g. 41, so t hat t he i ner t i al dat a measur ement s ar e
gener al l y char act er i sed t hr ough a wi de noi se- f r ee bandwi dt h.
2. NUMERI CAL DATA
The cal cul at i ons wer e car r i ed out f or a j et f i ght er wi t h t he f ol l owi ng dat a:
Di mensi ons:
Span b = 10.2 m
Wi ng aer a F = 32.5 m2
Mean aer odynami c chor d C = 3.68 m
Wei ght , wi ng l oadi ng, moment s of i ner t i a:
Wei ght G = 7800 kp
Wi ng l oadi ng G/F = 240 kp/ m2
2
Moment s of i ner t i a I = 4750 kpms
Y
XY
I = I xy = I zx =o
Mass par amet er )r = 106.4
Moment - of - i ner t i a
par amet er
Aer odynami c par amet er s:
Dr ag coef f i ci ent Cwo = 0.0804
Dr i f t coef f i ci ent
i = 49.9
Y
I
= 0.53
cLo
7- 2
Der i vat i ves:
= 0.865 = 3.55 C = 0.34
CDa
= 1.13 'mi = 2. 0
C =o %i
DL
= 1. 80 C = 4.0
Lq mq
C = O. !t39 C
Dq *
= 0.77 .
' m 6
The aer odynami c par amet er s ar e val i d f or an ai r cr af t vel oci t y of U, = 85 m/s.
3. EQUATI ONS OF MOTI ON
The equat i ons of mot i on ar e def i ned i n a body- f i xed coor di nat e syst emOx
di spl acement s f r oman equi l i br i umf l i ght condi t i on wi l l be consi der ed, t ge equat i ons ar e
l i near i zed. They can t her ef or e be di vi ded i nt o t wo gr oups, t he symmet r i cal and t he asymmet r i cal
gr oup. Thi s paper deal s onl y wi t h t he symmet r i cal equat i ons, whi ch descr i be t he l ongi t udi nal
mot i on. As t he vel oci t y i s assumed t o be const ant , t he equat i ons of mot i on can be r educed t o a
syst emof t wo equat i ons wi t h t wo unknown quant i t i es uand 3 :
A, onl y smal l
c.(1/2 CLi +p 1 . i + U0' ( CLa + CD0)' Ly+ C' (1/2 CLq - p ) . J - CL0 U. * t gA- $
= - I /2.c/uo:cL& . i g + ( CL# + cDo)' Wg + C/ 2. CLq' WgX
= - 1/ 2. c/ uo*cm; ' i g + c , , ' Wg +C/ 2. Cmq' Wgx - U0' Cmd
3.1 FI NAL APPROACH
The di spl acement Zo of t he ai r cr af t cent er of gr avi t y r el at i ve t o t he posi t i on of equi l i br i um
i s obt ai ned f r om
- dZO = U0'( U -0)
dt
Usi ng t he r el at i on
ZO
A = -
Uo(To - t)
(4)
wher e U,To denot es t he di st ance of t he ai r cr af t f r omt he I LS t r ansmi t t er at t he begi nni ng of t he
f i nal appr oach ( t = 0); by el i mi nat i ng Zo, we get t he f ol l owi ng equat i on f or t he angl e of
devi at i on f r omt he gl i de sl ope
Thi s r el at i on i s used t o el i mi nat e &i n t he t wo second- or der equat i ons of mot i on. We f i nal l y
get a syst emof 4 equat i ons of t he f i r st or der descr i bi ng t he f i nal appr oach phase:
= a 11 L + a12 2 + aI 38 + aI 4Q +bl l i g + b12Wg + b13Wsx
3.2 FLARE OUT
Usi ng t he r el at i on
7-3
t he angl e of at t ack i s el i mi nat ed i n t he equat i ons of mot i on. The f l ar e- out phase i s descr i bed
by t he f ol l owi ng f our di f f er ent i al eqat i ons of t he f i r st or der :
6 = a l l Q+ aI 2$+ d H + b +b W + b W + Cl od
13 11 g 12 g 13 gx
$ =e
i = a Q + a $+a H + b i + b W + b W
31 32 33 31 g 32 g 33 gx (8)
4. I MPROVEMENT OF THE LANDI NGS ACCURACY BY OPTI MI ZI NG THE AUTOPI LOT
Bef or e speaki ng of t he necessi t y t o i nt r oduce a hybr i d syst emdur i ng t he l andi ng, one must be
sur e t hat t he per f or mance of a convent i onal l andi ng syst emcannot be f ur t her i mpr oved, f or
exampl e t hr ough a sophi st i cat ed opt i mi zat i on of t he aut opi l ot . For t hi s r eason, t he f unct i onal
equat i on appr oach of dynami c pr ogr ammi ng has been empl oyed t o cal cul at e t he opt i mal cont r ol s.
Fur t her mor e, l andi ngs have been si mul at ed t o det er mi ne t he per f or mance of t he ai r cr af t dur i ng
t he f i nal appr oach and f l ar e- out phases.
4.1 FI NAL APPROACH
For t he sake of si mpl i ci t y we consi der a quadr at i c er r or cr i t er i on of t he f or m
T
1 ( ao12 + 6 2, dt = Mi n. ( 9 )
0
wi t h a const ant wei ght i ng f act or f or t he ai r cr af t di spl acement 9 . The empl oyment of t he dynami c
pr ogr ammi ng met hod t o mi ni mi ze t hi s cr i t er i on r esul t s i n t he cal cul at i on of t he opt i mal gai n
coef f i ci ent s f or t he aut opi l ot . However , as t he st at e var i abl es cannot be exact l y det er mi ned, i t
i s obvi ous t hat i n t he equat i on of t he aut opi l ot , t he st at e var i abl es must be r epl aced t hr ough
t he measur ed ones.
Fi gur es 5 and 6 gi ve a pi ct ur e of t he per f or mance of t he ai r cr af t dur i ng t he f i nal appr oach as a
f unct i on of t he wei ght i ng f act or aO. Fr om' f i g. .S i t i s obvi ous t hat t he r. m. 6. - val ue of 53 due
t o bot h gust s and ILS di et ur bances cannot be consi der abl y r educed by a hi gh gai n i n t he f eedback
l oop. On t he ot her hand, i f t he gai n i n t he f eedback l oop i s l ow, t he ai r cr af t becomes sensi t i ve
t o gust s, t hi s causi ng t he r. m. 6. - val ue of 1 t o i ncr ease. We f ur t her obser ve t hat t he absence
of I LS di st ur bances t he accur acy of t he l andi ng can be consi der abl y i ncr eased. The per f or mance
of t he ai r cr af t f or a hi gh gai n i n t he l oop can be wel l under st ood f r omt he f ol l owi ng si mul at i on
r esul t s of t he f i nal appr oach pl ot t ed i n f i g. 8. One can see t hat t he ai r cr af t i s so st r ongl y
bound t o t he gl i de sl ope t hat i t f l i es al most exact l y on t he I LS er r or si gnal s, i f one di sr egar ds
t he phase shi f t , t hi s poi nt i ng out t hat a hi gher gai n i n t he l oop cannot decr ease t , he ai r cr af t ' s
angul ar di spl acement f r omt he gl i de sl ope.
Thus one can st at e t hat t he i mpr ovement of t he accur acy of f i nal appr oach can onl y be achi eved
by f i l t er i ng t he I LS er r or s out of t he measur ement s.
4.2 FLARE-OUT
The er r or cr i t er i on i s a quadr at i c one, wi t h a const ant wei ght i ng f act or of t he ai r cr af t ' s hei gh
devi at i on f r om. t he desi r ed pat h:
T
J ( boAh + 6 dt = Mi n.
0 .
2 2
(10)
The st at e vect or measur ement s ar e not f r ee f r omnoi se. The r adar al t i met er er r or e i s descr i bed
equat i on bei ng mul t i pl i ed wi t h t he f act or X/850, t hi s causi ng t he r adar al t i met er er r or t o become
smal l er wi t h decr easi ng di st ance f r omt he t ouch down poi nt .
Var yi ng bo and car r yi ng out si mul at i ons of t he f l ar e- out we obt ai n t he r esul t s shown I n Fi g. 9
and I O. We obser ve t hat t he r. m. 6. - val ue of t he hei ght devi at i on decr eases wi t h i ncr easi ng bo
( whi ch cor r esponds t o t he gai n i n t he cont r ol l oop). We f ur t her st at e, t hat at t he absence
of t he r adar al t i met er er r or , t he accur acy of t he f l ar e- out can be consi der abl y i mp, r oved.
The per f or mance of t he ai r cr af t f or a hi gh gai n i n t he l oop can be under st ood f r omt he si mul at i on
r esul t s shown i n f i g. 11. We obser ve t hat t he ai r cr af t i s so st r ongl y bound t o t he r adar
al t i met er si gnal t hat i t f l i es al most exact l y on t he r adar al t i met er er r or i t sel f . For t hi s
r eason a hi gher gai n i n t he cont r ol l oop cannot r educe t he hei ght devi at i on f r omt he desi r ed pat h.
. t hr ough t he f or mf i l t er - equat i on of second or der , t he whi t e noi se n at t he r i ght si de of t he
7- 4
5. FI LTERI NG BY REDUNDANCY OF I NFORMATI ON OBTAI NED FROM I NERTI AL DATA MEASUREMENTS
Comment i ng t he r esul t s of t he opt i mi zat i on, one can st at e t hat t he mai n f act or s not al l owi ng
t he i mpr ovement of t he accur acy of t he l andi ng ar e t he I LS aGd r adar al t i met er er r or s, t hi s
poi nt i ng out t he necessi t y of t he i nt r oduct i on of f i l t er s i n t he cont r ol l oop.
Seeki ng f or a sui t abl e f i l t er i ng t echni que t o r educe t he noi se of t he measur ement dat a we
r emember , t hat t he i ner t i al dat a measur ement s ar e cont ami nat ed wi t h a noi se of a l ower f r equency
as compar ed wi t h t he noi se of t he I LS and r adar al t i met er si gnal s. One can t her ef or e expect t hat
t he desi gn of posi t i on P and vel oci t y V f i l t er s, as t hey ar e shown i n f i g. 13, wi l l have
sat i sf act or y r esul t s.
The met hod empl oyed i n desi gni ng t he posi t i on P and vel oci t y V f i l t er s, was based on t he
mi ni mi zat i on of t he r. m. 6. - val ues of t he r esul t i ng noi ses E
sel ect i ng a sui t abl e t i me const ant T t he r. m. 6. - val ues of t e r esul t i ng noi se can be r educed.
Fi g. I 5 shows t he si mul at i on r esul t s of t he f i nal appr oach wi t h a posi t i on and a vel oci t y. f i l t er
i n t he cont r ol l oop. Si mi l ar r esul t s ar e obt ai ned f or t he f l ar e- out case. Fi g. 16 shows t he t i me
dependency of t he ai r cr af t ' shei ght devi at i on f r omt he desi r ed pat h. Her eby st ands ( a) f or t he
st at e val ues, ( b) f or t he i ner t i al measur ement s, ( c) f or t he r adar al t i met er measur ement s, and
( d) f or t he est i mat es f r omt he i ner t i al f i l t er . We obser ve t hat t he per f or mance of t he vel oci t y
f i l t er s i s sat i sf act or y, but t hat t he posi t i on f i l t er s f ai l t o gi ve good est i mat es of t he st at e
val ues.
To get an i dea of t he i mpr ovement of t he accur acy of t he l andi ng usi ng t he i ner t i al f i l t er s,
si mul at i on r esul t s of t he f i nal appr oach and f l ar e- out ar e pl ot t ed, showi ng t he per f or mance
of an ai r cr af t wi t h ( w) and wi t hout (0) posi t i on and vel oci t y f i l t er s i n t he cont r ol l oop
( see f i g. 17 and 18).
Cal cul at i ng now t he r. m. s. - val ues of al l t he el ement s of t he st at e vect or s f or sever al t i me
i nt er val s of t he r andomf unct i on of t he gust s and I LS and r adar al t i met er di st ur bances and
pl ot t i ng t hem, we get f i g. 19 and 20.
We obser ve at f i r st t hat t he r. m. s. - val ues of t he r at es of t he ai r cr af t ' shei ght devi at i on and
angul ar di spl acement s f r omt he desi r ed pat h, t he pi t ch angl e, t he pi t ch angl e vel oci t y, t he angl e
of at t ack and t he el evat or def l ect i on ar e consi der abl y decr eased, compar ed wi t h t he cor r espondi ng
val ues wi t hout t he f i l t er . For t he f i nal appr oach case we f ur t her obser ve t hat t he r. m. 6. - val ues
of t he angul ar di spl acement ar e decr eased t oo, when usi ng t he f i l t er i n t he cont r ol l oop. They
ar e appr oxi mat el y 60 p.c. of t he cor r espondi ng val ues wi t hout t he i ner t i al f i l t er . Thi s i s not
negl i gi bl e as we can decr ease t he r. m. 6. - val ue maxi mal l y up t o 30 p.c. ( Thi s i s t he case i n
whi ch t he beamnoi se i s assumed t o be zero).
For t he f l ar e- out case, on t he cont r ar y, we cannot obser ve an i mpr ovement of t he r. m. 6. - val ues
of t he hei ght devi at i on f r omt he desi r ed pat h. Thi s i s due t o t he f act t hat t he r adar al t i met er
er r or s decr ease wi t h decr easi ng di st ance of t he ai r cr af t f r omt he t ouch down poi nt , t hus bei ng
appr oxi mat el y bet ween 0 and 20 cmdur i ng t he l ast 4 seconds of t he f l ar e- out phase. I t i s
t her ef or e nat ur al t hat t he i ner t i al f i l t er i s not abl e t o abol i sh t hese smal l di st ur bances i n
t he r adar al t i met er measur ement s, as t he accur acy of t hi s f i l t er cannot be i mpr oved so f ar.
Comment i ng t he r esul t s one can st at e t hat t he combi nat i on of t he I LS and r adar al t i met er
measur ement s wi t h t he i ner t i al dat a measur ement s can t o a cer t ai n ammount i mpr ove t he accur acy
of t he l andi ng. I f a f ur t her i mpr ovement i s possi bl e or not , t hi s wi l l be t he next quest i on
we wi l l have t o answer .
I DM+~. Fi g, 14 shows t hat by
ADM+P and E
6. I NTRODUCTI ON OF KALMAN FI LTERI NG TECHNI QUES DURI NG LANDI NG
As t he Kal man t echni que has pr oved t o be a power f ul t ool i n many cases, i t i s onl y nat ur al t o t r y
t o appl y t he t heor y t o t he speci al case of t he l andi ng. Of cour se, many pr obl ems - f or exampl e
t he r eal - t i me mechani zat i on of t he f i l t er , t he adequat e sampl i ng r at e et c. - must be sol ved
bef or e t he so- cal l ed "Kal man f i l t er s" can be i mpl ement ed on a r eal t i me basi s. However , i t i s
i nt er est i ng f r omt he t heor et i cal poi nt of vi ew t o appl y t hi s f i l t er i ng t echni que, al t hough t he
pr obl ems whi ch ar i se f r omt he pr act i cal appl i cat i on ar e not compl et el y sol ved.
For our speci al i nvest i gat i ons, i t i s assumed t hat t he Kal man Fi l t er s ar e "per f ect " i n t he sense
t hat t he dynami c syst emcan be exact l y descr i bed by t he l i near i zed equat i ons of mot i on, t hat
t he gust s and t he I LS er r or s can al so be exact l y descr i bed by t he appl i ed shapi ng f i l t er s, and
t hat t her e ar e no pr obl ems wi t h r espect t o t he r eal - t i me mechani zat i on of t he f i l t er s.
The f ol l owi ng t wo speci al cases of t he f i nal appr oach have been consi der ud:
( a) St at e vect or y
Measur ement vect or z
7-5
( b) St at e vect or
m
Measur ement vect or z
wher e w i s t he z- component of t he ai r cr af t ' s vel oci t y var i at i on.
I n bot h cases, t he Kal man al gor i t hmhas been empl oyed t o cal cul at e t he est i mat e y of t he st at e
vect or y. These est i mat es wer e i nser t ed i n t he cont r ol l oop as i nput t o t he aut opi l ot .
The case ( a) r epr esent s t he i deal i zed f i nal appr oach of an ai r cr af t whi ch i s equi pped onl y wi t h
an I LS r ecei ver .
The r esul t s of t he per f or med si mul at i ons ar e shown i n f i g. 21. They ar e at t he same t i me compar ed
wi t h si mul at i on r esul t s of t he case wi t hout Kal man f i l t er i n t he cont r ol l oop. They ar e not
encour agi ng i n t he sense of i mpr ovi ng t he accur acy of t he f i nal appr oach, as f or l ow a - val ues
( ao cor r esponds as we know t o t he gai n i n t he l oop) t he i ncor por at i on of t he Kal man f i yt er i n t he
l oop i ncr eases t he r. m. 8. - val ues of t he ai r cr af t ' s angul ar di spl acement s. For hi gh a val ues on
t he cont r ar y t he r. m. 6. - val ues of t he angul ar di spl acement ar e sl i ght l y bet t er t han ?he
cor r espondi ng val ues wi t hout t he Kal man f i l t er .
However we can expect , t hat t he comf or t wi l l be gener al l y i mpr oved, as t he r. m. 6. - val ues of t he
r at e of angul ar di spl acement , pi t ch angl e, and i t s r at e ar e smal l er t han t he cor r espondi ng
val ues wi t hout t he Kal man f i l t er .
Fi g. 22 shows how t he f i l t er i s wor ki ng: We can obser ve t hat t he est i mat es of t he r at e of angul ar
di spl acement ar e much bet t er t han t he est i mat es of t he angul ar di spl acement i t sel f .
The unsat i sf act or y per f or mance of t he Kal man f i l t er i s f or our opi ni on due t o t wo r easons:
a) The measur ement i nf or mat i on i s not suf f i ci ent
b) The f r equenci es of gust s ( t hat i s t o say of t he f or ci ng f unct i on)
and of t he beamnoi se E ar e si mi l ar .
To demonst r at e t hese st at ement s we const r uct a case (b), i n whi ch t he z- component of t he
ai r cr af t s vel oci t y can be det er mi ned al most exact l y, and i n whi ch onl y I LS- di st ur bances ar e
pr esent . For t hi s case we appl y now t he Kal man f i l t er i ng t echni que.
The r esul t s of t he per f or med si mul at i on, wi t h t he Kal man f i l t er i n t he cont r ol l oop ar e pl ot t ed
i n f i g. 23.
One can see t hat t he f i l t er i ng i s ver y succesf ul l , as t he est i mat es f r omt he Kal man f i l t er
cor r espond al most exact l y t o t he st at e val ues of t he angul ar di spl acement .
Fur t her mor e, i n f i g. 24 si mul at i on r esul t s ar e pl ot t ed showi ng t he per f or mance of t he f i nal
appr oach wi t h and wi t hout a Kal man f i l t er i n t he cont r ol l oop. The i mpr ovement o f t he accur acy
i s sat i sf act or y, t hi s poi nt i ng out , t hat t he ef f ect i veness of t he Kal man f i l t er t echni que,
depends consi der abl y on t he r edundancy of t he measur ement s avai l abl e.
7. CONCLUSI ON
Concl udi ng our pr esent at i on we summer i se br i ef l y t he r esul t s.
a) A cer t ai n i mpr ovement of t he accur acy of l andi ng can be at t ai ned by a hi gh gai n i n. t he
f eedback l oop, t he ef f ect bei ng t he r educt i on of t he gust sensi t i vi t y at t he expense of t he
sensi t i vi t y of t he ai r cr af t t o I LS- r espect i vel y r adar al t i met er errors.
l andi ng but i s not ver y much. ef f ect i ve i n r educi ng t he angul ar di spl acement of t he ai r cr af t
f r omt he gl i de sl ope.
c) The Kal man- f i l t er t echni que i s a power f ul 1 t ool f or aut omat i c l andi ng, t he r eal t i me
mechani zat i on bei ng one of t he pr obl ems t hat must be sol ved.
b) The i ncor por at i on of I MU- Dat a and f i l t er t echni ques i mpr oves consi der abl y t he comf or t of t he
Remar k: The paper cor r esponds t o t he f i r st par t of a st udy on aut omat i c l andi ng syst ems.
The exampl es chosen t o i l l ust r at e t he pr obl emar e not f i nal r esul t s, and wer e chosen
f r omt he poi nt of vi ew of si mpl i ci t y.
7- 6
R e f e r e n c e s
1. Tat A.
2. Cl ement son, G.
3. Summer s, R.
4. Hyden, A.
Sundst r om, M.
5. Sundst r om, M.
6. Tou, J .
7. TOU, J .
8; Schul t z, P.R.
9. El l er t , F. J .
Mer r i am, C.W.
I O. Bendat , J .
11. Sor enson, H. W.
12. Bona, B.
13. Mac. Ki nnon, D.
14. Br oxmeyer , C
Mac. Ki nnon, D.
Madden, P.
15. Kanar achos, A.
Schmi dt , W
Anal ysl f f l i ght - t est dat a on eval uat i on of I LS,
Ai r bor ne I nst r . Lab. Repor t 3213
An i nvest i gat i on of t he power spect r al densi t y of at mospher i c
t ur bul ence, MI T I nst r . Lab. Repor t 6445- T- 31
A st at i st i cal descr i pt i on of l ar ge scal e at mospher i c t ur bul ence,
MI T I nst r . Lab. Repor t T- 55
Cal cul at i on of symmet r i c r esponse of a j et f i ght er t o at mospher i c
t ur bul ence and i nst r ument l andi ng syst emdi st ur bances dur i ng appr oach
f or l andi ng, KTH AERO TN 50
A speci al met hod f or det er mi ni ng t he power spect r al densi t i es of t he
sol ut i ons of l i near di f f er ent i al equat i ons wi t h st ochast i c r i ght member
and coef f i ci ent s consi st i ng of pol ynomi al s i n t he i ndependet var i abl e,
KTH AERO TN 49
Moder n Cont r ol Theor y, Mc. Gr aw- Hi l l , New Yor k
Opt i mumdesi gn of di gi t al cont r ol syst ems, Academi c Pr ess, New Yor k
Anal yt i cal desi gn t echni ques f or an opt i mal cont r ol pr obl em,
Moder n Cont r ol Syst ems Theor y, Mc. Gr aw Hi l l
Synt hesi s of f eedback cont r ol s usi ng opt i mi zat i on t heor y, I EE Tr ansact i ons
on Aut omat i c Cont r ol
Pr i nci pl es and appl i cat i ons of r andomnoi se t heor y,
J ohn Wi l l ey & Sons, New Yor k
Kal man f i l t er i ng t echni ques, Advances i n Cont r ol Syst ems,
Vol . 3, Academi c Pr ess, New Yor k
Appl i cat i ons of obser ver s and opt i mumf i l t er s t o i ner t i al syst ems,
I FAC Symposi um, 7./8. Okt ober 1968, Dussel dor f
Aut omat i c l andi ng syst emopt i mi zat i on usi ng i ner t i al navi gat i on dat a
and moder n cont r ol t heor y, Paper pr esent ed at t he AGARD Meet i ng on May
20- 23, 1969, Cambr i dge, Mass.
Appl i cat i ons of i ner t i al navi gat i on and moder n cont r ol t heor y t o t he
al l - weat her l andi ng pr obl em, MI T I nst r . Lab. Repor t R- 613
Unt er suchungen aut omat i scher Landesyst eme, I nt er ner VFWBer i cht ,
Tei l 11, 1969
7-7
n
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x
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7-10
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Fi g.11: Si mul at i on results of f l ar e-out compari ng the ti me dependency of A h for
bo =0.0005 (a) and bo =10 (b) wi t h t he ti me dependency of the radar
al t i met er errors (c)
-
bo =0.0005 (a)and bo =10 (b) wi t h t het i me dependency of the wi nd gusts (c)
7-11
20
15
I O
5
o_
Fi g.13: Opt i mal posi ti on P (5) and opt i mal vel oci t y V (s) f i l t er s f or a hybr i d
system using ILS- and i ner t i al dat a measurements
l
a, b, c, d, e: r.m.s of EILS
a, b, c, d, e: r.m.s of p +E~ DM
g, h, i, k : r.m.s of v +~I DM
- f : r.m.s of ~I DM
5 I O
__f_ 20 T
Fi g.14: Si mul at i on results showing the dependency of t he r.m.s. of p +EIDM
and v +~I DM from the t i me constant T o f the P- and V-f i l t er s
7-12
.x . . . . . . . . e .
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7-14
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m
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7-15
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0.
0.
0.
' 0 5 0 100 150 200 2 5 0
a
0
Fi g.21: Si mul ati on results of the f i nal approach showing the performance of ai r cr af t l andi ng
wi t h (w) and wi t hout (0) a Kal man f i l t er i n the control loop (case a)
7-16
-0.004
-0.005
Fi g.22: Si mul ati on results of f i nal approach showing the performance of l andi ng using
a Kalman f i l t er i n the control loop (case a)
7-17
: state volues
: estimates from Kol man f i l t er
0 : ILS measurement dat a
- 0 . 0 0 0 2 5
-0.00050
- 0 . 0 0 0 7 5
- 0 . 0 0 I 0 0
- 0. 001 2 5
-0.00150
-0.00 I r 5
Fi g.23: Si mul at i on results of f i nal approach showing the effecti veness of Kal mon f i l t er using
strongl y i deal i zed i ner t i al dat a meosurements (case b)
Fi g.24: Si mul at i on results of fi no1 approach showing the performance of l andi ng wi t h (w) and
wi t hout (0) a Kal man f i l t er i n the cont rol l oop (case b)
8
COLLISION AVOIDANCE AND THE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL ENVIRONMENT
by
Anatole Browde
Director CnI Program. Assistant General Manager
McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company - Eastern Division
I 8
8- 1
COLLI SI ON AVOI DANCE AND THE AI R TRAFFI C CONTROL ENVI RONMENT
Anat ol e Br owde, Di r ect or CNI Pr ogr am
Assi st ant Gener al Manager
McDonnel l Dougl as Ast r onaut i cs Company - East er n Di vi si on
Abst r act
Thi s paper di scusses t he oper at i on of t he Col l i si on Avoi dance Syst em, cur r ent l y under t est by t he Ai r Tr ans-
por t Associ at i on. The syst emi s desi gned to pr ovi de ai r - t o- ai r i nf or mat i on exchange bet ween ai r cr af t , and
pr ovi de saf e separ at i on under al l weat her condi t i ons, even i n dense t er mi nal ar ea t raf f i c. The t echnol ogy
used i s a t i me or der ed, ei t her ground or ot her ai r cr af t r esynchr oni zed syst em, i n whi ch r ange, r ange r at e
and al t i t ude i s used to devel op t hr eat par amet er s.
Al so di scussed wi l l be t he behavi or of t hi s t ype of a syst emi n t he post - 1975 ai r t r af f i c cont r ol envi r on-
ment , as der i ved by si mul at i on. Gr owt h opt i ons ar i si ng f r omt he Col l i si on Avoi dance Syst emi ncl ude a sys-
t emof pr eci sel y i dent i f yi ng and l ocat i ng ai r cr af t as an ai r t r af f i c cont r ol t ool .
addi t i ons can pr ovi de ai r - t o- ai r st at i on keepi ng, t r i l at er at i on t echni ques t o enabl e pr eci se l ocat i on of
t he ai r cr af t f or gr ound cont r ol , and al so pr eci se navi gat i on by t he pi l ot wi t h r espect to t he gr ound, wi t h-
out ei t her voi ce communi cat i on or t he r equi r ement of encodi ng ai r cr af t posi t i on on di gi t al ai r - t o- gr ound
dat a l i nks. Thi s t echni que can al so be used f or t er mi nal ar ea appr oach and can be ext ended to Cat egor y I
l andi ngs.
I nher ent i n t he Col l i si on Avoi dance Syst emi s t he abi l i t y to exchange up to 150 bi t s of b' i nary dat a every
t hr ee seconds.
Post ul at ed gr owt h
1. I nt r oduct i on
On 8 J anuar y 1960, t wo F- 101B' s col l i ded appr oxi mat el y 60 mi l es f r omLamber t - St . Loui s Ai r por t under r adar
cont r ol . Bot h pl anes wer e l ost , and t wo cr ewmember s wer e ki l l ed. Thi s i nci dent spar ked t he McDonnel l
Dougl as i nvest i gat i on of col l i si on avoi dance, whi ch gave bi r t h to t he t i me r esynchr oni zat i on t echnol ogy
cal l ed EROS.
EROS i s an acr onymt hat st ands f or "El i mi nat e Range Zer o Syst em", f or i f r ange zer o i s el i mi nat ed, no
col l i si on can occur .
The McDonnel l Dougl as i nvest i gat i on f ol l owed t he now t r adi t i onal pat h of a det ai l ed i nvest i gat i on of non-
cooper at i ve syst ems, such as I R devi ces, conspi cui t y enhancer s and act i ve r adar s. I n an i nt ensi ve t wo year
st udy, i t was det er mi ned t hat none of t hese pr ovi ded t he pr ot ect i on deemed necessar y f or a syst emt hat had
to handl e ai r cr af t over a wi de vel oci t y spect r umand i n al l at t i t ude maneuver i ng f l i ght .
I n 1962, act i ve r edi r ect i on of t he col l i si on avoi dance ef f or t t ook pl ace, and r esul t ed i n t he gener at i on of
t he McDonnel l Dougl as pat ent ed EROS r esync t echnol ogy.
I n 1963 t hi s t echnol ogy was f i r st demonst r at ed t o t he FAA.
every ai r cr af t t est ed by McDonnel l Dougl as, became oper at i onal .
EROS f l i ght .
Mor e r ecent l y, t he exami nat i on of t hi s t echnol ogy has l ed to a r eal i zat i on, t hat t he same si gnal st r uct ur e
t hat pr ovi des col l i si on avoi dance war ni ng, can al so be used as a power f ul t ool to ai d ai r t r af f i c cont r ol .
By t he addi t i on of r el at i vel y si mpl e ci r cui t r y t o t he basi c col l i si on avoi dance el ect r oni cs, f unct i ons of
st at i on keepi ng and DME can be obt ai ned. Si nce t he syst emi s t i me or der ed, i t mat er i al l y enhances t he
abi l i t y to handl e dense ai r t r af f i c i n t he pr esent l y sat ur at i ng envi r onment .
( Ref er ence 1).
Dur i ng 1965 t he EROS I syst em, i nst al l ed on
On 28 J ul y 1968, we l ogged our 10, 000t h
2. Technol ogy
The EROS t i me r esynchr oni zat i on t echnol ogy, as conf i gur ed f or t he Ai r l i ne Tr anspor t Associ at i on col l i si on
avoi dance speci f i cat i on i s shown i n Fi gur e 1.
t hr ee seconds, most of whi ch ar e ai r cr af t , but some of whi ch can be ground st at i ons or sat el l i t es. I t
enabl es r esynchr oni zat i on of t hese member s, so t hat ever yone i n t he communi t y has t he cor r ect t i me to an
accur acy of bet t er t han 100 nanoseconds. By t hese means, par amet er s of r ange, r ange r at e, and posi t i on i n
space can be obt ai ned ver y accur at el y. Al t i t ude i nf or mat i on i s der i ved f r omt he ai r cr af t al t i t ude sensi ng
syst emand encoded i n t he same message. The si gnal i s al so capabl e of bei ng modul at ed to pr ovi de a r el i abl e
dat a t r ansmi ssi on channel of up to 150 bi t s capaci t y per member , every t hr ee second peri od.
I t pr ovi des f or t i me or der ed r epor t i ng of 2000 member s every
TIME RESY NCHRON IZATION TECHNOLOGY
TIME ORDERED REPORTING OF 2000 MEMBERS IN B SECONDS
ACCURATE DERIVATION OF RANGE, RANGE RATE, POSITION
AND ALTITUDE INFORMATION
0 RESYNCHRONIZATION OF OSCILLATORS OF MEMBERS TO
WITHIN 0.1 SEC
0 DATA TRANSMISSION OF UP TO 150 BITS
Figure 1
8- 2
The i t earat ed syst emDr ovi des Dosi t i ve i den
I
i f i cat i on of each member i n t he ai r and on t he ground wi t hout
voi ce communi cat i ons, f l i ght f ol l owi ng on t he ground and hi gh speed di gi t al communi cat i ons.
I n our meani ng of 'i t i me ordered syst em, as shown i n Fi gur e 2 , every member of t he gr oup, be i t ai r cr af t
or ground st at i on, i s assi gned a sl ot . Thi s sl ot i s a posi t i ve i dent i f i er , and a par t i cul ar member , and
no ot her , wi l l t r ansmi t t he message shown i n t hat sl ot .
l i st en f or t r ansmi ssi ons f r omt he ot her s i n t he gr oup.
t r ansmi ssi ons i n a dense t r af f i c si t uat i on. Al l i nf or mat i on exchange occur s wi t hi n t he f r equency band
assi gned to t he col l i si on avoi dance f unct i on, 1600 - 1615 MHz, and i s swi t ched sequent i al l y and aut omat i cal l y
Dur i ng al l ot her sl ot s, a member' s equi pment wi l l
He coul d r ecei ve pot ent i al l y sever al hundr ed such
t hr ough t hat band i n 5 MHz i ncr ement s.
TIME ORDERED REPORTING
TRANSMITTED PULSE
f - MEMBER NO. 3
I SLOT SLOT SLOT
2
l 1
3
SLOT SLOT
n-1 n
I* ONE EPOCH I
EACH MEMBER IS ASSIGNED ONE TIME SLOT
EACH MEMBER TRANSMITS AT THE BEGINNING OF HIS TIME SLOT
EACH MEMBER LISTENS FOR OTHER MEMBERS IN THE GROUP DURING OTHER TIME SLOTS
A COMMON FREQUENCY IS USE0 FOR ALL MEMBERS RECEPTION AND TRANSMISSION
Fi gur e 2
As shown i n Fi gur e 3 , f or a t ypi cal ai r cr af t , t he i nt er val f r omt he begi nni ng of t he sl ot to r ecept i on of
t he message i s a di r ect measur e of pr opagat i on del ay, and accor di ngl y i s pr opor t i oned to t hat ai rcraf t ' s
r ange wi t h r espect to t he uni t t r ansmi t t i ng.
INFORMATION CONTENT FOR NAVIGATION
AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Fa--i
SLOT 3 TRANSMISSION
INFORMATION RELATI VE TO MEMBER 3
I S OBTAINED ONLY IN SLOT 3
tp I S PROPORTIONAL TO RANGE TO MEMBER 3
A f p IS PROPORTIONAL TO RANGE RATE OF
(n) WITH RESPECT TO 3
ta I S PROPORTIONAL TO ALTITUDE OF
MEMBER 3
ALTI TUDE RATE CAN BE OBTAINED I F
DESIRED
SLOT 3 RECEIVED BY
ANOTHER MEMBER (nl
Fi gur e 3
By anal ysi s of t he modul at i on cont ai ned wi t hi n t he pul se envel ope, i n ef f ect by an exami nat i on of t he
doppl er spect r umcont ai ned t her ei n, t he r el at i ve vel oci t y of t hese member s wi t h r espect to each ot her can
be obt ai ned. I n addi t i on, a pul se i s posi t i oned wi t h r espect to the l eadi ng edge of t he r ange pul se, so
t hat t he pul se i nt er val bet ween t hem, i s pr opor t i onal to al t i t ude of one member wi t h r espect to anot her .
By pr oper mat hemat i cal mani pul at i on, t he al t i t ude r at e of one member wi t h r espect to anot her can al so be
obt ai ned.
8 - 3
The ATA Col l i si on Avoi dance Syst emdepends on t he use of ver t i cal maneuver s to achi eve saf e separ at i on of
ai r cr af t . Thi s t ype of maneuver i s pr ef er r ed over a l at er al maneuver , because ai r cr af t maneuver r esponse
i s f ast er i n t he ver t i cal pl ane, and because i t f aci l i t at es conduct of a gi ven encount er i n a cl osed l oop
f ashi on; i . e. , al t i t ude dat a i s al ways avai l abl e i n an ai r cr af t , l at er al posi t i on dat a i s not .
The cr i t er i a used i n achi evi ng separ at i on ar e cont ai ned i n ATA speci f i cat i on ANTC 117 ( Ref erence 2), and
ar e shown i n Fi gur e 5. Penet r at i on of t he TAU 3 zone pr ovi des onl y advi sor y commands; i . e. , an i ndi cat i on
t hat an i nt r udi ng ai r cr af t i s above or bel ow. TAU 2 pr esent s hi m
wi t h hi s f i r st command; i . e. , an ar r owup or down, or a hol d al t i t ude bar , whi l e TAU 1 r ei nf or ces t hat
command audi bl y and by l i ght f l ashes.
Mor e schemat i cal l y, t he co- al t i t ude bands f or t he ATA syst ems speci f i cat i on ar e shown i n Fi gur e 6.
ar e def i ned as 5 700 f eet about own ai rcraf t ' s al t i t ude.
Thi s number was chosen to pr ovi de a saf e 150 f eet st at i c port t o st at i c por t separ at i on under adver se
t ol er ance bui l d- up of al t i met er er r or s, mi ssed t r ansmi ssi ons and ant enna shadowi ng.
Any ai r cr af t t hat i nt r udes i n t he co- al t i t ude band wi l l r ecei ve a col l i si on war ni ng, pr ovi ded ot her t hreat
cr i t er i a ar e posi t i ve.
wi t hi n 2500 f eet of t hat band, r ecei ves an advi sor y war ni ng t hat t her e i s an ai r cr af t above or bel ow, agai n
pr ovi ded t he ot her t hr eat cr i t er i a ar e met .
and di vi ng f l i ght .
Havi ng once det er mi ned t hat an ai r cr af t i s wi t hi n t he co- al t i t ude band, t he r ecei ved si gnal i s exami ned t o
det epmi ne whet her t he geomet r y and vel oci t y vect or condi t i ons ar e such, t hat a cont i nuat i on of t he exi st i ng
f l i ght condi t i ons wi l l pr oduce a col l i si on.
The quant i t i es exami ned ar e shown i n Fi gur e 7.
way r ange measur ement , and t he r el at i ve vel oci t y of one ai r cr af t wi t h r espect t o anot her , anal yzi ng t he
doppl er modul at i on of t he r ecei ved pul se. The quant i t y of r ange di vi ded by r ange r at e, cal l ed TAU, i s a
di r ect measur e of t he t i me, i n seconds, to a pr edi ct ed col l i si on.
An ai r cr af t gener at es a TAU l ocus of t i me t o col l i si on.
TAU al ar mci r cl e, a col l i si on war ni ng i s gi ven t o bot h ai r cr af t r eci pr ocal l y.
exi st i n t he ATA speci f i cat i on, appl i ed under di f f er ent ci r cumst ances of maneuver i ng f l i ght , a t ypi cal
val ue mi ght be 30 seconds. Whenever t wo ai r cr af t ar e wi t hi n 30 seconds of a pr edi ct ed col l i si on, t hey
wi l l r ecei ve avoi dance si gnal s.
No act i on need be t aken by t he pi l ot .
They
Addi t i onal l y, an ai r cr af t t hat i s above or bel ow t he co- al t i t ude t hreat band, but
The al ar mand t hreat bands ar e adj ust ed to account f or cl i mbi ng
They ar e r ange bet ween ai r cr af t , as det er mi ned by t he one-
I
Whenever anot her ai r cr af t ent er s t hi s so- cal l ed
Whi l e sever al TAU cr i t er i a
,
As shown i n Fi gur e 4 , f or t he t ypi cal ATA message st r uct ur e, up to 150 bi t s of di gi t al dat a, bi - phase
modul at ed, can be packed i nt o t he r ange pul se.
CAS, f or t r ansmi t t i ng t he t i me st at us and qual i t y of a gi ven member' s synchr oni zat i on. Addi t i onal l y,
i nf or mat i on as may be desi r ed, can be encoded i n t he message, such as ai r cr af t t ai l number , st at us of
maj or ai r cr af t syst ems, t i me over a gi ven check- poi nt or t i me of l i f t - of f and l andi ng.
Thi s i nf or mat i on can be used, as speci f i ed by ATA i n t he
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION USING
THE CAS FORMAT
b- 200 SEC - 1
I
I I/ 7 n I
LPREAMBLE LMESSAGE ALTITUDE
[NO MODULATION) PULSE
UP TO 150 BITS OF DATA CAN
BE ENCODED IN THE CAS
RANGE PULSE BY BIPHASE MODULATION
TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION IS INHERENT FOR EQUIPPED GROUND
STATIONS AND AIRCRAFT.
3. Col l i si on Avoi dance
Fi gur e 4
I t i s possi bl e t hat t wo ai r cr af t ar e i n a pot ent i al l y hazar dous posi t i on wi t h r espect to each ot her , whi l e
havi ng ext r emel y l ong t i mes to col l i si on. Thi s woul d t ake pl ace wher e t he ai r cr af t ar e sl owmovi ng; or ar e
i n r el at i vel y par al l el f l i ght , so t hat t he comput ed t i me of col l i si on i s ver y l ong. If t hese ai r cr af t dr i f t
i nt o a si t uat i on wher e t he r ange bet ween t hembecomes r el at i vel y smal l , t hen agai n a col l i si on hazar d exi st s
and an al ar mi s sounded. Any ai r cr af t penet r at i ng
t hi s ci r cl e wi l l cause r eci pr ocal al ar ms.
Typi cal l y, t he r ange al ar mci r cl e i s 1/ 2 mi l e i n radi us.
4 . Ai r Tr af f i c Cont r ol I nt er act i on
The l ogi c shown i n Fi gur e 5 was eval uat ed by McDonnel l Dougl as i n a compr ehensi ve pr ogr amof comput er
si mul at i on ( Ref er ence 3 ) .
abi l i t i es, dat a exchange phasi ng bet ween ai r cr af t , si gnal to noi se r at i o, al t i met r y er r or s, pi l ot r eact i on
I
Thi s pr ogr ami ncl uded t he i nt r oduct i on of var i abl es of RF communi cat i on pr ob-
8-4
600
500
I l i TA U ZONE 1
400
300
200
P
0
x
a
.a
-
100
0
-100
-200
1 2 3 4 5
R - R,
TA U =-
RMIN IS A RANGE ALARM
R (NM)
k
Fi gur e 5
t i me, maneuver accel er at i on and ai r cr af t r esponse.
ai r cr af t wer e t hen pl aced on a col l i si on cour se, and wer e "f l own" on t he comput er , t he pi l ot of at l east
one ai r cr af t obeyi ng t he r esul t ant col l i si on avoi dance commands.
and ver t i cal separ at i on at t he cl osest poi nt . A summar y pl ot of t he cl osest encount er s i s shown i n Fi gur e 8,
showi ng t hat f or over 12, 000 r uns, saf e separ at i on exi st ed under al l condi t i ons.
Each par amet er was gi ven a t ypi cal di st r i but i on. Two
The out put of t he si mul at i on was l at er al
Addi t i onal anal ysi s of t he act i on of t he col l i si on avoi dance syst emused act ual t r af f i c dat a der i ved f r om
At l ant a t er mi nal ar ea t r af f i c t apes and pr ocessed by t he FAA NAFEC f aci l i t y at At l ant i c Ci t y, New J er sey
( Ref er ence 4 ) . Shown i n Fi gur e 9, t hese r eveal ed t hat , onl y 10. 76% of t he t i me any ki nd of si gnal was
gi ven t o t he pi l ot , and most of t he t i me, wher e no maneuver was r equi r ed, t hese si gnal s wer e of an advi sor y
nat ur e, l eavi ng 1. 19%of t he t i me, wher e an ai r cr af t woul d i ndeed have to maneuver .
Thi s t hen l ed to t he obvi ous quest i on of whet her t he TAU 3 cr i t er i a, i n whi ch 8.28% of al l war ni ngs occur r ed
coul d be el i mi nat ed ent i r el y. Agai n we t ur ned t o comput er si mul at i on t o see whet her saf e separ at i on woul d
st i l l exi st , usi ng t he same t echni que used i n der i vi ng t he pl ot s of Fi gur e 8. The r esul t s ar e shown i n
Fi gur e 10, and cl ear l y demonst r at ed t hat t he TAU 3 band coul d be el i mi nat ed, as coul d t he TAU 2 "R mi n"
cr i t er i on. One ot her si mpl e change woul d mat er i al l y r educe war ni ng t i me i n t he t er mi nal ar ea, t hat i s a
change i n t he al t i t ude war ni ng band f r om700 f eet t o 500 f eet . The r esul t ant war ni ng zone occupanci es ar e
shown i n Fi gur e 11. Onl y 0. 42% of t he t i me di d an ai r cr af t need to maneuver .
The ul t i mat e syst emt hen mi ght empl oy a "gear shi f t ", swi t chi ng t he nor mal en- r out e l ogi c, wi t h i t s wi der
al t i t ude band and per haps l onger war ni ng t i mes, t o a t er mi nal ar ea l ogi c, opt i mi zed f or sl ower speed,
denser t r af f i c.
EROS WARNING AND ALERT ALTITUDE BANDS
CO-ALTITUDE
EROS TAU AND RANGE PROTECTION AREAS
/ \ I A A \
PATH OF
RELATIVE TO
\ /
RANGE
RANGE RA T E
TA U =
CIRCLE
Fi gur e 7
i 8- 6
--
4
A A ~ A
AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MINIMUM RANGE
O 4 t
VERTICAL
(FTI
A HORIZONTAL
(FT)
: 1 I 1 I I I 1 1
0
0
I 1 , A , I I 1 I
A 5K
H OR I Z ON TA L
( FT)
200
0
2 O 0 t
A
B 5K 0
0
+3250 '
a
P
a
e +150'
I-
U
0
W
v)
U
A 0
I?
w -150'
z
>
- 250'
TAU 1 TAU 2 TAU 3
+RMI NS~ +RMl NS2 +'MlNS3
=10.76%
" INCLUDES A/ C ABOVE/BELOW -WHERE MANEUVER IS NOT REQUl R EO.
AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MINIMUM RANGE
VERTICAL
(FT)
I
a
I h
t
AIRCRAFT SEPARATION AT MNIMUM RANGE
mL
Fi gure 10
2
U
U
z -500
Y
>
8-7
ELIMINATION OF TAU a ZONE
LEAVES TOTAL OF 125%
*INCLUDES A/C ABOVEl BELOW -WHERE MANEUVER IS NOT REQUIRED.
Fi gure 11
AB traffic increases and availability of air space becomes further restricted. the question naturally arises
as to whether a ground based collision avoidance system might not be more conservative of air space. Holt
and Harner of Collins Radio (Reference 5) have presented a method of calculating this, and we have applied
their method to compare airborne CAS (with a single line logic) against a postulated 1985 terminal radar
system at a range of 30 nm, and against a possible trilateration scheme.
are ahown in Figure 12. The results of this comparison are given in Figure 13, and show, that in spite of
the comparison of an existing, 1969 hardware CAS with postulated 1980 era systems. the CAS is more con-
aervative of air space for all realistic terminal area closing velocities.
width of the alarm region for the CAS being less, than even the trilateration scheme. even when a one second
data interval is assumed for the ground based system, at maximum aircraft closing rates of less than 500
knots. The ground based CAS, of course, a l s o depends on separate data links for warning and provides no
back-up, or fail safe device in the cockpit.
The parameters of these systems
This is evidenced by the half
TERMINAL
RADAR
c
10 NM
BEARING OR X ERROR (h)
RANGEOR V E R R OR I M
POSITION ERROR (LA
RELATI VE RANGE ERROR (hl
DATA INTERVAL (SEC)
PI LOT REACTION (SEC)
A/ C REACTION (SEC1
ROLLOUT (SEC)
COMPUTATION (SEC)
COMMUNICATION (SEC)
ALLOWANCES FOR 3 ERROR (SEC)
TOTAL DELAY (SEC)
MANEUVER TIME (SEC) .
TOTAL ESCAPE TIME (SEC)
5. Grovth Options
0.26
0.1 NM
0.11 NM
025 NM
4
I
1
2
2
0
0
12
U
ai
TRILATERATION
0.01 NM
0.01 NM
0.U4 NM
0.02 NM
1
1
2
2
0
0
9
I9
28
a
Fi gure 12
The introduction of collision avoidance into airline inventory. which we predict to start in 1971, provides
additional benefits for the air traffic control and navigation environment, using timelfrequency techniques.
The power of these growth options can be realized only with the introduction of multiple ground stations
for resynchronizing minimally equipped general aviation aircraft.
advances of this technology. unless we can reduce the $50,000 cost of a sophisticated airline equipment to
a $3000 to $5000 figure that a general aviation aircraft can afford.
first phase contract to the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations Electronic Research Center, to
devise such a low cost system. and are confident of success. Such a unit would not only provide the normal
collision avoidance function, but also include beacon and DNE functions for use against a timelfrequency
ground station. Some 200 ground stations are required in the U.S. to implement appreciable service for
general aviation, whereas three stations suffice for the airliner.
We will not be able to fully exploit the
We at McDonnell Douglas are under a
8 -8
ALARM REGION HALF WIDTHS
1/26, PER A/C, HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION FROM LINEAR FLIGHT
6
P PROPOSED WITH TERMINAL
5 5 RADAR AT a0 NM
E
YI PRESENT CASISINGLE
w LINE LOGIC1
PROPOSED TRILATERATION
OX, 9 = 600 FT
=
U
4
A
4
: : a
E
L Z
P
i=
A
U
I
1
0 '
I 1 I I 1 I
TERMINAL AREA SPEEO LIMIT (KNOTS1
0 200 4w mo WO iooo 1200
Fi gur e 13
5.1 Flight Following
In St. Louis, where all aircraft operated by McDonnell are EBOS equipped. we are able to provide
flight following functions, having nothing but the CAS in the aircraft.
The EROS ground station used in St. Louis is illustrated in FIgure 14.
traffic control console, using timelfrequency technology could be like.
ray tube, targets are show as discrete points.
slash has been replaced hy a point target.
displayed with a digital readout of altitude.
corresponding to the flight strip currently used by a controller.
also be digitally displayed.
It shows what a typical air
On the face of the cathode
Aircraft identification is by slot number and digitally
In our case, a manual flight plan notation is added,
The ever present, often three miles wide, beacon
Obviouely, that information can
GROUND STATION ANTENNA GROUND STATION CONSOLE
rBoGEV
f LIGHT
P L A N 1 ALTITUDE,RANGE7 IOENTIFICATION IOENTIFICATION
,[ -
T
FOR A TYPICAL EROS GROUND STATION
A CONTROLLER WILL HAVE AVAILABLE
RANGE AND BEARING FROM THE STATION OF ANY AIRCRAFT WITHIN COVERAGE
0 ALTITUDE OF THE AIRCRAFT
0 lDENTlFlCATlON OF THE AIRCRAFT
XV COORDINATES
0 DIGITAL FLIGHT PLAN INFORMATION
Figure 14
8- 9
An added feature of the display is that the range to the ground station of any aircraft in the air
can be displayed by simply dialing in an aircraft's identification.
ment. range to a given ground station can be continually displayed digitally next to the altitude
display.
Correlation of aircraft on the oscilloscope ia performed as follows:
where, in XY coordinates, a given aircraft is, he will press the identification button next to the
digital readout of that aircraft.
controller wishes to determine at what altitude or what identification a certain target on the cathode
ray tube is. he will place a light pencil over that target and the identification light on the con-
sole will light up.
XY location in the St. Louis area depends on measuring bearing of an aircraft by conventional
direction finding techniques.
obtained.
If desired in the ATC environ-
if a controller wishes to h o w
This will cause the scope target to bloom. Conversely, if a
With our antenna design, an accuracy of 2' - 3' in bearing can be
The contrast of the St. Louis flight following operations with our flight following display and
information uaed by a controller in an en-route center or tower is startling. Most of OUT operatiana
can be conducted without voice conrmunication.
the oscilloscope tube, and the controller has positive, unambiguous information regarding each flight
in altitude end position at his fingertips.
clutter nor weather returns tend to confuse the displayed ATC picture.
For the collision avoidance system being specified by the ATA. McDannell Dodglas has hard data,
testifying to the success of the system under operational conditions, compiled in an operating radius
of approximately 140 nautical miles around SE. Louis. Over 14.000 flights have been made using EROS,
and in fact, no test aircraft leaves the McDonnell Douglas ramp, without having an EROS installation.
It is a safety of flight item.
The digital readout does not Clutter up the face of
Since this system does not use radar, neither ground
5.2 Station Kneping
The obvioua extension of the ground-to-air DME function and aircraft location capability is to the
air-to-air caae. shown in Figure 15. Two aircraft can maintain a specified separation by measuring
range and bearing with respect to each other, using the CAS signal. Since relative range. velocity
and altitude are preaent in each CAS transmission, an aircraft can be aesigDed to follow and station
keep on a so-called "leader" aircraft, and have displayed relative range. bearing and altitude with
respect to it.
his sector.
having readouts of range from the CAS system.
positively controlled and spaced traffic, can be established for trans-oceanic flight.
tion in each cockpit is clear and unambiguous, and is obtained without voice colmrmnieation.
Thus, traffic can be ordered by a controller by assigning a stream at any point in
Safe separation of one aircraft with respect to another can be assured, by both aircraft
So-called "elephant trunking", a continuous stream of
The informa-
r
SEARING
60 40 20 0 20 40 6
nlrul
AALTITUDE
A
FOR A TYPICAL AIRCRAFT
A PILOT WILL HAVE AVAl LABLk
RANGE TO A GROUNOSTATlON
RANGE AND RELATIVE VELOCITY
WITH RESPECTTO ANOTHER AIRCRAFT
BEARING TO ANOTHER AIRCRAFT
TIME TO INTERCEPT
Fi gure 15
6-10
5.3 Tr i l at er at i on
The appl i cat i on of McDonnel l Dougl as resynf t echnol ogy t o mi l i t ary syst ems has produced a most accurat e
way of l ocat i ng an ai r cr af t wi t h respect to a cnnpl ex of ground st at i ons and si mul t aneous ver i f i cat i on
of t hi s i nf or mat i on on t he ground f or cont rol l er usage.
The scheme i s i l l ust rat ed i n Fi gur e 16. and depends on t he r ange measurement by use of t he CAS si gnal .
of one ai rcraf t wi t h r espect to each of t hree ground st at i ons, or t he t hree gr ound st at i ons wi t h
r espect to an ai rcraf t . A si mpl e t ri gonomet ri c sol ut i on, i n whi ch t he r ange of t he ai r er af t and t he
kn- l ocat i on of t he ground et at i one i s used to ar r i ve at a posi t i on i n space, i s cal l ed t ri l at era-
t i on, and has bean succesef ul l y demonst rat ed hy McDonnel l Dougl as i n U.S. Navy appl i cat i ons.
TRILATERATION (RHO/RHO)
s
IN THE.AIR - LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT BY RANGE MEASUREMENT TO EACH
OF THREE KNOWN GROUND STATIONS.
ON THE GROUND - LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT INOEPENOENTLY - BY MEASUR-
ING RANGE FROM EACH STATION TO AIRCRAFT.
Figure 16
I t shoul d be not ed t hat ai rcraf t posi t i on i s obt ai ned i n t he cockpi t wi t hout any voi ce communi cat i ons
f r omt he ground, and i ndependent l y t he ai rcraf t posi t i on i s avai l abl e on t he ground, wi t hout r equi r i ng
di gi t al encodi ng of cockpi t measured par amet er s or a separat e dat a l i nk.
I t e appl i cat i on for t he Nor t heast cor r i dor , wher e current l y t raf f i c cont r ol probl ems are over whel mi ng,
i s shown i n Fi gur e 17.
t raf f i c si t uat i on above 10, 000 f eet al t i t ude. Fl i ght st at i ons wi l l cover t he whol e Nor t heast corri dor
over a swat h 150 mi l es wi de.
t i on i t sel f on an assi gned f l i ght pat h, and conver sel y, t he ground cont rol l er wi l l know wher e t hat ai r-
craf t i s, agai n usi ng onl y t he CAS si gnal .
t he f l i ght di rect or or B di gi t al r eadout , dependi ng on ai rl i ne pref erence.
compat i bl e wi t h di spl ays current l y operat i ng wi t h VORIDME i nput s.
ext remel y si mpl e.
t i on i n t he cockpi t i s done by t he addi t i on of si mpl e di gi t al l ogi c t o t he CAS el ect roni cs. and on
t he ground by connect i ng a compl ex of t hree st at i ons to a cent r al comput er.
The conf i gurat i on of ground st at i o= requi red i s predi cat ed t o an enr out e
Anyvhere wi t hi n t hi s corri dor ai rcraf t wi l l be abl e t o accurat el y posi -
The di spl ay of t hi s i nf or mat i on can be on a rol l i ng map,
The si gnal st r uct ur e i s
The post ul at ed ground st at i on i s
Requi red onl y ar e a recei ver. a t ransmi t t er and r esynchr oni zat i on l ogi c. Canput a-
5. 4 Ter mi nel Area Oper at i ons
The t ri l at erat i on pri nci pl e can be appl i ed to t he t ermi nal area as wel l , and pr ovi de posi t i ve cover age
t o t ouchdown i n a manner si mi l ar t o t hat obt ai ned i n t he anr out e case.
t ri ad coveri ng a t ermi nal area i s shown i n Fi gur e 18.
t he l ocal geomet ry, t ypi cal base l egs rangi ng f r om1-10 naut i cal mi l es.
i nst ance, t hat a si ngl e t ri ad coul d cover bot h Kennedy and LaGuar di a ai r por t s i n NewYork.
The t ypi cal geomet ry of a
I t i s concei vabl e, f or
Locat i on of t he tri ad i t sel f i s a f unct i on of
I n t he t er mi nal azea, t he accuracy var i es wi t h r ange f r omt he tri ad.
to approach an ai r por t f r omal l angl es. we have pl ot t ed accuraci es i n a ci r cl e about a post ul at ed
r unway, t ermi nat ed at t he base of t he t ri ad.
Si nce i t i s i mport ant to be abl e
8-11
TIME FREQUENCY NAVIGATION & COMMUNICATION
NORTHEAST CORRIDOR ABOVE 10,000 FT.
y ; 7 ; p ; 610
NAUTICAL MILES
EVALUATION OF POSITION ACCURACY
121;
I
THREE GROUND STATIONS
EACH AT A RANGE OF
IN TERMINAL AREA
\
, \ \ 4
\
\
\
\
\ 6o
\
1
X O R Y ERROR (FT)
STANDARD DEVIATION
\
\
\
\
\
\
+ 110
I
6 NA.MI.
Fi gure 17
i
4175
10 NA.MI.
Fi gure 18
8- 12
Er r or s ar e l ess t han 17 f eet at a r ange of 10 naut i cal mi l es, and i mpr ove to a f i gur e of 0- 75 f eet
one naut i cal mi l e f r omt ouch- down.
si mpl e CAS si ngl e f or mat .
Thi s pr ovi des Cat egor y I l ocal i zer capabi l i t y, - agai n usi ng t he
Curved appr oach pat hs as wel l as st r ai ght can be accommodat ed.
6. Concl usi on
The i mpact on t he ai r t r af f i c cont r ol syst emof t he t i me r esynchr oni zat i on t echnol ogy i s shown i n Fi gur e 19.
En- r out e separ at i on can be mai nt ai ned by st at i on keepi ng f unct i ons.
ground wi t hout voi ce communi cat i on, and t r af f i c may be or der ed f or a gi ven r unway t hr eshol d, f ar i n advance
of t he ar r i val of an ai r cr af t at t hat t hr eshol d. Thi s enabl es t he i nt er - weavi ng of depar t ur es and sl ow
t r af f i c; and mat er i al l y r educes t he wor k l oad and t he communi cat i on r equi r ement s pl aced on a cont r ol l er .
The syst emi s al so hi ghl y conser vat i ve of our al r eady cr owded RF spect r um.
Fl i ght f ol l owi ng i s possi bl e on t he
THE IMPACT ON TRAFFIC CONTROL
ARRIVAL SEQUENCING BY TI ME
OVER RUNWAY THRESHOLD
I STATION I
I-KEEPING 4
IN RANGE
PROVISION OF
ALTERNATE PATHS
BY AIRCRAFT
LANDING SPEED
- A ARRIVAL SEQUENCING BY TI ME
OVER RUNWAY THRESHOLD
I STATION I
I-KEEPING 4
IN RANGE
PROVISION OF
ALTERNATE PATHS
BY AIRCRAFT
LANDING SPEED
GROUND STATION COMMUNICATIONS ARE MATERI ALLY REDUCED
AUTOMATIC FLI GHT FOLLOWING OCCURS WITHOUT VOICE COMMUNICATIONS
Fi gure 19
McDonnel l Dougl as has been a l eader i n t he devel opment of t i me/ f r equency t echnol ogy dur i ng t hi s decade.
The col l i si on avoi dance syst em, on whi ch t he ATA speci f i cat i on i s based, has been oper at i onal i n St . Loui s
si nce 1965.
Equi pment f or t he ATA Test and Eval uat i on Pr ogr amhas been del i ver ed, and i s nowi n f l i ght t est .
mi l i t ar y posi t i on l ocat i on and communi cat i on syst emr ecent l y compl et ed f l i ght at Pt . Mugu.
Onl y wi t h t he t i me f r equency syst emcan we make subst ant i al i n- r oads on t he pr obl emof t r af f i c congest i on
and del ays t hat pl ague t oday s ai r l i ne envi r onment , yet avoi d t he f ur t her sat ur at i on of t he 1980s.
Our
Ref er ences
1. McDonnel l Dougl as Repor t G875:
Ti me Fr equency Technol ogy f or Ai r Tr af f i c Cont r ol , Navi gat i on
and Col l i si on Avoi dance, 20 Febr uar y 1969
Ai r Tr anspor t Associ at i on ANTC Repor t No. 117, Revi si on 7, 30 August 1968 2 .
3. McDonnel l Dougl as Repor t G907: Eval uat i on of ATA ANTC Repor t No. 117, Col l i si on Avoi dance Thr eat
Logi c and Escape Maneuver s, 9 May 1969
Rober t M. Buck, CASI ATC Ter mi nal Compat i bi l i t y, Feder al Avi at i on Admi ni st r at i on, 2 May 1969
J ohn Hol t and Gene Mar ner , Separ at i on Hazar d Cr i t er i a, Col l i ns Radi o Company, 5 December 1968
4 .
5.
\
9
I N T E G R A T E D H Y B R I D - I N E R T I A L
A I R C R A F T N A V I G A T I O N S Y S T E M S
B.Danik and R.C.Stow
Singer-General Precision, Inc.,
Wayne, N.J.
9-1
I NTEGRATED HYBRI D- I NERTI AL
AI RCRAFT NAVI GATI ON SYSTEMS
by
B. Dani k and R. C. St ow
Si nger - Gener al Pr eci si on, I nc.
Wayne, N. J .
Pr esent ed at t he AGARD Gui dance
and Cont r ol Symposi um
23 Sept ember 1969
Del f t , Net her l ands
s UMMARY
Mul t i - sensor hybr i d i ner t i al navi gat i on syst ems ar e di scussed f r oma desi gn and
per f or mance poi nt of vi ew. Candi dat e syst ems ar e conf i gur ed f r omDoppl er , Omega, Lor an,
st el l ar , navi gat i on sat el l i t e, and i ner t i al sensor subsyst ems. I n each case t he sel f -
cont ai ned i ner t i al pl at f or mi s augment ed wi t h one or mor e of t he sensor ai ds. I n or der ,
t o maxi mi ze t he usef ul i nf or mat i on cont ent f r omnoi sy sensor out put s opt i mumquasi -
l i near st at i st i cal f i l t er i ng i s appl i ed t o t he syst emmechani zat i on. The assumed sensor
er r or budget s r ef l ect a spect r umof har dwar e.
I n- f l i ght al i gnment and cal i br at i on of var i ous hybr i d- i ner t i al sensor combi nat i ons
i s demonst r at ed by di gi t al si mul at i on wi t h emphasi s on f l i ght t r aj ect or y cor r el at i ons
t o t ot al navi gat i on syst emper f or mance. Doppl er and i ner t i al sensor er r or est i mat i on i s
pr esent ed as an exampl e of i n- f l i ght cal i br at i on t echni ques. Assessment s made i n t hi s
paper r ef l ect some of t he exper i ence f act or s gai ned f r omhar dwar e as wel l as sof t war e
mechani zat i on devel opment .
I NTRODUCTI ON
The syst ems engi neer , f aced wi t h t he pr obl emof conf i gur i ng t he navi gat i on sys-
t ems f or var i ous t ypes of ai r cr af t , must sel ect a t echni cal l y and economi cal l y sound
conf i gur at i on f r oma br oad f i el d of al t er nat i ves. The r api d ( al most si mul t aneous) de-
vel opment of a number of new sensor t echnol ogi es has compounded hi s pr obl embecause of
t he compl ex nat ur e of t he t r ade- of f st udi es whi ch must be made. An exami nat i on of t he
al t er nat i ves di scl ose t hat any syst emwhi ch i s based on onl y one t ype of sensor i s not
l i kel y t o meet t he t ot al r equi r ement of many of t he hi gh- per f or mance mi ssi ons.
f ur t her appar ent t hat i f t wo sensor s ar e t o be sel ect ed, t he most ef f ect i ve combi nat i on
wi l l consi st of one sensor r epr esent at i ve of sel f - cont ai ned syst ems ( i ner t i al ) and one
r epr esent at i ve of ext er nal l y- r ef er enced syst ems (e. g. , a hyper bol i c r adi o ai d) . The
er r or model s char act er i st i c of t hese t wo br oad cat egor i es of sensor s ar e compl ement ar y,
si nce t he oper at i onal advant ages of one subsyst emcan be expl oi t ed t o avoi d t he l i mi t a-
t i on of t he ot her .
Wi t h t he advent of hi gh speed ai r bor ne comput er s, one of t he pr i me desi gn obj ec-
t i ves i s t o opt i mal l y r et r i eve t he i nf or mat i on cont ent f r omt he var i ous sensor s i n t he
pr esence of r andomnoi se and ot her er r or s. The desi gn and pr oduct i on t echni ques of t he
i ner t i al , r adar , st el l ar and hyper bol i c sensor s have advanced r api dl y i n r ecent year s,
and i n many i nst ances have r eached a pl at eau f r omwhi ch f ur t her i mpr ovement s i n accur acy
at t hi s t i me woul d i ndi cat e sever e st r ai n i n t he over al l t r ade- of f i ncl udi ng cost , r el i -
abi l i t y and wei ght .
Al so, suf f i ci ent i nsi ght has been gai ned i n t he r ecent past t o al l ow cer t ai n
assessment s of t he ext ent t o whi ch t he opt i mi zat i on of sof t war e can moder at e t he r equi r e-
ment s or t he i ncr easi ngl y st r i ngent har dwar e accur aci es. I n r et r ospect , t he syst em
synt hesi s f or t he mor e successf ul act i ve pr oj ect s has r esul t ed f r ombr i ngi ng t oget her
t he exper t i se i n har dwar e and t he anal yt i cal i nsi ght addr essed t o t he sol ut i on of r eal
pr obl ems, most of t he t i me under t he i mpact of act ual t i me schedul es. Under t hese con-
di t i ons, t he l uxur i es of assumpt i ons not suppor t ed by f act s or by past per f or mance dat a
have been most l y avoi ded.
pr obabl y r epr esent a f ai r cr oss- sect i on of equi pment act ual l y bui l t i n t he past , al t hough
no at t empt i s made t o emphasi ze some of t he l at est avai l abl e sensor per f or mance dat a such
as t he gyr os i n a 0. 01 deg per hour ( day- t o- day) cl ass. The except i ons ar e some of t he
sensor t ypes f or whi ch no dat a have been made avai l abl e at al l , i n whi ch case a degr ee
of opt i mi smwas consi der ed har ml ess f or t he pur pose of i l l ust r at i on.
convent i onal and opt i mal conf i gur at i ons, whi ch woul d ser ve as a backgr ound f or t hi s
paper ar e di scussed i n Ref er ence 1. Per haps t he most i mpor t ant si ngl e f undament al as-
pect af f ect i ng t he al i gnment and navi gat i on accur acy i s t he dynami c char act er i st i cs of
t he basi c convent i onal gyr ocompass l oop ( al t hough, f or i n- f l i ght al i gnment , ext er nal
posi t i on f i xes and accel er at i on mat chi ng can pr ovi de al t er nat e al i gnment t echni ques) ,
shown i n Fi gur e 1. Al t hough an expl i ci t gyr ocompass l oop i s not used i n opt i mumf i l -
t er i ng, t he physi cal f undament al s r emai n t he same and have a di r ect bear i ng upon t he
per f or mance of t he Kal man f i l t er i n t he pr esence of model ed and unmodel ed er r or s.
I t i s
The var i ous sensor er r or budget s consi der ed i n t hi s paper
Many of t he mor e det ai l ed navi gat i on t echnol ogy aspect s, r el at i ng t o bot h t he
9- 2
Hybr i d Syst em
Doppl er - I ner t i al
Doppl er - I ner t i al - Lor an
Thi s paper addr esses i t sel f t o navi gat i on wi t h i n- f l i ght al i gnment , si nce mul t i pl e
sensor s can be most usef ul i n- ai r r at her t han bef or e t ake- of f . The subj ect of opt i mum
al i gnment on t he gr ound and aboar d shi p deser ves separ at e t r eat ment .
A maj or pr obl emi n t he appl i cat i on of st at i st i cal di gi t al f i l t er i ng t echni ques
i s t he l ar ge number of comput at i ons r equi r ed. I n or der t o f easi bl y l i mi t t he comput er
memor y and t i me l oadi ng r equi r ement s t he mechani zed syst emmodel i ng must of necessi t y
negl ect expl i ci t r epr esent at i on of some secondar y syst emer r or sour ces. A syst emat i c
appr oach t o t he per f or mance eval uat i on of navi gat i on syst emdesi gns i n t he pr esence of
t hese unmodel ed er r or sour ces i s one of t he pr i mar y obj ect i ves of t hi s paper .
The accur acy est i mat e di spl ay capabi l i t y and i t s appl i cat i on as a pot ent i al ai d
t o enr out e mi ssi on deci si ons i s di scussed, not i ng t hat t hi s i nf or mat i on i s not avai l abl e
f r omconvent i onal non- st at i st i cal navi gat i on syst emdesi gns.
Mode Sequence i n Mi nut es
DI : 0"-20; I : 20-35;
DI : 35-52
DI : 0-5; DI L: 5-7
DI : 7-15; DI L: 15- 17; DI : 17-25;
DI L: 25-27; I : 27-50; DI L: 50-52
HYBRI D MODES
Doppl er - I ner t i al - St el l ar
The desi gn of hybr i d i ner t i al conf i gur at i ons and t he modes of oper at i on t akes
i nt o account t he advant ages and di sadvant ages of t he i ndi vi dual sensor subsyst ems. An
i ner t i al pl at f or mr epr esent s t he best avai l abl e shor t t er mvel oci t y change i ndi cat or ,
par t i cul ar l y dur i ng per i ods of hi gh accel er at i on maneuver s. Augment i ng t hi s subsyst em
wi t h combi nat i ons of ot her sensor s al l ows boundi ng of t he l ong t er mnavi gat i on er r or s
char act er i st i c of i ner t i al syst ems.
These conf i gur at i ons wer e si mul at ed over a one hour f l i ght t r aj ect or y. To dem-
onst r at e dynami c cor r el at i ons t o t ot al navi gat i on per f or mance, t he f l i ght pr of i l e con-
t ai ns t he f ol l owi ng maneuver s. Fr omt ake- of f at 300 l at i t ude and 30 l ongi t ude t he ai r -
cr af t accel er at es al ong a 45O azi mut h t o a speed of appr oxi mat el y 500 knot s and an al t i -
t ude of 28,000 f t. Level f l i ght i s mai nt ai ned unt i l a di ve maneuver i s i ni t i at ed at
30 mi nut es f r omt ake- of f , pul l i ng out i nt o l evel f l i ght and r emai ni ng at appr oxi mat el y
1, 000 f t . Dur i ng t he r emai ni ng por t i on of f l i ght t wo hor i zont al maneuver s ar e per f or med,
at appr oxi mat el y 39 mi nut es and 50 mi nut es. Aver age gr ound vel oci t y t hr oughout t he
f l i ght i s 600 knot s.
DI : 0-10; DI - St el l ar : 10-30;
I n each case, t he syst emoper at i on begi ns at t ake- of f wi t h assumed pr i or coar se
i ni t i al pl at f or mgr ound al i gnment . The i n- f l i ght mode sequenci ng, showi ng when t he
var i ous sensor s ar e used, i s gi ven i n Tabl e 1. I n t he Doppl er - i ner t i al f l i ght , t he
syst emi s swi t ched t o pur e i ner t i al navi gat i on f or 15 mi nut es
Sat el l i t e- I ner t i al
I : 30-52
0-52
Doppl er avai l abl e
* I mmedi at el y af t er t ake- of f .
Lor an- I ner t i al I LI : 0-20; I : 20-35; LI : 35-52
~~~~~
Doppl er - I ner t i al - Omega I DI : 0-30; DI - Omega: 30-52
dur i ng whi ch t i me t he di ve maneuver t akes pl ace. Doppl er accur acy degr ades dur i ng hi gh
accel er at i on maneuver s and t hus r el i ance on t he sel f - cont ai ned i ner t i al syst emmay be
advant ageous dur i ng t hi s per i od. Al so i mpr oved shor t t er mi ner t i al navi gat i on i s pos-
si bl e si nce i n- f l i ght al i gnment i s accompl i shed dur i ng t he f i r st por t i on of Doppl er
ai ded f l i ght . Vel oci t y r ef er enced t o t he i ner t i al pl at f or mf r ame, af t er t r ansf or mat i on
f r omt he ant enna coor di nat es, i s t he basi c measur ement pr ovi ded by Doppl er r adar . Dop-
pl er pr ovi des r el at i vel y good l ong t er mvel oci t y i nf or mat i on and t hus when coupl ed wi t h
an i ner t i al pl at f or mr esul t s i n a hybr i d conf i gur at i on wi t h bounded vel oci t y er r or
smal l er t han t hat obt ai nabl e f r oma moder at el y accur at e i ner t i al pl at f or mby i t sel f .
9- 3
To eval uat e t he pot ent i al advant ages of addi ng posi t i on i nf or mat i on t o t he Dop-
pl er - i ner t i al syst emdi scussed above, Lor an and Omega sensor s wer e used.
t wo hybr i d conf i gur at i ons wer e exer ci sed over t he same t r aj ect or y. I n t he Doppl er - i ner -
t i al - Lor an case t he Lor an t i me di f f er ence measur ement s wer e used onl y f r om5 t o 7,
15 t o 17, and 25 t o 27 mi nut es af t er t ake- of f . The syst emwas swi t ched t o pur e i ner t i al
navi gat i on f or 23 mi nut es. Augment i ng a Doppl er - i ner t i al conf i gur at i on wi t h Omega yi el ds
a syst emwi t h a l ar ger cover age capabi l i t y t han Lor an but degr aded posi t i on i nf or mat i on.
f i gur at i on was si mul at ed wi t h Lor an assumed avai l abl e f r omt ake- of f t o 20 mi nut es, and
t hen f r om35 mi nut es t o t he end of f l i ght .
St ar el evat i on and bear i ng angl e measur ement s char act er i st i c of st el l ar sensor s
of f er di r ect cal i br at i on of pl at f or mat t i t ude and gyr o dr i f t when combi ned wi t h i ner t i al
pl at f or mout put s. The opt i cal t r acker i n t hi s case i s a devi ce f or det er mi ni ng t he di -
r ect i on of a l umi nous body r el at i ve t o a coor di nat e f r ame r epr esent ed by t he i ner t i al
pl at f or m. Addi ng Doppl er r adar i nf or mat i on t o t hi s hybr i d conf i gur at i on ai ds i n ac-
qui r i ng t he st el l ar f i el d of vi ew and i n r educi ng t he vel oci t y er r or s.
was si mul at ed wi t h st el l ar measur ement s assumed avai l abl e f or a dur at i on of 20 mi nut es.
A mode swi t ch t o pur e i ner t i al navi gat i on was made at 30 mi nut es and cont i nued t o t he
end of f l i ght .
The r esul t i ng
To demonst r at e t he capabi l i t i es wi t h onl y posi t i on ai di ng, a Lor an- i ner t i al con-
Fl i ght oper at \ i on
One of t he most r ecent concept s i s sat el l i t e ai ded navi gat i on. The basi c concept
i s one i n whi ch a ser i es of ear t h or bi t i ng sat el l i t es t r ansmi t f r equency or t i mi ng i n-
f or mat i on equi val ent t o r ange di f f er ences and r ange r at es f r omt he t r ansmi t t i ng sat el l i t e
t o t he t er r est r i al user r ecei ver . Wi t h a knowl edge of t he sat el l i t e ephemer ous dat a
(i . e. , ef f ect i vel y posi t i on and vel oci t y) det er mi ned by gr ound t r acki ng st at i ons, t he
user may ut i l i ze t he r ecei ved si gnal s i n conj unct i on wi t h t he i ner t i al out put s. Al -
' t hough t he cost of sat el l i t e navi gat i on syst ems ar e hi gh compar ed wi t h ot her syst ems
di scussed i n t hi s paper , t hei r appl i cat i on t o a l ar ge var i et y of user s as wel l as t hei r
pot ent i al f or gl obal cover age may make t hemcompet i t i ve. Ot her advant ages may i ncl ude
t hei r oper at i on as a combi ned navi gat i on and communi cat i on syst emover a l ar ge r egi on.
Var i ous char act er i st i cs of t hi s t ype of syst emdepend upon t he geomet r y of t he or bi t i ng
sat el l i t e conf i gur at i ons. A cl ust er of sever al near synchr onous sat el l i t es was assumed
f or si mul at i on.
OPTI MUMFI LTERI NG FOR HYBRI D SYSTEMS
Al t hough t he hybr i d conf i gur at i ons pr esent a f ar gr eat er pot ent i al f or over al l
navi gat i on capabi l i t y t han schemes empl oyi ng onl y one sensor , onl y a mi nor par t of t he
pot ent i al advant age of havi ng t wo or mor e sensor s aboar d woul d be r eal i zed unl ess t he
subsyst ems ar e opt i mal l y i nt egr at ed. The opt i mumsynt hesi s i s based upon t he appl i ca-
t i on of quasi - l i near f i l t er i ng t heor y. The or i gi nal Kal man f i l t er i ng t heor y pr ovi ded
a t echni que f or obt ai ni ng opt i mal est i mat es of t he dynami c var i abl es of a syst emwhen
t he pr ocess i s l i near . However , many i mpor t ant appl i cat i ons, i ncl udi ng t hat of ai r cr af t
navi gat i on, ar e non- l i near pr ocesses:
yn = h( xn) + vn
wher e t he dynami cs of t he st at e vect or x ar e cont i nuous but t he obser vat i ons ( vect or y)
ar e di scr et e; and U and vn ar e Gaussi an whi t e- noi se r andomvar i abl es wi t h a zer o mean.
The f i r st st ep i n ar r i vi ng at a quasi - l i near sol ut i on i s t o l i near i ze and di s-
cr et i ze t he ent i r e pr ocess. I n summar y, as shown i n Ref er ence 1, t he end r esul t i s a
quasi - l i near appr oxi mat i on i n whi ch t he est i mat i on equat i on cont ai ns t he same non- l i near
f unct i ons as t he pr ocess equat i ons, and onl y t he' gai n and covar i ance comput at i ons make
use of t he l i near i zed equat i ons.
t he l east possi bl e bur den on t he pi l ot i n t er ms of wei ght i ng of t he i ndi vi dual sensor
i nput s.
I n many cases, t he quasi - l i near sol ut i on i s equi val ent t o a l i near f or mul at i on
Thi s pr ocessi ng may be accompl i shed aut omat i cal l y i n an ai r bor ne comput er , pl aci ng
whi ch i nvol ves a def i ni t i on of t he st at e vect or i n t er ms of t he er r or quant i t i es (e. g. ,
vel oci t y er r or ) r at her t han t he f ul l var i abl e. Thi s i s t r ue when t he pl at f or mmi sal i gn-
ment s can be r epr esent ed by smal l angl e appr oxi mat i ons, and when obser vat i ons can be
r edef i ned as l i near f unct i ons of t he er r or st at e vect or . The quasi - l i near f or mul at i on
was used i n si mul at i ons di scussed i n t hi s paper .
The dynami c equat i on set f or t he syst emi s gener at ed f r omt he di f f er ent i al equat i ons Of
t he pur e- i ner t i al Schul er - t uned subsyst emwhi ch i ncl udes al l cr oss- coupl i ngs. The st at e
vect or i ncl udes t he quant i t i es of i nt er est such as l at i t ude, l ongi t ude, Nor t h and East
vel oci t i es, pl at f or mazi mut h mi sal i gnment and ver t i cal i t y er r or s, and al so, i deal i st i cal l y,
al l er r or sour ces ( ot her t han whi t e noi se) t o t he ext ent of est abl i shi ng a r eal i st i c
er r or model . I ncl usi onof al l concei vabl e er r or sour ces i n t he Kal man f i l t er model woul d
Appl i cat i on of t he Kal man f i l t er i ng r equi r es st at i st i cal model i ng of sensor er r or s.
9-4
not onl y i mpose a f or mi dabl e ai r bor ne comput er si t uat i on, but woul d al so r equi r e i mpr ac-
t i cal and massi ve ef f or t s i n model i ng al l er r or st at i st i cs and event ual sensor desi gn
speci f i cat i ons r ef l ect i ng t hese cr i t er i a.
must be l i mi t ed so t hat onl y t he most i mpor t ant er r or sour ces ar e i ncl uded.
t hi s f i ni t e di mensi onal st at e vect or i s based on an i deal r at her t han a r eal er r or model .
The equat i on f or mat chosen f or t he est i mat ed st at e vect or of 12 el ement s i s:
Ther ef or e, t he di mensi on of t he st at e vect or
Consequent l y,
.
8,
=
De + Te - We - Wn 0, +W, 8,
8,
=
Dn + Tn - Wn - W, 8, +We eu
e,
= D, + T, - w, + wn e, - we en
ve = A,, + ( Wu + si nA ) Vn - ( Wn + COS ) Vu + gen - Ans 8,
.
= Vn/ ( Rn + h)
0
# = Ve/ ( Re + h) cos x
* 0
De = Dn = D, = 0
DB = Dv = '0
wher e
Wn = n COS^ + Ve/ ( Re + h)
We = - Vn/ ( Rn + h)
W, = W, t an X
The f ol l owi ng nomencl at ur es and def i ni t i ons ar e appl i cabl e:
( e, n, U) Local l y ver t i cal coor di nat e f r ame wi t h n- axi s poi nt i ng,
Nor t h, e- axi s poi nt i ng East , and u- axi s poi nt i ng up.
( XI Y, 2 ) Pl at f or mcoor di nat es cor r espondi ng t o accel er omet er i nput
axi s.
Act ual accel er omet er out put s ( "sensed accel er at i ons") .
1 Aes
De, Dnr Du Gyr o bi ases.
Doppl er scal e f act or ( bi as) er r or .
DV
DB Doppl er bor esi ght er r or .
h
X
Pl at f or mt or qui ng r at es.
Ef f ect i ve gr avi t y ( i ncl udi ng t he cent r i pet al f or ce due t o
ear t h' s r ot at i on) .
Al t i t ude.
Lat i t ude.
Longi t ude.
Nor t h and East vel oci t i es.
Ear t h' s r at e.
At t i t ude er r or s i n ver t i cal i t y and azi mut h.
Ear t h' s Nor t h and East r adi i .
Doppl er - i ner t i al
9- 5
Nor t h- Sl aved I ner t i al Pl at f or m
Er r or Sour ce Val ues
-
Day- t o- day gyr o bi as:
East
Nor t h
Azi mut h
Gyr o t or quer scal e f act or er r or :
East , Nor t h, Azi mut h
Gyr o mass unbal ance:
East
Nor t h
Azi mut h
Randomgyr o dr i f t :
East , Nor t h, Azi mut h
LI Lor an- i ner t i al .
DI L Doppl er - i ner t i al - Lor an.
s ( w) Spect r al densi t y f unct i on.
Out put s f r omsensor s ot her t han t he i ner t i al subsyst emar e r ef er r ed t o as obser -
vat i ons. Del et i on of t he accel er omet er bi ases f r omt he est i mat ed st at e vect or was
f ound j ust i f i ed by i nabi l i t y t o cal i br at e t hemi n- f l i ght ( except when ext r emel y accur at e
posi t i on ai ds ar e avai l abl e) and because t he r esul t i ng degr adat i on i n per f or mance was
mi nor , wi t h pr oper compensat i ons di scussed l at er .
SENSOR ERROR MODELS AND ERROR BUDGETS
Al t hough al l sensor s exami ned i n t hi s paper have er r or s whose model i ng woul d be
desi r abl e ( i f f easi bl e) , onl y gyr o and doppl er bi ases ar e i ncl uded i n t he est i mat ed
st at e vect or . I n eval uat i ng t he per f or mance of t he 12- el ement f i l t er t he mor e i mpor -
t ant unmodel ed er r or sour ces wer e exer ci sed i n t he si mul at i on. These i ncl ude gyr o
t or quer scal e f act or er r or s, mass unbal ance, r andomgyr o dr i f t and war mup dr i f t char ac-
t er i st i cs, accel er omet er bi as and r andomer r or , accel er omet er scal e f act or er r or , and
i ner t i al component i nput axi s mi sal i gnment s. Tabl e 2 shows t he var i ous er r or sour ce
r ms val ues used t o r epr esent t he i ner t i al pl at f or m.
Gyr o war mup char act er i st i cs:
Dr i f t due t o i ncompl et e war mup
f or east , nor t h, azi mut h
War mup t i me const ant
I
Accel er omet er bi as:
East
Nor t h
UP
I
Accel er omet er scal e f act or er r or :
I
East , Nor t h, Up
I
St andar d Devi at i on
: Assumed f or pur pose of t hi s paper on11
0.05 deg/ hr
0.05 deg/ hr
0.05 deg/ hr
0. 1%deg/ hr
0. 2 deg/ hr/ g
0. 2 deg/ hr/ g
0. 2 deg/ hr/ g
0. 01 deg/ hr
( wi t h a cor r el at i on
t i me of 30 mi n.
0. 1 deg/ hr
at t ur n on
2 mi n.
100 ug
100 ug
300 ug
0. 1%
9-6
Doppl er :
Vel oci t y bi as er r or
I '
0. 25% of gr ound speed
Nor t h- Sl aved I ner t i al Pl at f or m
Er r or Sour ce Val ues
Randomaccel er omet er noi se:
East
Nor t h
"P
Gyr o and accel er omet er i nput axi s
mi sal i gnment s:
N - Accel . t o E - Accel .
N - Gyr o t o N - Accel . about east
E - Gyr o t o E - Accel . about up
E - Gyr o t o E - Accel . about nor t t
Azi mut h gyr o t o N - Accel .
St andar d Devi at i on
i ssumed f or pur pose of t hi s paper onl y)
10 ug
10 ug
60 ug
( each wi t h a
cor r el at i on t i me
of 5 mi n. )
1 ar c mi n.
1 ar c mi n.
1 ar c mi n.
1 ar c mi n.
1 ar c mi n.
Tabl e 2. I ner t i al Pl at f or mEr r or Sour ces
I n many cases, dat a f or i ner t i al sensor er r or budget s appear t o be mor e r eadi l y
avai l abl e t han dat a on t he sensor s whi ch ar e of t en consi der ed as pot ent i al ai ds, because
of wor k done i n t he i ner t i al domai n. Avai l abi l i t y of r eal i st i c er r or dat a f or model i ng,
or at l east f or assessi ng t he char act er i st i c of unmodel ed er r or s, i s of cr uci al i mpor -
t ance r el at i ve t o t he act ual ef f ect i veness of t he ai ds.
Var i ous har dwar e t r ade- of f s exi st r el at i ve t o t he t ypes of coupl i ng t he st ar
t r acker t o t he i ner t i al pl at f or m. An i nt egr al - mount ed st el l ar sensor ut i l i zi ng t he
st abl e el ement of t he pl at f or mt o pr ovi de t r acki ng i ndependent of vehi cl e body mot i ons
and of f - mount ed t r acker wi t h separ at e gi mbal i sol at i on l oops dr i ven by t he i ner t i al sys-
t emar e t wo basi c desi gns of t en consi der ed. Ot her ar eas af f ect i ng st el l ar - i ner t i al sys-
t emper f or mance cent er ar ound si ngl e st ar and t wo t r acki ng schemes. A si ngl e st ar
t r acker was ut i l i zed f or si mul at i ons i n t hi s paper . The poi nt i ng er r or s of t he t r acker
ar e assumed t o be uncor r el at ed at t he sampl i ng i nt er val s.
Sat el l i t e navi gat i on dat a may possess bot h hi gh and l ow f r equency r andomer r or s.
Pur el y r andomhi gh f r equency t i mi ng
Sl owl y var yi ng bi as t ype er r or sour ces may r esul t f r omvar i ous sat el l i t e t r acki ng net -
wor k uncer t ai nt i es and si gnal pr opagat i on ef f ect s.
and f r equency er r or s ar e al so l i kel y. Some of t hese si gnal pr opagat i on er r or char act er -
i st i cs may be mi ni mi zed by opt i mi zi ng t he t r ansmi t t i ng f r equenci es. One maj or di f f er ence
bet ween sat el l i t e navi gat i on and Lor an or Omega posi t i on navi gat i on l i es i n t he l i ne of
si ght oper at i on of t he sat el l i t e t o user r ecei ver s, whi ch may r educe t he l ong- r ange di s-
t or t i on. However , no at t empt i s made t o compar e t he per f or mance of Lor an and sat el l i t e
ai ds because t he assumed sat el l i t e dat a accur aci es ar e ar bi t r ar y. Tabl e 3 speci f i es t he
var i ous obser vat i on sensor er r or budget s assumed i n t hi s paper .
k 1 1
Measur ement Sensor Er r or s St andar d Devi at i on
( Assumed f or t hi s paper onl y)
Randombi as shi f t
Vel oci t y noi se
Not e :
a
I
noi se r ms*=- J S(u)dU
tzr -00
Bor esi ght bi as er r or
0. 1% of gr ound speed wi t h
cor r el at i on t i me of
3 mi n.
0. 01 n knot s2/ r ad/ sec/ knot
spect r al densi t y
cut - of f f r equency of 1 r ad/ sec
0. 25 deg
I
2 X r ad
I
Randombor esi ght er r or
I
9- 7
Measur ement Sensor Er r or s
Lor an:
Ti me di f f er ence bi as er r or
( di st or t i on wi t h l ong cor r el at i on
Randomt i me di f f er ence noi se
di st ance)
Omega:
Ti me di f f er ence bi as er r or
Randomt i me di f f er ence er r or
St el l ar :
El evat i on and bear i ng angl e noi se
Sat el l i t e:
Range di f f er ence bi as er r or
Randomr ange di f f er ence noi se
Randomr ange r at e di f f er ence noi se
St andar d Devi at i on
( Assumed f or t hi s paper onl y)
2 mi cr oseconds
( 1000 f t . on basel i ne)
0. 5 mi cr oseconds
5 mi cr oseconds
6 mi cr oseconds
10 ar c sec.
500 f t .
100 f t .
0. 5 f t / sec
Tabl e 3. Non- I ner t i al Sensor Er r or Budget
~~
I ni t i al pl at f or mal i gnment s:
Nor t h t i l t
East t i l t
Azi mut h mi sal i gnment
I ni t i al vel oci t y er r or :
Nor t h, East
I ni t i al posi t i on er r or :
Nor t h
East
St andar d Devi at i on
0. 1 deg
0. 1 deg
2. 0 deg
2.0 f t / sec
1800 f t
1600 f t
Tabl e 4 . Assumed I ni t i al Er r or s Bef or e Take- Of f
Lat i t ude and l ongi t ude navi gat i on i s weakl y coupl ed t o t he ver t i cal vel oci t y
channel . Thus ver t i cal channel navi gat i on i s of t en decoupl ed and per f or med wi t h com-
bi ned out put s of t he ver t i cal accel er omet er and an al t i t ude i ndi cat i ng sensor (i . e. ,
bar omet r i c al t i met er ) . A second or der dampi ng l oop i s of t en ut i l i zed t o mi x i nf or mat i on
i n t hi s r egar d. Al t hough doppl er and sat el l i t e navi gat i on sensor s possess i nf or mat i on
appl i cabl e t o t he ver t i cal channel , t hi s aspect i s not t r eat ed i n t hi s paper . I n t he
r esul t s pr esent ed a sui t abl e t echni que f or ver t i cal channel i mpl ement at i on i s assumed.
I n t he Kal man f i l t er i ng t heor y wi t h di scr et e obser vat i ons ( whi ch l ends i t sel f t o
di gi t al comput er mechani zat i on) t he noi se i n obser vat i ons i s assumed t o be pur el y r andom,
i . e. , uncor r el at ed at t he sampl i ng i nt er val s. I f t he act ual noi se i n navi gat i on ai ds
does not sat i sf y t hi s assumpt i on and i f t he aut ocor r el at i on f unct i ons ar e known, i t can
be r epr esent ed i n t he st at e vect or t hr ough hypot het i cal shapi ng f i l t er s, wi t h r andom
noi se as one of t he f or ci ng f unct i ons act i ng upon t he syst emdynami cs. Thi s r epr esen-
t at i on, however , i s undesi r abl e because i t i ncr eases t he si ze of t he st at e vect or and
al so because t he comput at i ons ar e gr eat l y si mpl i f i ed when t her e i s no noi se among t he
f or ci ng f unct i ons. I f t he model i ng of r andomgyr o and accel er omet er er r or s i s al so
negl ect ed ( as i n t he f i l t er eval uat ed i n t hi s paper ) , t he f or ci ng f unct i on t hen consi st s
onl y of t he vehi cl e' s accel er at i on vect or .
9- 8
I n pr act i ce, t he cor r el at i on t i me of Doppl er noi se ( one second or l ess) i s at
l east an or der of magni t ude shor t er t han t he t ypi cal Kal man i t er at i on cycl e and t her e-
f or e, Doppl er noi se can be assumed uncor r el at ed at sampl i ng i nt er val s. Si mi l ar l y, t he
cor r el at i on t i me of r andomLor an noi se, whi ch depends on t he bandwi dt h of t he phase- l ock
l oop i n t he r ecei ver , i s i n t he or der of onl y a f ew seconds and can be assumed uncor r e-
l at ed i f t he Kal man cycl e i s sever al t i mes l onger . The same i s not t r ue, however , wi t h
r espect t o Lor an er r or s caused by l ong- r ange di st or t i on of t he gr ound wave. These
er r or s can have a l ong cor r el at i on t i me and ar e r epr esent ed as const ant i n t he si mul a-
t i ons shown i n t hi s paper , wi t hout bei ng model ed i n t he f i l t er . Si mi l ar l y, Doppl er
bi as shi f t , i f i t occur s at unknown poi nt s i n t i me, can not be easi l y model ed.
One of t he di st i nct i ons bet ween convent i onal and Kal man Doppl er - i ner t i al mechani -
zat i ons i s t hei r sensi t i vi t y aspect s t o t he hi gh- f r equency Doppl er noi se, whi ch i n t he
l at t er case can be har mf ul but easi l y avoi dabl e by pr oper l y pr ocessi ng t he Doppl er i n-
put s. The convent i onal cont i nuous l oops ef f ect i vel y r ej ect Doppl er noi se ( usi ng a suf -
f i ci ent l y l ow l oop' s bandwi dt h) , wher eas i n t he Kal man f i l t er mechani zat i on t he di scr et e
sampl i ng of Doppl er i nput s ent ai l s al i asi ng of t he hi gh f r equency noi se i nt o a f r equency
band equal t o one hal f t he sampl i ng r at e. For exampl e, i f t he sampl i ng r at e i s
t s = 15 seconds, t he noi se bandwi dt h, as seen by t he Kal man f i l t er , i s wc = 2 4 / 2t s or
0. 2 r adi ans per second. That i s, t he ent i r e Doppl er noi se ( usual l y assumed t o have a
f l at spect r umup t o some cut - of f f r equency whi ch i s at l east 1 r adi an per second i n
or der t o pr ovi de a r api d t r ansi ent Doppl er r esponse) i s r ef l ect ed i nt o a bandwi dt h wc.
Thi s can be avoi ded by si mpl y r educi ng t he Doppl er bandwi dt h pr i or t o sampl i ng, down
t o about wc. I n t he case of an unst abi l i zed ant enna, wi t h a cor r espondi ng r api d r esponse
t r acker , t he l ow- pass f i l t er i ng can t ake pl ace af t er t he Doppl er i nput s ar e r esol ved i n
t he i ner , t i al pl at f or mcoor di nat es. Ei t her a f i r st - or der f i l t er or an aper t ur e t ype
( aver agi ng over t he obser vat i on i nt er val s) i s adequat e. Some degr adat i on i n Doppl er ' s
t r ansi ent r esponse, due t o t hi s f i l t er i ng, i s r eadi l y accept abl e, because t he ext r a-
pol at ed Kal man obser vat i ons can be f i l t er ed si mi l ar l y and t he t r ansi ent er r or cancel ed
out . Anal ogous i mage f i l t er s have been successf ul l y used i n convent i onal DI l oops when
ear l i er Doppl er r adar s had poor t r ansi ent char act er i st i cs.
sat i sf i es t he assumpt i on of uncor r el at edness i f i t i s equal t o or l ess t han t wi ce t he
noi se bandwi dt h. Under pr act i cal condi t i ons, whi ch may i ncl ude r api d al i gnment r equi r e-
ment s on t he gr ound or aboar d ai r cr af t car r i es bef or e t ake- of f , t he obser vat i on r at e of
t he ext er nal vel oci t y r ef er ence must be suf f i ci ent l y r api d i n or der t o acqui r e adequat e
i nf or mat i on cont ent ( on t he gr ound, t he er , r or i n t he ext er nal r ef er ence i s equal t o t he
mot i on caused by wi nd buf f et i ng\ and vi br at i ons) ; hence t he assumpt i on of uncor r el at edness
may be i ncor r ect t o begi n wi t h. Vi ol at i on of t hi s assumpt i on may or may not si gni f cant l y
degr ade t he f i nal al i gnment accur acy, dependi ng upon t he aver age noi se power , i t s spect r al
cont ent , and cer t ai n covar i ance shapi ng t echni ques. I t i s appar ent , however , t hat t he
ef f ect of noi se can not be suppr essed unt i l an adequat e number of sampl es i s col l ect ed
over whi ch t he noi se i s i ndeed uncor r el at ed. For exampl e, i n gyr ocompassi ng ( opt i mal or
ot her wi se) t he l ow- f r equency noi se cont ent i n t he band f r omsever al t i mes t he Schul er
f r equency up t o about 50 t i mes Schul er i s t he domi nant f act or af f ect i ng t he speed of
al i gnment , and i t shoul d be r eal i st i cal l y consi der ed i n t he desi gn and si mul at i on of any
f i l t er i nt ended f or pr act i cal use. '
For a gi ven noi se bandwi dt h, t he Kal man f i l t er obser vat i on r at e appr oxi mat el y
NAVI GATI ON PERFORMANCE
The si mul at i on ut i l i zed i n det er mi ni ng t he syst emper f or mance eval uat es t he f i ni t e-
di mensi onal st at i st i cal f i l t er i n t he pr esence of r eal wor l d er r or sour ces, usi ng Mont e
Car l o' eval uat i on t echni ques. Ensembl e r esul t s ar e based on sever al f l i ght s and r ef l ect
t he cont r i but i on of bot h model ed and unmodel ed er r or sour ces t o t he t ot al syst emer r or .
Val ues of t hese er r or sour ces, as wel l as t he i ni t i al condi t i on er r or s, ar e det er mi ned
by r andomchoi ce f or each si ngl e r un of an ensembl e of f l i ght s based on t he speci f i ed
st andar d devi at i ons associ at ed wi t h each of t he par amet er s. Ensembl e per f or mance val ues
ar e obt ai ned by per f or mi ng an r ms cal cul at i on on t he di f f er ence bet ween t he t r ue st at e
vect or and t he est i mat ed st at e vect or as a f unct i on of t i me over t he t ot al number of
f l i ght s si mul at ed.
I n desi gni ng a f i l t er f or hybr i d i ner t i al navi gat i on oper at i on t he i mpor t ant con-
si der at i on i s whi ch er r or sour ces shoul d not be negl ect ed i n t he st at e vect or . Coupl ed
wi t h t hi s consi der at i on i s t he ext ent of t he r el at i ve degr adat i on i n syst emper f or mance
when onl y t hose er r or sour ces deemed most si gni f i cant ar e i ncl uded i n t he est i mat ed st at e
vect or .
A st r ai ght - f or war d appl i cat i on of f i l t er i ng t heor y usi ng a f i ni t e st at e vect or
appr oxi mat i on l eads t o phenomena known as di ver gence, and usual l y t o out r i ght unsat i s-
f act or y r esul t s. Techni ques used t o avoi d di ver gence have been accompl i shed by t he
met hod of covar i ance shapi ng. Covar i ance shapi ng i s a pr ocess whi ch ef f ect i vel y pl aces
a l ower bound on t he di agonal el ement s of t he covar i ance mat r i x. The f i l t er ' s covar i -
ance mat r i x ( used f or comput i ng t he gai ns t o wei gh new sensor dat a) , i f not compensat ed
i n t hi s manner , r ef l ect s t he uncer t ai nt y whi ch t he f i l t er at t r i but es to i t s est i mat e of
t he st at e consi der i ng onl y model ed er r or sour ces. By appl yi ng covar i ance shapi ng t ech-
ni ques some of t he unmodel ed ef f ect s may be coar sel y account ed f or , t hus hopef ul l y al l ow-
i ng t he covar i ance mat r i x t o conser vat i vel y i ndi cat e syst emaccur acy as a f unct i on of
t i me. However , i t shoul d be st r essed t hat onl y t hr ough si mul at i on and engi neer i ng j udg-
ment can t hese t echni ques be cor r ect l y desi gned and eval uat ed f or par t i cul ar syst em
conf i gur at i ons. To i l l ust r at e t he char act er i st i cs of bot h t he ensembl e ( i . e. , act ual )
syst emper f or mance and t he f i l t er ' s est i mat e of t hat per f or mance, bot h ensembl e and
shaped covar i ance sol ut i ons of per t i nent st at e par amet er s ar e pr esent ed f or each syst em.
9- 9
Wi t h i n- f l i ght al i gnment , i ni t i al azi mut h er r or i s t he pr i me sour ce of posi t i on
er r or shor t l y af t er t ake- of f . I n opt i mal Doppl er - i ner t i al syst ems, t hi s posi t i on er r or
i s r ecover ed af t er compl et i on of al i gnment .
The accur acy of azi mut h al i gnment i n t he Doppl er - i ner t i al mode i s cor r el at ed wi t h
t he accur acy of t he East gyr o and Doppl er er r or s. I n- f l i ght East gyr o cal i br at i on wi t h-
out posi t i on or st el l ar f i xes r equi r es a ver y l ar ge change i n l at i t ude and i s ext r emel y
sensi t i ve t o model i ng er r or s. Wi t h t he l i mi t ed st at e si ze f i l t er , sel f - cal i br at i on of
t he East gyr o i s not achi eved i n Doppl er - i ner t i al oper at i on. Cal i br at i on accur acy of
t he Nor t h gyr o depends on Doppl er cal i br at i on. The Doppl er scal e f act or and bor esi ght
er r or s wer e ef f ect i vel y cal i br at ed when t he ai r cr af t exper i enced a moder at e t ur n dur i ng
t he hor i zont al maneuver s at appr oxi mat el y 40 mi nut es af t er t ake- of f . Had t hese maneuver s
been per f or med ear l i er mor e r api d cal i br at i on of t hese var i abl es woul d have been possi bl e,
as shown i n Ref er ence 1.
Addi t i on of Lor an t o t he above conf i gur at i on al l ows a mor e r api d pl at f or mal i gn-
ment . Cal i br at i on of t he gyr os woul d be mor e accur at e i f t he Lor an er r or budget had
smal l er er r or s.
A Lor an- i ner t i al ( LI ) conf i gur at i on, i n gener al , i s l ess ef f ect i ve t han a Doppl er -
i ner t i al - Lor an syst emunl ess Lor an i s ver y accur at e. The covar i ance sol ut i on i n t hi s
si mul at i on i s a coar ser r epr esent at i on of ensembl e accur aci es t han t he ot her conf i gur a-
t i ons shown i n t hi s paper . Thi s i s due t o t he unmodel ed Lor an bi as er r or s, al t hough
covar i ance shapi ng and l ar ger apr i or i noi se was st i pul at ed i n comput i ng t he gai n mat r i x.
One obvi ous r emedy woul d be t o i ncl ude t he bi as i n t he st at e vect or and cal i br at e i t out
of t he syst em, i f t he l ong- r ange Lor an di st or t i on coul d be char act er i zed by a const ant
bi as ( whi ch i s not act ual l y t he case) .
Sat el l i t e ai ded i ner t i al navi gat i on woul d yi el d excel l ent per f or mance i f act ual
sensor er r or s wer e i n t he same cl ass as assumed i n t he er r or budget . I mpr oved azi mut h
al i gnment due t o t he t wo maneuver s near t he end of f l i ght i s based on ef f ect i ve accel e-
r at i on mat chi ng. I n addi t i on, cor r el at i on of azi mut h gyr o dr i f t cal i br at i on t o t hese
maneuver s i s al so i ndi cat ed. The t wo spi kes i n t he cur ve at about 30 mi nut es i ndi cat e
t he ef f ect of azi mut h gyr o. mass unbal ance on t he t ot al pl at f or mazi mut h axi s dr i f t
dur i ng ver t i cal accel er at i on exper i enced at di ve i ni t i at i on and pul l - out .
al i gnment and gyr o cal i br at i on char act er i st i cs of any of t he hybr i d syst ems di scussed.
Si nce cl oud cover obst r uct s a st el l ar sensor ' s abi l i t y t o det ect a st ar , t hi s sensor i s
mor e r el i abl y appl i cabl e at hi gh al t i t udes. Thus at 10 mi nut es af t er t ake- of f at
28, 000 f t . al t i t ude a mode swi t ch i s made t o pr ocess st el l ar i nf or mat i on. Not e t hat
t he covar i ance sol ut i on i n t hi s case ver y cl osel y appr oxi mat es t he act ual ensembl e ob-
t ai nabl e.
The Doppl er - i ner t i al - st el l ar conf i gur at i on pr ovi des pr obabl y t he best pl at f or m
To i l l ust r at e per f or mance obt ai nabl e wi t h a Doppl er - i ner t i al syst emaugment ed
wi t h coar se posi t i on i nf or mat i on a Doppl er - i ner t i al - Omega conf i gur at i on was si mul at ed.
Al t hough t hi s syst emdesi gn obvi ousl y does not f unct i on as accur at el y as i t s Lor an
count er par t , i t has mer i t s f or l ong f l i ght s.
I n each of t he cases di scussed above t he covar i ance sol ut i on was f ound t o possess
var yi ng degr ees of pr edi ct abi l i t y of ensembl e per f or mance. Ut i l i zi ng t echni ques such
as covar i ance shapi ng t hi s est i mat e of per f or mance i s abl e t o coar sel y r ef l ect var i ous
unmodel ed er r or cont r i but i ons. When t hi s pr ocedur e i s successf ul t he covar i ance sol u-
t i on may be a usef ul t ool t o t he pi l ot as an ai d i n maki ng mode sel ect i on deci si ons.
Ensembl e per f or mance i s what must be used i n eval uat i ng hybr i d i ner t i al accur acy dur i ng
syst emdesi gn. A 16 second sampl i ng t i me was used i n t he Kal man f i l t er .
SOFTWARE DESI GN
The desi gn of sof t war c f or hybr i d navi gat i on syst ems wi t h opt i mal f i l t er i ng must
be based on cor r ect l y det ai l ed dynami c model s and a r eal i st i c assessment of sensor er r or s.
I t must addr ess i t sel f t o t he r equi r ement s of r eact i on t i me, navi gat i on accur acy and
ai r bor ne comput er capaci t y i n t he cont ext of a sensor er r or budget whi ch, i n t he f i nal
anal ysi s, must be f ul f i l l ed i n a pr oduct i on envi r onment . Sensor er r or budget s f or r eal
har dwar e ar e r eal i zabl e most l y i n t er ms of t he maxi mumor rms er r or s r at her t han by i m-
posi ng r i gi d cont r ol of t he spect r al er r or char act er i st i cs. The most common gyr o speci -
f i cat i ons, f or i nst ance, r ef er t o t he day- t o- day bi as shi f t and t he maxi mumr andomdr i f t .
The si mpl i f i ed st at i st i cal model s whi ch assume t hat t he er r or sour ces ar e ei t her const ant
or pur el y r andom (i . e. , zer o aut ocor r el at i on at t he sampl i ng poi nt s) , or ar e char act er i zed
by some spect r al densi t y f unct i ons ar e onl y appr oxi mat i ons, somet i mes r at her cr ude. Even
i f t he mor e det ai l ed st at i st i cal model s wer e f ul l y val i d t he ai r bor ne comput er capaci t y
r equi r ement s coul d exceed pr act i cal l i mi t s.
Di gi t al si mul at i on i s t he mai n t ool used t o eval uat e t he per f or mance of a f i l t er
based on a si mpl i f i ed er r or model i n t he pr esence of bot h t he model ed and t he unmodel ed
er r or sour ces. The l at t er er r or sour ces ar e si mul at ed, i n addi t i on t o t he model ed er r or s,
i n t he "r eal wor l d" segment of t he si mul at i on pr ogr am. I n t hi s manner , t he er r or sour ces
can be i nt r oduced i n t he si mul at i on as f unct i ons of t i me based on r eal har dwar e dat a col -
l ect ed i n l abor at or y t est s or somet i mes i n a dynami c envi r onment .
9- 10
I f t he f i l t er i s conf i gur ed of f - l i ne, i . e. , i t s out put s ar e not f ed back i nt o
t he i ndi vi dual sensor subsyst ems, t he over al l syst emper f or mance ( except t he ai r bor ne
comput er ) can be eval uat ed by pr ocessi ng on a sci ent i f i c comput er t he t aped f l i ght t est
out put s of t he i ndi vi dual sensor subsyst ems and t he t r ue f l i ght pat h dat a, bef or e t he
sof t war e i s ever f l own. Sui t abl e adj ust ment s can t hen be made i n t he sof t war e, i f de-
si r ed, and t he "f l i ght t est " r epeat ed. on t he sci ent i f i c comput er usi ng t he same t aped
sensor out put s.
I n vi ew of t he l i mi t ed accur acy of t he st at i st i cal er r or model s t he sof t war e de-
si gn must be mat ched t o t he exi st i ng har dwar e, by var i ous adj ust ment s and empi r i cal com-
pensat i on t echni ques, such as t he covar i ance l i mi t i ng, and val i dat ed by act ual t est s
usi ng r eal sensor dat a bef or e i t can be consi der ed compl et ed.
SYSTEMAND HARDWARE TRADEOFFS
I t i s necessar y t o i nsur e t hat t he unmodel ed sensor er r or s do not exceed cer t ai n
maxi mumor r ms l i mi t s, si nce t he sof t war e compensat i on t echni ques ar e ef f ect i ve onl y i f
t hese er r or s ar e smal l . For t he model ed er r or s, t he er r or budget depends on t he t ot al i t y
and t he qual i t y of avai l abl e sensor s. For exampl e, i f t he i ner t i al syst emi s ai ded onl y
by Doppl er , t he east gyr o bi as ( whi ch af f ect s azi mut h and posi t i on accur acy) can not be
cal i br at ed i n- f l i ght except when t he er r or model s ar e ver y accur at e and t he f l i ght i s
over a wi de r ange of l at i t ude; t he cal i br at i on of t he azi mut h gyr o t akes a l ong t i me but
i s unnecessar y f or shor t f l i ght s. An appr oxi mat e cr i t er i on f or t he er r or budget of t he
unmodel ed er r or s i s t hat t he cor r espondi ng navi gat i on er r or s of each i ndi vi dual sensor
subsyst emshoul d be at l east as smal l as t he navi gat i on er r or s of t he i nt egr at ed syst em.
I t does not f ol l ow, however , t hat i n t he case when t he model abl e er r or s ar e smal l t he
opt i mal l y i nt egr at ed syst emof f er s no si gni f i cant advant age over an i ndependent use of
t he var i ous sensor s or a mor e convent i onal sensor mi xi ng t echni ques. One advant age of
opt i mal f i l t er i ng i s t he t i me- var yi ng t r aj ect or y- dependent r el at i ve wei ght i ng of t he
noi sy sensor i nput s whi ch may be avai l abl e onl y occasi onal l y, as t he r aw dat a, not
di r ect l y expr essi bl e i n t er ms of vel oci t y or posi t i on (e. g. , t he t i me di f f er ences or
st el l ar obser vat i ons) and whose i nher ent i nf or mat i on cont ent can not be ext r act ed
t hr ough si mpl i f i ed comput at i ons i n a dynami c envi r onment . Thi s al so i ncl udes t he abi l i t y
t o updat e t he t i me- var yi ng cr oss- cor r el at i on coef f i ci ent s r el at i ng t he var i ous quant i -
t i es of i nt er est , so t hat t he obser vat i ons of one quant i t y ( or of some f unct i on of t he
st at e vect or ) l eads t o an opt i mumest i mat e of t he t ot al st at e vect or ( e. g. , i n- f l i ght
al i gnment and est i mat i on of vel oci t y i n a Lor an- ai ded i ner t i al syst em, or t he r ecover y
of posi t i on er r or af t er compl et i on of i n- f l i ght azi mut h al i gnment i n a Doppl er - i ner t i al
syst em) . The speed of al i gnment i s al so i mpr oved by bei ng essent i al l y i ndependent of
t he magni t ude of i ni t i al mi sal i gnment ( as l ong as i t i s wi t hi n @e val i d r ange of t he
model i f smal l angl e appr oxi mat i ons ar e used; mechani zat i ons val i d f or l ar ge angl es ar e
al so avai l abl e) .
The mor e i mpor t ant sensor er r or s t hat ar e usual l y not model ed st at i st i cal l y i n
t he f i l t er ar e di scussed i n pr ecedi ng sect i ons. Some of t hese er r or s can be model ed
det er mi ni st i cal l y as, f or exampl e, t he t r ansi ent pl at f or mwar mup dr i f t i n t he case when
t he syst emspeci f i cat i ons r equi r e r api d al i gnment bef or e t ake- of f .
Si nce t he avai l abl e vel oci t y ai ds have a r el at i vel y hi gh noi se cont ent , t he i n-
st ant aneous vel oci t y accur acy i s obt ai ned f r omt he i ner t i al pl at f or m, wi t h i t s l ow-
f r equency er r or s bounded by Doppl er ( or ot her ai ds) or by accur at el y al i gni ng t he pl at -
f or mand t hen f l yi ng i n a pur e i ner t i al mode i f t he gyr os and accel er omet er s ar e of hi gh
qual i t y. Thi s i s t r ue i n t he convent i onal as wel l as i n opt i mi zed syst emconf i gur at i ons,
except t hat i n t he l at t er case t he gyr os may be cal i br at ed i n- f l i ght i f pr oper l y model -
abl e ai ds ar e avai l abl e. Fr omt he per f or mance poi nt of vi ew, t he har dwar e t r ade- of f s
must consi der t he gyr o dr i f t char act er i st i cs and al l ot her sensor er r or s. Sensor s wi t h
r educed accur acy may be accept abl e onl y t o t he ext ent of t he abi l i t y t o model t he er r or s.
Per f or mance, wei ght , si ze, cost and r el i abi l i t y ar e t he mai n f act or s whi ch l ead
t o an over al l t r ade- of f mat r i x. I f compl exi t y of equi pment ' i mpl i es quest i onabl e r el i -
abi l i t y ( as i t somet i mes does) and i f t he l ess sophi st i cat ed mechani zat i ons and equi p-
ment do not meet t he desi r ed per f or mance, t he syst empl anni ng shoul d at t empt t o achi eve
bot h t he per f or mance and t he r el i abi l i t y by per haps st r essi ng t he r el i abi l i t y i mpr ove-
ment s of t he pr esent gener at i on har dwar e, conf i gur ed wi t h opt i mi zed sof t war e mechani za-
t i ons, whi l e hol di ng ot her f act or s ( wei ght , si ze and maj or cost s) r el at i vel y st abl e.
The somewhat ext r eme hypot het i cal posi t i ons ( al l owi ng spi r al i ng compl exi t y and cost of
new syst ems or st r ong advocacy of ol der , l ess sophi st i cat ed avi oni cs) ar e bot h l i kel y
t o be unt enabl e i n t he l ong r un. One ar ea whi ch hol ds pr omi se of a si zabl e wei ght r e-
duct i on i s t he ai r bor ne comput er , not onl y t hr ough t he use of smal l er component s but
mai nl y by ef f i ci ent st r uct ur i ng of t he i nst r uct i ons r eper t oi r e, sui t ed t owar d t he t ype
of f unct i onal comput at i ons ( e. g. , mat r i x i nver si ons f or t he Kal man f i l t er i ng) whi ch i t
must per f or m. I n gener al , however , t he t r end t owar d smal l er wei ght and si ze shoul d be
moder at ed by a r eal i zat i on t hat i t of t en ent ai l s t he same cycl e of debuggi ng and di s-
cover i es of new r el i abi l i t y pr obl ems whi ch i s t ypi cal i n a t r ansi ent phase.
The choi ce of sensor ai ds i n- f l i ght i s st r ongl y i nf l uenced by r eact i on t i me r e-
qui r ement s because par t of t he t i me spent bef or e t ake- of f may be used i n some cases t o
al i gn t he i ner t i al pl at f or m. The l ar ge amount of wor k done on t he desi gn of r api d
gr ound and car r i er al i gnment i s cl osel y r el at ed t o t he subj ect of i n- f l i ght al i gnment
di scussed i n t hi s paper , but coul d not be pr esent ed wi t hi n t he same f or mat .
9-11
REFERENCES
(1) B. Danik, "I ntegrated I nerti al Vel oci ty-Ai ded and Posi ti on-Ai ded Ai rcraf t i \
Navi gati on", Presented at 24th Annual Meeting of the I nsti tute of Navi gati on,
21 J une 1968.
(2) A. E. Bryson, J r. and Yu-Chi Ho, Opti mi zati on, Esti mati on, and Control ,
Waltham, Massachusetts, Bl ai sdel l Publ i shi ng Company, 1968, Chapter 12.
( 3 ) C. T. Leondes, Guidance and Control of Aerospace Vehi cl es, New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1963, Chapter 4.
9-12
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MODERN AI RCRAFT NAVIGATION SENSORS FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS
W. R. Fri ed
Autoneti cs Di vi si on,
North American Rockwell Corporati on
10
10- 1
MODERN AIRCRAFT NAVI GATI ON SENSORS FOR HYBRI D SYSTEMS
by
W. R. Fried
Autonetics Division
North American Rockwell Corporation
I
This paper presents the basic principles, design characteri sti cs and performance trends, of the four modern
navigation sensors which make up typi cal hybrid systems, namely Doppler radar, i nerti al measuring uni ts,
ground-based radio systems and airborne radar. The mathematics underlying the combination of these dead
reckoning and position fi xi ng sensor outputs to form a hybrid system which generates the Ilmost probable"
position i s introduced. The most si gni fi cant modern Doppler radar characteri sti cs are described, notably
three-dimensional vel oci ty determination by means of fixed antennas and various techniques for obtaining
accurate over-water operation. Design trends, a typi cal error model and performance trends are presented.
given. The fundamental characteri sti cs, l i mi tati ons, and implementation trends of the modern point-source
and hyperbolic ground-based radio systems are analyzed and compared.
automatic position fi xi ng i s described and the l i mi tati ons of conventional airborne radars are highlighted.
The basic pri nci pl es of the more modern, synthetic aperture and squint mode radar are described and i ts ex-
cel l ent resolution performance behavior i s discussed. The mechanization of a Doppler-inertial-radio mul t i -
sensor system i s presented, with a possible physical configuration, indicating the f easi bi l i ty of extremely
smal l , hybrid navigation systems of thi s type.
I ntroduction
For several years there has been an increasing i nterest in "hybrid" or "multisensorI1 navigation systems for
use on ai rcraft. There are several reasons for thi s trend. Fi rstl y, the dynamic characteri sti cs of certai n
sensors, such as Doppler, i nerti al , radio, and radar, complement one another in such a manner that the in-
herent l i mi tati ons of each sensor are overcome to a very high degree. Secondly, the successful development
and application of optimumf i l teri ng (Kalman) techniques has lead to overal l system accuracies that are
si gri fi cantl y greater than those of the individual sensors which comprise the system. Thirdly, hybrid sys-
tems afford redundancy, since another sensor can frequently take over in performing the function of a sen-
sor which has fai l ed, parti cul arl y i f the fai l ure i s only for a limited period, so that over-all system
performance i s only somewhat degraded, rather than catastrophi cal l y affected. It i s also possible to
"cal i brate outll certai n sensor biases during the earl y portion of a fl i ght, thereby again improving system
performance in case of sensor fai l ure. Finally, i n addition to improved performance and redundancy, hybrid
systems can al so lead to reduced cost, since optimally integrated systems permit the designer to reduce the
performance speci fi cati ons and tolerances of each of the individual sensors, i n order to obtain the desired
over-all navigation accuracy.
performance limits, since doing so usually resul ts i n high ri sk, severe tolerances, l arge complexity, and
excessive cost.
I
I
, Si gni fi cant design trends, a typi cal error model and performance trends of i nerti al measuring uni ts are
The use of airborne radar for semi-
I
I n thi s regard, it i s important not to "push" any of the sensors to thei r
A number of new ai rcraf t navigation sensors have been developed within the past 10 years and all of these
are worthwhile candidates for hybrid systems.
teri sti cs, ranges of avai l abl e performance, and performance trends of these sensors. The sensors treated
include Doppler radar, i nerti al measuring uni ts, radio systems and airborne radar.
first given of the basic modern navigation techniques and equations.
sensors, a discussion i s presented of the performance behavior of a typi cal Doppler-inertial-radio system,
and of a possible physical configuration of a
T,mes of Navigation Techniques
Classically, there are two basic types of navigation techniques; dead reckoning and position fixing.
can now be combined i nto a thi rd, basic navigation technique which might be called multisensor navigation,
which consi sts of combining the data from various dead reckoning and position fi xi ng sensors and obtaining
the best ( "optimumr1) estimate of the most probable position.
Modern'dead reckoning techniques, al l of which are inherently lrself-containedl1 i n nature, include the fol -
lowing three types:
It i s the purpose of thi s paper to describe the basic charac-
A bri ef outl i ne i s
After a detai l ed descri pti on of the
highly-integrated hybrid navigator.
These
True Air Speed plus Heading plus Wind Velocity (Single I ntegrati on)
Doppler Velocity plus Heading (Single I ntegration)
I nerti al Acceleration (Double I ntegration)
(Frequently used for back-up only)
The equations for these are given by the following and are i l l ustrated by Figure 1 l af ter Reference 11.
10- 2
where :
= v cos (q +of)
= vg sin (G +4)
'North g
Doppler
'East
= V cos TT
I nerti al 'North g
'East = V si n TT
g
d = Drift Angle
YT = True Heading
TT = True Track
= Si desl i p Angle
P = Pitch Angle
A = Angle of Attack
C = Climb Angle
I n the area of position f:'udng systems, following are the four modern techniques in use today:
Radio
Airborne Radar
Cel esti al .
Sat el l i t e
(Ground Referenced)
(Self-contained)
(Self-contained)
(Space-Ref erenced )
I n a modern hybrid system, the three dead reckonhg sensor inputs and the four position f i x sensor inputs
are combined i n a di gi tal computer, so as to obtain the most probable position of the ai rcraft, range and
bearing to the desired desti nati on, and the required steeri ng signals, as depicted i n Figure 2 (after
Reference 1).
Doppler Radar
A Doppler radar measures the vel oci ty vector of the ai rcraf t with respect to a reference coordinate system
on the ai rcraft, through the measurement of the Doppler shi f t experienced by microwave energy which has
been transmitted towards the earth, backscattered by the earth and received at the ai rcraft, by means of
several (usually 3 or 4 ) , sui tabl y oriented non-coplanar beams.
ti on for obtaining the total vel oci ty vector i s shown i n Figure 3.
Doppler shi f ts of each of the three beams:
A fundamental Doppler radar beamconfigura-
Equations (7) through (9) express the
1 = 3 ( - vi COSY H +vt, cos YD +v; cosy V )
g2 = 7 2 (' A C O S Y +Vh cos YD +v; cos "' )
"; = 7 (' A cos a; - Vb cos aD +v; cos Y' )
(7)
(8)
(9)
H
2
These are then combined i n accordance with the following equations to obtain the three orthogonal vel oci ty
components i n ai rcraf t coordinates, VI H, VI D, VI v:
10- 3
where :
q0 = beamdepression angle from plane of the antenna
Qo = acute azimuth angle of the antenna beam
I n order to obtain the three vel oci ty components in earth coordinates, i .e., referred to a true horizontal
plane, VI H, VI D, V I v must be combined with pi tch angle P and rol l angle R i n accordance with the equations:
VH =
V I H cos P +V I D si n P +V I v cos R sin P
(13 1
VD = VI D COS R - V I v sin R (4)
vv
=- VI H si n P +V I D sin R cos P +VI v cos R cos P
(15)
The ground speed V is, of course, given by V =(VH2 +VD2)+and the dri f t angl ed by d =arctan VD/VH.
g g
I n most modern Doppler radars, the operations represented by (10) through (12), and frequently also those
represented by (13) through (15), are performed in the Doppler radar i tsel f . However, i n a modern hybrid
system, it may wel l be desi rabl e to perform all six of these operations i n the central di gi tal navigation
computer.
The basic block diagram of a Doppler radar i s shown in Figure 4.
tracker may be ei ther Ql, g2, v3 or VI H, VI D, V I v or VH, VD, Vv.
of ground speed V The most di rect and most accurate form
of Doppler vel oci ty output i s that of Doppler pulses whose rate represents vel oci ty and whose peri odi cal l y
accumulated count
I n typi cal modern Doppler radars the most si gni fi cant errors are those which occur during operation over
water.
one (the l arger of the two) i s due to surface wind-induced water droplet motion, and the other i s due to
sea currents. Although there exi sts considerable howledge about the behavior of these two errors (Ref-
erence 1, p. 264), they do not di rectl y affect Doppler equipment design and must be deal t with elsewhere;
namely, i n the central navigation computer.
error, and equipment design does affect i ts behavior. Thi s error i s caused by the l arge change of the
scatteri ng coeffi ci ent with incidence angle, within the beamwidth, as depicted i n Figure 5a.
error i s a function of the slope m of thi s curve at the nominal incidence angle and certai n radar constants,
notably beamwidth, as shown by the expression for Ew i n Figure 5.
to greatl y reduce thi s error, the most widely used one being the I1lobe-switching1l technique.
of the sequential angular switching of the beams, generating two Doppler spectra; the frequency tracker
operates by placing a narrow f i l ter at the equi-power or cross-over point, determining the Doppler fre-
quency at thi s point.
switched radar (as depicted by the expression for Is i n Figure 5), but at the expense of a somewhat
l arger fl uctuati on noise error.
sul ti ng Doppler spectra in Figure 5c.
a physically azimuth (dri f t) stabi l i zed antenna i n most applications.
modern hybrid systems i s in the di recti on of a fixed Doppler radar antenna, since thi s leads to smaller
si ze, lower cost and more di rect data conversion requirements,
ti on techniques have been developed which are useable with fixed antennas, such as the m-tracking technique.
The l atter method determines the slope l l ml l of the curve i n Figure 5a for the parti cul ar water roughness
condition, and incidence angle by measuring the rati o of the power received by beams 1 and 2, as indicated
by Figures 5b and 5c. For a given angle between the beams,nf, thi s power rati o determines m, which can,
i n turn, be used for di rect compensation since the sea-bias error i s proportional to m.
The major Doppler radar design technique trends are surmnarized i n Table 1 and are seen to ref l ect the im-
portant performance problems discussed above. A typi cal error budget of a modern high-performance Doppler
radar i s shown in Table 2 (af ter Reference 1). However, i n accordance with the earl i er arguments on the
philosophy of hybrid system design, the future trend for Doppler radar w i l l go i n two di recti ons; one of
very high-performance equipment and one of moderate-performance equipment sui tabl e for low-cost hybrid
systems.
I nerti al Measuring Units
The operation of an i nerti al measuring unit,(IMU) i s based on the measurement of acceleration by means of
accelerometers whose angular position i s stabi l i zed by means of several gyroscopes. The basic block dia-
gram of a stabi l i zed platform-type IMUi s shown i n Figure 6 (after Reference l). The most si gni fi cant
advances have been made i n the area of gyros, whose performance l argel y determines the overal l I MU per-
formance; i .e., a 0.017 deg/hr gyro dri f t rate resul ts in an average position error rate of 1 n.m./hr.
For comparison, a 10-4 g accelerometer bi as resul ts i n a 0.3 n.m. peak position error.
used modern gyros are si ngl e or two-degree of freedom floated, gas bearing uni ts, whose dri f t rate perfor-
mance has shown a steady performance increase.
i nerti al systems.
accelerometer outputs i nto locally-level coordinates, sui tabl e for navigation.
cal l ed llnon-conventionalll gyroscopes have been under development and some of these my find parti cul ar
application i n strapped-down systems. These include the el ectrostati c gyro (ESG), the ri ng l aser gyro
As indicated above, the outputs of the
Another common al ternate i s an output
and dri f t angl ed, plus verti cal velocity, Vv.)
represents incremental di stance traveled.
g
There are three types of over-water errors. Two of them are due to actual water transport motion;
The thi rd overwater error i s the cal i brati on shi f t or sea bi as
The sea bi as
Several techniques have been developed
It consi sts
The more narrow thi s f i l ter, the greater the improvement factor over a non-lobe
A diagram i l l ustrati ng thi s technique i s shown i n Figure 5b and the re-
One l i mi tati on of the lobe switching technique i s that it requires
On the other hand, the trend in
Therefore, other overwater bi as compensa-
A summary of these future trends i s depicted i n Table 3 .
The most commonly
Considerable development i s currentl y under way on strapped-
I n these, the computer cal cul ates vehicle ori entati on from the outputs of body-mounted
I n recent years, four SO-
10- 4
(RLG), the nuclear resonance gyro and the cryogenic gyro. The basic pri nci pl es of operation of these have
been discussed i n the l i terature (References 2, 3, 7 and 11). The detai l ed performance characteri sti cs of
these llnon-conventionalll gyros are currentl y under i ntensi ve investigation.
applications have primarily been of the floated-pendulum and flexure-pivot types, with developments on the
vi brati ng beamand vi brati ng stri ng types being pursued, The design technique trends f or i nerti al naviga-
ti on equipment are surmnarized in Table 4. A typi cal error budget for a modern, moderate-performance iner-
tial navigator i s shown i n Table 5 .
into'two di recti ons; moderate performance and high performance.
performance I MU w i l l sati sfy the system requirements.
i n Table 6.
Ground-Based Radio Systems
The four basi c types of position fi xi ng methods used by ground-based radio systems are i l l ustrated i n
Figure 7 (after Reference 1).
range and bearing to a stati on.
by topographical features and resul ti ng propagation anamolies (refl ecti ons, etc.) i n the vi ci ni ty of the
stati on.
techniques that depend on the stati on antenna near-field pattern behavior.
are prevalent i n the theta-theta system of Figure 7b.
ti ons and the geometry, i .e., the angles of cut,also become important.
can lead to highly accurate position determination, although it can exhi bi t some geometric degradations,
parti cul arl y i n the region outside the tri angl e formed by the stati ons.
give ri se to an ambiguity, as indicated in the figure.
stati on by the ai rcraf t and transponding are required, making such a system non-passive.
system of Figure 7d makes use of l i nes of constant di fference of distance, and hence time, between two
stati ons.
Al l four of the techniques i l l ustrated in Figure 7 have been used i n modern radio systems, but thei r
performance characteri sti cs di f f er markedly.
(1) propagation, (2) geometry, (3) instrumental, and (4) dynamic.
dependent on the operating frequency used, and hence the choice of frequency i s of great importance.
the basi s of accuracy performance and range capability, the usefulness of the major frequency bands for
radio navigation i s i l l ustrated in Figure 8 (after Reference 1).
low frequencies and for long ranges, since they tend to follow the curvature of the earth. These waves
are, however, susceptable to si gni fi cant propagation anamolies due to surface conductivity and di el ectri c
constant, as well as di urnal effects, weather effects and, in the case of VLF waves, ionospheric effects.
The line-of-site waves are used in the VHF, UHF and microwave regions and prjmarily for short ranges, and
are noted for thei r ease of obtaining high di recti vi ty and gain with small antennas. In the lower of
these frequency bands, si te errors can become qui te troublesome, however.
are produced by refl ecti on from the ionosphere, are not used for navigation and, i n fact, speci al means
are employed in many long range hyperbolic systems to eliminate the s e wave si gnal s when they appear.
The geometric effects apply most si gni fi cantl y to the
to the rho-rho system. I n the hyperbolic systems, the l ocati on of the ai rcraf t within the coverage area
to a l arge degree determines the achievable position fi xi ng accuracy, i .e., the radi al error i n feet per
microsecond of time di fference measurement error. Specifically, the achievable accuracy i s best on a
baseline between stati ons, but degrades i n regions of shallow angles of cut of the hyperbolas, and com-
pl etel y vanishes on baseline extensions. The instrumentation errors mentioned are, of course, a function
of the qual i ty of the receiving equipment which must perform the si gnal processing i n the presence of
si gnal vari ati ons, noise,and interference.
to continue tracking position under ai rcraf t vel oci ty and acceleration conditions, with or without aiding
from vel oci ty sensors.
Among the other important aspects of radio navigation systems, i n contrast to self-contained systems, are
the adequacy of geographical coverage, suscepti bi l i ty to interference, and fi nal l y, pol i ti cal considerations
which may effect the avai l abi l i ty of servi ce from ground stati ons.
Radio systems may be categorized i nto three types; short range, mediumrange and long range (world-wide).
VOR/DME, TACAN and DECCA are i n the short range cl ass, with very wide implementation of ground stati ons
and airborne uni ts.
tems for position fixing;
by ai rcraf t magnetic heading i n the ai rcraf t receivers and range and bearing data are read out with l arge
instrumentation errors.
world-wide, implementation does not exi st. However, these systems promise rather high potenti al position
accuracy, parti cul arl y when net cal i brati on techniques are used and certai n propagation errors are com-
pensated.
shows promise (Reference 8).
development.
coverage.
and compensation methods are di ffi cul t.
gation and shows considerable promise to provide increased accuracy performance. Essentially, it i s based
on the use of a reference receiver, whose geographic l ocati on i s preci sel y known and which i s located at a
moderate distance from the ai rcraft.
two receivers can then be eliminated by proper compensation in the ai rcraf t receiver. For modern ai rcraf t
applications, Loran and Omega type systems require velocity-aiding from Doppler or i nerti al equipments, in
order to provide the required dynamic accuracies; but, fortunately, this i s available i n hybrid systems.
A summary of the range and accuracy performance of ground-based radi o systems i s given in Table 7 (after
Accelerometers for ai rcraf t
As i n the case of Doppler radar, future development trends w i l l go
I n many of the hybrid systems a moderate
The future performance trends of IMu's are depicted
The rho-theta system i n Figure 7a, i s a point-source system which measures
Such systems are typi cal l y degraded by "sitell errors, i .e., errors caused
These are parti cul arl y si gni fi cant for the angle (theta) measurement, which i s normally based on
Hence, the same characteri sti cs
I n the l atter system the di stance between the sta-
The rho-rho system i n Figure 7c
The use of only two stati ons may
Typically, acti ve i nterrogati on of the ground
The hyperbolic
Normally, two pai rs of stati ons are suffi ci ent to provide a fi x.
The four important types of errors of radio systems are:
The propagation errors are strongly
On
The ground waves are primarily used at
I n general, the swaves, which
hyperbolic system i n Figure 7d and, to some degree,
Dynamic performance rel ates to the abi l i ty of the radio system
However, frequently f ul l use i s not made of the avai l abl e information from these sys-
For example, bearing information from TACAN or VOR/DME i s frequently contaminated
Loran C and D are examples of the mediumrange cl ass of systems for which f ul l ,
Operation of these systems on a di rect ranging (rho-rho-rho) basi s i s currentl y under study and
Finally, Omega i s the only trul y world-wide navigation system currentl y under
It i s i nherentl y attracti ve because only 8 stati ons are required to provide world-wide
However, the behavior of propagation errors, di urnal effects and the l i ke, are qui te complex
The usefulness of "di fferenti al Omega" i s currentl y under i nvesti -
The l arge fracti on of the propagation error which i s common to the
of the implementation and cost aspects of these systems i s given i n Table 8
__ ----
10- 5
The future outlook points to increased use of these radio ai ds i n hybrid navigation systems, i n view of
thei r wide-spread avai l abi l i ty, thei r small ai rcraf t receivers, and the avai l abi l i ty of vel oci ty aiding
from the self-contained sensors. Di gi tal processing w i l l be applied to most of these radio sensors and
thi s w i l l provide increased accuracy and increased rel i abi l i ty. Frequently, more than one radio sensor
w i l l be used in hybrid systems, because of the redundancy considerations discussed earl i er.
Airborne Radar
Airborne mapping or navigation radar imagery has been used for pilotage navigation on a manual basi s for
many years.
position f i x by means of airborne radar.
The geographic coordinates of the f i x point or i denti fi cati on point (I P) have previously been i nserted i nto
the navigation computer and are stored there.
mal navigation sensor inputs.
the IP. The l atter are converted i nto the equivalent radar coordinates, bearing and sl ant range.
are then displayed as cursors on the navigators radar i ndi cator.
determined I P on the radar image, he manually places the range and bearing cursors on top of the I P target
(which i s sometimes cal l ed designationtt).
be automatically fed back to the navigation computer, thereby fix-correcting the position information of
the navigation system.
The total error of thi s type of radar position f i x i s made up of the azimuth and range errors of the radar
i tsel f , the display errors, and the human operator error.
l argest of these errors i s the azimuth error (resol uti on) of the radar i tsel f , which is, in turn, a function
of the radar antenna azimuth beamwidth.
function of antenna si ze. This behavior i s i l l ustrated i n Figure 10 (after Reference 1) which shows the
total radar error as a function of range for a given antenna si ze and for various wavelengths. I n many
cases, the higher frequency bands, such as the Ka-band, are operationally unacceptable, because of thei r
poor adverse weather performance. I ncreasing the antenna si ze to improve azimuth resolution i s a di f f i -
cul t problem i n many ai rcraf t because of space l i mi tati ons. On the other hand, the range resolution of
the radar has tradi ti onal l y been a l esser problem, since it i s primarily a function of the narrowness of
the pulse width, and since, with the present state-of-the-art, it i s not di f f i cul t to obtain rel ati vel y
narrow pulses.
100 feet of range resolution. With conventional techniques, it i s currentl y possible to obtain a pulse
width of 0.1 ps and modern pulse compression (Ilchirp)techniques permit the generation of even shorter
pulses. Thus, i n conventional airborne radar the avai l abl e azimuth resolution represents the l i mi ti ng
factor on obtainable position f i x accuracy.
One technique which can lead to excellent azimuth resolution without the need for higher frequencies or
l arger antennas i s the synthetic aperture or Doppler beamsharpeninq technique. The basic pri nci pl e of
operation of this technique can be explained by ei ther the s concept or the Doppler shi f t
concept. The former i s i l l ustrated i n Figure 11(af ter R e f w a normal antenna array of the
type shown in Figure l l a, a l arge number of radi ator elements are fed from a feed l i ne and so spaced that
the si gnal s from al l the radi ators are in phase i n a preferred di recti on, so that the transmitted and re-
ceived si gnal s are maximum i n that di recti on. csc 8
where 3 i s the wavelength and D i s the physical (real ) length of the array. I n the synthetic array, i l l us-
trated i n Figure l l b, the l i near array i s generated by vi rtue of the motion of the ai rcraf t in space, i .e.,
the antenna transmits and receives pulses at successive positions, thus forming the array. The received
pulses, with thei r phases preserved, are store for each element of range and summed at the end of a pre-
determined time, cal l ed build-up or i ntegrati on time. It i s the i ntegrati on time which determines the
equivalent length of the array. Because of the problem of maintaining the phases of the return si gnal s
from pulse-to-pulse, such a radar must be a coherent radar, i .e., the transmi tter carri er cycles must bear
a defi ni te phase rel ati onshi p from pulse to pulse. The beamwidth or azimuth resolution achievable with
such a synthetic array i s given by d_ csc 8 where d i s the synthetic array length, as w i l l be shown i n
what follows.
by the fact that the synthetic array-forming process i s based on the two-way path, i .e., transmission to,
and refl ecti on from, the target; thi s i s equivalent to the two-way beamwidth of a physical antenna, which
i s nearly half the one-way beamwidth for typi cal antenna shapes.)
and analyzing the behavior of a synthetic aperture radar i s by means of the Doppler concept, which i s
i l l ustrated in Figure 12.
accordance with the Doppler equation
More recently, techniques have been developed which permit the obtaining of a semi-automatic
This process i s i l l ustrated i n Figure 9 (after RefgCEnqe-l).
The computer cal cul ates the ai rcraf t position from i ts nor-
Fromthese two data, it generates bearing and distance from the ai rcraf t to
These
When the navigator observes the pre-
This process causes any position error si gnal s which exi st to
I n conventional airborne radars, by far the
The l atter i s a di rect function of wavelength and an inverse
The example i n Figure 10 i s for a pulse width of 0.2 ps, which corresponds to approximately
theti c arra
The resul ti ng beamwidth i s approximately given by
D
2d
(The factor of 2 di fference between the two expressions j ust ci ted, can be readi l y explained
The other useful method of explaining
The returned si gnal s within the physical beam experience a Doppler shi f t i n
I f the received si gnal i s fi l tered i nto Doppler frequency bins, each wide, one obtains
where A 8 i s the angular resolution equivalent to a f i l ter width A d.
I n order to resolve v, requires an i ntegrati on or build-up time of
where d i s the distance travel l ed (synthetic antenna length) and V i s the speed.
10- 6
Combining '(16), (17) and (18), one obtains for the angular resolution of a synthetic operture radar, the
following, previously stated, expression:
From (lq), the l i near azimuth resolution i s:
n x = 3 csc 8
I f the system i s so mechanized that the f i l ter passbands track the changing Doppler frequency of a target
during the build-up time, the system i s called I l f u l l y focused!1.
antenna length i s given by
I n such a system the maximum syntheti c
d = R d0 csc 8 = csc 8
where 6 8 i s the physical antenna beamwidth.
Combining (20) and (21) yi el ds the following expression for the ultimate l i near resol uti on of a fully
focused synthetic aperture system:
,
[ A x 1 = - D
2
This shows the most i nteresti ng resul t that the ultimate l i near resolution i s equal to half of the physical
antenna length and i s independent of wavelength and range. T hi s implies the desi rabi l i ty of using as small
an antenna as possible. However, other considerations, such as maJdmum ai rcraf t speed, required radar range,
phase perturbations due to l ateral vel oci ty errors, atmospheric refracti on, and equipment complexity, some-
what negate this conclusion, and make it di f f i cul t to actual l y achieve the ultimate resol uti on given by
(22).
A system i n which the Doppler hi story of the targets i s & tracked i s called an tlunfocusedlt system.
l i mi ti ng resolution of an unfocused system can be derived from the fact that, since the target Doppler
hi story i s not tracked, the target cannot change i ts bearing by more than the equivalent system resolution
during the build-up time.
and the build-up time i s given by the reciprocal of a \/of equation (17); hence, the
sol uti on i s obtained by equating d t and 1
l i near azimuth resol uti on of an unfocused system:
The
The time A t required for a target to change bearing by 0 8 i s (RA 0/V) csc 0
minhum angular re-
This resul ts i n the following expression for the ma;rdmum
m'
ox = &F
It can be seen from (23) that even with such an unfocused synthetic aperture radar, resolution values (and
hence position fi xi ng errors) are obtained which provide an order of magnitude improvement over those in-
dicated in Figure 11for conventional radars. For example, numerical substi tuti on i n (23) f or a range of
10 n.m. and for a K -band radar, yi el ds a l i near azimuth resolution of about 4.2 f t. Of course, the total
azimuthal position YiX error can be considerably degraded from this value, because of such factors as the
error in the basic measurement of 0 due to uncertainty in ai rcraf t speed and the error i n the di recti on of
the ai rcraf t vel oci ty vector (both of which w i l l be discussed l ater i n this section), as well as the
Ilstraightnessll of the synthetic array due to l ateral acceleration effects.
I n contrast to many synthetic aperture reconnaissance radars, which are stri ctl y side-looking, it i s fre-
quently desi rabl e to permit "looking ahead" of the ai rcraft, i.e., at l east somewhere i n the forward
sector.
azimuth resolution improvement everywhere except di rectl y along the vel oci ty vector (where the synthetic
length approaches i nfi ni ty).
mode windowT1 system. The l atter i s i l l ustrated i n Figure 13 (after Reference 1). I n this mode, the radar
beami s pointed at a fixed angle, for example 30" or 45O, fromthe forward di recti on. The syntheti c aper-.
ture processing i s performed only within the rel ati vel y small range increments from %, to 8$1, and the
small angular increment from 8- to 0- (Figure 13). Since these increments are small, it i s possible
to obtain only a small degradation in resolution when all Doppler si gnal s are shi fted in accordance with
the frequency change at the center point of the window.
frequently resul ts in suffi ci entl y good performance without excessive equipment complexity.
cursor laying techniques have been developed with thi s technique, which permit the semi-automatic fix
correction by generatin sui tabl e range pulses along a range arc and a synthetic Doppler frequency at an
azimuth l i ne (Figure 137 . It i s i nteresti ng to note that thi s form of fix-correction with a syntheti c
aperture radar i s with respect to the ai rcraf t vel oci t vector, rather than the ai rcraf t center l i ne.
Hence, the ori entati on of the ai rcraf t's v e l o c i h a r t h coordinates) must be known. Further-
more, i n order to achieve synthetic aperture performance, the ai rcraf t vel oci ty magnitude and the short-
term l ateral vel oci ty component must be known. An uncertainty i n.the ai rcraf t vel oci ty magnitude causes
an error i n the measurement of 0.
abl e from the i nerti al measuring uni t, possibly aided by a Doppler radar.
have a greater effect in the forward region than t o the side.
Reference 1) which shows the total synthetic aperture posi ti on fi xi ng angular error for a vel oci ty magni-
tude error of 0.1 percent and a vel oci ty vector angular error of 2 mr, as a function of azimuth angle.
It i s seen that the error curve slope increases markedly f or angles below 30 degrees.
I n summary, it can be concluded that while conventional airborne radars may be used for semi-automatic
position fixing, thei r fi x accuracies are limited by the radar's azimuth resolution.
This has led to the development of forward-scanning Doppler beamsharpening radars, which provide
Another version of the forward-looking mechanization i s the so-called I'sqUint
Such a system i s called "point focusedtt and it
Electronic
Fortunately, i n hybrid systems, these vel oci ty data are readi l y avail-
Errors i n vel oci ty magnitude
T hi s i s i l l ustrated i n Figure 14 (after
The new synthetic
10- 7
aperture radars, with thei r high inherent azimuth resolution, w i l l make possible posi ti on f ki ng accuracies
with orders of magnitude inprovement.
There are two other techniques, i n developmental status, associated with airborne radar, which beacmen-
tioning.
si gnal of a coherent forward-looking airborne radar, since this information i s inherently present in the
signal, making the concept basi cal l y feasi bl e. The other i s the use of airborne radar imagery for vel oci ty
determination by means of Ifbootstrap mapmatching" i .e., by matching suc,cessive returns from the same ground
patch and noting the elapsed time, thereby obtaining a m6asure of speed.
One i s the extraction of genuine Doppler vel oci ty information from the Doppler shi f t of the return
Multisensor Navigation Systems
Typical modern multisensor ai rcraf t navigation systems are l i kel y to contain, as
sensors, the four types which have been discussed in detai l i n this paper, i .e., Doppler,inertial! ground-
based radio, and radar. These w i l l be supplemented by the two cl assi cal dead reckoning sensors, i .e., the
airspeed meter and the magnetic compass, as a back-up and safety-of-flight system. There are two addi ti onal
high-accuracy sensors which may al so be used i n future multisensor navigation systems, depending on mission
requirements and avai l abi l i ty. One i s the astro-tracker, which can be used for cel esti al position fi xi ng or
simply for astroheading (Ref.1). It i s well known that i ts usefulness i s greatest at high al ti tudes, where
a cl ear s e prevails, and in the l arger ai rcraf t which are abl e to accommodate the si ze and compledty of
these systems.
navigation satel l i te system.
equipment characteri sti cs have been described i n the l i terature, (References 1, 4, 5 and 6).
considerable study and development work has recentl y been done on new versions of navigation satel l i te sys-
tems and some of tbese wi l l , no doubt, be reduced to practi ce within the next ten years.
work has been done toward predicting system performance of these new systems, actual test resul ts from
experimental equi pent has yet to be obtained.
mechanizations for the incorporation
An i ntegrated multisensor navigation system containing these sensors may be represented by the diagram i n
Figure 15. The block in the center, l abel l ed central di gi tal computer, w i l l perform a great multitude of
functions, on the basi s of the software program designed for it. only a few of the more si gni fi cant ones
are i l l ustrated in the fi gure.
The total system accuracy depends on the speci fi c sensors, the software mechanization, the mission profi l e
and the operating conditions.
error rate curves for a Doppler-inertial-radio system, operated in one of four modes, might typi cal l y have
the shapes shown i n Figure 16 (after Reference 10).
correct conclusions from such curves.
radi o-i nerti al mode would be all that i s required for optimumperformance.
radio system i s operating within the area of i ts optimumgeographic and geometric coverage, i n certai n
seasonal periods, and without external interference, it might not be true outside that zone. Also,
f l i ght alignment of the i nerti al measurement uni t requires an external vel oci ty reference, such as Doppler
information. I n addition, it can be shown (Reference 10) that the comparative system characteri sti cs with
regard to velocity, heading and outputs, are qui te di fferent, i .e., they i ndi cate the superi ori ty of
di fferent sensor combinations, thus possibly leading to di fferent conclusions. I n summary, it i s fre-
quently the speci al mission characteri sti cs, which determine the sel ecti on of the speci fi c sensors.
A possible physical configuration of a future,
depicted i n Figure 17.
includes the Doppler radar electronics, IMU, LORAN receiver, OMEGA receiver, NAVSAT receiver and TACAN
receiver, as well as the central di gi tal computer, which performs all of the navigation sensor processing,
navigation computation and l ogi c and control functions.
a l arge percentage of the el ectroni cs w i l l probably use l arge scal e i ntegrati on (LSI) ci rcui try; for
example, metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) devices.
which represents extremely ti ght functional and physical integration, w i l l lead to hybrid navigation systems
of extremely small weight and si ze, and having the accuracy, rel i abi l i ty and economical production cost
desired by future users.
ACKN0WLF;KEKZNTS
The author wishes to give credi t to Dr. M. Kayton of TRW Systems Group, Mr. S. H. Dodington of I TT Avionics
Division and Mr. C. A. Wiley of the Autonetics Division of North American Rockwell Corporation, for thei r
ori gi nal contribution of some of the material which was extracted from Reference 1. The author al so wishes
to acknowledge the assi stance of J . J . Mizera of the Autonetics Division, North American Flockwell Corpora-
ti on, i n connection with the material on i nerti al measuring uni ts and a review of the paper.
primary high-accuracy
The other sensor which may be part of future hybrid systems i s a receiver-processor of a
The only currentl y operational system of this type, and i ts accuracy and
However,
Although much
Such test resul ts wi l l f aci l i tate the synthesis of optimum
of navigation satel l i te receivers i n hybrid systems.
I f the use of intermediate checkpointing i s ignored, the total position
It i s somewhat di ffi cul t, however, to draw the
For example, a f i rst look at Figure 16 might convince one that the
While this may be true when the
highly-integrated, multisensor navigation system i s
A l l of the sensor el ectroni cs are mounted on the Doppler radar antenna. Thi s
I n order to make possible such a smal l package,
An el ectri cal and mechanical configuration of this form,
(1)
Myron Kayton and Walter R. Fried, "Avionics Navigation Systems", J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
1969.
(2)
J . T. Lavan, Vnconventional I nerti al Sensors", Space/Aeronautics, December 1963.
(3)
A. Nordsieck, "Principles of the El ectri c VacuumGyroscope", Progress i n Astronautics and Rocketq,
Vol. 8, Guidance and Control, Academic Press, New York, 1962, pp. 435-441.
W. H. Guier and G. C. Weiffenbach "A Satel l i te Doppler Navigation System", Proceedings of the I RE,
Vol. 48, No. 4, April 1960, p. 507.
R. B. Kershner, TRANSIT Program Results, Astronautics, Vol. 6, No. 5, May,
'
( 4)
(5)
1961.
10-8,
(6)
R. R. Newton, "Everyman's Doppler Navigation Satel l i te System", I EEE Transactions on Aerospace .and
Electronic Systems, May 1967, pp. 527-554.
T. J . Hutchings, et 61, "Ring Laser Gyro Component and Parameter Study," Report No. X8-2977/201,
Autonetics Division, North American Rockwell Corporation, Anaheim, Cal i f., J anuary, 1969.
L. Horowitz, "Direct-Ranging LORAN", Proceedings of the 21st National Aerospace Electronics Con-
ference, IEEE, Dayton, Ohio, May 1969.
T. W. Brogden, "The Qnega Navigation System", Navigation, J ournal of the I nsti tute of Navigation,
Vol. 15, No. 2, Summer, 1968
W. Zbnerman, "Opthum I ntegrati on of Ai rcraft Navigation Systemsll, Dynamics Research Corporation,
Stoneham, Mass.; presented at the 24th Annual Meeting of the I nsti tute of Navigation, Monterey,
California, J une 1968.
J . A. Drelick and J . DeFato "Advances in Unconventional Gyro Technology" paper presented at the
25th Annual Meeting of the I nsti tute of Navigation, New York, J une, 1969.
(7)
( 8 )
(9)
(10)
(U)
10- 9
TABLE x
DESI GN "ECHNIQm TRENDS OF DOPPLER RADAR
CHARACTERISTIC
TfPE MODULATION
FREQUENCY
ANTENNA (DRIFT)
ANTENNA (ATTITUDE)
ANTENNA (TY PE)
BEAM CONFIGURATION
SEA BI AS CORRECTION
RECEI VERS
FREQUENCY TRACKERS
DATA F GMT
AVERAGE TRANSMITTED POWER
PRIMARY FQKZR
WEIGHT
COST
INCOHiERENT PULSE +CW INTERRUPTED CW +M-CW
x-BAND-9 $-BAND
DRI FT-STABI LI ZED --2. FI XED
PI TCH-STABI LI ZED- PI TCH-AND-ROU ST A BI L I ZE Dt FI XED
LINEAR A RF V L Y - UNS~ PARABOLOID+PLANAR ARMY
2 BEAMS- 4 BEAMS 7 3 BEAMS
UWD-SEA SWITCH- LOBE-SWITCHING- SIMULTANEOUS L OBmG - m-TRACKING
CRYSTAL VIDEO --9. INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
WO-FI LTER +SI NE-COSI NE *LOBE-SWITCHING - m- TRACKING
ANALOG DI GI TAL
50 W.--.,lO W. -1 W.
1700 w.--r300 w.--woo w.- l oo w.
300 LB.+lOO LB .+40 LB. -15 LB.
$50,000 * $25,000 *$15 , O O O ~ $ l O , O O O
TA13U 2
TYPI CAL ERROR BUDGET OF HI Qi PERFORMANCE DOPPLER RADAR (1969)
TYPE
1111
FLUCTUATION (AFTER 10 N.M.) RANDOM
BEAM DlRECTI ON (ANTENNA AND RADOME)
SEA BIAS (RESIDUAL. AFTER LOBE-SWITCHING) BIAS
ALTITUDE HOLE (RESIDUAL. AFTER LOBE- BIAS & RANEQM
SWITCHING & MODULATION WOBBLING)
READOUT (DATA CONVERSION) BI AS
INSTALLATION AND CALIBRATION BI AS
FREQUENCY TRACKER BI AS
BIAS & RANDOM
TOTAL GROUND SPEED ERROR
TOTAL DRI FT ANGU ERROR
0.02
0.03 46
00
0.1 KNOT
0.11 46 +0.1 KNOT (la)
6 MIN. (14
10- 10
PERFORMANCE TRENDS OF DOPPLER RADAR
VELOCI TY ACCURACY
TOTAL WEI GHT
TOWL VOLUME
FOWER CONSUMPTION
GYROS - TY PE
1969 1975
HIGH-PERFORMANCE HIGH-PERFORMANCE
0.11 $ 0.1 $
40 LB 30
1 - 2 CU. FT. 1 CU. FT.
150 - 200 WATTS 150 WATTS
TABU 4
DESI GN TECHNIQUE TRENDS OF INERTIAL NAVIGATORS
1975
MODERATE- PERFORMANCE
0.25%
15 LB
0.5 CU. FT.
100 WATTS
BALL BEARI NG+ FLOATED GAS W I N G +ELFCTROSTATI C*RI NG LASER 3
NUCLEAR REZONANCE + CRYOGENIC
GY R O- DE W OF FREEDOM S I N GE DE- dTW0 DE GR E E 4SI NGL E DEGREE
ACCELEROMETERS
MECHANI ZATI ON
PLATFORM LEXEL
PIATFORM AZIMUTH
COMPUTATION
FLOATED REST RA I NED- PENDUL UM+FU~ PI VOT-VI BRATI NG BEAM OR STRI NG
34x1s -4-AXIS -+STRAPPED-DOWN
I NERTI ALLY FI XED- LOCALLY LEVEL aSTRA PPED- DOWN
NORM-FOINTING+WANDER-AZIMUTH
ANALOG->DIGITAL
10- 11
TABLE 2
TYPI CAL ERROR BUDGET OF MODERATE-PEWORMANCE I NERTI AL NAVIGATOR
CORRELATION
TI ME (HRS.1
GYROS
X- AND Y -BI AS
X- AND Y-RAMXIM
2-BI AS
2-RAMX)M
ACCELEROMETERS
X- AND Y-BIAS
X- AND Y-RANDOM
0. 0l0/HR.
O.OlO/HR.
O.O2O/HR.
0.02o/HR.
&
2
e
2
5 x
5 x 10-5,
e
0.2
I NI TI A L CONDI TI ONS i t
ATPI TUDE (TI L TS)
HEADING
U T . , LONG.
VELOCITY
20 SEC.
4.5 MI N.
0.25 N.M.
0.1 KNOT
1 N.M./HR. RADIAL WSI T I ON ERROR RATE
*Five Minute Gyrocompassi ng
- TABLE 6
PERFORMANCE TRENDS OF INERTIAL MEASURING UNITS
A222
MODERATE
PERFORMANCE
HI GH
PERFORMANCE
(1.0 N.M./HR. CEP
POSI TI ON ACCURACY
up to 2 N.M./HR. CEP 1 - 2 N.M./HR. CEP
up to 3.5 FPS/AXI S 1 6 3 - 3.5 FPS/AXIS i C
43 FPS/AXI S lr
VELOCI TY ACCURACY
ATTI TUDE ACCURACY 6 - 10 6i. 1 d
5 - 15 MI N.
6 - I O M I N . ICY
5 - 15 MI N.
5 -3OLB.
4 6 M I N 10-
5 - 15 MIN.
loo LB.
REACTI ON TI ME
WIGHT
75 - 100 LB.
2 - 2.5 CU. FT. 0.2 - 1 CU. FT. 2 cu. FT.
VOLUME
POWR 400 W. 60 - 120 W. 200 w.
$100 - $a0 K.
$30 - 50K
COST
\
$15OK - 200K
10- 12
z?EJ
RANQ? AND ACCURACY OF RADI O NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
SY STPl
VOR
-
M)PPLER MR
DECCA
DME
TACAN
RANm
REARI NG
L OMN A
LORAN C
O~GG.4
TY PE
8
Q
-
HYPERBOLIC
jP
P - Q
P
e
HYPERBOLI C
HYPERBOLIC
HYPERBOLI C
RANm
FREQUENCY ~N . M . 1
108 - 118 MHz 208
108 - 118 MHz 200
100 KHZ 200
960 - 12l5 MHz 200
960 - 1215 MHz 200
$0 - 1215 MHz 200
2 MHZ 600
100 KHZ 1200
io - 14 KHZ 8000
ERROR (t, DEGREES OR +FEET1
PROPAGATION INSTRUMENT ACCEPTED SYSTEM
NEGLI GI BLE 3 ' 1 ' <5"
NEGLI GI BLE 0.5' 1 ' 1.5'
UP To 10,000' NONE 20 FT. 50 - 10,000 FT.B
NEGLI GI BLE IKXiF, 200 FT. To 2$ 3000 FT. or 3%
NEGLI GI BLE NONE 200 TO 2000 FT. 2000 FT.
NEGLI GI BLE 2' 0.5' 2 '
50 FT. NONE 1500 FT. 1500 FT.
100-1500 NONE 50-100 FT. loo - 1500 FT.D
..
6oao FT.' NONE 500 FT. 6000 FT.
A LI NE-OF-SI QI T
B DEPENDI NG ON RANGE
C KTrI CORRECTION FOR PREDI CTABLE VARI ATI ONS
D DEPENDING ON LOCATI ON I N COVERAGE AREA AND QUALI TY OF NET CALI BRATI ON
TABLE8
IMPLEMENTATION AND COST OF RADI O NAVI GATI ON SY STEXS
!7ximM
VOR
DOPPLER VOR
DECCA
DME
T A r A
LORAN A
LORAN C
ONE CA
YEAR
I N!CKEiCED
1946
1960
1944
1959
1954
1943
1960
1968
(Partial)
CRW
NLlMB
2000
-
-
4c
25
50
2000
25
8
1 STATIOh9
. CHAI NS
COST ($1
30,000
100,000
2,000,000
50 , 000
150,000
2,000,000
5,000,000
10,000,000
AI R
- ImBEE-
150,000
150,000
10 , 000
13 , 000
30, ooo
10,000
1,000
-
RNE SET
C O S T ($1
1000/4000
1000/4000
3000/6000
1000/5000
3000/8000
2600/6000
20,000/50,000
15,000/50,000
IMPLEMENTATION
TREND
-
UP
UP
STABLE
UP
UP
STABLFI
UP
UP
10- 13
- m
- SENSORS
Ea(ONING
IXlPPLER AI R DATA I - :
INERTIN
J
POSITION FIX
SENSORS
F i g. 1 .The geometry of dead reckoning
HW)ING
CALWTIONS 1
MOST PROBABLE
POSITION
IESTINATIONS
-L
Fig.2 A multFsensor ai rcraf t navigation ,system
10- 14
BEAM d /
Fig.3
Basic Doppler radar beam confi gurati on
I I i
I
< - I
I
F i g . 4 .B1 oc k d i ag ram of typi cal Doppl er; radar
1
Vertical. Accel 'mmeter 'I
Vertical
Channel
7
s+ji<\--- X-aw-ks&&-o~--
I bar ometr i ~qr ~~ar I bqutati a
--Y
Stcble
P
10- 15
Altitude -
-
I
At t i t ude Rate ).
T
c w =
K =
5
K m
b
Fig.5 Doppler radar overwater operation
Fig.6 S tabi l ized P l atform i nerti al measuring uni t
10- 16
DEGREE
USEWESS
NAVIGATION
OF
Kjl?
b. THE' TA
-
Fig.7 Radio posi ti on f i xi ng methods
0 3 PW.2- 3 0 "2 30 $ H Z
Fig.8 Usefulness and propagation modes o f vari ous radi o frequency bands
10- 17
Fig.9 Semi-automat i c posi t ion f i x by airborne radar
2 l-
--_I
RESOLUTI ON
Fig.10 Airborne radar posi ti on f i x error vs. range
10- 18
Fig.11 Syntheti c aperture radar pri nci pl es (array concept)
Fig.12
Syntheti c aperture radar pri nci pl es (Doppler concept)
Fig.
13
Synthetic aperture radar 'squint mode window d
10- 19
. r.
i-spl ay
Fig.14 Total angular error of syntheti c aperture. radar- for ,speed error
o f 0.1% and vel oci ty vector angular error of, 2 MR
NAV, DATA
*TO DISPLAYS
Fig.15 . I ntegrated multisensor navi gati on ,system
I .
10- 20
7
f==
0' I 1 I
0 1 2 3 + 2 r G 7 8 4 1 0
rrw C : H R ~ J
Fig.16 Doppler-inertial-radio navigation system (after Ref.10)
F i g .17 H i g h 1 y i nt eg rated Do ppl er- i nert i a1 -rad i o nav i gat i on ,system package
11
LORAN SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY
by
Lt. Col. Russel l E. Weaver, J r., USAF
I nterl aboratory Technology Division
Di rector of Laboratori es
Ai r Force Systems Command
Andrews AFB, Maryland
11
SUMMARY
Loran has long met acceptance as a hyperbolic positioning device fulfilling requi rements specified
i n mi l es of accuracy.
frequencies rather than radi o frequencies for locating cannon position during World War L
World War 11the development of radio frequency generators made hyperbolic radio systems technically
feasible i n th'e f orm of GEE and Loran.
in the 2-8 MH, region with 100-200 KH, development appearing i n 1945.
peri ods of i nterest and disdain are noted up to the present period.
although there is great i nterest generated, there is al so a lack of the necessary across-the-board
support to effectively implement and use this highly accurate position aid,
The first known application of hyperbolic systems involved the use of audio
During
During the period 1940-1945, Loran development was pursued
Subsequent to this, al ternate
We are now in a phase i n which,
With the passage of time, area coverage has been enhanced both by higher-powered transmi tters and
by the siting of additional chains.
and recei ver improvements which can satisfy requi rements of accuraci es specified i n yards or meters.
As a resul t, one can now envision a multiplicity of uses, both public and pri vate, to which an unlimited
number of users can avai l themselves.
Additionally, technology advances have made possible transmi tter
This paper will present a background introduction of hyperbolic radi o ai ds f rom i ts inception to the
present day. From this, we wi l l proceed"int0 a basic
description of Loran transmi tters and recei vers which outlines chain configurations, chain coverage,
recei ver types and control /di spl ay capabilities. The paper wi l l then delve pri mari l y into applications
which are envisioned as a resul t of recent technology advances. A front runner among these various
applications i s the use of Loran as a hybrid navigation system.
sensor i n existence has certai n inherent limitations, most, if not all of these, can be successfully
overcome by the appropri ate integration of these sensors into a common system.
number of applications i n which Loran can be effectively and profitably used commerci al l y are pre-
sented to sti mul ate planners and programmers.
I nitial uses and limitations wi l l be discussed.
Although each individual navigation
Additionally, a
11-1
Loran System Technology
Good morning ladies and gentlemen. It is certai nl y a deep pl easure to meet here with all of you and
enjoy your kind European hospitality.
accompanied Mr. Wladimir Reichel, an Ai r Force Systems Command technical di rector, on a survey
of i nerti al navigation programs and capabilities. I am sure many of you recal l Mr. Reichel from his
days as an engineering manager with Bendix and General Preci si on pri or to his government service.
Although Mr. Reichel passed away i n the Fal l of 1964, his vital contributions have led to great stri des
i n the field of low-cost, rel i abl e ai rcraft navigation. Under his patient tutelage I gained a profound
appreciation for hi s basi c concepts i n engineering design and development; simplicity, low-cost and
rel i abl e operation.
I l ast visited Europe in the Spring of 1964. At that ti me, I
In this paper I will present a background introduction of hyperbolic radio aids from its inception to
the present day.
descri pti on of Loran transmi tters and recei vers which outlines chain configurations, chain coverage,
recei ver types and control /di spl ay capabilities.
envisioned as a resul t of recent technology advances.
i s the use of Loran as a hybrid navigation system.
existence has certai n i nherent limitations, most, i f not all of these, can be successfully overcome by
the appropri ate integration of these sensors into a common system. Additionally, a number of
applications i n which Loran can be effectively and profitably used commerci al l y are presented to
sti mul ate pl anners and programmers.
I nitial uses and limitations wi l l be discussed. From thi s we will proceed into a basi c
I will then delve pri mari l y into applications which are
A front runner among these various applications
Although each individual navigation sensor i n
The first known practi cal application of position determination by measurement of the ti me
difference of arri val of signals involved the use of sound waves.
World War I for locating the position of hidden cannon.
measured at three different receiving stations rel ati ve to a master clock at a f i re control Center.
Comparison of these ti mes indicated the ti me difference of arri val between,adjacent pai rs of recei vers.
These data were then used to draw two hyperbolas, the i ntersecti on of which located the origin of the
cannon report.
sound ti me arri val s resul ted i n very basi c limitations being imposed on i ts wide spread use.
A system of this type was used in
The ti me of arri val of the cannon report was
The short range of the sound waves coupled with the measurement accuraci es of the
With the technical explosion of electronics i n the 1930-1940 era which provided the development of
high-powered radi o frequency generators and equipment which could measure ti me to high accuraci es,
the transl ati on of hyperbolic positioning methods into radi o systems became appropriate.
practi cal application of this hyperbolic method was used quite extensively by the Allied Ai r Forces i n
World War II. The system involved the synchronous transmi ssi on of radi o frequency pulses of two to
ten mi crosecond duration from three to four ground transmi tters separated by about 75 miles.
ti me difference of arri val of the pulses from the ground transmi tters was measured by a recei ver unit
composed of a cathode ray tube with a ti me base cal i brated by indices obtained from a stabl e oscillator.
Measurements to an accuracy of about one microsecond were obtained and provided a system positioning
accuracy varying from three hundred meters at the baselines to five mi l es at maxi mum range with a
nominal two to three mi l e accuracy i n the servi ce area.
The f i rst
The
Loran, an acronym deri ved f rom- kng Range Navigation, had its inception i n 1940 when the United
States National Defense Research Committee was assigned the job of developing a long range, preci si on
aircraft navigation system.
hundred mi l es, it, was planned to use synchronized pai rs of pulse-type transmi tters separated by several
hundred mi l es and radiating a peak power of 1. 5 megawatts.
groundwave signals only. It was apparent from test data, however, that skywave stability was much
better than anticipated.
of ground and skywaves could provide position accuraci es of better than five mi l es to a range of 1,500
miles.
sufficient to redi rect the program toward this new goal.
To meet the operational requi rements of 300 meters at a range of two
The original concepts involved the use of
Based on the measurements, it was determined that a system using a combination
The additional benefits which could be obtained from a system of this range and accuracy were
By 1943 the program had been turned over to the U. S. Navy with the U. S. Coast Guard and Royal
Canadian Navy assigned transmi tter operational responsibilities.
system and l arge scal e procurement, installation, and training began.
Loran had proved to be a useful
The first versi on of Loran, now known as Loran A, operated i n the 1.8 - 2. 0 megahertz band and i s
now widely implemented over the earth. Variations of Loran A occurred during this period and are
di scussed briefly to note the evolving technology. One of these, Skywave Synchronized Loran, al so
operated at t wo megahertz; however, the stations maintained synchronization through the use of skywaves
rather than groundwaves. Due to propagation restri cti ons coverage was only available at night which was
the maj or drawback of the system. Flight testing demonstrated position accuracy of one to two miles.
Deployment to Europe and North Africa was accomplished i n 1944 with the system used extensively for
support of night bombing operations and si mi l ar accuraci es.were obtained throughout Europe. Skywave
Long-Baseline Loran was tested in 1946. Si mi l ar to Skywave Synchronized Loran, but operated at 10.6
megahertz for daytime use, thks system was terminated by frequency allocation probl ems although test
resul ts were satisfactory.
11-2
The first low frequency, 180 kilohertz, Loran was placed i n operation in 1945. It had been recognized
that this frequency would provide i ncreased accuracy and greatl y extended coverage, both day and night.
The system was basically an extension of two megahertz Loran into the lower frequency. The trans-
mi tters operated i n synchronized tri pl ets i nstead of pai rs; however, and i n addition to pul se envelope
matching, individual radio frequency cycl es of the master and sl ave pulses were displayed.
recei vers were designed to provide for visual correl ati on of pulses and cycles. A rough correl ati on was
first made using the pul se envelopes and a fine correl ati on using selected cycles within each pulse.
system was deployed i n support of Arcti c maneuvers in 1946 and then submitted to extensive evaluation.
The resul ts showed that longer baselines could be used, that 24 hours coverage overland could be pro-
vided and an accuracy of fifty meters at 750 mi l es could be obtained. Conversely, operators could not
correl ate cycles without some pri or knowledge of the pulse envelope delay resulting i n positional
ambiguities which were unacceptable.
The
This
To solve the ambiguity probl em development of cycl e identification and phase measuri ng techniques
This resul ted i n a government-industry program called CYCLAN, CYCLe matching
The cyclic ambiguity probl em was solved
were undertaken.
LorAN. Cyclan was the first fully automatic Loran system.
through the use of pul se transmi ssi ons on two frequencies twenty kilohertz apart.
correl ati on at one frequency was apparent by a mi smatch at the second frequency.
cated by i nterference probl ems with adjacent frequencies although they did show the probl em could be
solved. 'The approach became prohibitive, however, i n 1947 when the Atlantic City Radio Conference
designated the 90-1 10 kilohertz band for the development of long-range navigation systems.
I ncorrect cycle
Tests were compli-
In 1952 development began on a long range, automatic, tacti cal bombing system called CYTAC, Cycl e
- TACtical ,system. A pulsed Loran system operating i n the 90-110 kilohertz band provided the gr ound
reference portion of the system.
and ti me differences were abl e to be determi ned within tenths of a microsecond. For operational reasons
the system development was dropped; however, the use of Loran as a navigation aid was readi l y apparent.
This led, i n 1957, to an operational requi rement for a highly accurate, long-range, mari ti me radi o
navigation aid.
A.
i n operation on the United States East Coast i n 1958 and was designated Loran C.
demonstrated repeatabl e positioning accuraci es of 75 meters over an area of more than one million
square miles.
throughout the world.
Automatic methods were used to solve the cycl e identification probl em
The accuracy and range requi rements were far i n excess of those available from Loran
Utilizing the developments achieved under the CYTAC program, equipment was produced and placed
Operational evaluation
Since that ti me, numerous other Loran C stations have been installed and are operational
With the advent of requi rements to support quick reaction deployments of limited forces and the
attendant navigational needs i nterest was again rai sed in tacti cal systems.
A i r Force, i n 1964, initiating the development of a tacti cal Loran system whiqh became known as
Loran D. The performance of Loran D i s si mi l ar to Loran C.
design tradeoffs were required. Basically, this consisted of smal l er and l ess powerful transmi tters to
provide greater transportability.
of pul ses per pulse group was doubled and operation was restri cted to the higher pulse group repetition
rates.
This resul ted i n the U. S .
To satisfy tacti cal requi rements some
To offset the performance degradation accompanying thi s, the number
Evaluation of this system was completed i n 1968.
Since Loran C and Loran D are the systems receiving pri mary emphasi s today and recei vers being
developed can operate in a Loran C or Loran D environment, the term Loran C/D is applicable to the
description of transmi tters and recei vers presented next.
Loran C/D, as are all hyperbolic navigation systems, is based on the principle that radi o frequency
energy i s propagated through space with a finite and known velocity.
arri val ti mes of synchronized signals from two transmi tters by a recei ver provides a measure of the
difference i n the distance of the propagation paths traversed by each signal.
coverage area of the transmi tters, a parti cul ar ti me difference can be measured.
points with the same ti qe difference from a pai r of transmi tters i s a hyperbola, and each pai r of trans-
mi tters will have a family of hyperbolas of constant ti me difference associ ated with it. Measurement of
a ti me difference pl aces a recei ver on a parti cul ar line of position, and a simultaneous measurement of
a second ti me difference f rom a second station pai r determi nes a position f i x for the recei ver.
A measurement of the difference i n
At any position within the
The locus of all
Fi gure 1 is a di agram of a typical Loran chain, consisting of a master station (M) and two sl ave
stations, A and B.
hyperbolas, and a gri d of constant ti me difference lines i s formed over the coverage area.
Each pai r of stations (M and A, M and B) generates a family of ti me difference
The equation for determining any ti me difference (TD) hyperbolic line is i l l ustrated as follows using
the master and sl ave A pair:
TDA =z (dma t dar - dmr) t CDA
C'
Where: n =atmospheri c index of refracti on
c =signal propagation velocity
dma =distance from the master to sl ave A
dar =distance from sl ave A to the recei ver
11-3
dmr - - distance from the master to the recei ver
CDA =coding delay of the A slave signal.
A si mi l ar equation will generate the family of constant ti me difference hyperbolas for the master-
sl ave E pair.
The coordinate system that is generated by a Loran chain i s not orthogonal. The crossi ng angles of
the ti me difference lines and the gradient of the grid, the rati o of the measurement of a change of position
to the corresponding change in ti me difference numbers, are dependent upon the geometry of the Loran
chain and the position of the measuring recei ver within the grid.
geometry for different locations within the grid,
Blocks 1 and 2 i l l ustrate the varying
A change in the relative positions of the transmitting stations of the chain would al so change the
coordinate system that is generated.
baselines aperture angle of 1450.
i n operation have aperture angles of 150 to 1600 and baseline lengths of 350 to 1,000 nautical miles.
each case, once the configuration of the chain is fixed, a hyperbolic coordinate gri d can be computed for
the area of coverage.
The illustration in Fi gure 1 shows a chain with an angle between
Typical chains presentl y
I n
However, this configuration is not unique,
Three Loran coordinate gri ds are considered: Computed gri ds, predicted gri ds, and observed grids.
Computed Grid: If the transmi tter locations are known preci sel y and an appropri ate geoid i s chosen,
assumptions can be made as to the propagation paths and propagation velocities, and the time difference
problem can be solved for any point within the coverage area. If a smooth, homogeneous earth, with the
shape of the appropriate geoid, and with a conductivity of seawater i s assumed, a gri d can be generated
which is called a Loran Computed Grid.
approximation will be only as good as the assumption.
readily calculated with little knowledge of the nature of the parti cul ar coverage area of the chain.
more knowledge of the parameters of the coverage area is obtained, this rough approximation, the
computed grid, can be refined.
This gri d will be an approximation of the real world grid; the
The advantage of the computed gri d i s that i t is
As
Predi cted Grid: Since accurate ti me difference measurements in Loran C or Loran D systems are made
by measuri ng the phase of the received pulses, i t i s necessary to consider factors which affect the phase
i f the computed grid i s to be refined. For the computed model, a smooth, homogeneous surface with a
conductivity of seawater is assumed. I n real i ty, this surface is neither smooth nor homogeneous and its
conductivity will vary greatl y throughout the coverage area. Al l these factors will affect the phase of the
propagated pul ses, and hence, will di stort the computed ti me difference grid.
The effect of paths of mixed conductivity on the phase of a 100 kilohertz Loran signal can be accounted
for by a second phase factor.
paths of the radiated Loran signals.
can be refined into a predicted grid.
over the coverage area, but for small areas within the coverage area can be consi dered as a l i near
displacement of one or both sets of ti me difference lines. Thus, a predicted gri d for a smal l area can
easily be constructed from the computed gri d by merel y shifting the computed ti me difference lines by a
distance equal to the secondary phase factor.
This secondary phase factor is a correcti on for the mixed conductivity
With these secondary phase factor correcti ons, the computed gri d
This predicted grid will be a di storted model of the computed gri d
Observed Grid:
predicted gri d are, of course, subject to error and are limited by our ability to measure the various
parameters involved.
or are beyond presei t abilities to measure or separate from each other.
of ti me difference numbers that are measured by a Loran recei ver in a real Loran environment may differ
from the gri d that was predicted.
The assumptions and the perturbation predictions that have been made in developing the
There are al so other perturbations which may not have been enti rel y accounted for
As a resul t, the observed gri d
Although the distortions of the Loran gri d are not entirely predictable, i t has been observed that the
A gri d of Loran ti me difference numbers can be observed distortions are generally constant with time.
and recorded and although i t differs from the predicted gri d, subsequent measured gri ds will provide
ti me difference values which will be cl ose to those of the original grid.
originally observed gri d and a subsequently observed grid is, then, a measure of the repeatable accuracy
of a Loran system.
The difference between the
There are two types of accuraci es with which we are concerned: Absolute accuracy and repeatable
accuracy.
Absolute, or geographic accuracy is the ability of the system to measure the position of a point in
relation to a set of geographic coordinates.
ti me difference coordinate system and then converts these to a position in geographical coordinates.
This absolute accuracy, then, i s dependent upon the accuracy to which the factors involved in the ti me
difference probl em can be predicted or measured.
A Loran system makes position measurements i n a hyperbolic
I n order to determi ne an accurate geographic measure of the distance between the stations of the chain,
it is necessary to know the exact position of the transmitting si tes. All of these si tes must be located on
11-4
the same geographic datum in which the system i s to be used.
station can resul t in a l arge error in position of a receiver.
servi ce area but i s a function of position of the receiver.
transmitting stations is necessary to compute accurate recei ver location.
A smal l error in position of a single
This error is not constant throughout the
Thus, the preci se geographic location of the
Another requi rement for absolute accuracy is the ability to accuratel y determi ne the velocity of
propagation of the electromagnetic energy.
based on distance.
the absolute accuracy of the system.
index of refracti on of the atmosphere and the finite conductivity of the earth's surface along the propagation
path. Also, the varying conductivity of the surface of the earth along the propagation path di storts the
phase information of the transmi tted signal.
the position,shape, and conductivity of all land and water masses in the servi ce area.
which affects absolute accuracy is the accuracy of the coordinate conversion scheme of the position
measurement equipment.
All measurements are made in time, but predictions are
Therefore, errors in the assumption of the propagation velocity equation will affect
The principal factors which affect this propagation velocity are the
Therefore, absolute accuracy al so requi res a knowledge of
Another factor
Lastly, in order to determi ne geodesic distances to any position in the servi ce area, it is necessary
to have knowledge of the geoid, or the shape of the surface of the earth. For instance, the I nternational
Spheroid i s used in the Norwegian Sea area, while the Cl ark Spheroid of 1866 i s used in the United States.
The shapes of each of these spheroids are different and will affect the accuracy of the ,calculations in the
ti me difference problem.
Repeatable accuracy is a stati sti cal measure of the ability of a Loran system to repeat the position
measurement of a location.
have been measured, the ability of a recei ver to return to that point is a measure of i ts repeatable
accurircy.
velocity variations and, consequently, errors of repeatable accuracy are smal l er than those of absolute
accuracy.
errors of the total Loran system.
chain geometry, the variations of the parameters in the time difference problem, and the ability of the
Loran recei ver to properl y receive, measure, and i nterpret the transmi tted Loran signals in the presence
of radi o noise, i nterference, and dynamics.
I t is, i n other words, return tri p accuracy. Once the coordinates of a point
Repeatable accuracy is not affected by the errors of coordinate conversion or propagation
Repeatable accuracy is pri mari l y affected by the errors contributed by the noise and dynamic
Repeatable accuracy is a function of the transmi tter stability, the
Since Loran is not an orthogonal system, accuracy is a function of the position of a recei ver within
the coverage area.
will resul t i n errors of different si zes, depending upon the location of the measurement.
chain configuration, accuracy contour plots, consisting of lines of constant error, can be constructed
which descri be the accuracy to be expected at any point within the coverage area of the chain.
As shown in Fi gure 1, an error in time difference measurement of 0. 1 microsecond
For any given
J ust as there is no unique chain configuration, there is al so no unique Loran equipment configuration,
see Fi gure 2. Present Loran-C environments throughout the world are provided by three generations of
equipment with numerous modifications to update each to take advantage of the advancing state of the art.
Included are transmi tters from 300 to 5,000 kilowatts peak power radiated, antennas 625 feet, 1,000 feet
and 1,350 feet tall, and pulse group repetition rates from 10 to 20 pulse groups per second. The Loran D
configuration that was developed i s al so not unique.
terms of power levels, antenna heights, station locations and chain geometry.
Loran D can be an extremely flexible system in
The signals which the Loran transmi tter emi ts are omnidirectional pulses. Each pulse l asts about
200 microseconds, Fi gure 3. They are transmi tted in groups of eight, separated by 1,000 microsecond
intervals for Loran C and in groups of sixteen, separated by 500 microsecond intervals for Loran D,
Fi gure 4. The group repetition rate can vary from 10 to 25 pulse groups per second from one Loran
chain to another. The transmi ssi on of pulse groups rather than single pulses allows each transmi tter
to operate at a greatl y reduced power and sti l l provide wide area coverage of the 100 kilohertz signals.
Within each of the multi-pulse groups the phase of the RF carri er is changed with respect to the pulse
envelope in a systematic manner from pulse to pulse.
accordance with a predetermi ned code so that it is either in phase or 180 degrees out of phase w'ith the
100 kilohertz reference.
The phase of each pulse i n a group i s changed in
The pulse code used at the master station is different from that used at the slave stations. Use of the
phase coded pulses provides some protection against outside i nterferences and reduces groundwave
contamination from skywaves of the previous pulse which assi sts in extending the area of groundwave
coverage.
an automatic search and identification of the master and sl ave stations.
providing convenience, provides reception when the signal to noise rati o becomes s o poor that visual
acquisition is precluded.
The phase coding al so provides automatic recei vers the necessary logic information to conduct
Automatic. search, in addition to
The pri mary components comprising the transmitting station are the transmi tter, antenna, and ti mer
synchronizer. The transmi tter generates, shapes and del i vers pulses to the antenna. The antenna i s
usually an el ectri cal l y short pole with top loading.
timing reference, produces the tri ggers used by the-transmi tter to generate and time the pulses and
determi nes whether the station operates as a master or sl ave station.
The ti mer synchronizer provides the basic system
..
11-5
The first prerequi si te imposed on the recei ver i n order for it to provide a rel i abl e time difference
output is that it sampl e all received signals at a set sampling point.
of Loran C the skywave is delayed at l east thi rty microseconds beyond groundwave receipt.
smaller area covered by Loran D, skywave delay is sixty microseconds.
at this number of mi croseconds after arri val of the signal to avoid skywave contamination while providing
operation on greater signal energy levels than that available earl i er in the signal.
received, the recei ver delays the envelope by five mi croseconds, i nverts it, then combines it with the
undelayed envelope, Fi gure 5.
which i s fixed in the recei ver design. This is the sampling point mentioned earl i er and as stated is at
thi rty mi croseconds for Loran C and sixty microseconds for Loran D.
For the groundwave coverage area
In the
Received signals are analyzed
When a signal is
The derived envelope which resul ts crosses the zero point at a point
I nsi de the recei ver, sampling gates, one for the master signal and one for each sl ave signal, are used
to locate the sampling points and to sampl e the voltage of these points.
sampling gates and sampling pulses in coincidence with each other through the use of servos, each servo
controlling the sampling gate by advancing or delaying it, depending whether it is in the positive or
negative position of the deri ved envelope. With the sampling gates of the master and sl ave signals being
maintained in coincidence, the. ti me difference between the two gates serves as a coarse measurement.
Fi ne measurement is obtained by comparing the phase of the received signals. Since the master and sl ave
signal arri ve at different ti mes thei r phase must be compared to a reference frequency. This is generated
by a stabl e osci l l ator within the recei ver whose frequency and phase are locked to those of the master
signal by a Type 11servo. It is then only necessary to compare the phase of the sl ave si gnal with the phase
of the reference frequency to obtain phase difference. . The combination of the coarse and fine measurement
combined to provide a ti me difference output for locating a l i ne of position. By using a time difference A
and B, TDA and TDB, a position is determined. These same techniques, descri bed for an analog recei ver,
are being applied to the design of digital recei vers.
The recei ver then maintains the
Automatic recei vers now produced have the capability of measuri ng two simultaneous ti me differences
continuously s o that accurate position information is available at all ti mes the recei ver is tracking. These
ti me differences may be applied manually to a navigation probl em or be coupled el ectroni cal l y to a
computer which can then provide any of the parameters associ ated with the navigation probl em such as
track/cross track, ground speedfheading, et cetera, Fi gure 6.
We have previously noted that Type 11servos, which display zero velocity error, are used in the
tracking loops. Therefore, bandwidth requi rements are established by accel erati ons experienced when the
recei ver is carri ed on a maneuvering ai rcraft. Errors i n response of the tracking servos to accel erati on
mani fest themselves as lags i n the phase information. It becomes apparent then that i f the accel erati on
is severe enough to cause a five microsecond lag i n the tracking servo, the servo could slip cycles. As
a resul t, a wide servo bandwidth is indicated. Alternately, si gnal to noise rati o is improved i nversel y
as the square root of the bandwidth s o it is desi rabl e that the servo bandwidth be as narrow as possible.
These conflicting requi rements are met by designing the recei ver for two modes of operation, a narrow
band mode for tracking under constant velocity and a wide band mode for maneuvering. Even under
constant aircraft velocities, however, accel erati ons are generated by noise in the recei ver and l i mi t the
narrow band which may be tolerated. Therefore, the servo bandwidth of the recei ver is one of the con-
trolling factors on accuracy, range, requi red transmi tted power, and system information rate.
bandwidth of the recei ver can be considerably improved provided an external accel erati on sensing source
is available to assist the tracking servos i n maneuvering flight.
The
One source of accel erati on information which al so offers other i mmedi ate advantages i s the i nerti al
The association of Loran with I nerti al systems is a natural arrangement because of
On the other hand, Loran is a
measurement unit.
the different yet compl ementary characteri sti cs of the two systems.
possess high short-term accuracy, and operate i n all areas of the globe.
radi o navigation system that possesses extremel y high l ong-term accuracy.
I nerti al systems are self-contained,
Some radi o systems, like Loran, are closed-loop systems with respect to position and are thus dri ft
Of necessi ty, these systems use signals contaminated by atmospheri c noi se and i nterference, and free.
therefore must be designated with a fundamental compromi se between speed of response to vehicle
maneuver and immunity to noise and interference. On the other hand, I nerti al systems are open loop
with respect to position and are subject to drift, but they have no i nternal noise source comparabl e to
atmospheri c noise.
with time.
requi red of the Loran becomes only that necessary to keep up with the dri ft of the I nerti al system s o that
the effective bandwidth of the Loran can be made very much narrower with a corresponding i ncrease i n
immunity to noi se and interference. The closed-loop character of the Loran conveys this characteri sti c
to the I nerti al system, making it dri ft free.
Loran and I nerti al systems are actually improved by the other's performance and while ei ther can take
over i f one system should become inoperative.
different, it is necessary that the combination of the two be performed within a computer.
are now in use which perform thi s conversion and additionally, solve and display a vari ety of other
information.
Consequently, thei r speed of response is not limited, although the indication dri fts
It follows that if the Loran and I nerti al systems are integrated, then the information rate
We then have a compl ete feedback system where both the
Since the coordinate frames of Loran and I nerti al are
Computers
Now that we have looked into the hi story of Loran, exploring uses to which it was applied and noting
limitations which arose, and di scussed the present day technology and capabilities, l et us consi der
11-6
applications which can be made of this information source which is available to an unlimited number of
users within the servi ce area.
combine into an optimal system for navigational purposes.
systems, this combination appears to offer more i mmedi ate assi stance to the navigation problem, more
informational parameters, and greater confidence i n the system operation and reliability.
We have j ust di scussed how Loran and I nertial, when properl y integrated,
Indeed, when we talk of hybrid navigation
With the preci se data available to ei ther the ai rcraft or a ground control point f rom a Loran I nerti al
system, i mmedi ate extensions of traffic control and navigation become apparent.
becomes possi bl e i n a common position gri d coordinate system.
rather than a point-to-point problem.
myri ad of navigation ai ds are replaced by one Loran chain.
use of Loran and the attendant performance could al so repl ace approach aids.
approaches have been made to ai rfi el ds using Loran to the same preci si on provided by the l ocal approach
aid.
Traffic control
Navigation becomes an area probl em
I mmediate savings i n ground equipment become possible when a
In addition, to enroute navigation ai ds, the
I nstrument landing
From the foregoing we may observe that pri mary developmental support for Loran is in the area of
ai rcraft navigation. For a number
of years now, Loran has served as a preci se positioning device for the mari ti me industry. Fishing fleets
can use Loran as a device to return to otherwise unmarked fishing beds as wel l as navigation to and from
these beds in fair or adverse weather. The use of Loran could be further applied with respect to mari ne
life for observing thei r short-term movements or even tracking thei r sea'sonal migrations.
.advent of automatic Loran, the capability exi sts to extend oceanographic applications even further.
placing the recei ver i n suitable packages , such as buoys, various untended experiments become possible.
Ocean'-wide current studies could be accomplished from fixed bases by data link position tracking of the
instrumented buoy.
by aeri al implanting of a Loran position retransmi tter.
isolated islands that seem to move from one charting to another now becomes possible to an accuracy
never before achievable.
drilling operations.
However, let us now investigate other uses to exploit thi s capability.
Since the
By
In the arcti c regions continuous tracking of i ceberg movement could be made available
More preci se mapping of both the ocean floor and
This superi or performance could al so be economically extended in off -shore
Moving from the ocean to the atmosphere, one can envision si mi l ar uses to ocean current tracking.
Upper air current movement tracking could be accomplished more accuratel y and economically with a
balloon carri ed Loran device and a data link, relaying position and other valuable information to a fixed
ground station. Similarly, local weather observation balloons, employing only a Loran retransmi tter
could rel ay position information to the ground regardl ess of weather restri cti ons.
Although the pri mary use of Loran to date has been concerned with air and sea uses, i ts greatest
potential appears to be i n surface applications.
air traffic control relatively little is observed in the ground environment.
attendant with such thinking, however, make it appropri ate to di scuss them in some detail.
areas, when positioning determination is available i n meters rather than ki l ometers, positive control
and traffic management becomes possible with i ts i mmedi ate economic benefits. Optimization processes,
applied through Queuing theory, can be made a real ti me process i n the handling of urban bus transporta-
tion.
too restri cti ve to provide optimum servi ce and revenue. Central control, with knowledge of position and
load factors, can be made to provide optimum utilization resulting in i ncreased use of the servi ces si nce
they would now be dependable.
i ncreased load factors. Much the same line of reasoning can be applied to' the city taxi servi ce which we
all agree seems.to operate i n a rather haphazard, random manner, for a profit oriented venture. It
seems possible that our urban civil servi ces, pri mari l y law enforcement, could use some system in
effecting departmental efficiencies.
trucking, rail, and inland waterways, the same advantages are likely to incur.
While much thought has gone into traffic management for
Within urban
The economic considerations
Existing schedules, while they do make an attempt to conform to traffi c flow variations, are far
This, i n turn, would improve revenues beyond that envisioned only by
Expanding these thoughts to long distance transportati on i n the
For our more isolated land areas, Loran or Loran retransmi ssi on techniques may have application to
such areas as tracking exploration parti es or assi sti ng them in following predetermi ned routings.
the survi vor aspects such techniques would provide far more positive and effective rescue operations.
From .
The high order of stability achieved i n Loran suggests considerable meri t in i ts use for timing measure-
ments.
provides the capability of synchronizing and setting clocks to an accuracy of one microsecond.
capability of Loran for improving ti me measurement accuracy over wide areas makes possible the synchro-
nization of the various Loran chains.
from different chains. Posi ti ve control of ai rcraft is al so enhanced as well as location of thunderstorms.
Additionally, astronomi cal phenomena investigations are assi sted by better ti me measurement availability.
A cl ose correl ati on of skywave phase changes with sol ar fl ares and proton events observed i n past studies
show that new studies may give further insight to geomagnetic propagation paths and ionospheric changes.
The National Bureau of Standards and the U. S. Naval Observatory have indicated that Loran
This
Therefore, position determinations can be made by using stations
The applications j ust di scussed may have other than engineering considerations which presentl y precl ude
However, they have been presented to gain your attention and perhaps enable you to conceive thei r adoption.
of other applications within your specific area of endeavor.
to meet with you all, and I thank you for your kind attention.
It has certai nl y been a rewarding experience
11-7
REFERENCES
Loran C System of Navigation, February 1962. Prepared for the U. S. Coast Guard by J ansky and Bailey.
Alexandria, Virginia.
Tactical Air Navigation, Technical Report No. 68-09. Elmer M. Lipsey, 9 September 1964, International
Engineering Co. , Arlington. Virginia.
Use of the Loran C System for Time and Frequency Dissemination. Frequency Technology, Vol. 7, No. 7,
i
I
J uly 1969, pg. 13, Paul E. Pakos, Lieut. Commander, USCC.
11-8
Fig. 1 Typical Loran chain
Fig. 2 Global Loran coverage
11-9
4
SEC on mow sa: o r H m s r a &LSE 04
LORANS UEPETIVON / NEUVAL
Fig. 3 Loran-C signal characteristics
TRANSMITTED PULSE ENVELOPE
I-----.
TRANSmIT TED PULSE PATTERNS
Fig. 4 Loran-D signal characteristics
11-10
6.m+s p t . ma.t.r
1 - 0
-Tlrn. d8Ir.r.n.. . "". l . P. ~
Fig. 5 Localization of sampling points
DISPLAY
START TD
Fig. 6 Loran controlldisplay
SYSTEME DE NAVIGATION A INERTIE
WBRIDE OPTIMISE
P. FAURRE
S.A.G.E.M., 6, avenue dIBna, PARIS XVIe, France
-0-
12
'12
SOMMAIRE :
L'utilisation optimale d'informations redondantes est
Les methodes modernes de filtrane statistique, particuliiirement
un probllme de nature statistique.
bien adaptles au traitement sur
calculateur numlrique, sont foniles sur une reprlsentation markovienne des signaux algatoires (filtre
de Kalman-Bucy) .
On expose dans cette conference les principes utilises pour la conception d'un systlme de
navigation optimise utilisant une plate-forme B inertie, ainsi que des informations de vitesse
(Doppler) et des mesures de position intermittentes.
Aprls l'lvaluation des performances et des possibilitgs d'alignement en vol d'un tel
systlme, on expose les probllmes lies B la sensibilite et B la mecanisation numerique du filtre
digital utilisl.
12-1
1 - UTI LI SATI ON OPTI MALE DES I NFORMATI ONS :
1 . 1 Les met hodes d' ut i l i sat i on opt i mal e des i nf or mat i ons sont essent i el l ement des met hodes
st at i st i ques : connai ssant l es l oi s de pr obabi l i t es des di ver ses var i abl es d' un pr obl l me,
i l est possi bl e d' est i mer au mi eux l'une de ces var i abl es sui vant un cr i t l r e donne.
Ai nsi supposons que nous ayons deux mesur es i ndependant es
y1 et y2 d' une mZme quant i t l x
Yl = x +w1 ( 1)
Y2 = x +w2 (2)
03 l es er r eur s
var i ances 01' et 0 2 ~ (on di t al or s que l es mesur es yi et y2 sont ent achees d' un br ui t bl anc w).
Al or s l a mei l l eur e est i mee de x
w1 et wp sont deux var i abl es al gat oi r es i ndependant es. cent r 6es et de
1 par t i r de y1 et y2 est donnee par
' J Z2 al p
% - Y1+ Y2 (3)
"712 + U22 U12 +U22
Cet t e est i mee est qual i f i ee de "mei l l eure", car l a var i ance de l ' erreur r esi duel l e
2 = x - P (4)
est ai nsi mi ni mi see.
1. 2 Soi t 21 pr esent un pr obl l me pl us compl exe d' est i mat i on en t emps reel . On obt i ent aux i nst ant s
di scr et s 1 , 2, ..., n... l es mesur es y de l a gr andeur x.
ent achees, du br ui t bl anc wi
Al or s l a mei l l eur e est i mee de x (au sens' de l a var i ance de l ' erreur r esi duel l e mi ni mal e),
et ant donne l es mesur es yl , ..., yn, est
Y1 + + Yn
n
(8)
$ =
Loasque l ' on obt i ent une nouvel l e mesur e yn+l 21 l ' i nstant n + 1 , l a nouvel l e est i mee est
Yl + +Yn+l
$+1 =
n + 1
0
Les f or mul es (8) et (9) n' ont aucun car act l r e r ecur si f . Par cont r e, si l ' on l cr i t ( 9)
sous l a f or me
Cet t e nouvel l e f or mul e pr esent e l e car act l r e r ecur si f , c' est 21 di r e que
i) Pour l e pr obl eme qui nous i nt er esse ( est i mer x), % r esume par f ai t ement l es mesur es
passees y1, ..., yn ; en d' aut res t er mes, 2,, et ant cal cul e , i l est i nut i l e de
conser ver l a t abl e des mesur es passees (ce qui n' est pas vr ai dans l e cas 03 l ' on
ut i l i se une f or mul e non r ecur si ve du t ype ( 9) .
L' apost rophe ' desi gne l a t r ansposi t i on mat r i ci el l e et 6 (t - T) est l ' i mpul si on de Di r ac.
12-2
1.3
1.3
i i ) Lorsqu' une nouvel l e mesur e Y,+~ est obt enue, l a nouvel l e est i mee 2 n+l est une
n+l '
combi nai son de 2 et de y
n
i i i ) Si l ' on a dej a cal cul e fi n, l es cal cul s a ef f ect uer pour obt eni r 2 par une f or mul e
r ecur si ve (IO) sont bi en moi ns vol umi neux que par l ' expressi on (9f
d' operat i ons si n = 100 par exempl e).
(coruparer l e nombr e
En gener al l es pr obl smes d' est i mat i on en t emps r eel ne consi st ent pas B est i mer une quant i t e
x const ant e, mai s une quant i t e x(t) var i ant avec l e t emps, c' est 1 di r e une f onct i on al gat oi r e.
On peut mont r er que l es f or mul es r ecur si ves du t ype (IO) se gener al i sent si (et seul ement si )
x(t) est un pr ocessus maxkovi en ou, de f af on Squi val ent e, s'il est l ' dtat d' un syst l me
l i neai r e (en gener al non st at i onnai r e) exci t e par un br ui t bl anc.
Le modl l e gener al est donc l e sui vant ( voi r f i gur e 1)
i)
Le pr ocessus vect or i el mar kovi en x(t) de di mensi on n est r epr bsent e par l ' equat i on di f f e-
r ent i el l e l i neai r e
2 =F (t) x +v (t) ( 11)
03
F (t) =mat r i ce dynami que n x n en gener al dependant du t emps
v (t) =br ui t bl anc cont i nu d6f i ni par
E {v (t)) = 0
E {v (t) v' (TI) = Q ( t > 6 (t -T>
et par l a condi t i on i ni t i al e x (to) def i ni e par
I
i i ) Les obser vat i ons y de di mensi ons p sont
Y (ti ) - H (ti ) +w ( t i > (16)
03
H (ti ) = mat r i ce d' observat i on p x n
w (ti ) - br ui t bl anc di scr et def i ni par
0
1.32 Les f or mul es r dcur si ves gener ant l a mei l l eur e. eot b6e 2 (t) de x (t), et ant donne l eo obser va-
t i ons passees y ( t l ) ...y (ti ), sont al or s
i) I ni t i al i sat i on 1 l ' i nstant t o
-
P (to) = xo (19)
E (to) = Ao (20)
a
L' apost rophe I ddsi gne l a t r ansposi t i on mat r i el l e et 6 (t - r) est l ' i mpul si on de Di r ac.
12-3
i i ) Ent r e deux obser vat i ons t i qt <t i +l
4 = F (t) 4
= F (t) C + C F' (t) +Q (t)
1 - K (ti ) H (ti ) 1 z(ti -)
oG 2 (ti - ) d6si gne. 11est i m6e de x (ti ), bt ant donne l es obser vat i ons y (ti ) . . . y (ti -!),
et 2 (ti +) l ' est i mee, dt ant donne y (tl ) . . . y (ti ).
Le cal cul de C (t) est necessai r e af i n de pouvoi r obt eni r l e gai n K du f i l t r e, c' est B
di r e l a ponder at i on 1 at t r i buer aux obser vat i ons.
La mat r i ce C (t) n' est r i en d' autre que l a var i ance de l ' erreur r bsi duel l e
2 = x - %
c' est 1 di r e que
E (t) = E { 2 (t) 2' (t) 1
La mecani sat i on en gener al numer i que, des equat i ons (19) 1 (25) est al or s ce que l ' on
appel l e un f i l t r e de Kal man. Cet t e mecani sat i on est sch6mat i s6e sur l a f i gur e 2 (IS), {6r).
1.4 Af i n d' appl i quer l es m6t hodes de f i l t r age r ecur si f ci - dessus exposees, i l convi ent donc de
met t r e l e pr obl l me consi der 6 sous l a f or me canoni que ( 1 1 ) 1 ( 18) . On r encont r e deux cas :
- l e pr obl he est i ni t i al ement pose sous cet t e f or me : c' est l e cas de nombr eux pr obl emes de
gui dage, 03 l ' bquat i on ( 1 1 ) est l ' equat i on des per t ur bat i ons du syst he consi dGr 6.
- l es f onct i ons consi dEr 6es sont d6f i ni es st at i st i quement par l eur s spect r es ou d' autres
car act er i st i ques st at i st i ques ; i l convi ent al or s de donner une r epr esent at i on mar kovi enne
de t el l es f onct i ons, ce qui est possi bl e soi t en ut i l i sant une met hode de f act or i sat i on,
soi t en ut i l i sant l e l emme de Yakubovi ch- Popov- Kal man { I } .
2 - SYSTEM!%DE NAVI GATI ON "BRI DE OPTI MI SE :
2.1 Lor sque l ' on veut r eal i ser un syst Zme de navi gat i on opt i mal ut i l i sant pl usi eur s sour ces
d' i nf or mat i on, on doi t donc const r di r e un modcl e mar kovi en r epr esent ant l es i nf or mat i ons
f our ni es par l ' ensembl e des i nst r ument s : ai nsi cer t ai nes var i abl es sont consi der 6es comme
appar t enant 1 l ' 6tat du pr ocessus mar kovi en, d' aut res comme Lt ant des obser vat i ons br ui t ees
sur cet St at .
Supposons que l e syst sme soi t composd :
- d' une pl at ef or me 1 i ner t i e
- d' un r adar Doppl er
- d' un bar 0 donnant l ' al t i t ude
- d' un i nst r ument donnant des i nf or mat i ons de posi t i on 1 des i nst ant s di scr et s,
Le model e est const r ui t de l a f ason sui vant e : on met dans l e vect eur d' Bt at l es er r eur s
dynami ques du syst sme 1 i ner t i e et t out es l es er r eur s i nst r ument al es qui ne sont pas des
br ui t sbl ancs. D' aut re par t , on f or me l a di f f er ence ent r e les par amEt r es de navi gat i on f our ni s
par l e systemme 1 i ner t i e d' une part et l es i nst r ument s auxi l i ai r es d' autre part ; l e r esul t at
est i nt er pr zt e comme une obser vat i on y sur l es er r eur s du syst he. A l ' ai de d' un f i l t r e de
Kal man, on cal cul e l a mei l l eur e est i mee de ces er r eur s qui per met de cor r i ger de f ason opt i mal e
l es par amet r es de navi gat i on et de r ecal er Bvent uel l ement l es di f f gr ent s syst smes. Le schema
de pr i nci pe appar ar t sur l a f i gur e 3 .
... I . . .
12-4
F i = O
Nous avons f i gur e d' autre par t un di agr amme pl us pr eci s du syst eme consi ddr d i ci
sur l a f i gur e 4 .
0 w z - ' " ) J r 0 0 0 0
- Uz 0 wx 0 0 0 0
w y - % 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 I O
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 - f z f y al l a12 0 2w:
f, 0 - -f, a21 a22 -2w, 0
<
2. 2 Modl l e mar kovi en du syst sme hybr i de ( erreurs hor i zont al es) :
2. 21 SystSrne B i ner t i e :
On consi der e un systemme B i ner t i e avec pl at e- f or me asser vi e au nor d. On cher che donc
B mai nt eni r l es axes de l a pl at e- f or me conf ondus avec l es axes gdogr aphi ques l ocaux ( voi r
f i gur e 6 ) . Les t aux de r ot at i on sur l es axes x, y et z sont :
wx = n cos L - vy I Ry
wy = vx f Rx
oz = n si n L - vy t g L I R,,
03
vx - vi t esse sur l ' axe x
vy = vi t esse sur l ' axe y
L = l at i t ude
n = r ot at i on t er r est r e
R,, R,, - r ayon de cour bur e de l a t er r e
On suppose que l e canal ver t i cal est t r ai t 6 par ai l l eur s et qu' i l n' y a pas d' erreur
cor r espondant e af i n d' al l dger l ' exposd.
Les eauat i ons r epr esent ant l a dynami que des er r eur s du syst l me B i ner t i e s' dcri vent
al or s { 81.
avec
03 :
0- Y , , Y , et '4, dds- $nent l es r ot at i ons aut our des axes pl at e- f or me {p} - 1i sant passer
du r eper e cal cul at eur {c], def i ni c ome l e t r i edr e geogr aphi que l ocal au poi nt cal cul 6 par
l e syst eme B i ner t i e, au r epsr e pl at e- f or me {PI ,
Y
- 6, et 6y desi gnent l es er r eur s de posi t i on sur l es axes x et y de l a pl at e- f or me,
- 6; et 6; desi gnent l es der i vees t empor el l es de 6, et 6y.
La mat r i ce Fi est donnee par :
avec
(33)
... I ...
12-5
et f,, f
absol ue' i hoi ns vect eur gravi t g) sur l es axes de pl at e- f orme.
et f, dl si gnent l es composant es de l a f or ce spl ci f i que ( vect eur accl l er at i on
Le vect eur U r epr l sent e l es er r eur s i nst r ument al es par mi l esquel l es nous avons
r et enu :
t
i) Les dl r i ves des gyr oscopes cx, et E ~ .
i i )
Les f act eur s d' l chel l e des gyr oscopes Kgx, Kgy et Kgz.
Ai nsi :
U1 = EX +Kgx WX
U2 = Ey + Kgy "y
U3 = 2 + Kgz wz
U4 U5 U6 U7 a 0
2. 22 Modl l e des er r eur s i nst r ument al es :
La der i ve ~i de chaque gyr oscope est r epr gsent l e par un modl l e d' ordre un :
Ei +vi (43)
OB vi est un br ui t bl anc
Les f act eur s d' l chel l e des gyr oscopes Kgi sont model l s par :
Kgi 0
E { Kgi 2 (0)) a' j o2.
Le Doppl er f our ni t sur l es axes avi ons X et Y des mesur es Vdx et Vd
des composant s
vr ai s VX et VY de l a vi t esse 1 condi t i on qu' el l e soi t supl r i eur e en modul e B un cer t ai n
seui l . Le mod$l e des er r eur s est
Vdy
ba +Vy +*.
Les bi ai s du Doppl er bdX et bdY sont model l s par :
bdi 0
et wx et wy sont des br ui t s bl ancs de covar i ance r 3 et r 4.
2 * 24 Mo p ~ h , d e s - e r r e u r s l u r - l e ~ - ~ s u ~ ~ ~ - ~ e - ~ o s ~ ~ ~ o ~ :
La posi t i on est supposee mesur l e 1 des i nst ant s di scr et s par di ver s moyens. On consi dsr e
que :
- l es er r eur s sont i ndl pendant es d' une mesur e B l a sui vant e,
- l ' erreur est car act l r i see par son C. E. P.
12-6
I
I
2.25 ModSl e mar kovi ei - gl obal :
On r euni t en un seul vect eur l es di ver ses er r eur s dynami ques et i nst r ument al es
I
I
consi der ees. On obt i ent ai nsi un vect eur de di mensi on 15
a
X = [ Xi ' , EX' Eys E Z s Kgxs Kgy, Kgz ~ bdx' bdY ] '
Le modl l e mar kovi en est al or s :
k = F x + v
avec
1 0 O ' W , 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 o o w z o o
0 1 0 o w 0 0 0
Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 ' 0 0 0
0
et v est un br ui t bl anc de covar i ance Q 6(t - T) avec
Q =Di ag {OOOOOOO q, qy qz. 00000 1 .
La mat r i ce de covar i ance i ni t i al e
E {X (0) X' (0)) = A 0
(54)
(55)
(non &ri t e i ci en det ai l ) cont i ent des t er mes pr ovenant des modSl es st at i st i ques des
er r eur s i nst r ument al es d' une par t , des er r eur s de l ' al i gnement i ni t i al du syst Sme d' autre
part .
Consi der ons 1 pr esent l es i nf or mat i ons f our ni es par l e Doppl er et l es mesur es de posi t i on
auxi l i ai r es.
i ) Mesur e de posi t i on
La di f f er ence ent r e l a posi t i on donnee par l e syst l me 1 i ner t i e et cel l e donnde
par l e moyen auxi l i ai r e de mesur e, Lqui vaut aux obser sat i ons :
y1 = 6x + w1 (57)
Y2 = 6Y +w2 (58)
03 w1 et w2 sont des br ui t s bl ancs de covar i ance r1 et r 2.
i i ) Vi t esse Doppl er
Si l e cap avi on est a , et si l ' on f or me l a di f f er ence ent r e l es vi t esses du
syst l me B i ner t i e et l es vi t esses Doppl er , on obt i ent {8}:
y3 = - vz si n a YX + vz cos a YY - vy Y Z + ( wz - asi n L) si n a 6~
- (wz - n si n L) cos a 6y' +cos a 6k + si n a
69 - bdX - wx
(59)
y4 = - vz cos a Yx - vz si n a Yy +vx Y Z + ( wz - Qsi n L) cos a 6x
+ ( wz -
si n L) si n a 6y - si n a 6k + cos a 69 - bdy - wy. (60)
... I ...
12- 7
Ai nsi t out es l es i nf or mat i ons ext 6r i eur es Lqui val ent 1 des obser vat i ons l i n6ai r es
br ui t ees sur l e vect eur d' 6tat x :
yi =hi x +wi
avec
hi = { 000100000000000 I
h2 { 000010000000000 I ( 6 3 )
h3 - I - vz si n a, vz cos a, - vy, ( wz - Qsi n L) si n a,
- ( wz - nsi n L) cos a, cos a, si n a, 0 0 0 0 0 0 - I 01
(64)
h4 = { - vz cos a, - vz si n a, vx, (w, - Qsi n L) COS a,
( wz -
si n L) si n a, - si n a , cos a, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -11
(65)
Le pr obl sme d' ut i l i sat i on opt i mal e de l ' ensembl e des i nst r ument s est ai nsi mi s sous
l a f or me canoni que d' un f i l t r e de Kal man ( voi r par agr aphe 1 ) .
3 - SI MULATI ON DES PERFORMANCES DU SYSTEME :
3.1 Le cal cul des per f or mances du syst sme est ai se. I 1 suf f i t d' i nt 6grer num6r i quement
l es Squat i ons (22) et (25) donnant l a covar i ance du vect eur d' 6tat. On obt i ent ai nsi l es
&car t s t ypes des er r eur s sur l es di ver s par amst r es de navi gat i on.
3. 2 On a r epr esent 6 1 l ' ai de de cour bes l es per f or mances 1 un &art t ype pour une t r aj ect oi r e
t ype -
Supposant d' abord un al i gnement i ni t i al cl assi que par gyr ocompas, on voi t
- sur l a f i gur e 7, l e C. E. P. pour l e systemme 1 i ner t i e pur e, l e syst sme avec Doppl er ,
l e syst sme avec r ecal age de posi t i on et l e syst sme avec Doppl er et r ecal age de posi t i on.
- sur l es f i gur es 8 et 9, l es er r eur s de vi t esses A V X et A V Y pour l es mGmes cas,
- sur l a f i gur e 10, l es er r eur s de cap P H 12.
Tout es l es cour bes sont modi f i 6es par un f act eur cl assi f i 6 A. On voi t se degager des cour bes
. l es concl usi ons sui vant es :
l es per f or mances du syst sme opt i mal avec Doppl er sont am6l i or 6es d' un f act eur 3 par
r appor t 1 cel l es du syst sme 1 i ner t i e,
avec un coupl age Doppl er et des r ecal ages de posi t i on opt i maux, l e C. E. P. r est e t ouj our s
i nf 6r i eur 1 2 A km.
3'.3 Possi bi l i t 6s d' al i gnement en vol :
Dans l e mode i ner t i e- Doppl er opt i ma1, ' l e syst sme peut s' al i gner en vol : l e f i l t r e de
Kal man r eal i se dans ce cas l ' al i gnement opt i mal . C' est ce qui r essor t des cour bes des
f i gur es 1 1 et 12, oG l ' on voi t l ' hvol ut i on du C. E. P. et de l ' erreur de cap P H I 2 d' un
syst sme t r h gr ossi er ement al i gn6 par r appor t 1 un syst eme bi en al i gn6 : on peut concl ur e
qu' en 20 mi nut es on a r et r ouv6 l es per f or mances du syst he bi en al i gns.
12- 8
4 - SENSI BI LI TE AU MODELE :
4. 1 Dans l a pl upar t des appl i cat i ons du f i l t r age st at i st i que, l es modl l es mar kovi ens sont
connus avec peu de pr eci si on, du f ai t du manque d' exper i ment at i on st at i st i que ou de si mpl i -
f i cat i ons vol ont ai r es du modl l e, i l y a souvent une gr ande i ncer t i t ude sur l es val eur s des
par aml t r es st at i st i ques.
11 est donc f ondament al de t est er l es degr adat i ons de per f or mances d' un f i l t r e dOes aux
var i at i ons des par aml t r es ou aux si mpl i f i cat i ons du modl l e. Ce pr obl l me est schemat i se sur
l a f i gur e 5.
Pl usi eur s met hodes exi st ent pour t est er l a sensi bi l i t s. Nous r envoyons aux r ef er ences
{2}, { 3} , I41 et { 7 } pour pl us de' det ai l s.
La sensi bi l i t g du modl l e pr esent 6 i ci a donc Bt B t est l e pour l es var i at i ons vr ai sembl a-
bl es de par aml t r es et pour l es si mpl i f i cat i ons f ai t es ; et c' est 21 l a sui t e de cet t e 6t ude
que l e modl l e B 15 var i abl es d' Btat a et 6 r et enu au l i eu du modl l e i ni t i al ement ut i l i se, de
t ai l l e sup6r i eur e.
Par exempl e, en mode i ner t i e- Doppl er , negl i ger l es bi ai s des accbl Br oml t r escondui t 1
une degr adat i on r el at i ve maxi mal e de 1 1 X sur l e C. E. P, de 10 % sur l ' erreur de vi t esse et
condui sent , l orsqu' on l es negl i ge, 1 des degr adat i ons maxi mal es de 1,5 X, 5, 5 % et 0,9 I% sur
l e C. E. P. l a vi t esse et l ' azi mut.
4.2 Techni que de l ' epsi l on de St anl ey SCHMI DT :
Af i n d' i nsensi bi l i ser l e f i l t r e de Kal man aux er r eur s du modl l e ut i l i se, on a pr 6vu
d' empl oyer une t echni que dont l ' i d6e or i gi nal e est dOe B St anl ey SCHMI DT 19) :
i)
Si l ' on a une conf i ance absol ue dans l e modsl e ut i l i se, on ut i l i se l a f or mul e
opt i mal e ( 23) .
%+ =2- + Z- H' ( H Z- H' +R )
-1
(y - H %-) (66)
i i ) Si l'on a une m6f i ance t ot al e dans l e modsl e, on n' ut i l i se que l ' observat i on
pr esent e y pour g6n6r er l a mei l l eur e est i mee que l ' on peut en t i rer.
2, =2- + X H' (H X HI)-' (y - H %-)
03 X est une mat r i ce di agonal e de cadr age de x : l e t er me 6 est l ' ordre de
gr andeur vr ai sembl abl e de l a var i abl e xi .
(67)
i i i ) Dans un cas usuel , on n' a ni une conf i ance absol ue, ni une mef i ance t ot al e B
l ' l gard du modl l e, mai s pl ut ct un degr 6 de conf i ance 1 - E. I 1 est al or s r ai son-
nabl e d' ut i l i ser l ' esti ml e
Be8 f omul es (24) et (26) sont al or s modi f i ees c ome sui t :
K = ( 1 - E) E-H' (H E- H' +R)-l + E X HI ( H X H ' )
et
-1
E+ =
(I - KH) E- (I - KH)' +KRK'.
I 1 convi ent de choi si r l a val eur 1 at t r i buer B E pour chaque t ype d' observat i on :
l e pr i nci pe que nous avons ut i l i 86 consi st e a pr endr e une val eur aussi gr ande que
possi bl e ( bonne i nsensi bi l i t e du f i l t re) mai s cependant condui sant B des dggr a-
dat i ons de per f or mances suf f i samment f ai bl es. Ces val eur s ont I t 6 f i xees par
si mul at i on.
... I ...
12-9
5 - MECANI SATI ON NUMERIQUE DU FI LTRE :
Le f i l t r e de Kal man consi st e en l ' ensembl e des equat i ons (19) 1 (25). Une par t i e
des cal cul s concer ne l a ggndr at i on de l ' est i mEe 4 et l ' autre par t i e l a mat r i ce de
covar i ance E.
Du f ai t des gr andes var i at i ons r el at i ves des t er mes de l a mat r i ce E au cour s du
t emps, i l convi ent de f ai r e une par t i e des cal cul s au moi ns en vi r gul e f l ot t ant e.
Les f or mul es d' i nt egrat i on choi si es sont des f or mul es de Runge- Kut t a d' ordre deux ;
h dl si gnant l e pas d' i nt l grat i on, on cal cul e d' abord l a mat r i ce de t r ansi t i on at t achl e
a F :
h 3h 2
4 ( t +h, t ) - I +- F ( t ) +T F ( t +Zh) 4
(71)
h2 2
+- 2 F (t +- 3 h) F (t).
Ensui t e l ' est i mge et l a mat r i ce de covar i ance sont . mi ses a j our par :
E- (t+h) - 4 E+ (t) 4 ' + h Q +h2 [F (t +5 2 h) Q
+ Q F' (t +i h)]. (72)
Dan8 l e cas par t i cul i er Et udi l , ces f or mul es f ont un bon compr omi s ent r e l a pr l ci si on,
l a vi t esse de cal cul et l ' i mport ance du pr ogr me.
6 - CONCLUSI ON :
On a cher chl 1 dl gager l a mEt hodol ogi e r essor t ant de l a concept i on d' un eyst sme
hybr i de opt i mal . L' avant - proj et doi t compor t er une si mul at i on, l ' l tude de sensi bi l i t d
et l ' l t ude de l a mEcani sat i on : i l s' agi t au t ot al d' un vol ume de cal cul i mpor t ant B
r eal i ser sur gros or di nat eur (dans l e cas de cet t e l t ude, nous avons ut i l i sl un
UNI VAC 1 108).
... I ...
R E F E R E N C E S
P. FA=, Repr esent at i on of St ochast i c Pr ocess, Ph. D. Di sser t at i on, St anf or d
Uni ver si t y (1967).
P. FAURRE, MLt hode Gengr al e d' Et ude de Sensi bi l i t E d' un Fi l t r e de Kal man, Cent r e
d' Aut omat i que de 1' Ecol e des Mi nes, E/17, ( di kembre 1968).
R. F. GRI FFI N, A. P. SAGE, Lar ge and Smal l Scal e Sensi t i vi t y Anal ysi s of Opt i mumEst i mat i on
al gor i t hms , I . E. E. E. Tr ans. A. G. 13, 4 ( august 1968) pages 320, 329.
T. L. GUNCKEL, 11, Par amet r i c Anal ysi s of Opt i mal Est i mat i on, Aut onet i cs ( I nt ernal Memo).
R. E. KALMAN, NewMet hods and Resul t s i n Li near Pr edi ct i on and Fi l t er i ng Theor y, R. I . A. S.
TR 61-1 (1960).
R. E. KALMAN, R. S. BUCY, pewResul t s on Li near Fi l t er i ng and Pr edi ct i on Theor y,
of Basi c Engi neer i ng, A. S. M. E. Trans. 83 D (1961) pages 95, 108.
T. NI SHI MURA, Er r or Bounds of Cont i nuous Kal man Fi l t er s and t he Appl i cat i on to Or bi t
Det er mi nat i on Pr obl ems, I . E. E. E. Tr ans A. C. 12, 3 (1967) pages 268, '275.
PI TMAN, I ner t i al Gui dance, Wi l ey (1962).
S. F. SCHMI DT, Est i mat i on of St at e wi t h Accept abl e Accur acy Const r ai nt s, Repor t 67-4,
Anal yt i cal Mechani cs Associ at es I nc.
12-11
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_ _ _ _ _ - - _ _ SYSTEME Bl EN ALIGNE INITIALEMENT
SYSTEME GROSSIEREMENT ALIGNE
25 30
mn
-
5 ld 15 20 25 30
Fig.12 ALIGNMENT EN VOL
(EVOLUTION DU PHI Z)
TACTICAL LORAN
LLOYD D. HIGGINBOTHAM
LORAN Pr ogr ams Offi ce
Aeronaut i cal Sys t e ms Di vi s i on
Ai r Force Sys t ems Command
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AFB, OHIO
13
13
ABSTRACT
For any navigation system to posess the greatest potential for tactical applications, it must be pilot
operable and preci se.
LORAN in its vari ous forms has been with us for the past several decades and has provided
With the advent of digital
A s such i t i s j ust beginning
adequate enroute navigation wherever the ground environment has existed.
technology and the birth of digital ai rborne computers, LORAN has advanced to the state of auto-
maticity and preci si on unmatched by any other existing navigation device.
to fulfill its' potential as a tacti cal navigation system.
This paper reviews the USAF's efforts over the past five (5) years to develop a mi l i tary
capability in LORAN.
tages as a common user gri d system.
of system hardware.
Briefly it descri bes a tactical LORAN system and i ts advantages and disadvan-
It defines some of the probl ems encountered in the development
Since LORAN is a rel ati vel y low data rate system, emphasi s i s being given to the probl ems
encountered when integrating the system into high performance ai rcraft.
methods of integration and the rel ati ve accuraci es to be expected of each.
mental aspects such as signal to noise rati os as affected by ai rcraft attitude, phase i nversi ons and
precipitation stati c noise.
I t descri bes the various
I t al so includes the environ-
A status report i s given on hardware technology and where this technology i s leading in terms
of weight, volume and cost.
mitting devices can satisfy many projected requi rements for position locating by remotel y processi ng
the received signals.
To overcome some of these limitations it i s shown that si mpl e retrans-
In summary the author attempts to define the areas that requi re further development for
tactical purposes.
,
13-1
TACTICAL LORAN
by
Lloyd D. Higginbotham - Technical Programs Manager
LORAN Programs Office, Aeronautical Systems Division
For any navigation system to possess the greatest potential for tactical applications, it must be pilot
operable and preci se.
LORAN in i ts vari ous forms has been with us for the past several decades and has provided adequate
enroute navigation wherever the necessary ground environment has existed. With the advent of digital
technology and the bi rth of digital ai rborne computers, LORAN has advanced to a state of automaticity
and preci si on unmatched by any other existing navigation device. A s such it is j ust beginning to fulfill
i ts potential as a tacti cal navigation system.
I. INTRODUCTION
LORAN A and earl y LORAN C recei vers were not only l arge but requi red an operator to
I t i s designated the manually search and track the signals.
AN/APN-70B.
LORAN A and C.
measure the differences in ti me of arri val .
differences between the master station and each of the two sl aves. These numbers were then used to
locate the position on a map.
minutes.
Depending upon the operators proficiency and the speed of the ai rcraft the accuracy vari es between two
and five nautical mi l es. It is obvious that such a system i s neither pilot operable nor does it have the
preci si on requi red for tacti cal mi ssi ons.
Fi gure 1 is an example of this type.
It was initially designed to operate on LORAN A and was l ater modified to work on both
The operator was requi red to search out the signals, align them on the scope and
Two sets of operation were requi red to obtain the time
A proficient operator might accomplish hi s position location in a few
By the ti me he found hi s position, however, the ai rcraft had moved to a new position.
A reasonable cri teri a for being pi l ot operable, especially i n high performance ai rcraft, is
that the operator need only to initiate system operation and sel ect the desi red outputs through simple
switching. Tacti cal preci si on can be defined as the allowable error in space positioning for the parti cul ar
mission.
nant error.
To meet this cri teri a the positioning error should be smal l enough so as to not be the predomi-
11. Automatic Recei ver Evolution
The automatic operation of Loran C recei vers came about pri mari l y because digital techniques
were developed to process the received information.
ci rcui t allowed the application of these digital techniques in a reasonable volume with rel ati vel y low
power consumption.
AN/ARN-76 which was developed by Sperry Gyroscope Company i n the earl y 1960's.
among the earl i est to employ the integrated ci rcui t in l arge numbers.
integrated ci rcui t devices were employed,
As such, much care was taken in i ts construction which resul ted i n the exhibition of over 250 hours
between fai l ures.
measured the thi rd cycle crossover to obtai n another order of precision. Its inherent accuracy was
measured in hundreds of feet versus nautical mi l es for previous manually operated recei vers. Since
i ts only output was time difference, and since map conversion was still requi red, the useful accuracy
remai ned insufficient for most tacti cal applications. I t did however, offer a significant improvement for
enroute navigation. Di gi tal computer technology had al so advanced to the point where it was becoming
practi cal to use in ai rborne applications.
with a digital computer would allow the development of a completely automatic navigation and guidance
system which could extract the full accuracy of the system and provide the guidance parameters
necessary for tacti cal applications.
Device technology and specifically the integrated
The f i rst fully automatic LORAN C equipment to come into existence was the
Thi s device was
Approximately eleven hundred
I t was one of a kind fabricated in Sperry's Engineering shops.
Like earl i er recei vers the ARN-76 matched pul ses but unlike others they al so
I t was obvious that coupling the automatic LORAN recei ver
111. System Description
Recei vers or user navigation devices alone do not make a system. A ground environment must
al so be provided.
Fi gure 2 shows today's LORAN C coverage.
reception and the light area is the skywave coverage.
overwater routes of the northern hemi sphere are covered but the maj ori ty of the land masses are not.
The stations are high powered (100 KW to 4 megawatts) and operate with antenna towers varying in
height f rom 625 feet to 1350 feet.
requi rement which i s obviously requi red to provide world-wide ground wave coverage necessary for
tactical deployment.
LORAN C ground stations i n existence at the ti me were and still are limited in number.
The dark areas are the limitations of the ground wave
From the Fi gure i t can be seen that the maj or
They requi re two to three months to erect and do not f i t the mobility
13-2
The tacti cal system is defined as a complex of at l east three (3) transportabl e ground transmi tti ng
stations, an area monitor, maps and user equipment. System accuracy or more conveniently system error
is derived f rom al l el ements of the system which are; the stability of each transmi tter, ability of the
monitor to detect and make correcti ons to the coding delzys or the slave stations, the resolution and
inherent accuracy of the receiving systems and the environmental noise l evel at the receiving si tes (Fi g 3) .
Having the geometri c locations of the ground transmi tters, the expected hyperbolic l i nes of constant time
difference can be pre-plotted on geodetic or UTM maps and coordinates used interchangeably.
accuracy obtained in this manner is termed predictable accuracy. Errors introduced in the computation
of the hyperbola's and by unknown propagation anomalies can be in terms of several hundreds of feet.
These anomal i es are, however, rel ati vel y stable and the errors are constant. Therefore, one can measure
the position at a point within the servi ce ?rea and return to that same point within the limitations of the
hardware. If the maps are calibrated by actual measurement of
points in the servi ce area then a common cL r grid system of maximum preci si on is a reality.
requi rement for preci si on precl udes operation on skywaves because of their propagation uncertainty.
The
Thi s is termed repeatabl e accuracy.
The tacti cal
IV. Propagation Anomalies
A s mentioned earl i er the low frequency of LORAN operation permi ts effective propagation over
terrestri al surfaces which cannot be accomplished with line of sight frequenci es.
fact, however, that conductivity vari es over the earths' surface and in turn causes phase perturbati ons in
the propagated electromagnetic waves. Thi s is of special concern in areas where the conductivity changes
sharpl y such as land-water boundaries, desert and heavy foliage and mountainous terrai n, In Fi gure 4
the propagation i s shown in l i nes of constant phase. Over the homogenous sea water the l i nes are concen-
tri c ci rcl es. Over the inhomogenous terrestri al surface phase l ags occur which destroy the concentric
characteri sti cs and al ter the gradi ents between the l i nes of constant phase.
constant time difference formed by the transmi ssi on from a pai r of such transmi tters (i . e. , the LORAN
gri d) are going to be warped in a si mi l ar fashion. Warpages of up to 2500 feet have been experienced in
areas along the transmi tter baseline extensions. One can never predi ct where the l i nes of constant ti me
difference are going to be unl ess these perturbati ons can be predicted and the necessary phase correcti ons
i nserted into the grid computations. Fortunatel y these anomalies are constant and the measured LORAN
position at any given point i s stable. In other words the repeatable accuracy i s not affected with the
possible exception being at the boundaries of di ssi mul ar conductivity regions such as shore l i nes or
mountain ridges.
gradually decreases as the altitude i ncreases as shown in Fi gure 5.
in this situation is that the coordinates of a position measured at the base of a mountain, for example, may
be different than the measured coordinates at a point di rectl y overhead and indeed may be different at
different altitudes. Repeatable accuracy holds true in thi s case if and only if the successi ve measurements
mi ssi ons, for example are obvious.
It i s a well known
The hyperbolic l i nes of
In these regions a third dimension i s involved. The lag which occurs at ground l evel
The tactical significance involved
are made at the same altitude above the point of e effects upon reconnaissance and stri ke
We in the LORAN Programs Office at WrightYPatterson Ai r Force Base in connunction with the
Environmental Science Servi ces Administration of Boulder, Colorado are currentl y conducting research
i n thi s area. The purpose of thi s effort is to determi ne the magnitude of these effects and to deri ve
prediction techniques which would enable us to apply correcti ons through computer programmi ng.
resul ts should al so enable us to implement operational procedures to further minimize these effects.
The
V. System Development
In 1964 the United States Ai r Force established an Advanced Development Program to develop
a LORAN D tacti cal navigation system.
set and transportabl e ground stations which could be ai r deliverable to the si tes and be put into operation
with a minimum crew and in the shortest possible time. Design of the system was to be based on and be
compatible with LORAN C. In February 1965 the A i r Force contracted with Sperry Gyroscope to develop
the system.
I ts basi c objectives were to develop a pilot operable navigation
To meet the ground station transportability requi rement two basi c changes in the LORAN C
The number of pul ses per pulse group were doubled and sampling of the
(Fi g 6). Thi s was
operation were introduced.
sixth cycle crossover point was introduced instead of the third cycle crossover.
possible because of the skywave coverage exclusion and the fact that skywave contamination within the
prescri bed servi ce area is delayed beyond the sixth cycle.
requi red coverage using solid state 3KW peak pulse power output ampl i fi ers feeding a 300 foot antenna
(Fig 7). ,
ai rcraft or by hellcopter. Ground system stability was obtained by using rubidium frequency standards
at each transmi tti ng site. Vehicular user equipment designated the AN/ARN-85 was al so developed and
consisted of the components shown in Fig. 9.
seconds with the resul tant accuracy being a function of bandwi th, signal-to-noise rati o and pulse repe-
tition rate as shown in the equation for output error E=l . 25
The techniques allowed Sperry to provide the
Each transmi tter station i s delivered in 4 pal l ets (Fi g 8), which can be transported by cargo
The specified resolution of the recei ver was 0. 025 mi cro-
.
8
KA/SNR PRR.
13- 3
Due to the delayed recei pt of the LORAN D transmi tters, initial testing of the system was done using
a LORAN C chain and completed in the LORAN D environment in August 1968.
resul ts general l y yielded ci rcul ar error probabilities keyed to synchronization tol erance of the respecti ve
cahins of 2 0. 2 mi croseconds for LORAN C and 2 0.05 mi croseconds for LORAN D with the gri d gradi ent
at the point of measurement controlling the spread in feet.
Averaging the mass
There are many other applications which can be extrapolated f rom these test resul ts. I ts
uniqueness i s deri ved f rom the fact that it can provide preci si on navigation to an unlimited number of
users without seri ous degradation because of weather, darkness, foliage, earth curvature or other
obstacl es.
Pri or to the completion of testing of the LORAN D system the Ai r Force made the decision to
produce ai rborne systems for operational useage.
Division of I nternational Telephone and Tel egraph Company for the production of ai rborne systems desi g-
nated the AN/ARN-92 (Fi g 10).
L ear Siegler Company.
operational employment, has been exclusively LORAN C.
fi ghter type ai rcraft.
accurate navigation.
In l ate 1966 a contract was given to the Avionics
The computer and control indicator are provided by subcontract to the
Most of the testing of this system has been in a LORAN C environment and i ts
Testing was al so accomplished on both cargo and
The test resul ts obtained were further evidence that LORAN can and does provide
To bring some of the probl ems of ai rcraft integration into focus, it i s necessary to explain
The propagation characteri sti cs of the frequency some of the unique characteri sti cs of the system.
of operati on of 100 Khz allows useful long range propagation over al l types of terrai n and dense foliage.
It is al so the use of this low frequency that permi ts effective operati on at ground l evel and behind
mountains without fade and shadow characteri sti cs that seri ousl y affect line-of-sight transmi ssi on
systems.
preci si on a great amount of integrating or averaging ti me i s necessary.
apparent limitation for real ti me tacti cal operations.
The data rate is correspondingly low (10 to 25 pulse groups per second) and to extract the
Thi s narrow bandwidth i s an
If the ai rcraft i s flying strai ght and level, the velocity f rom each of the transmi tti ng si tes is
constant and the recei ver tracki ng loops have no difficulty in following the change in difference in ti me
of arri val of the signal pai rs (Fi g 11).
and the velocity vectors are changed or an accel erati on component i s added, the tracking ci rcui ts, being
of low speed response are incapable of keeping up with the changes and cause an error to build up in the
ti me difference output. This error can be anywhere f rom a few feet to 1000 feet or more depending upon
the rate of turn and the system ti me constants. Tacti cal l y this would not be a probl em because termi nal
action i s sel dom taken during a maneuver. 'I t i s a seri ous probl em f rom the standpoint that the recei ver's
threshol d may be overcome and the system may break lock which i s catastrophi c.
f rom the standpoint that the l arger the error, the longer i t takes to settl e out after the maneuver i s
completed.
after the turn which i s most undesi rabl e in a hosti l e environment.
When the ai rcraft changes di recti on as shown in the 90' turn
It i s seri ous al so
The l atter poses the requi rement for strai ght and l evel flight for a significant ti me i nterval
These errors can be bounded by providing maneuver or accel erati on assi stance f rom external
sensors.
heading or i nerti al systems.
i nerti al aiding i s by far the best source. I t i s significant to note that the velocity errors in i nerti al
systems are extremel y smal l over these short peri ods of ti me even in the poorest i nerti al pl atform.
VI.
One of two useabl e sources are normal l y available f rom the ai rcraft. True ai r speed and
As can be seen in Fi g. 12 a plot drawn f rom a theoreti cal anal ysi s,
Applied LORAN in High Performance Ai rcraft
Perfect accel erati on aiding would cancel out al l of the error. Practi cal l y thi s does not happen.
The degree to which cancellation i s affected i s dependent upon the velocity aid sources and the manner in
which they are i ntegrated. In high performance test bed ai rcraft the i nerti al pl atform f rom the LN-12 i s
used as the acceler,ation aid source.
was taken f rom potenti ometers available at the output connectors of the LN-12 i nerti al system.
del ays accrued in the mechani cal linkage allow error buildups of 300 to 500 feet (i n addition to the stati c
error) during a 2g turn.
52 seconds depending upon the pulse repetition rate of the transmi tter chain and the magnitude of the error.
Experi mental test programs conducted at Wri ght-Patterson AFB with an optimumized (mi ni mum ti me l ags)
tie-in to the i nerti al system has verified that error i n a maneuver can be reduced to that experienced
during constant velocity. I t was al so proven that this hybrid system, under conditions of constant velocity,
produce errors which are l ess than ei ther LORAN or i nerti al taken independently.
Because of ease of access and the schedule l i mi tati ons the output
The
The ti me requi red for this error to settl e out vari es between 26 seconds and
The most seri ous probl em as mentioned earl i er i s system breaklock. The AN/ARN-92 requi res
anywhere f rom 3 to 15 mi nutes to search and track the signal.
means an abort.
the tendency to breaklock.
A breaklock in most tacti cal situations
In addition to maneuver errors, the antenna and i ts associ ated probl ems will affect
13-4
Selecting the proper location for the antenna on high speed ai rcraft i s cri ti cal to the proper
operation of the LORAN recei ver.
ai rcraft i s nothing more than a point source at 100 Khz.
el ectri cal center of the ai rcraft act as the feed points of a dipole antenna.
dipole should be as shown in Fig. 13. If for any reason it becomes necessary to locate the antenna
element at pl aces other than di rectl y above or below the el ectri cal center of the ai rcraft, performance
degradation will occur. For example, if the antenna element is located on the tai l cap of the ai rcraft as
shown in Fig. 14, both the signal to noise rati os as seen by the recei ver as well as the ai rcraft maneuver-
ability are affected. The resul t of this type of installation i s an antenna orientation of 25' to 35O off the
horizontal centerl i ne of the ai rcraft. From this illustration it becomes quite cl ear that the signal strength
vari es dramati cal l y with ai rcraft attitude.
antenna and they recei ve full amplification causing an extreme degradation in signal to noise level.
al so obvious that a nose up attitude in excess of 35O causes a reversal in signal polarity.
probes in the recei ver sense this as a l arge change in position and attempt to follow the change which
l i teral l y dri ves the recei ver into a breaklock condition.
cause this condition to exi st regardl ess of antenna location.
where maxi mum precipitation stati c di scharge takes place.
Any receiving antenna which i s adaptable to high speed maneuvering
As a resul t the antenna element and the
I deally the orientation of this
Unfortunately this does not affect the noise signals seen by the
It i s
The sampling
Slow rol l s in excess of 20 - 30 seconds will al so
The tai l cap antenna i s al so in the area
From thi s di scussi on i t i s shown that the antenna should be as cl ose to the top or bottom el ectri cal
center of the ai rcraft as the physical constrai nts will permi t.
area which permi ts maximum decoupling f rom the points of el ectri cal stati c di scharge.
If possible this location should al so be in an
VII. Status of LORAN Technology
Current LORAN receiving systems are l arge, heavy and expensive. The fully automatic ones
are more costly by an order of magnitude.
these systems in fighter ai rcraft and to be pilot operable sti l l present seri ous probl ems in installation
in the premi um space provided.
weighs 96 pounds and costs in excess of $100, 000 for the black boxes alone.
type ai rcraft i t is usually at the expense of some other capability.
the reliability to be l ess than desi rabl e.
1966-67 have been al most exclusively by company funded efforts.
improved ci rcui t design and by medium and l arge scal e integrated devices.
is from 2:l up to 1O:l as illustrated in Fig. 15,
functionally equivalent to the AN/ARN- 92 range f rom $50K to $70K per system.
reduction i s foreseen in future Ai r Force development.
The integrated ci rcui t technology which allowed us to put
The AN/ARN-92 for example (Fi g l o), has a volume of 1. 75 cubic feet,
When retrofi tted into fighter
The l arge component count has caused
The advancements made in receiving system technology since
Component count has been reduced by
The rel ati ve si ze reduction
Pri ce quotations which have been recei ved for systems
Additional cost
VIII. Other LORAN Applications
There are many position locating requi rements for which it would be economically inadviseable
to use this expensive hardware.
Effort i s currentl y under contract to develop the concept of LORAN retransmi ssi on.
transmi tter which i s ai r droppable or handcarri ed will recei ve the 100 Khz signals and retransmi t them
via VHF or UHF data link to a remote point ei ther ai rborne or fixed for processing.
the ARN-92 requi res 3 to 15 minutes to search and track the signal.
be practi cal the remote signal processi ng must be near real ti me.
capability which i s being addressed under the current program.
ver (as depicted in Fig. 16) which i s al ready tracking the LORAN signals then the ti me requi red to achieve
track on the retransmi tted signal i s di rectl y proportional to the distance between the two stati ons.
anticipated that acquisition will be in the order of five seconds or l ess in most cases.
thi s concept are many and include position location of inaccessible points for purposes of reconnai ssance
or stri ke, location of ground troops, forward air control vehicles, etc. Examples of retransmi tti ng
devi ces are shown in Fig. 17.
Many of them requi re throw-away and/or lightweight, inexpensive devices.
A smal l recei ver
A s mentioned earl i er
If the concept of retransmi ssi on i s to
It i s this near real ti me processi ng
By using the timing f rom a LORAN recei -
I t is
Applications for
IX . Technological Needs
LORAN and Hybrid LORAN navigation systems are proven to have tacti cal meri t. A S a
tactical tool it i s essenti al that al l component (ground and vehicular) development be pursued as a
system to i nsure tacti cal control over the gri d generation, as well as, the user equipment. Since
accuracy i s a function of signal-to-noise, development should be undertaken to obtain higher effective
power output while decreasi ng the requi red ground station erecti on ti me.
the development of ai r inflatable antenna structures of i ncreased height.
ampl i fi ers for ground transmi tters should al so be pursued,
are smal l er, lighter and cheaper.
designed to recognize and protect against signal phase inversions, precipitation stati c, etc. Modular
construction must be emphasized so that the navigation or navigation del i very system can be tai l ored
to the mi ssi on requi rement for reasons of economy of finance and economy of premi um ai rcraft space.
Both can be accomplished by
Higher powered solid state
User equipment needs to be developed which
I t i s al so necessary that recei vers for ai rcraft applications be
<. SUMMARY
LORAN Technology has advanced to the state of automaticity and precision which provides a
tactical capability.
number of users.
I t i s currentl y the best known system available for position locating of an unlimited
This paper has described Ai r Force experience in the system development and touched on
several applications.
capacity and depth of integration with external auhsystema to provide such things as sffset acquisition
of coordinates, single pass acquisition of targets regardl ess of delivery modes. etc.
With vision and foresight one can see applications limited only by the computation
The ultimate precision of LORAN is not restri cted solely to the transmitting and receiving
components but i s al so dependent upon optimum integration with the computer and other ai rcraft
subsystems.
13-6
,_ ... "
. . ..
. ._.S.
FIGURE 1
A MANUALLY OPERATED LORAN RECENER
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
THE LORAN SYSTEM
13-7
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 4
PHASE PERTURBATIONS I N TEE
VERTICAL PLANE (exaggerated)
LORAN PULSE GROUPING
L ORAN C
MASTER SLAVE A SLAVE B
I I 11111 I I I I I I I I 1111111I
L ORAN D
FIGURE 6
L ORAN C SAMPL I NQ L ORAN D SA MPL I NG
' NOTE . PULSE SHAPE I S I DENl l CAL
13-8
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 7
LORAN D TRANSMITTING STATION
FIGURE 9
TDTRACK
I
I
I
I
I
,--..
A/c TRACK
FIGURE 11
RECEIVER TRACK ERROR DURINQ MANEUVER
FIGURE 12
13-9
FIGURE 10
13-10
FIGURE 13
IDEAL DIPOLE PA TTERN
'IIXIIUI I I I I - L E V E L FL I I WT
' N O P H I l E R E Y E I I I L U l O E l 00" P I T C H
o n n o t i
N THE A I RPL A NE- THE
DIPOLE PATTERN I S
..
%.
..
%.
*.
..
. .
FIGURE 14
NEXT SENEl l l nON TECHWOMOI
I I
I C
FIGURE 15
13-11
LORET
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 16
I
I
I
THE C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM - AN APPLICATION OF
DIGITAL SYNERGISTIC STOCHASTIC HYBRID NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY
Bruce J.Miller
Northrop Corporation
Electronics Division
Hawthorne, California
14
14
14- 1
THE C-5 NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM - AN APPLICATION OF
DI GI TAL SYNERGISTIC STOCHASTIC HYBRID NAVI GATI ON TECHNOLOGY
Bruce J. Mi l l er
Northrop Corporation
El ectroni cs Di vi si on
Hawthorne, Cal i forni a
The C-5 Navigation System is bui l t around a high speed general purpose di gi tal computer which recei ves
navigation si gnal s from an i nerti al measurement uni t (I MU), doppler radar, l oran recei ver, tacan recei ver,
magnetic gyro compass, ai r data computer, multi-mode radar, and manually entered vi sual posi ti on and
stel l ar fi xes from the control and i ndi cator panels.
are avai l abl e which make use of a number of sensor combinations,
Thi s paper descri bes the system, tracks the techni cal approach and appl i cati on of theory to the develop-
ment of the mechanization, and presents predi cted performance resul ts generated vi a di gi tal computer
simulations.
A l arge number of steeri ng and navigation modes
1. INTRaDUCTION
A basi c premise i n the organizing and wri ti ng of thi s paper is that it is useful and of i nterest t o thi s
symposium to i denti f y techni cal steps and the rati onal e which resul ted i n the mechanization of the C-5
Navigation S.ystem.
Phase I Sel ecti on of Technical Approach
A means for guaranteeing that the spi ri t and l etter of the contractual performance speci f i cati on (see
Secti on 2) was sought. I n parti cul ar, mechanisms f or correcti ng and control l i ng the system formulation
were sought. The techni cal management mechanisms used were:
1)
A l l equations and programs f or the on-board navigation computers were "released" and control l ed with
standard hardware confi gurati on control procedores - i.e., "Engineering Orders" to rel ease, or change
these equations and programs, were used.
A l l system i nterfaces were completely speci fi ed, i n wri ti ng, before engineering development was
i ni ti ated.
Simulation techniques were sel ected as the means of developing the system mechanization and f or
veri fyi ng the consi stency of subsystem and component speci fi cati ons with the contractual system
performance speci fi cati on.
Simulation techniques were sel ected as the means f or detecti ng and, when possi bl e, f or correcti ng
di fferences between predi cted and actual hardware performance characteri sti cs.
2)
3)
4 )
A s a resul t of the above, the three major simulation programs, described i n Secti on 6 , were developed from
previously exi sti ng programs, and were used as tool s f or the Phase I1 and Phase I11 acti vi ti es.
Phase I1 Development of the Mechanization
The i ni ti al systems acti vi ty led to the establishment of speci fi cati ons for the subsystem elements, and was
followed by two cl earl y i denti f i abl e i nter-rel ated acti vi ti es, vi z., hardware development and software
development.
tests of the hardware elements to prove out proper si gnal flow between the central di gi tal computer and the
various subsystem elements. The software development process culminated at the same poi nt, but resul ted i n
the confirmation that total system performance requirements were sati sf i ed.
encountered and solved i n the hardware development area, the key questi on i n a hybrid navigation system
mechanization is the question of how to mechanize the mixing of information from the various sensors.
thi s reason, the primary emphasis i n the detai l ed di scussi on of the system mechanization given i n Secti on 6
is upon the rel ati vel y unique approach taken i n developing the system software.
The hardware development process culminated in the i ntegrati on tests and l aboratory and f l i ght
Although many problems were
For
Phase 111 Adjustment of the Mechanization to Actual Hardware Characteri sti cs
An important last step i n the development of a hybrid navigation system is i n resol vi ng the di fferences
between l aboratory f l i ght test resul ts and the predi cted performance resul ts of Phase 11.
A s the accuracy of a hybrid navigation system i ncreases, hi gher-qual i ty sensors must be used, and it
becomes necessary to "model" the system hardware characteri sti cs with greater and greater accuracy i f the
f ul l potenti al accuracy of the navigation system is to be attai ned. A typi cal problem occurring i n high-
performance navigation systems, such as i n the C-5, is that the system hardware does not perform exactl y
as was anti ci pated when the hardware speci fi cati ons were wri tten. The problems that often occur are one
or more of the following:
1)
2)
One or more of the design parameters is out of speci f i cati on i n the actual hardware.
The parameters speci fi ed i n the procurement speci fi cati ons are sati sf i ed, but the hardware possesses
some addi ti onal characteri sti cs which are not l i sted i n the speci fi cati on. This is especi al l y preva-
14-2
l ent when new innovations are incorporated
to devi ate from the error models of more conventional designs.
n hardware which cause the new error models of the hardware
A very di f f i cul t task i n l aboratory testi ng, f l i ght testi ng and debugging a hybrid navigation system is i n
i sol ati ng the causes of unsati sfactory system performance.
errors i n the computer, modelling errors of the hardware wi thi n the computer program, and errors i n the
hardware have subtl e manifestations at the system l evel .
has been through the use of the System Simulator Program, described i n Secti on 6.
and modelling errors i n the System Simulator Program enables anal ysts to match f l i ght test data, thus
providing the necessary i nsi ght f or compensating or removing the ef f ect of the error..
acti vi ty is now poceeding at Northrop, but i ts descri pti on is beyond the scope of thi s paper.
The various sources of errors, programming
The most ef f ecti ve technique f or tracki ng errors
Vari ati on of component
The Phase 111
The paper has been organized as follows:
performance speci fi cati on. Secti ons 3, 4, and 5 descri be the hardware, operati onal modes, and information
flow of the mechanization, respecti vel y.
system mechanization, and Secti on 7 presents predicted system performance resul ts from si mul ati on studi es.
Secti on 2 presents the hi ghl i ghts of the C-5 Navigation System
Secti on 6 descri bes the steps taken i n the development of the
2. NAVIGATION SYSTEM SPECIFICATION
The heart of the navigation system, the I nerti al Doppler Navigation Equipment (IDNE), supplied by Northrop,
consi sti ng of the doppler radar, IMU, computers and converters, has been configured to sati sf y the
following requirements:
Ground Alignment:
mile ( 3 U), is requi red between l ati tudes of -70' and +70.
compatible with navigation,accuracy requirements.
wi thi n 25 minutes.
Airborne Alignment:
is required between l ati tudes of -70' and +70.
navigation accuracy requirements.
af ter warmup.
Navigation Accuracy:
Warmup from -65' F., and alignment, assuming a posi ti on uncertai nty of 1 n
Accuracy of alignment must be
Warmup and alignment must be carri ed out
Airborne alignment, assuming a posi ti on uncertai nty of 5.0 n miles ( 3 U),
Accuracy of alignment must be compatible with
Airborne alignment must be carri ed out wi thi n 20 minutes
Free i nerti al and doppler i nerti al - af ter ground alignment:
0.75 n mile/hour, CEP (1st 5 hours)
1.25 n mile/hour, CEP (2nd 5 hours)
Free i nerti al and doppler i nerti al - af ter ai rborne alignment:
1.0 n mile/hour, CEP (1st 5 hours)
2.0 n mile/hour, CEP (2nd 5 hours)
Terminal navigation (computed ai r rel ease poi nt, or CARP):
230 f eet, CEP (contri buti on from the I DNE equipment above)
325 f eet, CEP accuracy required i n posi ti oni ng the ai r vehi cl e
3. SYSTEM HARDWARE
The C-5 Navigation System consi sts of two general purpose Di gi tal Computers, an I nerti al Measurement Unit,
a Doppler Radar, a Loran Receiver, a Tacan Receiver, a Multi-mode Radar, two Atti tude and Heading Reference
Uni ts, an A i r Data Computers, a Control Panel, an I ndi cator Panel, and two A/D-D/A Converters. The use of
two general purpose computers, atti tude and heading reference uni ts, converters, and ai r data computers provides
redundancy and i ncreases rel i abi l i ty to the system.
Figure 1.
3.1 Di Ri tal Comuuters
The two Northrop NDC 1051A computers i n the navigation system are described i n Table 1.
is capable of providing al l of the alignment, navigation, posi ti on augmentation, terminal navigation, and
steeri ng functi ons l i sted i n Secti on 4.
Computer, except f or Loran and Tacan posi ti on augmentation, steeri ng of the ai rcraf t i n the verti cal plane,
and ai rborne alignment.
A block diagram of the system is i ndi cated i n
A bri ef descri pti on of these equipments follows.
The Primary Computer
The Auxi l i ary Computer provides most of the functi ons of the Primary
3.2 I nerti al Measurement Unit (I MU)
The I nerti al Measurement Unit is the Northrop Floated I nerti al Platform (FLI P), which consi sts of an outer
support sphere assembly which contai ns the fl oated i nner bal l and al l i nerti al components and i nternal
el ectroni cs.
Reference Unit which, i n turn, is bol ted t o the vehi cl e structure.
The outer support sphere assembly is ri gi dl y attached to the outer housing of the I nerti al
14-3
The i nner bal l assembly provides the stabl e element of FLIP.
are: el ectri cal contact brushes f or power transmission; electromagnetic torquer segments (two per axi s)
to control sphere motion and maintain a stabl e i nerti al reference; l ow-fri cti on adj ustabl e caster wheels
to l i mi t transl ati onal motion; exci tati on bands to i ndi cate the atti tude of the fl oated sphere wi thi n
the support sphere.
Three Northrop single-degree-of-freedom fl oated, rate-i ntegrati ng gyroscopes are orthogonally mounted
i nsi de the fl oated bal l . Each gyro error si gnal is detected and amplified. The amplified si gnal s are
applied to ball-mounted torquers which cause the bal l to rotate.
atti tude control system i sol ates the fl oated bal l from the case, maintaining a stabl e platform to a high
degree of accuracy.
computer. Hence, the platform atti tude rel ati ve to a given reference frame can be changed by quanti ti es
computed by the di gi tal computer.
I nstal l ed on the outer surface of the sphere
Thi s high-gain three-axi s feedback
Each gyro has an input torquer whose comand si gnal s are control l ed by the di gi tal
Three Kearfott l i near pendulous accelerometers are al so orthogonally mounted i nsi de the fl oated inner
bal l .
pulses.
average speci f i c force exerted on the I MU case over the i nterval .
C-5 system is high enough that, f or al l practi cal purposes, thi s average speci f i c force can be considered
as an instantaneous quanti ty.
The accelerometer-sensed si gnal s are sent to the di gi tal computer i n the form of a trai n of
The number of pulses i n a given uni t of time divided by the time i nterval is a measure of the
The frequency of the pul ses f or the
3.3 Doppler Radar
The Doppler Radar, manufactured by the GPL Di vi si on of General Preci si on Systems, I nc., suppl i es the
computer with measurements of ground speed and dri f t angle. By uti l i zi ng information from the "bal l
readout" mentioned previ ousl y, it i s possi bl e to obtai n the ground speed rel ati ve to platform axes.
3.4 L oran
The Loran Receiver is manufactured by the Col l i ns Radio Company. When avai l abl e, the Loran data is
converted by the di gi tal computer to posi ti on information and displayed to the navigator.
hi s judgement and control , the Loran data can al so be used to update the best esti mate of the state
vector which includes posi ti on, vel oci ty, and other quanti ti es.
Subj ect to
3.5 T -
The Tacan Receiver, manufactured by Hoffman El ectroni cs, provide sl ant range and bearing information to
ground stati ons at known l ocati ons.
manner to that described f or the Loran.
The navigator can use thi s data, when it is avai l abl e, i n a si mi l ar
3.6 Multi-Mode Radar (MMR)
The Multi-Mocle Radar, manufactured by the Norden Di vi si on of United Ai rcraf t, provides many modes of
operati on f or the C-5. Two modes are used to obtai n navigation information. I n the terminal phase of
f l i ght, the navigator can, through a cathode ray tube di spl ay, si ght on landmark patterns whose posi ti on
rel ati ve to a desi red supply and/or personnel drop l ocati on is known. Sl ant range and bearing data is
provided by the MMR during the terminal phase. The navigator can al so use the MMR f or si ghti ng on land-
marks whose absol ute posi ti on (l ati tude and longitude) are known.
bearing, and landmark l ocati on go di rectl y to the Kalman f i l ter.
I n thi s mode the measurements of range,
3.7 Atti tude Heading Reference Unit (AHRU)
The two redundant Atti tude and Heading Refernce Units shown i n Figure 1 are manufactured by Lear Si egl er.
Data from these uni ts is used to provide a backup mode of operati on i n case of an I MU malfunction.
3.8 Central A i r Data Computer (CADC)
,
The two ai r data computers are manufactured by El l i ot Brothers. One of the functions of the CADC is to
provide barometric pressure al ti tude data to the navigation system (see Reference 1 f or other functi ons).
4. SYSTEM OPERATION
The overal l operati onal concept f or the C-5 Navigation System is si mpl i ci ty of usage. Operati onal l y,
pri or to f l i ght, the navigator w i l l load data from the f l i ght pl an punched tape i nto the system's computers
vi a the tape reader. This data w i l l include data required f or the f l i ght f or navigation and steeri ng
operati ons. Alignment, navigation and steeri ng modes, sel ected by the navigator, are automatic.
Although Loran and Tacan data is automati cal l y processed, the navigator is required to perform a few
rel ati vel y simple tasks, such as sel ecti on of the appropri ate f i x number and posi ti on update source
(Tacan, Loran, etc.) at the proper time. For radar f i xes, the navigator must i denti f y the f i x number
and al i gn the cursors over the f i x poi nt on the cathode ray-tube di spl ay of the radar. For vi sual and
stel l ar f i xes, the navigator must i denti f y the f i x number, and input data descri bi ng the f i x through the
keyboard. Any combination of posi ti on augmentation may be uti l i zed with any of the basi c modes, as is
i ndi cated i n Figure 2.
4.1 Operational Modes
The functi onal capabi l i ti es of the mechanized system include the following modes:
14-41
Two alignment modes
Four basi c navigation modes
Ground Alignment
Airborne Alignment
Free I nerti al
Doppler I nerti al
Doppler Dead Reckoning
True A i r Speed Dead Reckoning
Five methods of posi ti on augmen- Loran
tati on Tacan
Multi-Mode Radar
Visual Fi x
Stel l ar Fi x
Two terminal steeri ng modes Computed A i r Release Point (CARP)
Radar Approach
Two verti cal steeri ng modes Point
Slope
Three hori zontal steeri ng modes Rhumb Line
Great Ci rcl e to Desti nati on
Great Ci rcl e Track
4.2 Bui l t-i n Tests
I n addi ti on to the basi c navigation and steeri ng computations, the navigation computers perform a set of
teats using the B ui l t I n Test Equipment (BITE) which are capable of determining which Line Replaceable
Unit (LRU) or which external avi oni cs uni t has f ai l ed; f ai l ure information i s provided to the Control and
I ndi cator Panels and t o the Malfunction Detecti on and Recording Computer (MADAR), a separate Northrop
supplied on-board computer (not the Primary or Auxi l i ary Navigation Computer). Tests include computer
sel f test (mul ti pl y, di vi de, indexing, addressing, etc.), memory tests, 1/0 sel f test, program sequence
test. i nterrupt tests, computer val i d tests, IMU regi ster sel f test, temperature status tests, battery-i n
l i ne tests, power supply test, di screte test, D/A-A/D test, LRU and external f aul t i sol ati on tests.
bui l t i n teshsand a detai l ed di scussi on of computer operations associ ated with these tests i s presented
by J . Sekiguchi and R. Berg [ 2] .
The
5. INFOFUUTION FLOW
A s shown i n Figure 1, information enters the Primary Di gi tal Computer from the following equipment:
atti tude and heading si gnal s from the AHRU; ground vel oci ty and dri f t angle from the Doppler Radar; baro-
metri c al ti tude, and true ai r speed from the CAM; terrai n al ti tude from the radar al ti meter; vel oci ty
increments from the I MU accelerometers; bal l atti tude si gnal s from the IMU bal l atti tude bands; di stance
and bearing from the Tacan Receiver; time di fferences from the Loran Receiver; master time si gnal and
antenna rel ati ve bearing from the MMR; various control input si gnal s from the Control Panel; various
intercomputer si gnal s from the Auxi l i ary Computer. I n addi ti on, a l arge number of val i d si gnal s from
these i nterfaci ng equipment8 are received f or processing i n the BI T subprograms.
Most of the information sources l i sted above operate as follows: an i nterrupt si gnal is generated by the
information source, the computer temporarily stops executing i ts computations, information from the i nfor-
mation source is brought i nto computer memory bi t by bi t, and the computer resumes operati on of it compu-
tat ions.
Processed information i s transmi tted from the computer to the following equipment: gyro torquing si gnal s
are sent to the I MU f or alignment and l evel i ng; val i di ty data from the enti re navigation system is trans-
mitted to the MADAR computer; data is transmi tted to the Telemetry Recorder; bearing and range si gnal s are
transmi tted to the MMR to properly place cursors on an i ndi cated posi ti on of a presel ected landmark upon
the MMR Cathode Ray Tube; ai rcraf t dri f t angle i s transmi tted to the Stati on Keeping Equipment (SKE), ai r-
craf t cross track posi ti on, and track angle error is transmi tted to the Automatic Fl i ght Control System
(AFCS); energy management data are transmi tted to the Energy Management and Control (EMAC); various di spl ay
information, l i sted i n Table 2, is transmi tted to the Control and Display Panels.
The subprogram structure i n the navigation computer, and the memory al l ocati on associ ated with each sub-
program is shown i n Table 2.
5.1 Mode Control Subprograms
These subprograms provide the overal l structuri ng of the real time operati on of the computer.
Mode sel ec-
ti on from the Control Panel , as well as automatic mode switching to degraded modes caused by f ai l ures, are
executed by these subprograms.
These subprograms are discussed below.
Executive Routines
Control and I ndi cator Panels
Turn-on I ni ti al i zati on
Mode Sel ecti on
Loader
14-5
5.2 Navigation Subprograms
These subprograms execute computations necessary to generate posi ti on and vel oci ty.
Kalman subprogram generates esti mates of a number of bi as errors i n the system.
I n addi ti on, the
Coarse Align
Fine Align
Navigation
Kalman Fi l teri ng
5.3 Navigation Sensor SubDr0g;rams
These subprograms provide f or proper scal i ng, and generation of the appropri ate "measurement" matrices f or
use i n the Kalman subprogram.
received from the vari ous sensors.
It is these programs which operate di rectl y upon the measurement actual l y
AHRU Processing Loran Processing
CADC Processing Tacan Processing
Doppler Processing Manual Processing
MMR Posi ti on Fi x Processing
5.4 Fl i ght Control and Steering; Subprograms ,
These subprograms execute computations t o permit f l i ght pl an data to be entered i nto the computer, as well
as providing the computations necessary f or generation of steeri ng si gnal s to the autopi l ot to automati cal l y
control the f l i ght path of the ai rcraf t t o the presel ected track or desti nati on, both hori zontal l y and
verti cal l y.
Verti cal Fl i ght Vector Terminal Steeri ng
Vertical Navigation Steeri ng Fl i ght Pl an
Mid Course Steeri ng
5. 5 System Communication Subprogram
These subprograms provide si gnal processing functi ons associ ated with si gnal data conversion, and data
transmission.
I nput-Output (Ah)-D/A)
Bal l Readout Computation
I nter-Computer Communications
5.6 Equipment Test and Status Subprograms
These Subprograms execute seta of tests, applying control
st poi nts, reading
and comparing various output test poi nts, etc., to check the-val i di ty of hardware status, as well as to
check computations through the uae of "sum checks" and reasonableness tests.
i gnal s at various i nput t
common
Bi te Monitor Update
B i t and Bi te
Computer Sel f -Test
MADAR
MMR Pref l i ght
5.7 Miscellaneous Subprograms
The Star Data Subprogram provides azimuth, el evati on, and time to sel ected stars to the navigator
subroutines are sel f explanatory.
Star Data
Common Subroutines
6. DEVELOPMENT OF THE MECHANIZATION
6.1 Maior Tasks
The system speci f i cati on establ i shed the basi c requirements f or the system mechanization.
system speci f i cati on l ead to the def i ni ti on of operati onal , functi onal , and performance requirements f or
the system.
Four separate but coordinated paths lead from thi s common starti ng poi nt to the f i nal system mechanization,
namely:
A study of the .
1) System I ntegrati on: Thi s acti vi ty establ i shed the compati bi l i ty of al l equipment i nterfaces, the proper
flow of ai gnal s and information from one system element to another, al l ocati on of total system errors
t o subsystem elements, establishment of the requirements f or andimplementation of system checkout,
system marriage testa, i ntegrati on tests, eval uati on tests, qual i f i cati on tests, and rel i abi l i ty testa.
14-6
Defi ni ti on and I mplementation of Functional Requirements:
and development of the system hardware and software to sati sf y the intended uses of the syqtem, speci -
f i cal l y, al l modes of operati on of the system were analyzed to defi ne the method to be used to generate
the required si gnal s and information flow.
system, l i sted under "System Operation" above, were developed i n thi s category of acti vi ty.
Defi ni ti on and I mplementation of Operational Requirements:
the procedures which were required to operate the system equipment.
associ ated with the Control Panel and I ndi cator Panel designs (see-Fi gure 3 ) , and culminated i n the
def i ni ti on of the Control and I ndi cator Subprogram f or the ai rborne computer. It i s thi s subprogram
which causes speci f i c information to be displayed, and causes speci f i c acti on wi thi n the computer as
a resul t of navigator use of the Control Panel. (A l i sti ng of the parameters displayed i s presented
i n Table 2. )
This acti vi ty involved the i denti f i cati on
Each of the functi onal capabi l i ti es of the mechanized
This acti vi ty involved the def i ni ti on of
This acti vi ty is i nti matel y
4)
Defi ni ti on and I mplementation of Performance Requirements:
capabi l i ti es involved the development of error budgets wi thi n subsystems, such as the ZDNE, to the
extent that i ndi vi dual component errors became defined i n procurement speci fi cati ons.
accurate models, def i ni ti on of techniques f or removing system errors, and other anal yti cal tasks required
to sati sf y system accuracy requirements were part of thi s acti vi ty.
The development of the system performance
Development of
6. 2 Kalman Fi l ter I mplementation
One of the major acti vi ti es i n developing the C-5 Navigation System mechanization was the def i ni ti on of a
sui tabl e "Kalman f i l ter" mechanization. It has been mentioned that i ncorporati on of an optimal (such as
Kalman) f i l ter having a minimumof 14 state vari abl es was a requirement of the system speci fi cati on; i n
addi ti on, the speci f i cati on required that the total ef f ect of al l error sources not implemented could be
no greater than 10% of the CEP of the perfect error model of the system.
An addi ti onal i ncenti ve f or applying Kalman f i l ter theory i s that, under reasonable practi cal assumptions
(system l i neari ty, normal di stri buti ons of measurement errors and forci ng functi on uncertai nti es), a sub-
set of the Kalman f i l ter equations - deal i ng with the propagation of the covariance matrix of esti mati on
errors - provides a complete, i nternal l y consi stent, general stati sti cal error anal ysi s capabi l i ty. Hence,
even i n si tuati ons where a "complete" Kalman mechanization cannot be implemented, it is of i nterest to
eval uate the theoreti cal accuracy attai nabl e by a "complete" Kalman mechanization - for two speci f i c pur-
poses l) to determine the "ultimate" stati sti cal accuracy attai nabl e by a perf ectl y mechanized system, and
2) to determine the stati sti cal accuracy attai nabl e by an "incomplete" Kalman mechanization,
it i s convenient
to f i r st solve f or the accuracy of the "complete'" Kalman mechanization.
The appl i cati on of Kalman f i l ter theory i s not without i ts problems, however; while it i s true that, under
what appear to be f ai rl y reasonable assumptions, the Kalman f i l ter is the "optimal f i l ter" a number of
condi ti ons become i ncreasi ngl y di f f i cul t to sati sf y as the system accuracy requirements are made more
severe.
1)
The stati sti cal model for instrument and measurement errors must be val i d - a di f f i cul t requirement
f or components such as high-precision i nerti al gyros.
The stati sti cs of forci ng functi on errors must be modelled correctl y - vi brati onal environments of
the sensors, thermal anomalies, electro-magnetic propagation errors (f or radars, Loran and Tacan),
are di f f i cul t to characteri ze f or operati onal conditions.
2)
3) For Kalman f i l ter theory to be "perfectl y" appl i cabl e, the implemented Kalman f i l ter computations
mus t be carri ed out with "i nfi ni te" preci si on ari thmeti c, or i ts equivalent.
Computer memory l i mi tati ons requi re that an incomplete error model and incomplete state vector be
mechanized, hence, a process to rati onal l y sel ect the mechanized error model and state vector
must be defined.
4)
5) Since computer speed i s not suf f i ci ent to process al l possi bl e measurements avai l abl e, the process
to sel ect the most important measurements, and the processes to i ncrease the ef f ecti ve number of
measurements processed must be defined.
The i denti f i cati on of these di f f i cul ti es led to the establishment of the following plan:
1)
A complete model of al l si gni f i cant error sources had to be establ i shed to permit eval uati on of a
perf ectl y implemented Kalman f i l ter.
A stati sti cal error anal ysi s di gi tal computer si mul ati on program, cal l ed Program I (see Figure 3)
rel f l ecti ng the theoreti cal accuracy attai nabl e with a perfectl y implemented complete Kalman f i l ter
(complete error model, i nf i ni te preci si on ari thmeti c, etc.) had to be generated.
A stati sti cal error anal ysi s di gi tal computer si mul ati on cal l ed Program I1 (see Figure 4) ref l ecti ng
the theoreti cal accuracy attai nabl e with an incomplete Kalman f i l ter ( sti l l ref l ecti ng i nf i ni te
preci si on ari thmeti c) had t o be generated.
2)
3)
14-7
4 )
A determi ni sti c di gi tal computer si mul ati on program, cal l ed Program I I I (see Figure 5) had to be generated.
Thi s program was to bea true determi ni sti c si mul ati on involving the processing of two sets of navigation
equations - one set representi ng the high numerical preci si on processing of si gnal s from a perfect ZMU
(perf ectl y al i gned, with perfect i ni ti al condi ti ons) - and the other set representi ng the l i mi ted preci si on
of error-corrupted si gnal s from sensors, i ncl udi ng si gnal s from an imperfect I MU (i mperfectl y al i gned,
imperfect i ni ti al condi ti ons, etc.), and corrupted si gnal s from a doppler, Loran, Tacan, barometer and
MMR navigation sensors.
ef f ects of fi xed or f l oati ng poi nt computations, the ef f ects of i ncorrect error stati sti cs, and the
abi l i ty to represent any sel ected set of state vari abl es f or the mechanized sub-optimal Kalman f i l ter.
Thi s program was designed to simulate the ef f ects of vari abl e word-length, the
5) An eval uati on using Program I was required to confirm that the error budget establ i shed f or the system,
when combined with a complete error modelling of the system, would have the capabi l i ty of sati sf yi ng
the performance requirements f or the system,
6) A set of trade-off eval uati ons using Program I1 were required to defi ne the number of state vector elements
f or the mechanized sub-optimal Kalman f i l ter,
A set of trade-off eval uati ons usi ng Program 111 were required to:
a) Define the word-length required.
b) Sel ect ei ther a fi xed poi nt or f l oati ng poi nt mechanization.
c)
7)
Confirm that the sel ected number of state vector elements, with the sel ected word-length and
fi xed/fl oati ng poi nt sel ecti on, produced acceptably accurate performance.
This procedure is shown i n Figure 6. A t the present time, al l of the above tasks have been completed,
though new computer runs are occasi onal l y made to ref l ect changed parameter characteri sti cs of actual hard-
ware from those i ni ti al l y assumed.
Before presenti ng the resul ts of these si mul ati ons, it is appropri ate to bri ef l y descri be two new advances
i n Kalman f i l ter theory which have been incorporated i nto the sub-optimal Kalman mechanization.
The f i rst of these advances, developed by Dr. S. F. Schmidt, cal l ed the Epsilon Mechanization at Northrop,
consi sts of adding a new term to the Kalman f i l ter equations [ 4 ] .
The revi sed f i l ter equations are presented i n Table 4. It i B noted that by setti ng the epsi l ons (E ) equal
to zero yi el ds the ori gi nal Kalman equations by Kalman [SI .
The val ue of e establ i shes the steady state asymptotic value of the Covariance matri x of the esti mati on
errors. Thi s technique prevents the weighting vector from approaching zero as the number of
measurements becomes l arge. This technique thus avoids one of the most seri ous problems i n Kalman f i l ter
implementations.
weighting vector approaching zero (as P+O), means that new measurment information y has l i ttl e ef f ect
upon the estimated state, even though the measurement resi dual may be l arge. Thi s technique has proven to
be very powerful i n forci ng stabi l i ty and strong convergence i nto a sub-optimal Kalman f i l ter.
as discussed l ater i n thi s paper, thi s technique al so reduces the numerical error propagation induced by
truncati on and roundoff. ( I t is noted i n passing that standard techniques f or forci ng convergence of the
Kalman f i l ter involve 1) the use of forci ng functi on noise denoted R i n the Table 4
accounts f or i naccuraci es of the state transi ti on model and 2) techniques to arti f i ci al l y peri odi cal l y force
the covariance matri x of esti mati on errors to a rel ati vel y l arge, usual l y diagonal, posi ti ve def i ni te matrix.
The former of these techniques has been incorporated, but the l atter was evaluated and rej ected i n favor of
the more powerful Epsi l on Technique.)
The second of these advances, cal l ed the Data Averaging Technique, developed by J . D. Weinberg, pri nci pal
Kalman anal yst at Northrop, permits the averaging of measurement data, and optimal i ncorporati on of the
averaged value as a si ngl e measurement, vi a a modified set of Kalman f i l ter equations. This technique has
permitted the equivalent of tterati ng the enti re set of Kalman equations during alignment and during Doppler-
I nerti al Navigation at a rate of once per second (or f aster).
6.3 Major Features of the Mechanization
1) Li neari zati on of the System: The appl i cati on of Kalman f i l teri ng requi res l i neari zati on. I n thi s
The eventual divergence of the estimated state from the true state, which resul ts from the
I n addi ti on,
equations, which'
system, the process is l i neari zed about a conventional (non-l i near) f ree i nerti al sol uti on of posi ti on
and vel oci ty, resul ti ng from an i ntegrati on of the I MU outputs. Small devi ati ons from i deal f ree i nerti al
behavior are modelled l i nearl y; nine f ree i nerti al error equations are required.
2) State Variables: Associated with each of the nine f ree i nerti al error equations discussed above is an
error, which is used as a Kalman f i l ter state vari abl e. These nine errors, l i sted i nTabl e 5 are: three
posi ti on errors, three vel oci ty errors, and three platform atti tude errors.
14-8
These equati ons are forced by four component errors that are al so represented as state vari abl es, namely,
3 correl ated gyro dr i f t rate errors, and one correl ated accel erometer error.
vari abl es are measurement errors that af f ect the Kalman esti mati on process when measurements are made.
These errors are: doppl er groundspeed error, doppl er dr i f t angl e error, and barometri c atti tude error.
The addi ti onal three state
State Transi ti on Matri x: The exact sol uti on f or the state transi ti on matri x, assuming A i s constant
over a short ti me i nterval , i s:
m
-
Q ( A t) = C (A A t ) j
j=o j!
I n the mechani zati on, thi s was approximated by:
2 m2
Q ( A t) = I +A ( tl ) A t + A (tl)
where :
A t = t2 - tl
A = time varyi ng matri x of the system equati on
x = system state vector
I n the mechani zati on, al l terms of A2 are not retai ned.
Measurement Processi ng: I n the Kalman equati ons f or "Observati on Update" i n Tabl e 4 , it is noted that
the matri x Q =& +C must be i nverted t o compute both the updated val ue of the covari ance matri x P,
and the val ue of the "Kalman gai n" b = (P +1) MT Q'l.
By sel ecti ng the measurement vector y t o always be a scal ar, thi s matri x i nversi on reduces t o a si mpl e
di vi si on. Thi s is exact onl y when the noi se of al l observati ons are uncorrel ated. Duri ng ground al i gn-
ment thi s condi ti on is not sati sf i ed, but si mul ati ons proved the theoreti cal vi ol ati on produced no
si gni f i cant degradati on of performance.
Esti mator Control : A t the end of every Kalman cycl e, new devi ati ons of the system state are computed.
These devi ati ons may be used t o update the non-l i near sol uti on bei ng generated by the conventi onal
f ree- i nerti al equati ons - or, these devi ati ons may be propagated through the state transi ti on matri x
t o form new estimates of state devi ati ons when more measurements are processed. Thi s l atter al ternati ve
was rej ected because a l arger and l arger error bui l dup would cause a correspondi ng l arger departure from
the desi red state.
vector el ement, i s i nstantaneousl y updated by the newly esti mated devi ati on - is implemented except f or
pl atform tilt errors.
es t ima te .
Multi-Mode Kalman: A uni f i ed multimode Kalman f i l ter desi gn was formul ated - i.e., the same formul ati on
of the f i l t er was uti l i zed f or al l navi gati on modes, and was capabl e of accepti ng measurement data from
al l sources.
brought about by processi ng the I MUvel oci ty regi ster outputs as vel oci ty measurements.
Real Time Al l ocati on f or Kalman Fi l teri ng: The i ni ti al real -ti me al l ocati on f or the Kalman f i l ter
computati ons was establ i shed at 15% f or ai rborne navi gati on, and at 25% f or ground al i gnment.
computer were executi ng j ust the Kalman f i l ter equati ons, it was esti mated that 45 seconds of real
ti me would be requi red f or one cycl e.
ti oni ng 15% of real time t o the Kalman f i l ter equati ons, the total el apsed time f or one Kalman
cycl e thus became 45 seconds/.l 5 =300 seconds =5 mi nutes f or ai rborne operati on.
ground al i gnment, thi s el apsed time f or one Kalman cycl e became 45/.25 = 180 seconds = 3 mi nutes.
The el apsed ti me f i gure was of paramount i mportance i n establ i shi ng the number of terms requi red
f or the transi ti on matri x computati ons. I n addi ti on, thi s rel ati vel y sl ow cycl i ng rate of the
Kalman f i l ter al so establ i shed the need f or Data Averaging Technique descri bed above i n Paragraph 6.2.
Error Cal i brati on: Fi gure 7i l l ustrates the flow of i nformati on i n the system, and denotes the outputs
of the Kalman f i l ter. Note that the Kalman f i l ter esti mates of hardware errors, such as doppl er dr i f t
angl e error, doppl er groundspeed scal e f actor error, and barometri c al ti tude error, are subtracted
wi thi n the computer from the i nput si gnal s recei ved from the sensors themsel ves. I f these errors were
removed wi thi n the sensors themsel ves, both manufacturi ng coats and cal i brati on costs would be i n-
creased.
be extremel y cost ef f ecti ve si nce it permi ts rel axati on of manufacturi ng tol erances.
Graceful Degradati on:
mance. The hi erarchy of navi gati on modes is as fol l ows:
"I mpulsive" control - i.e., the vari abl e havi ng i ts devi ati ons modelled by a state
Pl atform tilt errors are control l ed t o zero wi thi n one Kalman cycl e fol l owi ng the
I n addi ti on, the ground al i gnment mode uti l i zed the same multimode Kalman f i l ter ; thi s was
I f the
By t i me shari ng the computer wi th qther programs, and appor-
Si mi l arl y, f or
The Kalman f i l t er substi tutes esti mati on accuracy f or manufacturi ng accuracy, and thus can
Fai l ure of navi gati on equipment causes "graceful degradati on" of system perf or-
Doppl er-I nerti al
I nerti al
Doppler-AHRU
TAS -AHRU
14-9
Hence, i f the system were operati ng i n the Doppl er-I nerti al mode, and the doppler f ai l ed, the doppler
BI T si gnal would so i ndi cate, and the system would automati cal l y switch to an I nerti al Mode. I f the
system were i n the Doppl er-I nerti al mode and the IMU f ai l ed, the I MU BI T si gnal wmld so i ndi cate, and
the system would automati cal l y switch to the Doppler-AHRU mode. Si mi l ar l ogi c is used f or the other
modes.
Any posi ti on augmentation follows si mi l ar pri nci pl es.
i nto the system, and a f ai l ure causes automatic switching to a degraded mode, the Loran or Tacan data
continues t o flow i nto the degraded mode i n an optimal manner - i .e., with appropri ate Kalman weighting.
The other posi ti on augmentations - radar f i x, vi sual f i x, or stel l ar f i x - requi re expl i ci t operator
acti ons, and are al so automati cal l y given proper Kalman weighting, even i n degraded mode operation.
I f Loran or Tacan data is automati cal l y flowing
6.4 Val i dati on of Assumptions
Space does not permit enumeration of al l of the assumptions which were val i dated through si mul ati on and
test. Four of the major val i dati ons are discussed below to i l l ustrate the methods of val i dati on employed.
1) Val i dati on of the L i neari ty of Error Propagation: The System Simulator Program, Program 111, was
uti l i zed to generate time hi stori es of actual navigation errors f or various i ni ti al errors. These
were compared to errors propagated by the implemented transi ti on matrix:
x(t) = Wt , to) x(to>
Such tests val i dated that, f or' al l practi cal purposes, the system errors propagated l i nearl y. It is
noted i n passing that ul ti matel y it is the qual i ty of the sensor data that permits the traj ectory of
the estimated state t o lie wi thi n the "l i near" regi on of the true state traj ectory.
2) Val i dati on of the L i neari ty of the Measurement Errors: The System Simulator Program, Program 111, was
al so uti l i zed to generate time hi stori es of navigation errors f or various combinations of sensor data.
These simulations veri f i ed that the measurement resi dual s were l i nearl y rel ated to the esti mati on errors.
3) Val i dati on of the Effects of Large Cal i brati on Errors: Earl y l aboratory resul ts of the f i ne ground
al i gn mode were obtained at a time before the cal i brati on constants of the IMU were avai l abl e.
Figure 8' shows a typi cal time hi story of the north vel oci ty regi ster obtained from the actual system.
Comparison with Figure 9 shows that the behavior of the real system was f ar from nominal. A t thi s time
it was recognized that l arge unmodelled errors could have a harmful ef f ect on f i l ter performance. Since
the f i nal system would be precal i brated, there was l i ttl e need f or concern i f the ef f ect seen i n Figure
8 was indeed caused by these factors.
The simulator was used to confirm that the problem seen i n Figure 8 was caused by poor cal i brati on con-
stants. Figure 10 shows a time hi story obtained from simulated data f or an example f or l arge uncalibrated
scal e factor errors on the gyros. The speci f i c values are given on the graph,
Val i dati on of the System Simulator Program, Program 111:
using the same basi c tool , the System Simulator Program, Program 111, it was necessary to establ i sh i ts
val i di ty before the other val i dati ons could be accepted.
val i di ty natural l y rests upon the correspondence of the simulated system performance, and true real -
world system performance. Hence, thi s l ast val i dati on had to await the col l ecti on of actual test data.
Fi nal val i dati on requi res val i dati on of each mode, under various f l i ght conditions. These tests are
sti l l i n progress. It can be stated, however, that real-world test data corresponds very well with
si mul ati on resul ts, as is i l l ustrated by the qual i tati ve si mi l ari ty of Figures 8 and 10. The si mul ati on
resul ts were generated months before the l aboratory resul ts, hence, the si mul ari ty of the dynamics was
coi nci dental .
4)
Since al l val i dati ons were accomplished by
The ul ti mate test of a simulation program's
7. SIMULATION RESULTS
Typical resul ts i ndi cati ng the accuracy attai nabl e with a "complete" Kalman mechanization are presented i n
Figures l l through 16. For reference, the 67 elements of the "complete state vector" are defined i n
Table 5. For the f i rst set of runs, Fi guresl l through 13, a great ci rcl e f l i ght path, commencing at a
45" N l ati tude, with a heading of 90' and an alignment time of 15 minutes, was assumed.
For the second set of runs presented, Figures 15 and 16 the Lockheed Fl i gh Test Course(Figure 14), was
uti l i zed. A 15 minute alignment time was assumed. The dramatic improvement i n Doppl er-I nerti al performance
produced over thi s f l i ght test course is attri buted to the "automatic" cal i brati on of the vel oci ty errors
by the Kalman f i l ter during the "turns".
Typical resul ts of the reduced vari abl e error anal ysi s program, (Program 111), f or- a 16 element sub-optimal
Kalman f i l ter mechanization , are shown i n Figure 17. These resul ts i ndi cate that the 16 element mechaniza-
ti on is, f or practi cal purposes, as accurate (wi thi n 2%) as the 67 element mechanization. (For example,
the reader may correl ate Figures 11and 12, and conclude that af ter 10 hours of great ci rcl e f l i ght i n the
barometri c-i nerti al mode, the 67-element Kalman produced a CEP of approximately 7.5 n mi l es, hence, from
Figure 17, the CEP with the 16-element Kalman produces a CEP which is 0.75%, approximately .OS7 n miles
l arger - or approximately 7.557 n miles.) The elements of the 16-element Kalman state vector are defined
i n Table 5.
The f i nal step i n the anal yti cal evol uti on of the f i l ter mechanization involved the establishment of:
1) Required minimumword-length to assure adequate accuracy of thehplemented Kalman equations.
2) A sel ecti on of f l oati ng poi nt or fi xed poi nt ari thmeti c.
14- 10
3)
A veri f i cati on that the exact "form" of the equations to be implemented provided adequate accuracy
under the influence of mismodelling, poor or marginally accurate i ni ti al condi ti ons, and numerical
errors induced by round-off and truncati on.
Results of thi s acti vi ty have produced the fol l owi ng:
1)
It has been demonstrated that a 28-bit word-length provides adequate accuracy i n the implemented
sub-optimal Kalman f i l ter.
Although somewhat of a departure from the usual practi ce, f l oati ng poi nt ari thmeti c has been successful l y
implemented i n the covariance matri x computations.
2)
An unexpected resul t was generated i n the course of the word-length/mechanization trade-offs, namely, that
the combined use of the 13-bi t mantissa (which carri es the numerical si gni fi cance) with the Epsilon Mechani-
ati on produces a more accurate navigation capabi l i ty than did a more "conventional" Kalman mechanization
uti l i zi ng a fi xed poi nt 27-bit word-length (pl us 1 bi t f or si gn).
A si gni f i cant benefi t ot the f l oati ng poi nt mechanization was the el i mi nati on of the severe scal i ng pro-
blems which occur i n fixed poi nt mechanizations, as well as gross si mpl i fi cati on of the programi ng task
and reduction of the memory requirements f or the Kalman implementations.
8. CONCLUSIONS
With respect to hybrid navigation systems, the experience from developing the C-5 Navigation System has
l ed to the following conclusions:
Based upon the simulations conducted, the practi cal implementation of a hybrid navigation system is
feasi bl e and effecti ve.
I mplementation of a sub-optimal "Kalman" f i l ter in a hybrid navigation system is synergi sti c, si nce
the hybrid system performance exceeds the performance capabi l i ti es of al l sensors i ndi vi dual l y.
Techniques f or rati onal l y sel ecti ng the number of state vari abl es, and ahe ari thmeti c, i n a sub-optimal
"Kalman" f i l ter exi st and produce practi cal resul ts.
A simulation of the real-time performance of the hybrid navigation system i s essenti al , si nce it pro-
vides the most val i d non-flight test method for:
a) Val i dati ng the approximations, ari thmeti c, and the forms of the equations programmed i n the
b) Detecti ng and correcti ng errors i n the equations f or the ai rborne computer.
c) Developing val i d models f or equipment errors by re-generating with the simulator the
ai rborne computer.
l aboratory and f l i ght test resul ts.
The use of an ai rborne di gi tal computer i n hybrid navigation systems provides enormous f l exi bi l i ty
and growth potenti al . The timely adjustment of the system mechanization to the real f l i ght environ-
ment and real hardware characteri sti cs can be accommodated without af f ecti ng the system hardware, by
simple reprogramming of the ai rborne computer. Although state-of-the-art theory has been appl i ed,
the door is open to the future i ncorporati on of more accurate navigation techniques, such as might
be derived from non-linear f i l teri ng theory, which may evolve i n the hardware l i f eti me of the developed
hybrid navigation system.
REFERENCES
"Self Contained Avionics Broader Scope of X-5 Missions", Aviation Week and Space Technology,
November 20, 1967, pp 192-202.
Sekiguchi, J ., and Berg, R., 'The C-5 Navigation Computing System", Dayton, Ohio, National Aerospace
El ectroni cs Conference, May 6-8, 1968.
Schmidt, S. F. , "Estimation of State With Acceptable Accuracy Constraints", Report 67-4, Contract
NAS 5-9085, Anal yti cal Mechanics Associates, I nc., J anuary 1967.
Schmidt, S. F., Weinberg, J . D., and Lukesh, J . S. , 'The Application of Kalman Fi l teri ng to the C-5
Navigation System", Uni versi ty of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, J oi nt Automatic Control Conference,
J ul y 1968.
Kalman, R. E., and Bucy, R. S., "New Resul ts i n Li near Fi l teri ng and Predi cti on Theory", J ournal of
Basic Engineering, March 1961.
Lukesh, J . S., "Simulation of the Nortronics Kalman Fi l ter Augmented C-5 I nerti al Doppler Navigator",
Dayton, Ohio, National Aerospace El ectroni cs Conference, May 6-8, 1968.
ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
The work reported i n thi s paper was performed by the techni cal staf f of the Systems Laboratory, Navigation
Department, Northrop El ectroni cs Division.
i cs Associ ates I nc., and J. D. Weinberg, J. S. Lukesh, A. Pri nce, and R. Berg of Northrop meri t speci al
aaknowledgement.
Technical contri buti ons of Dr. S. F. Schmidt, Anal yti cal Mechan-
14-11
IMU c
(Northrop) .*
-
PRIMARY AUXILIARY
DIGITAL DIGITAL
COMPUTER COMPUTER
(Northrop) (Northrop)
-
1/0 & A-D/D-A CONVERTERS -
CONTROL
PANEL
(Nor t hro p)
(Nort hro p)
I RADAR
A A A A A
DOPPLER
RADAR
FIGURE 1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM
INDICATOR
PANEL
(GPL)
c-c-
(No r t hro p)
C- 5 NAVIGATION
SYSTEM MODXS
DOPPLER I NERTI AL
I NP UT DATA
.
AUTOMATIC AUGMENTATION TO BASI C MODES
LORAN TACAN RADAR FIX VI SUAL FIX STELLAR FIX
X X X X X
0 SEQUENCE
0 MEASURP1ENI TYPE
TIME SHARING
I NERTI AL
DOPPLER-AHRU
TAS -AHRU
0 LEG DATA
0 TURN DATA
0 LoCh'URN SEQUENCING
X X
X X
X X
mROR STATISTICS
0 DOPPLER
0 BARWETER
0 POSITION REFmENCE
X
X
X
FIGURE 2 NAVIGATION SYSTEM MODES
X X
X X
X X
LOGI C FLOW
ENTER
r--
NEW MODE
SET-UP
I
8 -
- -
UPDATE
KINWATICS
: I
b i i i i m i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 - d I
TIME-UPDATE
SYSTM ERROR
I STATISTICS
I
I
I I
I I ~ A S U R P I E ~ - U P D A T E
SYSTEM ERROR 11 I
. -
STATISTICS
* EXIT
OUTP UT DATA
I I:-
0 POSI FON
0 VELOCITY
0 HEADING
0 ALTITUDE
0 VWTIUL VELOCITY
SYSTM ERROR
STATISTICS
0 POSITION
0 VELOCIN
0 HEADING
0 ALTITUDE
0 VERTICAL VELOCITY
0 IHU CCFIPONEVI'S
0 DOPPLER
0 POSITION REFERLNCE
FIGURE 3 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT ENSEMBLE SIMULATION,
PROGRAM I (COMPLETE, 67-VARIABLE ERROR MODEL)
14- 12
IMU
SIMULATOR
IDEAL
COMPUTATIONS
* NAVIGATOR
r-
INPUT DATA
NAVIGATION
EQUATIONS
SIMULATOR ---q
- MECHANIZATION
OmPW DATA
t
PROGRAM I
INPUT DATA:
FLIGHT PROFILE
MODE SEQUENCE
ERROR STATISTICS
t
LIST OF
RETAINED
ERROR VARIABLES
E n t e
REDUCED ERROR MDDEL
MECHANI Z~I ON ERRORS:
VERTICAL VELOCITY
GYROS/ACCEIEROMETER
PLATFORM ATTITUDE
FIGURE 4 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT ENSEMBLE SIMULATION,
PROGRAM 11 (REDUCED ERROR MODEL)
,
Iterate
?IGURE 5 FLOW DIAGRAM C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM SIMULATOR, PROGRAM III
14-13'
ENSEMBLE
RROR ANALYSIS
ECHANIZED MODE I,
-RROR EVALUATION
n n i
, , , , ,
(67 VARIABLES) I.u."..
(28.24.17.16) PROCRAW)
ENSEMBLE
ERROR
ANALYSIS
REDUCE
STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
CHOICE OF ARITHHETIC PERFORMANCE
(FLI XED OR FLOATING EVALUATION
WORD IBNGTH (28,56))
0 CHOICE OF EPSI LONS SIMULATION
0 CHOICE OF TRANSI TI ON
REAL TI ME
(Wlrre CARLO
PROCRAW)
MATRIX ELEUEWTS
i
RESULT:
-
REQurReneNTs
i
RESULT:
-
16- VARIABLE
MECHANIZATION
MEETS SYSTEM
ACCURACY
REQUI REmNTS
i
RESULTS:
16-VARIABLE MECHANIZATION
MEETS SYSTEM ACCURACY
REQUIREMENTS W I n l MINIMAL
TIME/SToRAGE COST USING:
28-BI T FLOATING POI NT ARI THHETI C
APPROPRIATE EPSI LON VALUES
ALL FI ST-ORDER. AND SELECTED
SECOND-ORDER TF~NSITION MATRIX
ELEMENTS
KALNAN EQUATIONS OPTIMALLY COK
PERSATED FOR DATA AVERAGING
FIGURE 6 C-5 KALMAN MECHANIZATION DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
I A V I C A l I o * E P UI P Y E I l Al RBORl E COMPUTER
1
- F -
FIGURE 7 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF C-5 KALMAN NAVIGATION/ALIGNMENT MECHANIZATION
14-14
+5
U
E
E o
B W
c
U
8 - 5
>
-1c
SECOND POSITION -
15
FIGURE 9 SIMULATED NORTH VELOCITY HISTORY FOR NOMINAL
TWO-POSITION FINE GROUND ALIGNMENT
U 2
kl
v)
\
E4
L*
1
kl
GyrO Errors: k h t h C2 C3
W Bias Error 0.7S0/hr O.lOO/hr O.lOO/hr
>-1-
Scale Factor 1.1 1.1 0.9
i
C3 M e North
cri
Frl
>
-2,
8 I
I I I I I I 1 I 1 1
0 5 10
TIME, MINLTTES
FIGURE 10 SIMULATED NORTH VELOCITY HISTORY FOR
OF LARGE UNMODELED ERRORS
SINGLE-POSITION FINE ALIGNMENT IN PRESENCE
14-15
2.0.-
0-
(GREAT CIRCLE COURSE, hn - 45', He =90' )
8. 0t
-.----.-c
__c__
.__c_
POSI TI ON
ERROR
(N MI.,
OEP)
HEADING
ERRROR
(W. ,
1 3
VELOCITY
ERROR
KNOTS,
1 d
POSITION
ERROR
( N =. a
CEP)
6.0
4. 0
2.0
c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
OJ
2.a
1. 5
1.0
0.5
0
8. 0
6.0
8 vj ( CROS STRACK)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 TIME HOURS
FIGURE 11 SIMULATED PERFORMANCE BARO-INERTIAL-NAVIGATION
(67 VARIABLES)
(GREAT CIRCLE COURSE, Xo =45', Ho =90')
---------
4 . 0 t
0.01
4.0.-
2.0..
O+
--
-
I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r 8V3 (CROSSTRACK)
r 8 V , (ALONG TRACK)
1,4
/
0.5 :.' *
KNOTS' t . : -*-
1 2 3 4 5 6 , 7 8 4 10
OC *-
0
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 12 SIMULATED PERFORMANCE DOPPLER-BARO-INERTIAL
NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)
POSITION
ERROR
( N MI . ,
C D )
POSITION 4 * 0
ERROR
(N m., 2. 0. -
CEP)
14-17
..
-
14-17
6. 0. - (LOCKHEED FLIGHT TEST COURSE) /---
/
4.0..
c
6 7 8 9 10
2*o" 0. 0 - //; 1 2 3 4 5
8 . OA
6. 0. .
HEADING
=OR 4. 0. .
2. 0. -
MI N, lu)
Ol c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . 10
-.__ZCC.--- -
t
. :
c
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 15 CL5 IDNE SIMULATED PERFORMANCE BAR)-INERTIAL
NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)
(LOCKHEED FLIGHT TEST COURSE)
VELOCETl
ERROR '.'[
KNOTS, 1~)l.O
f
1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)
FIGURE 16 (2-5 IDNE SIMULATED PERFORMANCE DOPPLER-BARO-INERTIAL
NAVIGATION (67 VARIABLES)
.14-18
3- BARDM&TRIC-INERTIAL NAVIGATION FOLIDUING GROUND ALI-T
PI - 100 cep CEP161 - CEP671
PERFORMANCE 2-- CEP671
DEGRADATION
\
I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TIME (HOURS)
3-
DOPPLER-BAROMETRIC I NERTI AL NAVIGATION FOLIDWING GROUND ALIGNMENT
'DI PDI - 100 CEPILDI - cEp67DI
DEGRADATION
. I 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SUBSCRI PTS TIME (HOURS)
16 - PERFORMANCE OF 16 ELEMENT
STATE VECTOR
67 - PERFORMANCE OF 67 ELEMENT
STATE VECTOR
I - BARO-INERTIAL MODE
DI - BARO-DOPPLER-INERTIAL MJDE
FTGURE 17 C-5 IDNE SIMULATOR PERFORMANCE COMPARLSON OF A 16 VS 67
VARIABLE MECHANIZATION
ADD TIME HALF-WORD 6 MICROSECONDS MEMORY TYPE , RANDOM ACCESS CORE
FULL-WORD 8 MICROSECONDS NON-VOLATILE DRO
HALF-WORD 28 MICROSECONDS INSTRUCTIONS 51, WITH TWO INSTRUCTIONS
FULL-WORD 74 MICROSECONDS PER WORD AND HALF-WORD
MULTIPLY TIME
ARITHMETIC CAPABI LI TI ES
(YR1ER FEATURES INDEXING
DI RECT ADDRESSING
ROLL TABU,
INTERRUPT CAPABI LI TY
TABLE 1 C-5 IDNE COMPUTER CHARACTERISTICS
~~~~ ~ ~
SUBROUTINE WORDS
BITE MONITOR UPDATE PROGRAM
BI T AND BI TE
CONTROL AND INDICATOR
LOADER
EXECUTIVE ROUTINES
COMPUTER SELF-TEST
"-ON I NI TI ALI ZATI ON
COMMON SUBROUTINES
INPUT-OUTPUT (AID-D/A)
MODE SELECTION
AHRU PROCESSING
COARSE ALIGN
NAVIGATION
FI NE ALIGN
KALMAN FI LTER (16 x 16)
CADC PROCESSING
DOPPLER PROCESSING
-
51
549
2170
35
100
83
220
189
400
260
500
135
390
65
2200
70
350
SUBROUTINE WORDS
MADAR
BALL READOUT COMPUTATION
INTER-COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS
FLI GHT PLAN
MMR CONTROL
VERTICAL FLI GHT VECTOR
VERTICAL NAVIGATION STEERING
EMAC PROCESSING (AUX ONLY)
MI D COURSE STEERING
TERMINAL STEERING
MMR POSI TI ON F I X PROCESSING
LORAN PROCESSING (PRI ONLY)
TACAN PROCESSING (PRI ONLY)
MANUAL PROCESSING
STAR DATA
MMR PREFLIGHT
130
2 15
70
148
575
10
550
226
302
350
428
130
50
665
2 30
--
TABLE 2 MEMORY REQUIREMENTS FOR THE C-5 PRIMARY NAVIGATION COMPUTER
14-19
TABLE 3
INFORMATION DISPLAYED ON THE C-5 NAVIGATION I NDI CATOR PANELS
PRS PC6 LAT - The l ati tude of the ai r vehi cl e's
PRS POS LNG - The l ongi tude of the ai r vehi cl e's
DEST COURSE - The heading of the intended track
present posi ti on
present posi ti on
DEST NO.
X -TCK-DST
GND TCK
Af C HDG
DEST DST
GS
DEST-T
DEST LAT
DEST LNG
rmEL -T
DEST ALT
FIX PT LAT
FIX PT LNG
TERR ALT
CH NO.
T -DELAY
1-secs
T -DELAY
Mu-secs
FIX TYPE
FIX NO.
CSR LAT
CSR LNG
CSR BRG
CSR RNG
RADIAL ERR
RADAR TGT
NO.
at the craf t's posi ti on i s posi ti ve
when measured CW from True North
- The number of the designated desti -
nati on poi nt
- The perpendicular di stance from the
intended great ci rcl e path to the
present posi ti on of the ai r vehi cl e
- The actual track (track made good)
- The angle from True North measured
CW to the keel l i ne of the ai r
vehi cl e
- The di stance from the 6ir vehi cl e
t o the designated desti nati on poi nt
- The ground speed of the ai r vehi cl e
- The time to the designated desti na-
ti on poi nt
- The l ati tude of the designed
desti nati on poi nt
- The longitude of the designated
desti nati on poi nt
- The expected f uel time remaining
f or the f l i ght
- The al ti tude above sea l evel of
the designated desti nati on poi nt
- The l ati tude of the designated
f i x poi nt
- The longitude of the designated
f i x poi nt
- The al ti tude of the terrai n above
sea l evel at the f i x poi nt
- The channel number of the Tacan
stati on
- The microseconds part of the time
del ay from the Loran sl ave to the
Loran master .
- The microseconds part of the time
del ay from the Loran sl ave to the
Loran master
Radar, Loran, Tacan, or External
and the vari ance associ ated with
the posi ti on of the f i x poi nt
- The number of the designated f i x
poi nt
- The l ati tude of the MMR cursor
- The longitude of the MMR cursor
- The bearing of the MMR cursor CW
- The range of the MMR cursor from
- The type of f i x poi nt, namely,
from the ai rcraf t keel l i ne
the computed posi ti on of the craf t
t o the f i x poi nt, desti nati on poi nt,
or recon poi nt
MMR cursors and the computed posi ti on
of the reference poi nt
desti nati on poi nt that is desi red
t o track with the MMR
- The error i n di stance between the
- The number of the f i x poi nt or
FIX LAT - The l ati tude of the ai rcraf t as deter-
mined by the f i x poi nt measurement
FIX LNG - The longitude of the ai rcraf t as deter-
mined by the f i x poi nt measurement
LAT ERR - The di fference between the craf t's
l ati tude as determined by the f i x
measurement and the l ati tude as deter-
mined by the IDNE computers
LNG ERR - The di fference between the craf t's
longitude as determined by the f i x
measurement and the l ongi tude as
determined by the I DNE computers
al ti tude as determined by the POINT or
SLOPE modes of Verti cal Navigation.
The angle i s measured posi ti ve from the
l ocal hori zontal down to the slope at
the current desti nati on poi nt
PRESENT ANG - The instantaneous present gl i de angle
of the ai r vehi cl e with respect to the
l ocal hori zontal
REQD ANG - The angle required to reach a speci fi ed
BRG TO FLARE - The bearing of the next track with
REQD ALT
DST MNI
FLARE
PRESENT ALT
T-MI N FLARE
AIM PT LAT
A I M PE LNG
AP-DZ DST
APRCH
COURSE
AP-DZ BRG
PCH DLY
WND DI R
FALL RT
mvEL
DROP NO.
CARP COURSE
CARP DST
CARP -T
DOP DFT ANG
I
respect to True North. I n the case of
a landing operati on, i t is the heading
of the runway with respect t o Magnetic
North
- The required al ti tude of the ai r vehi cl e
at the current desti nati on poi nt
- The di stance from the ai r vehi cl e to
the start of the f l are measured i n
nauti cal miles
- The instantaneous al ti tude of the ai r
vehi cl e above sea l evel
- The time in minutes before the ai r
vehi cl e reaches the poi nt to begin the
f l are to the current desti nati on poi nt
or aim poi nt
- The l ati tude of the aim poi nt
- The longitude of the aim poi nt
- The di stance from the aim poi nt to the
drop zone
- The required approach course that the
ai r vehi cl e must f l y to CARP measured
CW with respect to True North
- The bearing measured CW from True North
to the AP-DZ l i ne at the drop zone
- The del ay time from the moment of
rel ease of the parachute to the time
that it i s f ul l y deployed
- The di recti on from which the wind is
coming with respect to magnetic north
- The verti cal component of the vel oci ty
of the parachute af ter it is f ul l y
deployed
- The speed of the wind
- The number of the designated aim point
- The rel ati ve bearing of the CARP to
the keel l i ne of the ai rcraf t
- The along track di stance from the pre-
sent posi ti on of the ai r vehi cl e to CARP
- The time before the ai r vehi cl e reaches
CARP
- The angle measured CW from the Doppler
antenna i n the keel l i ne is posi ti ve
and the angle measured CCW from the
Doppler antenna t o the keel l i ne is
negative
14-20
KALMAN FILTER EQUATIONS
~
OPERATION MATRIX FORMULATION QUANTITY AND DEFINITION DIMENS I ON
n x l
n x n
n x n
n x n
1 x 1
1 x 1
1 x 1
n x n
1 x 1
1 x 1
n x l
n x n
1 x 1
n x l
^x = system error esti mate vector
P =esti mate error covariance matri x
0 = system,error transi ti on matri x
R =system noise covariance matri x
Ay =observation di fference vector
M =measurement matri x
C = observation noise matri x
A
y =observati on resi dual vector
Q =observation resi dual covariance
b =weighting vector
I = i denti f y matrix
E = epsi l on f actor
U =system control vector
f ( ) =esti mator control algorithm; appl i es
g() = system control ; computers new
A t =period of Kalman cycl e
n =state vector dimension
=time varying matri x of system
equation
matrix
sc
esti mate to system
esti mate to be applied t o system
Observation A y =y - &
Residual
E s t imator
Control
,: = f(9)
T
Observation Q=M P M + C
Update
b = (P +1) MTQ-'
9 =%+ b (Ay)
Time
Update
U =g(9)
sc
System
Control
Transi ti on
Matrix
Cal cul ati on
@(At) =I +A A t +A 2 &
TABLE 4 C-5 NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM KALMAN EQUATIONS
~ ~
INERTIAL MEASUREMENT UNIT STATE VARIBLES C-5 NAVI GATI ON SYSTEM STATE VARIABLES
STATE VARIABLES Mode 1 STATE VARIABLES Model
C omp1 et e techanized zomple t e lechanized
-~ ~-
I nerti al Measurement Unit Errors
Doppler
0 Groundspeed
0Dri f t Angle
overti cal Velocity
Al ti tude Reference Error
0 Barometric
Radar Altimeter
Posi ti on Reference Error
0 Horizontal Posi ti on
Heading Reference Error
AHRU
50
3
3
3
2
3
2
1
13
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
Velocity Error
Posi ti on Error
Platform Atti tude Error
Gyr o Dri f t Rate Error
0 Correl ated
0 Bias
.Scale Factor
Ramp
0 Mass Unbalance
I nput Axis Alignment
Accelerometer Error
ocorrel ated
0 Bias
0 Scal e Factor
0 I nput Axis Alignment
Bal l Readout
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
3
3
3
6
2
3
3
3
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
*
~~
C-5 NAVIGATION SYSTEM TOTALS 67 16 IMU TOTALS 50 13
*A si ngl e-state element i s used to model Bal l readout/Doppler dri f t angle azimuth error
TABLE 5 COMPLETE AND MECHANIZED STATE VARIABLES
15
THE H Y B R I D N A V I G A T I O N S Y S T E M F O R THE N I M R O D M A R I T I M E
P A T R O L A I R C R A F T
R.P.G.Collinson, B.Sc.(ENG)., C.ENG., M.I.E.E.
Manager, Inertial Navigation Division,
Marconi - Elliot Avionic Systems Limited
Elliott Flight Automation,
15
15- 1
THE HYBRI DNAVI GATI ONSYSTEMFUR THE NI MRODMARI TI ME
PATROL AI RCRAFT
R.P.C. Col l i nson, B.Sc.(mG)., C. ENG. , M. I . E. E.
Manager, I nert i al Navi gat i on Di vi si on
El l i ot t Fl i ght Aut omat i on
Marconi - El l i ot t Avi oni c Syst ems Li mi t ed
1, I nt roduct i on
The Hawker Si ddel ey NI MRODi s t he l at est mari t i me pat rol ai rcraf t about to enter servi ce wi t h t he
R.A.F. and will repl ace t he Hawker Si ddel ey Shackl eton. I t i s a devel opment of t he very wel l proven
Hawker Si ddel ey Comet j et ai r l i ner and i t i s propel l ed by f our Rolls Royce Spey by- pass j et engi nes, gi vi ng
i t a l ong range, hi gh speed crui se capabi l i t y - i n f act , t he Ni mrod wi l l be the f ast est mari t i me patrol
ai rcraf t i n servi ce i n t he West ern worl d. I t i s al so abl e to operat e wi t h t wo engi nes shut down f or t he
sl owspeed search mode and possesses excel l ent handl i ng t hroughout i t s speed range.
f i t t ed wi t h very advanced, avi oni c equi pment , i ncl udi ng a di gi t al navi gat i on and t act i cal comput er whi ch
dri ves a sophi st i cat ed di spl ay system.
2. Syst emRequi rement
The Ni mrod i s
The basi c requi rement i s f or hi gh accuracy navi gat i on f or prol onged peri ods of crui se and search
over t he sea, t oget her wi t h t he provi si on of accurat e headi ng and at t i t ude i nf ormat i on f or t he ot her syst ems
i n t he ai rcraf t , such as t he t act i cal di gi t al comput er, t he aut omat i c f l i ght cont rol syst em, etc.
To t h i s end and wi t h regard to vi si bi l i t y and ot her f act ors t he ai rcraf t cannot rel y excl usi vel y upon radi o
ai ds, radar f i xes or vi sual ground/ stel l ar f i xes and t hus requi res sel f - cont ai ned f aci l i ti es.
The al t ernat i ves (i n1964-65) were: -
Pure I nert i al Syst ems
Doppl er - Compass Syst ems
Hybri d Doppl er - I nert i al Syst ems
(al l updat ed by peri odi c f i xes)
3. Choi ce of Syst em
The use of a pure i nert i al syst emwas f easi bl e but not pract i cal at t he ti me i n t erms of cost and
devel opment.
ei t her f i t t i ng mul t i pl e I NS (more expense) or a st andby doppl er/ compass f i t.
t er ms, of overal l cost - ef f ect i veness, was not vi abl e when compared wi t h t he hybri d D- I combi nati on.
Also, a hi gh degree of reversi onary navi gat i on capabi l i t y was requi red whi ch woul d have meant
Thi s l at t er al t ernat i ve, i n
Use of the Doppl er- Compass arrangement as t he basi c navi gat i on f aci l i t y gave def i ci enci es i n t wo mai n
areas - i ni t i al azi mut h al i gnment and perf ormance duri ng prol onged t act i cal manoeuvres.
accuracy Doppl er as t he vel oci t y sensor pl aces t he onus upon t he headi ng ref erence syst emf or mai nt ai ni ng
l ong t ermnavi gat i on accuracy.
al i gned accuratel y.
l i mi t ed capabi l i t i es f or rapi d, accurat e, i ni t i al al i gnment and i nvol ve ei t her opt i cal al i gnment or ref erence
t o a mast er standard. A f urt her def i ci ency of t hi s conf i gurat i on occurred duri ng t he t act i cal manoeuvrei ng
phase where t he Doppl er woul d be spendi ng a consi derabl e amount of ti me i n t he memory mode and woul d rel y
upon Ai r Dat a i nf ormat i on duri ng thi s ti me, t hereby degradi ng t he overal l navi gat i on capabi l i t y and the
weapon del i very ef f ect i veness. The i deal sol ut i on thus evol ved as a hybri d Doppl er- I nert i al syst em
whi ch ut i l i ses t he compl ement ary nat ures of t he i ndi vi dual syst ems as i ndi cat ed bel ow.
The use of a hi gh
The l at t er, t heref ore, must have a l owazi mut h dri f t rat e and be i ni t i al l y
Compass syst ems whi ch are capabl e of rel at i vel y good dri f t perf ormance have very
Schul er Tuned Headi ng Ref erence Syst em(H.R.S.1
Accurat e navi gat i on capabi l i t y f or l i mi t ed
Excel l ent dynami c response but wi t h l ong
LowAzi mut h Dri f t Rate.
Accurat e sel f - contai ned i ni t i al azi mut h
al i gnment capabi l i ty.
peri ods.
t ermosci l l at ory error generati on.
Doppl er
Hi gh accuracy. Errors are bounded and not
Lowsuscept i bi l i t y to l asof t errorsI t.
I f Doppl er i sI ton l ock" ( whi ch i s moni tored)
t hen t here i s a very hi gh probabi l i t y that
i t i s worki ng accuratel y.
measurement under reasonabl y st eady f l i ght
condi ti ons.
t i me dependant.
Accurate Groundpseed and Dri f t Angl e
Preci si on H. R. S. requi red f or navi gati on.
Loss of accuracy i n manoeuvres and under
. cert ai n f l i ght condi ti ons.
15-2
The Hybri d Navi gat i on Syst emf or t he Ni mrod Mari t i me Pat rol Ai rcraf t
4. Doppl er- I nert i al Mixing
The chosen conf i gurat i on hybri d D-I syst emi s i ndi cat ed i n Fi g. (A). Rout i ne navi gat i on i s
perf ormed usi ng the Doppl er Groundspeed resol ved about Dri f t and t he True Headi ng f romthe I.N.S.
The I.N.S. f eeds vel oci t y si gnal s to the G.S.R. f or compari son wi t h t he resol ved Doppl er vel oci t i es - the
di f f erences bei ng f ed back t o cont i nuousl y updat e and al i gn t he i nert i al system.
revert s t emporari l y t o t he memory mode duri ng t he Tact i cal phase, t he I.N.S. i s pre- al i gned and can mai nt ai n
t he accurat e navi gat i onal f aci l i t y as shown i n Fi g. (B).
Thus, when t he Doppl er
The I.N.S. i nf ormat i on i s al so used to updat e the Doppl er l l memor yl l of groundspeed and dri f t to enabl e
t he l at t er to rel ock more qui ckl y when sui t abl e condi t i ons return.
i n t he i nert i al syst emi s perf ormed by a si mpl e second order l oop wi t h f i xed gai ns as shown i n Fi g. ( C) .
The doppl er- i nert i al vel oci t y 'lmM.ngfl
The second order l oop as depi ct ed was chosen f or t he f ol l owi ng reasons: -
Dampi ng of Schul er Osci l l at i ons (Gai n f act or %)
Mai nt enance of an "exact " syst em(Gai n f act or K2)
Hi gher order l oops not i ncorporat ed due t o t he l l bal ancedl l accuraci es of t he
I .N. and Doppl er systems.
Fi xed gai ns were used f or si mpl i ci t y, economy (wi th anal ogue system) and t he f act t hat a l arge vol ume
of tri al s dat a was avai l abl e on comparabl e f i xed gai n systems.
f act ors were sel ect ed as a resul t of st udi es of t ri al s dat a on the Doppl er and anal ysi s of t he i nert i al
syst emparameters.
syst emto bet t er t han 2 f t/ sec. vel oci ty error and 1 mi n. arc ti l t.
The l oop nat ural f requency and dampi ng
Under normal f l i ght condi t i ons, t he mixing l oop i s capabl e of setti ng up t he i nert i al
f
The Doppl er vel oci t y i s not used to correct the l ong t ermazi mut h errors as t he dri f t and i ni t i al mi s-
Provi si on i s made f or azi mut h correct i on f rom al i gnment errors are of suf f i ci ent accuracy t o obvi at e thi s.
ast ro f i xes.
t he O. l o/ hr. dri f t rat e capabi l i t y of t he azi mut h ref erence i s obt ai ned wi t h f ul l compensat i on f or eart h
rat e and meri di an convergency perf ormed aut omat i cal l y by t he i nert i al system.
an equal l y cri t i cal f act or i s achi eved by a sel f cont ai ned runway al i gnment techni que.
5. Runway Al i gnment
The azi mut h perf ormance i s a pri me f act or i n t he rout i ne navi gat i on mode, and
I ni t i al azi mut h al i gnment,
The pri nci pl e of operat i on i s to measure t he i nert i al l y deri ved across- track di st ance (X) accrued
duri ng t he take- of f run, wi t h ref erence to t he known di rect i on of t he runway centre- l i ne and the l engt h of
runway used (S) .
The across t rack error can f ai rl y be at t ri but ed ent i rel y t o azi mut h error provi ded that t he ai rcraf t
st art s and f i ni shes on, or cl ose to, t he runway cent re l i ne;
azi mut h of t he St abl e Pl at f ormand t he azi mut h gyroscope i s precessed proport i onat el y to t hi s amount i n
order to achi eve, aut omat i cal l y, a preci se i ni t i al al i gnment.
thus #i s a measure of t he mi sal i gnment i n
The f ol l owi ng descri pt i on, i n conj unct i on wi t h t he Fi gs. D. f E.,
(a)
obt ai ned by gyr o compassi ng to wi t hi n 20, havi ng set t he ai rcraf t compass headi ng to reduce the gy r o
compassi ng ti me.
(b) The surveyed Runway True Beari ng i s set i n to t he pai r of Si n/ Cos Pot ent i omet ers, so
t hat t he i nert i al vel oci t i es wi l l nowbe resol ved about t hi s beari ng.
(c) A di st ance sl i ght l y l ess t han t he cal cul at ed take- of f di st ance i s set i nt o comparat or 1.
(d) The ai rcraf t i s posi t i oned ( azi mut h al i gnment i s i mnat eri al ) on t he Runway i n t he normal
way, on or cl ose t o the centre- l i ne and stops. The syst emi s ' !zeroed" el ect r i cf l y at t hi s
ti me and ' b- el eased" i nt o i t s operat i ng mode j ust pri or to l l brakes- of f l f .
(e)
j ust pri or to ' l rotati onl l ( l eavi ng t he ground).
i nt ermedi at e st age i s of no consequence.
(f ) The n o d i nert i al out put s of East - West and Nor t hSout h vel oci t i es are f ed to the
Si n/ Cos Pot ent i omet ers, whose out put s t hen become al ong and across- runway- beari ng vel oci ti es.
These l at t er vel oci t i es are i nt egrat ed t o gi ve al ong and across runway di st ances (S,X).
( g )
t hese are nowstori ng quant i t i es anal ogous to S and X.
(h)
t he azi mut h (Z) gyroscope i s precessed at a const ant rat e unt i l thi s unst ore i s compl et e
(detected by ' Comparat or 21 whi ch t hen di sconnect s t he precessi on si gnal ).
gyroscope i s precessed f or a t i me di rect l y proport i onal to X and i nversel y proport i onal t o S
whi ch i s the requi red sol uti on.
det ai l s the met hod of operati on: -
The pl at f ormi s i ni t i al l y erect ed i n the n o d way and coarse al i gnment i n azi mut h i s
The ai rcraf t commences t he take- of f r un and ai ms to be on or cl ose to the centre- l i ne
Wander or dri f t of t he ai rcraf t duri ng t he
1
When S i s equal t o S , ' Comparat or 11 di sconnect s t he i nput s of the t wo i nt egrat ors;
1
The quant i t y S i s nowf ed i nt o t he across- runway (X) i nt egrat or to unst ore X whi l st
Thus t he azi muf h
15- 3
I
The Hybr i d Navi gat i on Syst emf or t he Ni mr od Mar i t i me Pat r ol Ai r cr af t
The whol e sequence of oper at i ons i s aut omat i c, bei ng i ni t i at ed at t he st ar t of t he t ake- of f run.
Syst ems have been devi sed whi ch aver age t he headi ng over shor t per i ods but , si nce t he ai r cr af t dr i f t s and
headi ng var i es, t hey have f ai l ed. Thi s syst em, by usi ng vel oci t y out put s, over comes t hese f ai l i ngs and
var i at i ons of headi ng do not mat t er.
Wi t h t he except i ons t hat t he ai r cr af t must pause moment ar i l y at t he i ni t i al t ake- of f posi t i on and be
cal cul at ed t ake-
cl ose t o t he cent r e- l i ne j ust pr i or t o r ot at i on, t her e ar e no const r ai nt s on t he ai r cr af t or ai r cr ew.
Knowl edge of accur at e r unway di r ect i on i s al r eady avai l abl e at al l maj or wor l d ai r por t s;
of f di st ance i s a r out i ne pre- requi si t e f or al l ci vi l and most mi l i t ar y f l i ght s.
I t can be shown t hat t he r esi dual headi ng er r or at t he end of t he comput at i on i s of t he f ol l owi ng
f om: -
._I
Error = F1 + F2 vc + 3. F t + - F t L 4 + F5
D 2D D
where:
F1
i s t he r.s.s. of t he f ol l owi ng:
(a)
(b)
(c) Error due t o scal e f act or s i n comput i ng vel oci t y, i . e. ,
The set t i ng er r or of t he r unway headi ng.
The er r or s i n angul ar r esol ut i ons.
accel er omet er s, i nt egr at or s and ampl i f i er s.
F2
F3
F4
F5
i s t he er r or due t o scal e f act or s i n t he unst or i ng ar r angement .
i s t he i ni t i al vel oci t y error.
i s t he i ni t i al accel er at i on error.
i s t he er r or due t o di spl acement of t he ai r cr af t f r omi t s posi t i on
r el at i ve t o t he r unway cent r e l i ne bet ween t he st ar t and f i ni sh of t he
t ake- of f run. Thi s er r or i s not i nt r oduced by t he syst embut by t he
pi l ot .
yc
i s t he t ot al azi mut h cor r ect i on t o be appl i ed.
t i s t he t i me t he ai r cr af t t akes t o cover t he di st ance D.
D i s t he di st ance t he ai r cr af t has t r avel l ed al ong t he runway.
Thus, i n gener al , t he er r or due t o f act or SF1 and F, ' ar e i ndependent of t he l engt h
of t ake- of f r un, but ar e f unct i ons of comput i ng aEcur acy, t he domi nant f act or bei ng
. t he r esol ut i on of vel oci t y f r omX and Y axes about r unway headi ng.
The ef f ect of er r or F
er r or t o t he vel oci t g at r ot at i on.
error.
can be shown t o be r oughl y t he r at i o of i ni t i al vel oci t y
Thus, t he l ower t he l at t er , t he gr eat er t he
The cont r i but i on due t o F i s, i n a si mi l ar way t o F t he r at i o of i ni t i al
accel er at i on er r or (i.e.: pl at f or mver t i cal i t y) t o &e mean accel er at i on down
t he runway. Bot h of t hese er r or s ar e t i me dependent , but t hat due t o F i s
pur el y a f unct i on of t he t ake- of f r un l engt h sel ect ed.
5
Usi ng expect ed val ues f or t he above er r or sour ces i ncl udi ng val ues f ound as a
r. m. s.
r esul t of eval uat i on t r i al s at Bgscombe Down, t he over al l al i gnment accur acy was
pr edi ct ed t o be bet t er t han 0.15
oper at i on of t he Nav/ Tac. syst em, t oget her wi t h t he adopt i on of sat i sf act or y
oper at i ng t echni ques.
Thi s has been bor ne out i n subsequent
15-4
The Hybri d Navi gat i on Syst emf or the Ni mrod Mari t i me Pat rol Ai rcraf t
6 . Descri pt i on of t he Equi pnent
The uni t s maki ng. up t he syst emare shown i n Fi g. D. They compri se t he f ol l owi ng uni ts: -
E 3 Pl at f orm
Pl at f ormComput er No. 1
Pl at f ormComput er No. 2
Power Suppl y Uni t
Ground Speed Resol ver
I .N. Cont rol Panel
The f l owdi agramof t he syst emi s shown i n Fi g. G.
A summary of t he sal i ent f eat ures of t he syst emi s gi ven i n Tabl e 1.
A summary of t he syst emout put s i s gi ven i n Tabl e 2.
6 3 Pl at f orm
The El l i ot t E-3 Pl at f ormi s shown i n the phot ograph i n Fi g. H.
The st abl e pl at f ormi s suspended i n an tvi nsi de out" gi mbal conf i gurat i on, usi ng+" 9uckl e j oi nt f or
f reedomi n pi tch and rol l .
The spat i al ref erence i s provi ded by 3 si ngl e Pgr ee of f reedomf l oat ed i nt egrat i ng rat e gyroscopes -
Bri t i sh Ai rcraf t Corporat i on GG.49 t ype of 0.1 / hour r andomdr i f t perf ormance.
Ferrant i FA2 f orce bal ance accel eromet ers f or measuri ng t he hori zont al component s of accel erati on.
The uni que f eat ure of t he pl at f ormi s t he use of 4 separat e azi mut h axes f or the i nert i al component s whi ch
are coupl ed t oget her by a preci si on l i nkage mechani sm. Thi s conf i gurat i on resul t s i n a compact , ext remel y
rugged pl at f ormwhi ch gi ves maximum component accessi bi l i ty.
The pl at f ormhas f ul l f reedomi n rol l and azi mut h and - 60 f reedomi n pi tch.
The pl at f ormhas t wo
The si gnal buf f er nmpl i f i ers f or the gyros and the gyro t emperat ure cont rol ampl i f i ers are mount ed on
t he st abl e el ement i tsel f .
ampl i f i ers are i n t l pl ug- i nl l card modul e f ormmount ed i nsi de t he pl at f ormcani ster.
The gi mbal servo ampl i f i ers, gyro precessi on ampl i f i ers and accel eromet er
Pl at f ormComput er No. 1
Thi s uni t cont ai ns t he f i rst st age i nt egrat ors whi ch are el ect r omechani cal i nt egrat ors of t he
Vel odyne type, usi ng a preci si on D.C. t acho generat or as t he f eedback el ement.
Pot ent i omet ers i s mount ed on t he out put shaf t.
anal ogue out put of vel oci ty f or D- I mixing and al so f or carryi ng out t he mul t i pl i cat i on operat i on in
generat i ng t he Cori ol i s accel erat i on terns.
f or anal ogue comput i ng are al so l ocat ed i n t hi s uni t.
A mul t i pl e gang of
These are used to provi de the preci si on D.C. vol t age
Vari ous buf f er ampl i f i ers i nvol ved i n t he al i gnment mode and
Pl at f ormComput er No. 2
Thi s uni t cont ai ns t he runway al i gnment i nt egrat ors and runway al i gnment resol ver. ' The headi ng
repeat er servo whi ch repeat s Headi ng to the ot her sub- systems i n t he ai rcraf t i s l ocat ed i n t hi s uni t.
Power Suppl y Uni t
Thi s uni t provi des t he preci si on 400 HZ suppl y f or the gyro spi n mot ors, t oget her wi t h t he necessary
st abi l i sed H.T. suppl i es f or the syst emel ectroni cs.
al so l ocat ed i n t he P.S.U.
syst emi s shut down aut omat i cal l y and a f ai l ure si gnal gi ven i f t hese exceed the al l owabl e l i mi ts.
The aut omat i c sequenci ng and prot ect i on uni t i s
The gyro t emperat ure and gyro capt ure angl es are cont i nual l y moni t ored and the
Ground Speed Resol ver
Thi s uni t carri es out t he resol ut i on of the Doppl er out put i nt o Nort hi ng and Easti ng Vel oci ti es, i n
conj unct i on wi t h t he True Headi ng i nput f romthe st abl e pl atf orm.
vel oci t y di f f erenci ng operati on.
to perf ormt hi s resol ut i on,
the f act remai ns t hat they can be ext remel y accurat e and rel i abl e devi ces - t hi s uni t i n part i cul ar was
sel ect ed because of i t s out st andi ng record i n t he V bomber f l eet.
I t al so perf orms the Doppl er- I nert i al
I t uses a very accurat e (1 to 2 mi nut es of arc) El l i ot t 2" bal l resol ver
Al t hough mechani cal resol vers are not regarded as t he t l l at est l l i n t echnol ogy,
I .N. Cont rol Panel
The cont rol of t he syst emmodes i s carri ed out by t he I .N. Cont rol Panel .
Acknowl e&ement: -
El l i ot t Fl i ght Aut mTt i on i n publ i shi ng thi s paper, t oget her wi t h the assi st ance and
co- operati on of hi s col l eagues in I nert i al Navi gat i on Di vi si on.
The aut hor wi shes to acknowl edge the permi ssi on of the Di rect ors of
15-.5
Ground Speed
v,
DOPPLER
b
Dri f t
6
Heading
K
*
Northing
Velocity
w
COMPUTER
GROUND Eat i ng
Velocity
SPEED
RESOLVER
b
-
-
DOPPLER/ Sm TUNEDHEADING REFEXENCE
4
Inertial
I
I Velocities
I U,! %
I
E3
INERTIAL
NAVIGATION
4
Dopplerll nertial
Velocity Error
Heading
-
DOPPLER
Inertial
I
I Velocities
I
Northing
Ground Speed Velocity
w t
COMPUTER
%'
GROUND Eat i ng
\
Velocity
SPEED
Dri f t
- .)
b' RESOLVER
E3
INERTIAL
NAVIGATIUN
SYSTEM
b Latitude
x
b Longitude
IJ
D i g i t a l
Comput er)
FIG. B. DOPPrW CUT-OUT PURE I . N. bDDE
15-6
FI G. C. DOPPLER/INERTIAL MIXING
SINGLE CHANNEL)
I ,
Airframe
Dri ft
I 1
I I -
Doppler and inertially derived velocities are combined to
overcome the deficiencies present in each source on its own.
Doppler is inherently noisy and requires smoothing, its long
term accuracy is good but it is subject to dynamic errors
because of its lags.
Inertial velocity i s very accurate for a short period and is free
from lags.
Doppler
lnertiel
Velocity
Earting
Velocity
/
I
15- 7
FIG. D. RUNWAY AL1C"T S CMTI C
_(British Patent 1,120,1811
N
/w
Accelerometer
Ini ti al
haading
velocity
RUNWAY
along
Accelerometer Integrator
Runway
heeding
2
Acroar
runway
Apparent distance
error Sy
4 A travelled across runway
$g due t o i ni ti al heading
Ta
F2
Distance
travelled
along
Runwey
Distance
travelled
acrou
Runway
15-8
FIG. E. RUNWAY ALIGNMENT MECHANISATION
Relay
Along R LA
Runmy
Vdoclty
RLA1
-
Y
Integrator
I
: PrsrstDirtsncaS
Acron
Runway
velocltv
Integrator corn pa rat o r
U
ConNnt Pnxeul on A . .
RI A 4
Cumnc
RELAY A
OPERATION
TI ME
b
15-9
15-10
FIG. 0. SYSTBX FMY DIMRlul
;I
1 r
Hd i n s
15-11
I
I
The U s e of Hybrid Navigation
Techniques i n Commercial Transport Aviation
16
Siegbert B. Poritzky
Manager - Navigation
A i r Transport Association
of America
16
SUMMARY
Commercial ai rl i nes have tradi ti onal l y been rel uctant t o use navi gati on or control
systems i n which the mi ssi on of an ai rcraf t i s dependent on hybri d combi nati ons, espe-
ci al l y of external reference ai ds. While, f or long di stance navi gati on, combinations of
Doppl er/i nerti al systems or i nerti al /L oran systems have been attracti ve to some users,
ai rl i nes have general l y opted f or usi ng the aids separatel y ( i f both wer e t o be carri ed)
i n order t o provi de f or a hi gh degree of f aul t survi vabi l f ty.
uses of hybri d systems -- that of a range dependent Doppler system used t o bound the
error of a time-bounded i nerti al system -- ai rl i nes have been abl e t o choose, because of
the regul ari ty of thei r mi ssi on, t o use i nerti al systems al one.
ever, may bri ng a qui te unique form of hybri d operati on i nto the ai rl i ne f l eet. Some
aspects of thi s form of hybri d operati on are di scussed.
A form of hybri di zati on may come as a by-product of the i nerti al navi gati on capa-
bi l i ty si nce the i nerti al system provi des not onl y navi gati on, but more fundamental l y,
provi des very good basi c headi ng and atti tude sensors f or the ai rcraf t. Thus f or the
f i r st t i me, a si ngl e system provi des a series of essenti al functi ons -- navi gati on,
headi ng, atti tude and accel erati ons. They permi t rati onal i zati on and smoothing of other
navi gati on sensors which may be more accurate but sometimes less consi stent. Again,
independence can be preserved i n such a way that the best f eatures of both systems can
be used but wi thout the undesi rabl e dependence of one upon the other.
One i mportant use of i nerti al i nformati on w i l l come i n the augmentation of ground
I n one of the most basi c
The i ntroducti on of i nerti al systems, and the prospect f or satel l i te systems, how-
si gnal -based automati c approach and l andi ng gui dance systems. Here hi gh-qual i ty
i nerti al data w i l l come to be used t o smooth I L S si gnal s and overcome some of the
ef f ects of windshear and gusts. Hybri di zati on may also permi t the use of an outer-l oop
moni tor crosscheck of vari ous ai rpl ane systems, and coul d form the basi s f or a common
mul ti l aterati on type navi gati on and survei l l ance system -- once agai n i n a way which
can provi de the advantages of hybri di zati on wi thout the di sadvantage of i nter-dependence.
16-1
The U s e of Hybrid Navi gati on
Techniques i n Commercial Transport Avi ati on
Si egbert B. Pori tzky
Manager - Navi gati on
A i r Transport Associ ati on
of America
According to my di cti onary, "hybri d" means the of f spri ng of two ani mal s or pl ants
of di f f erent races, breeds, vari eti es, speci es, or genera; or a group of persons pro-
duced by the i nter-acti on or cross-breedi ng of two unl i ke cul tures, tradi ti ons, etc.
I n our context it al so means anythi ng deri ved from heterogenous sources or composed
of el ements of di f f erent or incongruous ki nds. Hybrid navi gati on has been long debated
and, depending on your def i ni ti on of it, used or shunned, parti cul arl y f or long-haul
over-water operati ons or operati ons over undeveloped terrai n. I n the minds of many ai r-
l i ne peopl e, it means the si mul taneous use of two unl i ke systems si mul taneousl y or i n
paral l el . The most frequentl y di scussed arrangements have been Doppl er/i nerti al system
combinations i n which one takes advantage of the f act that Doppler navi gati on system
errors are range-bounded whi l e i nerti al system errors are time-bounded. Other combi-
nati ons of ten di scussed are Doppler or i nerti al systems combined wi th Loran or astro
f i xes. You are aware, of course, that by current FAA requi rement U. S. ai rl i nes usi ng
Doppler as pri mary navi gati on, are obl i gated on certai n l ong l egs to use Loran as an
addi ti onal ai d. Many proponents of hybri d navi gati on systems, however, try to make l i f e
easi er f or us by of f eri ng a central computer i nto which we feed several navi gati on data
sources and which, by appropri ate wei ghti ng of the several navi gati on data i nputs, can
provi de navi gati on gui dance based on i ts assessment of the qual i ty of the several i nputs.
Hybri di zati on f or Long Di stance Navi gati on
The ai rl i nes, certai nl y the United States ai rl i nes, have opposed thi s approach and
have not implemented it i n Doppler/Loran ai rcraf t. Doppler and Loran systems are care-
f ul l y kept apart; i n f act, many ai rl i nes use qui te el aborate precauti ons to assure that
cockpi t hybri di zati on i s avoi ded, i.e., to assure that we prevent, as f ar as possi bl e,
any cross-breedi ng of errors from system t o the other.
descri be. The ai rl i nes are anxi ous to make themselves as sel f - suf f i ci ent as possi bl e,
and wish to use sel f-contai ned navi gati on ai ds, which requi re no dependence on ground
f aci l i ti es. Si nce, unl i ke mi l i tary ai rcraf t, most ai rl i nes operate day af ter day al ong
routes of known l ength, it i s possi bl e to examine a route and determi ne whether a sel f -
contai ned navi gati on system (such as an i nerti al system) can, by i tsel f , meet the
accuracy requi rements at the end of that route. Navi gati on systems and procedures can
be accepted or rej ected based on the route structure and the l ength of the routes to be
flown, unl i ke the mi l i tary si tuati on where more f l exi bi l i ty i s of ten needed and must be
planned f or. More i mportant, however, i s the need to avoi d the i nti mate connecti on of
systems i n ways which coul d encourage, or even which do not do al l possi bl e to prevent,
the i ntroducti on of the same or a correl ated error t o two navi gati on schemes. Thi s
matter is parti cul arl y i mportant si nce it i s thi s ki nd of error or bl under which we are
tryi ng hardest to avoi d. The poi nt i s w el l made by Nathani el Braverman of the Federal
Avi ati on Admi ni strati on i n a paper enti tl ed, "Safety and System Design," dated
Apri l 1969:
There are several reasons f or avoi di ng hybri di zati on of the type I 've j ust tri ed t o
"Undetected errors cause bl unders which may cause acci dents. undetected
errors are of two types. One type i s caused by vari ati on of desi gn param-
eters and i s usual l y descri bed by the si ze of the mean error and the standard
devi ati on of the errors which are assumed to have a Gaussian frequency di stri -
buti on. These two stati sti cal val ues are usual l y consi dered to descri be the
'accuracy' of the system. Thi s 'accuracy' i s a major f actor i n the system
saf ety only when the separati on standard (nominal spaci ng) i s less than about
f i ve standard devi ati ons. When the nominal spaci ng i s more than about f i ve
standard devi ati ons, the other type of undetected errors (caused by vari ati on
of non-design parameters) usual l y becomes the major f actor i n system safety."
16-2
Thus af ter havi ng assured oursel ves that the navi gati on system chosen can meet our
performance requi rements i n terms of a) navi gati on accuracy requi red to arri ve at the
desti nati on, and b) posi ti on-keepi ng al ong the route f or ai r traf f i c control , our next
major concern i s the avoidance and, i f possi bl e, el i mi nati on of bl under errors. I n the
view of most ai rl i nes, hybri di zati on, parti cul arl y hybri di zati on i n which two separate
data sources come together i n a si ngl e computer, i s not the best way t o achi eve this
protecti on.
I nerti al Navi gati on as "Sol e Means''
Many of you know that ai rl i nes expect t o uti l i ze i nerti al systems as the sol e means
of navi gati on over water, and expect t o be wholly i ndependent of ground-based navi gati on
ai ds duri ng the enroute phase. Without going i nto the l egal i sti c detai l s, an FAA
Advisory Ci rcul ar on i nerti al navi gati on i ndi cates that such operati ons are acceptabl e
if a si ngl e f ai l ure of a navi gati on system does not resul t i n l oss of navi gati on capa-
bi l i ty t o reach the desti nati on; and i f suf f i ci ent f ai l ure detecti on capabi l i ty i s pro-
vi ded t o assure that a f ai l ure of the sl owl y dri f ti ng type i n one system i s extremel y
unl i kel y t o l eave the pi l ot i n a quandary as t o which system has gone wrong. I n other
words, suf f i ci ent f ai l ure detecti on capabi l i ty must be provi ded t o gi ve hi gh confi dence
that the pi l ot can detect which of two (or more) systems has f ai l ed. Thi s problem i s
bei ng tackl ed i n a vari ety of di f f erent ways, the most desi rabl e, of course, bei ng a
f ai l ure detecti on and warning system wi thi n the i ndi vi dual navi gati on system which
announces i ts own f ai l ures.
The ai rl i nes bel i eve that by provi di ng at l east two i nerti al navi gati on systems
which are kept str i ctl y i ndependent one from the other, an adequate l evel of performance
and bl under protecti on can be achi eved. El aborate precauti ons are taken t o prevent
common mode f ai l ures, especi al l y common mode f ai l ures of the human type i n which one man
can i ntroduce the same wrong set of numbers i nto two or perhaps even three systems. The
i nerti al navi gati on systems w i l l be arranged i n such a way that the greatest possi bl e
independence of the i ndi vi dual pl atforms is provi ded from a techni cal poi nt of view, and
that both the data i nserti on methods and the check and crosscheck methods are arranged
so that a bl under af f ecti ng al l systems becomes a hi ghl y improbable ci rcumstance.
Cl assi cal Hybri di zati on not Desirable, But...
Thus hybri d navi gati on of the type di scussed i s not desi rabl e by the ai r carri ers.
However, havi ng sai d thi s, hybri di zati on of a sl i ghtl y di f f erent type i s prol i f erati ng
al l over our ai rl i ne ai rpl anes. We expect to make ever-i ncreasi ng use of it i n newer
ai rcraf t.
Satel l i te Survei l l ance f or ATC
I want to mention one example which rel ates t o long-haul over-water servi ces, i n
passi ng, even though i t's one that may not be needed f or a whi l e. Thi s i s the use of
satel l i te survei l l ance of over-water ai r traf f i c. Satel l i te traf f i c survei l l ance and
satel l i te navi gati on have, of course, been broadl y di scussed i n a myriad of papers; and
1 want t o mention onl y one speci f i c appl i cati on. There i s l i ttl e i nterest among the
U. S. ai r carri ers i n satel l i te navi gati on as such. We are i ntri gued, of course, wi th
the possi bi l i ti es of a satel l i te-based survei l l ance system, possi bl y usi ng transponders
i n the ai rcraf t. I t would be a sort of "space radar" t o moni tor ai r traf f i c i n l arge
over-water areas. L i ke the si tuati on over l and, radar i s di f f i cul t t o j usti f y unti l
there is a si gni f i cant traf f i c densi ty, but it becomes more and more i nteresti ng as
reduced separati ons are requi red and it becomes desi rabl e to impose tacti cal ai r
traf f i c control , e.g., traf f i c control i n-whi ch ai r traf f i c i s mani pul ated duri ng a
North Atl anti c crossi ng i n order t o assure smooth and uniform tr af f i c flow.
The i dea I ' d l i ke t o mention has been propounded i n the French Proj ect Di oscures
and i s w el l descri bed i n papers by J acques V i l l i er s and Bernard Manuali of the French
Admi ni strati on.
countri es. The phi l osophy i s that bl unders w i l l occur, but that the basi c nature of the
bl under, and theref ore the shape of the bl under di stri buti on curve, i s extremel y di f f i -
cul t t o descri be or predi ct. Thi s i n turn makes it di f f i cul t ei ther t o assess ri sk
numeri cal l y, or t o assess wi th confi dence the effects of i ncreases i n accuracy i n the
navi gati on functi on. Thus the proposal would impose a satel l i te survei l l ance system,
whose primary functi on would be t o detect l arge errors or bl unders and thus serve as a
probabi l i ty curve tai l cutter. I t would not need hi gh accuracy purpose nor even a
parti cul arl y hi gh data renewal rate. I t would, however, be capabl e of servi ng as an
error bound, and would do so i n a way enti rel y i ndependent of navi gati on conducted i n
the ai rcraf t. I f and when traf f i c densi ti es i n over-water areas become hi gh enough t o
j usti f y thi s type of tr af f i c control survei l l ance system, we would have establ i shed a
hybri d system, but this t i me a hybri d system i n the best sense, because the two data
sources f or the achievement of the desi red resul ts are enti rel y separate from the other.
I t meets a basi c cri teri on f or the operati on to be conducted. Braverman puts it thi s
way, "Preventi on of dangerous bl unders requi res the use of maximum independence between
the redundant parts. The redundant parts shoul d be as di f f erent as possi bl e, be l ocated
Si mi l ar i deas have been proposed i n the United States and other
16- 3
i n di f f erent pl aces, be owned and operated by di f f erent organi zati ons, etc.
f or maximum saf ety, the output of one of the redundant parts must not be 'updated' by
another. I f the operati on cannot conti nue wi thout vi ol ati ng the saf ety l i mi t s on one
or more of the redundant parts, then a backup procedure must be avai l abl e which i s saf e
even i f very i nef f i ci ent".
H e adds the f i nal f i l l i p to hi s concl usi ons: "Excessi ve automation may' l ead to
danger i f humans are sti l l part of the system".
I n addi ti on,
The U ses of I nerti al Pl atforms
While satel l i te survei l l ance may sti l l be a l ong way away i n ai rl i ne operati ons,
some other examples of hybri di zati on are cl oser at hand. The i nerti al pl atforms bei ng
pl aced on our new ai rcraf t are turni ng out t o be f ar more than the basi s of navi gati on
systems. I n f act, as some of us predi cted l ong ago, i nerti al navi gati on may real l y be
a by-product of putti ng a stabl e,pl atf orm i n the ai rcraf t which w i l l serve many
functi ons, i n a sort of hybri d fashi on. The reason, of course, i s that the stabl e
i nerti al pl atform provi des f or the f i r st t i me a very accurate source of headi ng and atti -
tude i nformati on. I t can theref ore al so provi de accurate i nformati on on headi ng and
atti tude rates deri ved from the basi c accel erati on measurements. The i nerti al pl atform
becomes the source of a vari ety of i nformati on, and w i l l be used throughout the ai rcraf t
f or smoothing r aw navi gati on data from other sources.
Certai nl y the use of the i nerti al navi gati on pl atform as a basi c source of master
headi ng and master atti tude, and as I 'l l mention i n a moment, as a source of data f or
automati c l andi ng i s a form of hybri di zati on. But there i s an i mportant di sti ncti on
between hybri di zati on of the Doppler/Loran or Loran/Astro type and the use of i nerti al
smoothing, f or example, of a VOR or an ILS l ocal i zer si gnal . While an astro f i x i s used
to "update" a Loran f i x, and the two are mixed together i n a way i n which they are i nter-
dependent and possi bl y subject t o the consequence of a si ngl e error, the smoothing functi on
which the i nerti al system can provi de to "sweeten" a l ocal i zer si gnal i s kept qui te fi rml y
i n i ts pl ace. The basi c i nformati on source remains the l ocal i zer si gnal . The i nerti al
system i s used stri ctl y f or smoothing, or i n some i nstances f or the checking of pl ausi -
bi l i ty of the i nformati on. I t i s practi cal t o avoi d bl unders which coul d be i ntroduced
by feedi ng the same error t o the two systems, as they are drasti cal l y di f f erent one from
the other.
Automatic Landing wi th I nerti al Data
A hi ghl y promi si ng use of i nerti al i nformati on i s i n automati c l andi ng. Here agai n,
a form of hybri di zati on w i l l f i nd its way i nto ai rl i ne systems. I 've al ready mentioned
the use of i nerti al data f or smoothing I LS si gnal s simply t o overcome di f f i cul ti es i n the
I L S beams and to prevent the ai rpl ane from attempti ng t o f l y or i ntegrate bends or rough-
ness i n the ILS beams. There may be another use f or the i nerti al i nformati on i n the
earl y detecti on of transl ati on errors and ai rcraf t posi ti on changes due to windshear or
gust ef f ects. The i nerti al data, i n thi s mode of operati on, i s a watchdog on what the
ai rcraf t i s actual l y doi ng, and thus permi ts a cl ear di sti ncti on between errors or
burbl es i n the ILS and actual ai rcraf t responses to external sti mul us. Thi s permi ts a
better, smoother approach and automati c l andi ng to be made than wi th ILS al one. A good
deal of work i s goi ng on i n thi s area i n the Federal Avi ati on Admi ni strati on and the
Nati onal Aeronauti cs and Space Admi ni strati on i n the United States, as w e l l as i n ai r-
frame manufacturers' pl ants throughout the world. While i nerti al navi gati on i tsel f , even
wi th qui te hi gh i nherent accuracy and frequent updati ng i s not l i kel y to serve to provi de
the basi c guidance f or automati c l andi ng, it can l i kel y be used t o provi de i ndependent
posi ti on data t o the ai rcraf t conducti ng an ILS approach, may provi de a si gni f i cant i m-
provement t o the automati c l andi ng, and may be abl e to provi de it i n a way that the basi c
rul e governi ng successful hybri di zati on i s properl y appl i ed.
Outer Loop Moni tori nq
on the pl ausi bi l i ty of other si gnal s provi ded. Thi s i s a process which I w i l l cal l
outer-l oop moni tori ng. I t i s a process which has been descri bed by McDonnell-Douglas
f or appl i cati on t o DC-10 ai rcraf t f or use i n addi ti on to, or possi bl y i n pl ace of , tra-
di ti onal system moni tori ng methods. Thi s i s a process i n which, to say it i n an over-
si mpl i f i ed way, the moni tori ng system i s enti rel y separate from the acti ng systems, and
simply checks t o determi ne whether the ai rpl ane response i s "sensi bl e". One way of
l ooki ng at thi s i s to consi der an ai rcraf t on an ILS approach, f l yi ng i n a stabi l i zed
fashi on al ong the l ocal i zer course. Suddenly the ai rcraf t veers off the l ocal i zer course.
Thi s wi l l , of course, be detected by the l ocal i zer recei ver, and the approach di sconti nued.
However, the devi ati on from the l ocal i zer course coul d be due to an apparent or real devi -
ati on of the l ocal i zer si gnal , i n which the l ocal i zer recei ver would si mpl y tel l the auto-
pi l ot to fol l ow a now apparentl y shi f ted l ocal i zer course -- an undesi rabl e si tuati on.
An outer-l oop moni tori ng system might be used t o detect the l ateral motion and make the
judgment that thi s l ateral motion is not pl ausi bl e i n a stabi l i zed, l ocal i zer-coupl ed
approach, and might warn the pi l ot that something has gone sour. The process of f aul t
detecti on i n thi s case would come about by the examination of motion ef f ects which are
Y e t another form of hybri di zati on may be i n the form of systems t o serve as a check
16-4
consequenti al t o the change i n ILS data, but total l y unrel ated t o the ILS moni tori ng
functi on or the ILS system i tesel f .
performance by examining f actors which are unrel ated t o the el ectroni c system bei ng
monitored -- a rather attracti ve possi bi l i ty.
Here a ki nd of hybri di zati on i s used i n moni tpri ng
Mul ti l aterati on Systems
I want t o f i ni sh wi th a bri ef review of a possi bi l i ty f or system i ntegrati on or
hybri di zati on which, though it appears to break the rul es of independence, may turn out
to be qui te acceptabl e from that poi nt of view:
tri l aterati on or mul ti l aterati on systems f or navi gati on and ai r traf f i c control . These
systems are al l characteri zed by measuring time/range to or from two or three or more,
often wi del y-separated l ocati ons to determi ne posi ti on f i xes. Satel l i te survei l l ance
systems are l i kel y t o be of thi s type. The work bei ng done on a ti me-ordered rangi ng
col l i si on avoidance system (CAS) may show the time/frequency posi ti oni ng techni que
attracti ve. Thus a t i me- or range-ordered posi ti on f i xi ng system usabl e by both the
ai r traf f i c control system f or determi ni ng ai rcraf t posi ti ons, and by the ai rcraf t f or
navi gati on may become practi cal .
pl ausi bl e to achi eve a ti me-ordered mul ti pl e rangi ng or mul ti l aterati on system which
might be used by both ai rcraf t and ground systems.
We are heari ng more and more about
A j ust-concl uded study f or FAA i ndi cates that it i s
A Si ngl e System f or Two Functi ons?
I noted earl i er the desi rabi l i ty of complete independence between the ai r traf f i c
control survei l l ance system and the ai rcraf t' s navi gati on system i n order to permi t one
system t o catch the bl unders of the other.
usual l y done by the ai rcraf t navi gati ng usi ng short-range navi gati on ai ds, wi th radar
used wi del y, especi al l y i n hi gh-densi ty traf f i c areas, t o serve as the bottl eneck
el i mi nator and as a traf f i c monitor. Thi s i s a tremendously expensi ve process; many,
many mi l l i ons of dol l ars are i nvested i n an expensi ve radar network.
l i ke t o see a reducti on of thi s expendi ture i f possi bl e. While many ai rl i nes conti nue
t o agree that independence i s desi rabl e f or the reasons noted, a recent report by an
ai rl i ne ATC System Pl anni ng Group stated that "there is a need t o achi eve a si ngl e overal l
system of posi ti on determi nati on which can have suf f i ci ent accuracy, rel i abi l i ty, and
i ntegri ty t o serve both the ai rcraf t and the ATC servi ce".
system which i s a complete, rel i abl e and accurate system of posi ti on determi nati on so
that there i s no need f or a separate system t o moni tor the progress of the ai rcraf t. The
reasoni ng i s that, asi de from the economic benef i ts, ai rcraf t posi ti on i nformati on re-
qui red by the pi l ot and the ATC system t o carry out thei r respecti ve functi ons are
i denti cal , si nce mi d-ai r col l i si ons occur onl y when two ai rcraf t are navi gated t o the
same poi nt i n space at the same t i me. The use of such a si ngl e system has the addi ti onal
advantage of el i mi nati ng the problem of regi strati on di f f erences which occur when two
systems of di f f erent error di stri buti ons are used, one f or navi gati on and one or ai r
traf f i c control survei l l ance.
I n the domesti c environment, thi s i s now
The ai rl i nes would
What we are l ooki ng f or i s a
The major questi on which w i l l f ace us i n consi deri ng a si ngl e posi ti on determi nati on/
navi gati on system i s the cl assi cal one we've been tal ki ng about -- whether there i s a
f i ni te probabi l i ty -- an unacceptabl e one -- of havi ng both the ai rcraf t and the A i r
Traf f i c Control system working from i nformati on i n which a common-mode error i s possi bl e.
I t may be possi bl e that a ti me-ordered mul ti l aterati on system can be the basi s of a system
which can do both navi gati on and survei l l ance whi l e sti l l preservi ng a hi gh degree of
independence between the two functi ons, si nce onl y the same basi c transmi ssi on medium i s
used, and i ndependent posi ti on f i xi ng i s done by two parti es. The actual posi ti on-
determi ni ng process conducted by the ai rcraf t and the ATC system may be enti rel y separate,
and have no common el ement. I t i s an enti ci ng prospect f or the future.
Conc l us i on
Hybri di zati on i n a form perhaps qui te di f f erent from the ki nd we have consi dered i n
the past i s fi ndi ng i ts way i nto ai rl i ne ai rcraf t. Ai rl i nes are wi l l i ng to use thi s type
of hybri di zati on where it makes sense, and where we can keep from putti ng " al l our eggs
i n one basket". Where the f ai l ure of a si ngl e system may knock out two systems because
we have marri ed them, we w i l l no doubt conti nue to oppose hybri di zati on. Where one
system can enhance another wi thout imposing dependence of one upon the other, we' l l
use it. But ai rl i nes are anxi ous t o avoi d the use of hybri di zati on which si mpl y serves
as a prop on a basi cal l y i nadequate system.
17
I NTEGRATED AVIONIC SYSTEM DESIGN
FOR HELI COPTERS AND VTOL .
L awrence A. Kaufman
Vi ce Presi dent, Di rector of Programs
Tel edyne Systems Company
17
17-1
INTEGRATED AVIONIC SYSTEM DESIGN
FOR HELICOPTERS AND VTOL
By :
Lawrence A. Kaufman
Vice President, Director of Programs
Teledyne Systems Company
SUMMARY
Thi s paper reviews the system concepts employed i n the development of the I ntegrated
Helicopter/VTOL Avionics System (IHAS).
demonstrating al l flight requirements in a CH-53A Helicopter, representing thereby, the f i rst ful l y
integrated avionics system for helicopters.
The IHAS development which began in 1965 has succeeded in
The concept review starts with a definition of the overall system organization scheme, identifying
the system sensors, data processors and output elements.
described.
including flight control, navigation, terrai n following, stationkeeping and displays. This concludes the
review of the on-line system and is followed with a presentation of the off-line self-test concepts
both pre-flight and in-flight and of the diagnostic properties of the central computer used to evaluate the
specific mode consequence of any equipment failure.
a description of the computer central complex, covering the hardware architecture used.
The digital interface design technique is next
Then the maj or concepts for each of the individual subsystems of the IHAS is discussed
The review of system concepts is completed with
The next section of the paper presents a critique of the IHAS design concepts, based on experiences
in the development and test of the system.
resulting from some of the concepts previously described and of the solutions to these problems.
critique continues with commentary on the effectiveness consequences of some of the concepts employed
i n the system design leading to recommendations for future concepts.
This critique includes discussions of cri ti cal design problems
The
The paper is concluded with some examples of future functional capabilities which can be realized
for helicopters and VTOL ai rcraft using the integrated system technology base afforded by:IHAS.
Examples of the functions covered are: optimal flight path control for VTOL and automatic landing
8 ys tems.
INTRODUCTION
This is a paper which deals in avionic system design concepts. Lest the mathematically inclined
reader be mi sl ed,, no original scientific derivations of a general nature are to be found here.
presentation concerned with cost-effectiveness justifications of the required functions.
paper is concerned with the implementation of a set of complex helicopter functional requirements
starting at the point where these functions have already been prescri bed as necessary
and useful.
Avionics System (IHAS) and to present commentary on the desirability of pursuing these concepts i n the
future.
Nor i s'the
Rather, the
The specific object is to review the concepts used to develop the Integrated Helicopter/VTOL
the
ma
To accomplish the objectives of this paper, the paper is divided into two major sections.
functional require'ments of the system development are reviewed, with a specific ai m of stating the
jor concepts which launched 'the development. Presumably this discussion will enable the reader to
Next, a critique of the IHAS design
Fi rst,
understand the philosophic point of departure for this undertaking.
concepts is presented in the hope that experience gleaned from the IHAS development may find more
general future application.
So much for the objectives of the paper.
The IHAS development began in the late 1950's with a formulation of basic tactical concepts by the
What is the background of the IHAS?
United States Marine Corps.
which transport helicopters are used to overfly beach areas where amphibious landings have been
undertaken in order to secure inland staging areas.
formulation. it became cl ear that a minimum requirement existed for a preci se self-contained naviga-
tion system to ensure positive location of the desired landing area. A s helicopter vulnerability studies
and tests were completed, the need for two additional functions arose: terrai n following and station-
keeping. These l atter functions were advanced as a means for minimizing ai rcraft vulnerability and
maximizing transportation efficiency.
These concepts deal with the execution of a verti cal assaul t mission, in
In these earl y days of system requirements
17-2
In 1963 a program definition phase was started. By this ti me the functional requi rements were
f i rm; the program definition phase was l argel y concerned with a study of system implementation
techniques and, as such, combined concepts of both the Navy and the pri me contractors.
Following completion of the program definition phase, the IHAS development began in March 1965 as
a joint Navy/Army undertaking, the Army support being based on a desi re to apply the integrated system
technology to the advanced aeri al fi re sypport system, then under consideration.
activity culminated in a successful official flight demonstration i n a CH-53A helicopter i n
May 1969, in which all system functions were satisfactorily demonstrated.
The development
Over the four year period requi red to develop the IHAS, a number of changes became necessary to
virtually all of the detail equipment specifications; yet the system level specifications and fundamental
system concepts remained invariant.
this paper.
It i s a review of these system concepts which forms the basi s for
SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
The MAS is rigorously organized as an integrated system, using a central digital computer to
process all data transmi tted by the system sensors. The outputs consist of situation and command
information to displays and control equipment as shown in Fi gure 1.
enables manual and/or automatic operation of the ai rcraft for all flight modes.
functional operation of the central computer a continuous off -line monitoring program i s carri ed out to
ensure the integrity of the functional modes and to store information on the identification of any failed
equipment to enable rapid maintenance.
The data processing system
In addition to the on-line
Fi gure 1 shows that the signal i nterface archi tecture for M A S i s enti rel y digital (with only one or
two mi nor exceptions descri bed l ater). The interface, further, consists of separate data lines for each
sensor signal. For example, the doppler transmi ts the three velocity components and absolute altitude
on four independent data lines. The use of separate data lines for each of the sensor signals represents
one of two fundamental concepts specified for the interface design.
of identical data transmi tters, and, thereby, a uniform or "standard" input/output word structure. The
"standard" interface i s achieved by installing identical paral l el -to-seri al digital converters into each of
the sensors, one per signal to be transmitted.
emphasizing the very smal l si ze of these units.
100 integrated ci rcui ts in a package whose circuit density may be the maximum yet achieved in produc-
tion hardware.
transmi tted data is shown in Fi gure 3.
a 16 bit data field, 4 additional bits are furnished for pari ty and validity checks, malfunction indication,
and test message.
The second concept embodies the use
Fi gure 2 is a photograph of the digital data transmi tter
Each of these transmi tters contains approximately
The data transmi tted to the computer is word parallel--bit seri al . The format of the
It should be noted that in-addition to the transmi ttal of the data in
The data are received by a compatible digital recei ver module in the central computer and subjected
to the requi red real -ti me processing program stored in the computer memory.
computer organization and the programming approach i s reserved for l ater, in order that the concepts
of the overal l system organization may proceed without interruption.
A discussion of
The computer outputs are transmi tted to the display and control el ements using the same digital
Each of the display and control el ements houses digital transmi ssi on scheme descri bed in Fi gure 3.
data recei vers, whose si ze and appearance i s identical to that of the digital data transmi tter shown in
Fi gure 2 (except for differences i n connector keying and part identification). The digital data recei vers
perform the i nverse converter function, i. e. seri al to paral l el digital conversion. Unlike the rigid
concept of separate data lines for each sensor output at the transmi tter interface, some multiplexing is
carri ed out at the recei ver interface for the displays--principally for the acceptance of groups of data
which have no system value unless the group as a whole is available.
In summary, then, the maj or concepts of the IHAS from a system organization point of view are as
follow 8 :
(a) All real -ti me data processing i s carri ed out in one central digital computer.
(b) All data are transmi tted digitally.
(c) There are separate data lines for all sensor outputs.
(d) The word format is uniform for all digital data transmitted.
(e) Data transmi ssi on is word parallel--bit seri al .
Having reviewed the design concepts employed to organize the system as a whole, the following
sections of this paper descri bed the concepts employed at the maj or subsystem/equipment levels.
NAVIGATION SUBSYSTEM
The navigation subsystem is of the simple doppler/heading configuration as shown i n Fi gure 1. An
air data system is employed to enable the continuous estimation and storage of wind data to permi t back-
up dead reckoning to be accomplished in the event of a doppler malfunction.
17- 3
The doppler used i ri the IHAS is of the beam i ntersecti on type, affording substantial improvements
in inherent accuracy.
conversion of the sensed R F parameters resulting i n a velocity sensing accuracy approaching 0.270,
with beam lobing used to eliminate l and/sea biases.
and ground track stabilized.
The fundamental accuracy properti es of the doppler are exploited through digital
The doppler antenna, shown in Fi gure 4 is attitude
The heading reference is a preci se, f ree directional gyroscope of simple, non-floated construction.
The synchro output, which is accurate to four I t has a random dri ft rate of less than 0. 15 degree/hour.
minutes of arc, is processed (as shown i n Fi gure 1). through a synchro/digital converter of equal
accuracy. The platform al so furni shes pitch and roll attitude outputs in synchro form.
The spin axis of the heading reference is permitted to align randomly (the pl atform not being
equipped with a gyro compassing feature). A maj or trade-off used in the navigation subsystem was a
reduction in ai rborne system complexity and cost (by using a non-aligning heading reference) through
the employment of ground support equipment with which to initialize the ai rcraft heading.
alignment: system consi sts of a separate heading reference which is kept continuously aligned to true
north and which is mounted to the ai rcraft on an accurately jigged surface, as shown in Fi gure 5.
transfer alignment reference is el ectri cal l y connected to the central computer (through a separate
synchro/digital conversion channel) and the ai rcraft heading corresponding to the randomly oriented
ai rborne gyro spin axis is thereafter stored i n the central computer.
The transfer
The
The heading reference has a back-up magnetic slaved mode i n which the spin axi s may be
' aligned on a selt-contained basi s to a f l ux valve installed in the ai rcraft. Being subject to the inaccu-
raci es attributable to the magnetic anomalies of the ai rcraft and the lack of preci se knowledge of the
earth's magnetic variation i n flight, thi s degraded mode of operation results i n a substantially i nferi or
heading accuracy.
The ai r data device used in the IHAS is merel y a transducer of the static and total pressure outputs
available f rom the ai rcraft pitot/static system, performing the function of pressure to digital data
conversion. A system concept for the ai r data system was to specifically avoid carryi ng out the true
ai rspeed computations in the peri pheral sensing element, but rather in the central computer (in a trul y
integrated system fashion). It should be noted, in passing, that the inherent preci si on of the ai r data
converter (of the order of 0. 1%) is severel y compromised in the low ai r speed region (of approximately
40 knots or less) by gross i naccuraci es of the ai rcraft pitot/static system.
unsolved for helicopters, which inhibits the usefullness of ai r data sensors at low speeds.
This is a problem, long
In addition to all of the above, the IHAS navigation system includes TACAN update provisions as
shown in Fi gure 1.
Navigation computations carri ed out in the central computer include present position determination
(in latitude/longitude coordinates), range and bearing to any of 8 destinations, checkpoints or with
respect to a moving base (such as an ai rcraft carri er).
nates of these destinations pri or to flight or in-flight.
of these selected destinations.
plotter; a discussion of the IHAS displays is presented l ater.
Provi si ons are available to i nsert the coordi-
The computer al so determi nes time-to-go to any
Navigation data are displayed both by digital readouts and by a map
The maj or navigation system concepts may therefore be summari zed as follows:
I
(a)
The pri mary sensors are a doppler for ai rcraft ground velocity, and a f ree directional
gyroscope for heading.
The doppler system function is conventional but neui concepts are employed at the equipment
level to maximize accuracy (beam intersection, digital data outputs).
System operation is premi sed on the use of ground support equipment to initialize the ai rborne
gyro heading pri or to take-off; this permi ts the ai rborne directional gyro to be simple and
relatively inexpensive.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
A back-up slaved magnetic heading system is provided in the heading reference system.
A back-up ai r data system permi ts dead-reckoning navigation in the event of a doppler
malfunction.
Al l ai r data computations are carri ed out i n the central computer.
Navigation computations are carri ed out in a conventional manner based on latitude /longitude
coordinates.
I
I
(f)
(g)
I AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
The IHAS automatic flight control system performs the functions of stability augmentation,
attitude/heading stabilization and control, and guidance.
technology where IHAS has departed most drasti cal l y f rom previous helicopter/VTOL systems.
The IHAS flight control system is divided into two el ectri cal l y separated subsystems:
augmentation system or inner loop system for controlling the helicopter short period motions and long
term stabilization system or outer loop system for controlling the attitude and flight path of the
helicopter.
I t is probably in the flight control system
a stability
17-4
The inner and outer loop hydraulic actuator outputs are added mechanically as shown in Fi gure 6.
These motions are trans- The inner loop actuation is of the so-called limited authori ty--seri es type.
mitted to the helicopter rotor controls without being reflected at the pilot controls.
authority" is meant that the maxi mum displacement of these controls which is permi tted, i s a small
fracti on of the total control available (specifically in the IHAS, f 10% for the pitch, roll, and yaw axes).
By "limited
The outer loop motions are paral l el motions which di rectl y move the pilot controls. The outer loop
actuators hatre full authority.
The disengagement technique for the inner loop seri es actuators is to center and lock the actuator;
f or the outer loop, the actuation ram is de-energized.
A s shown in Fi gure 1 the stability augmentation system sensors are rate gyros sensing the angular
rate of motion of the vehicle about the three body axes.
by means of appropriately designed analog equalization networks.
augmentation system f rom the digitally controlled outer loop is a concept aimed at separatel y maximiz-
ing the reliability of the augmentation subsystem the reby ensuring adequate handling qualities for the
vehicle.
perform the basi c function.
the reby achieving higher level stabilization capability, but at the reliability disadvantage of introducing
additional fai l ure modes at reduced reliability levels.
These gyros are coupled to the seri es actuators
The rigorous isolation of the stability
The augmentation sub-system contains only the minimum level of equipment required to
Pri or systems i nserted long term data into the seri es actuation loop,
By restricting the inner loop to be a pure rate gyro stabi l i zer, i t is possible to synthesize a
practi cal fail-operational/fail-safe system (i. e. one for which any f i rst fai l ure can be sustained with no
degradation of operational performance and for which any second fai l ure, of the same type, will always
cause the actuator to center and lock in i ts safe position).
redundant, feeding tri pl y redundant analog equalization networks, all of this equipment packaged into a
small 15 pound box.
presented i n Fi gure 7.
In the IHAS, the rate gyro sets are tri pl y
A simplified block di agram of the redundant stability augmentation system is
Whereas the inner loop is enti rel y analog, the outer loop is digitally controlled by the central
computer enabling selection of a l arge number of higher stabilization modes.
Fi gure 8 is an illustration of the maj or control modes of the digital flight control system. There are
five basi c modes:
1)
ASE (acronym for automatic stabilization equipment -- a carryover f rom the earl y art):
Attitude stabilization and turn coordination.
CRUISE: The super position of ai r speed control on the ASE mode.
HOVER: The superposition of ground speed control on the ASE mode to enable automatic
hovering; operation of this function f rom a forward flight condition wi l l provide an automatic
transition program to hover.
SK (stationkeeping): The superposition of relative spacing data between a follower and leader
ai rcraft to permi t automatic formation flight.
AUTO DES (cend): The superposition of a programmed letdown to the HOVER mode.
2)
3)
4)
5)
There are four modifying modes which can be employed with the above, two for verti cal "steering"
and two for l ateral "steering".
ALT (itude): Automatic control of altitude (radar derived at low altitudes and barometri cal l y
measured at higher altitudes, i. e., greater than'750 feet).
TF (terrai n following): Flight of the ai rcraft at a fixed cl earance altitude above terrai n as
enabled by a forward looking radar.
1)
2)
3) HDG (heading): Maintenance of constant (magnetic) heading.
4)
NAV (navigation):
navigation system.
Automatic steering to selected destinations by means of the self-contained
The modes are al l logically interlocked i n the computer. Mutually exclusive modes are properl y
inhibited (e. g. HOVER and NAV) so that the l ast selected mode is not accepted.
a higher order or lower order mode (as a logical step i n mi ssi on usage) i s made, the previous mode
i s automatically disengaged and the new mode as instated (e. g., ASE and CRUISE).
Where the selection of
Fi gure 9 is a truth table showing the basi c organization of the computer instructions with respect to
It al so shows the functions which are selected for computational
mode selection.
which are not (i. e. , the blank spaces).
solution (viz. the control equations which have to be solved).
therefore, reduces to instructions to a central computer (into which all appropri ate data have been
accessed) to carry out the mathematical solutions to a number of selectable control equations.
This table shows all of the possible switch combinations which are accepted and those
The process of automatic flight control,
The control of the outer loop actuators is achieved by converting the attitude and/or guidance
commands to analog signals properl y interfaced to the electro-hydraulic servo valves.
is carri ed out i n a servo control assembl y embraced by the dotted lines of Fi gure 1.
This operation
17-5
Unlike the inner loop, the design concept for the outer loop did not requi re full fail-operational/
fai l -safe construction, owing to the fact that it was neither requi red (because of the long-period nature
of the control modes) nor practically achievable (because the complexity of the sensors and data proces-
sors used precl udes redundancy).
i n the actuation and servo control el ements to avoid hard-over fai l ure modes and i n the ari thmeti c/
control and digital differential analyzer sections of the computer, again to protect against catastrophie
fai l ure modes.
I nstead, the outer loop concept was to employ parti cal redundancy
(The technique concept i s di scussed l ater).
To summari ze the maj or concepts of the automatic flight control system, one would l i st the
following :
a)
Rigorous separation of the stability augmentation and longer period control modes is carri ed
out.
The stability augmentation system is fully redundized to furnish fail-operation/fail-safe
performance.
The outer loop i s only partially redundized to minimize the possibility of selected catastrophic
(hard-over) fai l ure modes.
Attitude control and guidance modes are all controlled through the central digital computer.
b)
c)
d)
TERRAIN FOLLOWING
With the exception of the terrai n following and short range stationkeeping functions, all of the
guidance modes descri bed in the pervious section have been accomplished in other helicopter avionic
systems in the past, (generally using somewhat different design concepts). Terrai n following and station-
keeping modes have no pri or hi story and thereby represent, in their totality, unique functional concepts.
The terrai n following subsystem enables safe flight at very low cl earance altitudes by ei ther manual
(flight direction) techniques or by fully automatic control.
based on pitch plane control (i. e. verti cal maneuvering) and are accomplished by variation of the climb
or descend flight path angle, achievable through di rect control of the helicopter thrust (or lift) vector.
Both the manual and automatic modes are
The terrai n following system uses two guidance sensors. A downward looking absolute altitude
radar is contained within the navigation doppler (described in a previous section) and i s used to monitor
"instantaneous" cl earance altitude.
illuminates the oncoming terrai n, effectively measuri ng range and depressi on angles to terrai n prom-
inences from which returns are received.
system, the terrai n features are mapped at varying ranges over an azimuth swing of a45 degrees about
the flight path vector of the ai rcraft.
trated in Fi gure 10, is to determi ne those features of the oncoming terrain'which present collision
threats in the sense that immediate control is requi red to ensure cl earance of the observed terrai n
prominence based on the maximum available response of the helicopter. Thi s continuous real time
evaluation is carri ed out by fi rst offsetting the observed terrai n profile by the desi red cl earance
altitude (designated ho in Fi gure 10).
the desi red altitude versus range response of the helicopter.
straight line segments in Fi gure 10) is vari ed as a function of ai rcraft flight conditions, to best
characteri ze the estimated ai rcraft response capability for any flight condition.
This sensor is augmented by a forward looking terrai n radar, which
By means of an azimuth scan, and a storage and update
The function of the forward looking radar, as pictorially i l l us-
Then the offset terrai n i s compared with a template representing
The template parameter (shown as two
The principle used is to control on the basi s of absolute altitude measurements in the absence of a
terrai n threat as observed by the forward looking terrai n radar.
Fi gure 11.
the central computer. Of a vari ety of weighting schemes which were considered, an entirely sati sfac-
tory ( and sufficiently si mpl e) method is to use the most positive flight path angle commanded by the two
sensors, a technique which was, in fact, used with success in the IHAS. The requi red flight path angle
is then compared with the measured flight path angle, computed using the helicopter verti cal and forward
velocity components as measured by the doppler.
display, or transmi tted to the collective pitch controls of the helicopter to vary the di rect lift generated
by the helicopter rotor. For modest terrai n slopes (requiring modest flight path angles) the l eft control
i s achieved while maintaining constant forward speed.
flight path angles inconsistent with the existing helicopter speed) reductions in forward speed are
automatically commanded making more power available to climb.
limiting functions which transfer flight path error to the control of the helicopter forward speed.
This is shown in the block di agram of
The weighting between commands generated by the two guidance sensors i s carri ed out in
Errors are then displayed on a verti cal situation
For more extreme terrai n slopes (requiring
This i s shown in Fi gure 10 by the
The specific concepts specified for the IHAS terrai n following subsystem are summari zed below.
a)
Pilot control i s limited to pitch plane control using either manual or automatic control
(or both).
Control is achieved by di rect variation of the total lift of the helicopter rotor.
The forward looking radar i s additionally used to generate conventional radar search
displays (described l ater).
through the use of these displays.
b)
c)
Possi bi l i ti es for l ateral maneuvering (terrai n avoidance) exist
17- 6
I t is not possible to di scuss in detail the quantitative performance characteri sti cs of the terrai n
following subsystem owing to the classified nature of these data.
SHORT RANGE STATIONKEEPING
The object of this IHAS system function is to enable groups of helicopters to maintain accurate
formation flight even under conditions of no visibility thereby optimizing mi ssi on efficiency.
system required preci se ranging between the l eader and follower ai rcraft as i l l ustrated in Fi gure 12,
in order to enable the continuous calculation of the stationkeeping errors cx, c y , and c z (the l atter, i n
the verti cal direction and not i l l ustrated in Fi gure 12). The coordinate system originates in the l eader
ai rcraft enabling followers to set in desi red range and bearing ( rl and P ) f rom the l eader.
possible techniques, passi ve or cooperative ranging, the IHAS concept was based on the l atter.
ai rcraft are equipped identically.
The ranging implementation is achieved through the transmi ssi on of a short radar pulse f rom the
follower to the l eader, followed by retransmi ssi on to the l eader and receipt of the pulse by an array of
four fixed antennas in the follower ai rcraft, accuratel y located and positioned to exploit the l argest
available baselines, whence through a process of triangulation the range vector to the leader is deter-
mined with the requisite accuracy.
Such a
Of the two
All
Leader and follower relationships are established through coding.
In detail, refering to Fi gure 12, the actual position of the follower, with respect to the leader is
determined as follows:
The three range of i nterest are determined using the short pulse ranging technique. As shown,
(In the parti cul ar situation i l l ustrated, antenna #Z is masked from the
The location of each of the ranging antennas on the ai r-
Note that the antennas are not al l located in the plane of the illustration but
these are ranges 1, 3 and 4.
l eader, s o that no range may be determined).
craft is accuratel y known.
are al so separated verti cal l y in order to achieve a verti cal baseline.
Utilizing the measured ranges and the known separations of the antennas, the initial solution provi des
the location of the leader (X, Y. Z) i n an orthoginal coordinate set coincident with the maj or axes of the
follower ai rcraft.
provide the location of the leader in a coordinate set that originates at the follower ai rcraft, is locally
level and is oriented with the follower ai rcraft heading. Finally, these distances are operated upon by
a rotational matri x based upon difference in heading between the leader and follower and the location of
the follower is determined in a level l eader oriented coordinate set.
with the longitudinal, l ateral (and verti cal ) reference ranges to produce c x, cy, and cZ.
These resul ts are then rotated through the pitch and roll angles of the ai rcraft to
These distances are then compared
As i n the terrai n following system the control concept consi sts of making ei ther manual or automatic
modes available.
cues displayed on the verti cal situation display to show the commZiided(f1ight path vector required t o null
the stationkeeping errors and as schematically illustrated i n Fi gure 13.
stationkeeping display for monitoring the long term plan position of the formation. Symbology in this
display is as follows.
the l eader, and the other "semi -ci rcl es", turned upward, represent other ai rcraft i n the formation.
The manual mode is accomplished i n an analogous manner, i. e. by flight direction
Shown i n this figure is a
The centered cross represent "own ship", the "semi-circle", turned downward is
The maj or concepts for the stationkeeping system, in review, are as follows:
a)
b)
The ranging system is cooperative.
Leaders and followers have identical equipment.
dependent upon the codes he selects.
The control principle provides for both manual and automatic modes.
Any ai rcraft can be a leader or a follower,
c)
Here too, as in the case of the terrai n radar description. quantitative data cannot be presented
owing to securi ty classification of these data.
DISPLAYS
In previous secti ons,reference has been made to some of the display functions provided in the IHAS.
It is a specific purpose of this section of the paper to assembl e and codify the IHAS display provisions.
The maj or IHAS displays available to the pilot are the verti cal situation display for presentation of
urgent and pre-emptory flight data and the horizontal situation display for presentation of longer term,
monitoring type of data.
furnished.
Auxi l i ary displays (digital readout panel, stationkeeping display) are al so
The verti cal situation display is a multi-mode synthetically generated display (i. e. video techniques
capable of furnishing the following modes :
a) Contact analog mode
b)
Terrai n avoidance mode ("shades of gray")
17-7
c) Terrai n following mode ("E-scan")
d)
The contact analog mode, which i s designed to replace the data display functions normally furnished
by conventional electro-mechanical displays (e, g. vertical gyro indicators, etc. ), i s provided primarily
because the display indicator must occupy that most prominent portion of the instrument panel reserved
for the primary flight instruments. This assignment i s tied to the role of the indicator as an essential
instrument for the conduct of critical terrai n following/terrain avoidance flights when used in the other
modes.
required fundamentally, to furnish the attitude and heading data provided by conventional electro-
mechanical displays. Figure 14, shows that this i s basically an attitude display.
available pitch and roll data, vertical "tapes" are furnished to the left and right for continuous
display of absolute altitude and airspeed, respectively. The small vertical bar adjacent to the
absolute tape indicates vertical velocity (proportional to the length of the bar; bar llup" i s climb,
while bar "down" is descent).
heading against a reference stroke and a synthetic ground texture ("railroad tracks") whose relative
motion (longitudinally or laterally) is used as a cue for helicopter speed control. Perhaps the most
useful of the symbolic displays are the command flight vector symbol and the actual flight vector symbol.
Used in a pursuit manner, these symbols form a flight direction set, in which the pilot commands the
actual flight vector to coincide with the commanded flight vector.
motion of the commanded flight vector are selectable by the pilot following a logical organization similar
to that used for the selection of the automatic flight control modes, illustrated in Figure 9.
Low light level TV mode.
Reserving discussion of the terrai n control display modes for l ater, the contact analog mode i s
In addition to the
Other symbology includes a heading (horizontal) tape for displaying true
The control laws which govern the
The symbology called forth on the contact analog display mode is controlled by the central digital
computer except for roll attitude, for which a synchro controlled servo drive is furnished for the cathode
ray tube yoke.
angle. ) An interface equipment accepts the digital outputs of the central computer to control the position
of the electronically generated symbols. Symbol generation is accomplished in the interface equipment.
(This simpke device rotates the video raster in direct proportion to the aircraft roll
In addition to the contact analog mode, two other modes are available, shown in Figure 15. One of
these modes, the "shades-of-gray" mode, displays slices of terrain which lie transverse to the
direction of flight of the vehicle, at five different ranges. This is accomplished by sorting out the video
data returns received as a function of range and azimuth. The terminology "shades-of-gray'' derives
from the fact that each range is coded by a different shade, the darkest shade being used for the closest
(1/ 4 mile) range. A delay line technique i s used to store the video data to be displayed; the update rate
is once per second.
The "shades-of-gray" mode enables the pilot to select desirable valleys into which the aircraft can
be maneuvered to minimize detection.
manual terrai n following as well as for lateral steering.
The superimposed flight direction symbology may be used for
The "E-scan" mode is the compliment to the "shades-of-gray" display. It displays range versus
Depression angles are refer- depression angle to terrai n in a plane containing the flight path vector.
enced to the instantaneous flight path vector.
portray an idealized "flat earth" profile.
penetration of the constant clearance line by the plotted terrai n profile at some reasonably close range
(i.e. of the order of 1/2 to 1 mile).
A constant clearance line may be set by the pilot to
*
The method by which this display i s used, i s to preclude
The low light level television display (LLLTV) is a straight forward video monitor, accepting the
output of an externally mounted video camera.
Whereas, the vertical Situation display is used for pre-emptory data display, a horizontal situation
display i s used for longer term monitoring.
photograph of this display, Figure 16, in the navigation mode, shows the main features of this display.
A pre-assembled cartridge, prepared from ordinary aeronautical (paper) maps, enables appropriately
coded map sections of the map to be located above the face of the cathode ray tube. Electronically
generated symbols are then projected through the paper map to display present position, selected check
points, and aircraft heading, all self-explanatory in the photograph. These symbols are located by the
central digital computer.
emanates.
of the ground speed stroke shows where the helicopter will be in the next two minutes if existing
direction and speed are maintained.
This display i s also a multi-mode display. A retouched in-flight
The present position symbol is a cross from which a ground speed stroke
The direction of the ground speed stroke i s the existing helicopter ground track; the length
When the map cartridge is prepared, clear plastic sections are furnished about every 18 inches.
These sections permit the cathode ray tube to be viewed directly in those mission sequences where it is
desired to use the display as a radar monitor. In this mode the display furnishes conventional radar
maps as shown in Figure 17.
The two major displays are augmented by a computer readout panel, with which desired data
(principally of navigation parameters) may be called forth with precision.
shown in Figure 18.
The principal concepts employed in the IHAS displays are as follows.
a)
The IHAS readout panel i s
A vertical situation display is used to present primary flight data.
principally as a consequence of needing to display terrai n radar video data when the low altitude
clearance modes are used.
It appears in the system
17-8
b)
Because the verti cal situation display occupies the center of the pilot instrument panel, it is
required to furnish a contact analog mode which repl aces the data normally presented on gyro
horizons, ai rspeed indicators, etc.
The contact analog mode is digitally controlled.
A pursuit type of flight direction system is furnished in the verti cal situation display for both
mode, is computer controlled.
Horizontal situation data are displayed on the console mounted multi-mode display; navigation
and radar modes are available.
Navigation symbology is electronically generated on the display cathode ray tube, being
controlled in location by the central digital computer.
A computer readout panel is furnished to enable preci se computer stored data to be displayed
augmenting the more pictorial verti cal and horizontal displays.
c)
d)
, the contact analog and "shades-of-gray" modes. The flight direction symbology, for ei ther
e)
f )
g)
SELF-TEST
Each of the system equipments contains built-in test equipment (BI TE). The function of the BITE
implementation is to permi t equipment fai l ure at the weapon replaceable assembl y (or unit) level to be
identified without the use of organizational support equipment, thereby simplifying maintenance.
is considerable variation in test technique, but the BITE implementation in most cases consi sts of
continuous monitoring of input/output relationships as well as available power supply voltage levels.
There
.
A s a corrol ary to unit fai l ure isolation, it is possible to assess the mode consequence of the
observed failure through the use of a diagnostic look-up-table stored in the central computer.
findings are displayed on a mode advisory panel.
These
In addition to the BITE feature, two other self-test features are provided. Fi rst, the central
computer is equipped with a brief pre-flight diagnostic routine to ascertai n that the computer hardware
is functioning properly. Second, upon command, al l of the automatic flight control equipments are
exerci sed in an end-to-end test pri or to take-off.
to ensure that these safety of flight el ements of the system are in good condition.
These performance assessment tests are conducted
In summary, sel f-test includes:
a)
BITE for unit fai l ure fault isolation and mode advisory data.
b)
c)
Performance assessment tests for evaluating the condition of safety-in-flight equipments.
Presentati on bo the pilot of available system capabilities and/or allowable operating modes.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
The IHAS computer is a hybrid machine which contains a general purpose computer and a digital
differential anal yzer operating in paral l el to carry out real time data processing. Machine capacity is
expandable through a modular design to enable memory growth (to a maximum of 16, 000 words (of 20
bits each) input/output growth (up to 32 inputs and 36 outputs) and digital integrator growth (to as many
as 360 i ntegrators, each with an iteration rate in excess of 30 KHz).
machine organization is present in Fi gure 19.
be appropriate to the purpose of thi s paper, and therefore no further elaboration is presented.
it appears more desi rabl e to proceed to a discussion of the maj or computer archi tectural concepts.
These include the following:
A block di agram showing the
Detailed description of the computer is not believed to
I nstead,
a) A hybrid machine i s specified, in which demanding high rate calculations (for example, for
automatic control) are done in the digital differential anal yzer, and in which longer term
executive control i s carri ed out in the general purpose section.
The computer hardware arrangement is modular, permitting growth to greater functional
capacity as required.
for differing mission needs varying from only the navigation subsystem of the IHAS, to the full
functional capability of IHAS (i. e. navigation, stationkeeping, terrai n following, and automatic
flight control).
Except f or power regul ators and memory, the computer i s fabricated from integrated ci rcui ts,
in pursuit of separate technology advantages in this area of activity.
The computer is tri pl y redundant in both the digital differential anal yzer el ements and in the
ari thmeti c and control portion of the general purpose section.
b)
This concept deri ves from the intended usage of one uni versal system
An illustration of the modular packaging technique is presented in Fi gure 20.
c)
d)
17-9
CRITIQUE OF IHAS DESIGN CONCEPTS
In official flight tests recently completed, al l system functions were successfully demonstrated and
all performance parameters measured were within the requi rements of the specification.
the LHAS organization, from a design point of view can be regarded as one which satisfactorily provided
the required complex functions and can be used as a model for assessi ng the design implementations
used.
performance in the fi rst place.
furnished by IHAS is outside the purview of this paper.)
Therefore,
Certainly a minimum requi rement for such a model is that it furni shes the requi red functional
(Again the reader is reminded that justification of the specific functions
The critique which follows is largely subjective and is peculiarly attached to the wri ter. It does
not necessari l y represent the position of the contracting agency, the U. S. Navy, or the pri me
contractor, the Teledyne Systems Company.
The critique is arranged below to comment on the maj or concepts listed in pri or sections.
System Organization
The use of a central digital computer appears to be totally warranted when a system of the
functional complexity of IHAS is required.
to an alternative implementation using separate computers in autonomous and separated subsystems.
Further, the central computer affords a composite computational capability in excess of the sum of
individual computers in autonomous subsystems, each of which i s generally compromised i n terms of
the software that can be handled in order t o minimize cost on a "stand-alone" basi s. Thus the l arge
central computer is able to solve the complex equations that really have to be solved, whereas each of
the smal l autonomous computers used in a non-integrated design will generally be structured to handle
simplified equations in order to meet minimum levels of cost practicality.
Computer hardware is substantially minimized with respect
On the other hand the use of a central digital computer concept for simple systems is ill-advised.
Data conversion requi rements alone, tend to make this a costly and overdesigned data processing
technique.
Even when a central digital computer is properl y suited to the functional requirement, the use of an
"all-digital" data transmi ssi on si stem does not appear to be a logical general rule.
analog i nterfaces can be accomplished more reliably and with better performance by by-passing the
central computer altogether. For example, the flow of analog attitude data for automatic control in
IHAS, shown in Fi gure 1, proceeds through a synchro/ digital converter, a digital data transmi tter,
the computer, a digital data recei ver, and a digitallanalog converter at which point it is power
amplified to dri ve the actuator servo valves. Yet the only operation performed on these attitude data
in the computer is subtraction from the command attitudes being computed continuously. This
subtraction could be achieved directly in the servo control assembl y by analog means, i f the inputs to
this assembl y were commanded reference attitude (digital) and the measured attitudes (analog).
such a scheme, the data transmi ssi on of attitude di rectl y to the output element i s quite a bit si mpl er
and much more reliable.
Many analog-to-
In
In the same sense that exclusive digital data transmi ssi on does not appear to be a good general
rul e, it al so appears that the rigorous use of separate data lines does not resul t in a optimum design.
Quite simply the use of as many data transmi tters as there are output signals, means that there will be
a population of integrated ci rcui ts (using the IHAS implementation) equal to the product of 100 (number
of integrated ci rcui ts per transmi tter) ti mes the total number of signals.
2100 integrated ci rcui ts. With judicious multiplexing, this number could be reduced to 700 ci rcui ts, by
combining outputs from each of the sensors on a single data line for a total of 7 data lines.
multiplex techniques should then logically expand to the data recei vers and to the sampling of common
conversion channels. The specification of separate data lines carri es with it the notion of reduced
vulnerability, but thi s premi se is illusory since there are not too many useful functions that can be
performed without l arge groups of data inputs.
l oss of functional capability.
pitch attitude data.
single data line are lost, or if only the pitch data carri ed on a single data line is lost.
separate data lines is tidy and neat, but not cost effective.
for equipment complexity.
In IHAS thi s number is
The use of
The loss of single i tems of data can resul t in a l arge
For example, virtually no useful IHAS functions can be achieved without
The concept of
The vulnerability of the system is not real l y different if all data being carri ed on a
It merel y substitutes conceptual simplicity
Lest the critique on the IHAS system interface concepts be considered al l negative, thi s is the time
and place to affi rm the powerful design attri butes of a uniform digital interface format, as used in the
IHAS. A standard interface format, in addition to the obvious resultant hardware uniformity, ensures
as well uniformity in the system interface software, enables radio frequency interference considera-
tions to be reduced to the treatment of a single, repetitive data transmi ssi on scheme, and assures
growth capability without a need for working out new interface arrangements.
further, in a modular design, the standard digital interface format becomes a most effective system
engineering tool.
When approached,
Navigation
The use of a dopplerfheading sensor system appears to be both satisfactory and adequate for the
helicopter. Required navigation accuracy has been achieved, and the velocity and altitude data available
17-10
are useful in a vari ety of automatic control modes (altitude control, terrai n following, automatic hover,
etc. ).
suited for thi s cl ass of low speed craft, principally because it is a velocity sensor with substantially
smal l zero velocity offset.
In respect to an al l -i nerti al type of sensing system, the doppler appears to be inherently better
The use of a transfer alignment technique to enable a simple free directional gyroscope to be used
(instead of a gyro compassing platform) is practical, and for the intended application tactically
acceptable.
essentially in proportion to the number of si tes used.
on the other hand resul ts in cost and complexity escalation which is proportional to the number of
ai rcraft.
alignment ground equipment with more simple ai rborne platforms appears to be a desi rabl e concept.
The technique does requi re i ncreased support equipment cost and complexity, but these are
The use of more elaborate ai rborne equipments
Where the number of si tes is smal l , but the number of ai rcraft i s l arge, the use of transfer
The remai nder of the IHAS navigation system concepts are straightforward and do not requi re
commentary.
Automatic Flight Control System
The overal l system organization offered no problems in execution and the advantages of ri gorous
separation of stability augmentation from the higher order control and guidance modes has been
supported with a practi cal hardware implementation.
safe stability augmentation function to be reliably available thereby ensuring adequate vehicle handling
qualities under stringent operating conditions (e. g. flight under instrument conditions).
This technique does enable a fail-operational/fail-
Similarly, the superposition of higher order digitally control modes appears to be a sound concept
The availability of t he for a system containing as many different and complex modes as does the IHAS.
central digital computer permi ts a programming of the desi red control laws as opposed to inadequate
simplifications. Some of these desi rabl e features include the widespread use of integral control, the
storage of non-linear look-up tables for making l arge tri m adjustments, and the incorporation of
preci sel y organized limiting functions.
The parti al redundancy approach to the outer loop design, however, would appear to be capable of
achievement by si mpl er means in the future.
equipments (e. g., the computer and servo control assembl y) a more di rect fai l -safe moni tori ng program
(stored in the central computer) would be much more conservative of hardware while achieving the
same mission objectives with equal or better reliability.
As opposed to the use of tri pl e redundancy for selected
T e r r ain Fo 110wing 1 Station ke e pin g
Because these are new functions, and because there is nothing with which the IHAS implementations
can be compared, a useful critique is really not possible.
work, and while some simplification in a design sense is probably in order for future application, there
would appear to be no need for changes in concept of a fundamental nature.
All of the sensor concepts used did indeed
D is pla y s
The wri ter believes that the IHAS displays may be considerably simplified for future application.
For the verti cal display, the E-scan mode in its entirety does not seem to offer a needed functional
capability and should be omitted altogether.
elimination of secondary features such as tapes, verti cal rate, etc. ) should al so be considered.
General simplification of the contact analog mode (i. e.
For the horizontal display, the combination of navigation and radar display modes into a single
display i s achieved at the expense of great hardware complexity. The separation of these functions into
two separate displays has been estimated to resul t in a savings of nearl y 60 pounds of equipment weight
and correspondingly l arge numbers of ci rcui t elements.
modes to be continuously operative.
console area, always a seri ous installation problem.
for (or creati ng) the needed space.
Further, the separated displays enable both
These advantages are achieved at the expense of requiring more
Yet i t would appear to be worth the effort looking
Se If - Te s t
The BITE concept, in terms of organizational .maintenance is becoming increasingly more
important as the di spari ty between required and available maintenance skills i ncreases.
mechanization employed in IHAS, and some systems which have followed is believed by the wri ter to
approach this objective in an excessively complex way. Two principles appear to be worthy of review.
Fi rst, it i s questionable, in an integrated system design, to requi re each i tem of equipment to contain
completely, and separately, i ts own diagnostic self-testing hardware. It is questionable because a
workable interface al ready exi sts to enable the computer to interrogate al most al l of the i tems of
equipment on an end-to-end basi s, using'the program memory for storage of appropriate diagnostic
test routines.
The
The second principle worth reviewing is the specified confidence level of test. In the
17-11
I US, BITE is specified at the 95% level.
hardware simplification.
tion would be a most useful approach before launching future efforts.
A modest reduction of this figure could result in substantial
Some intelligent trade-off between test confidence and hardware implementa-
The writer estimates that as much as a 10 to 15% swing in total system circuitry exists between
the BITE implementation concepts used in the IHAS development system and one which would take
maximum account of the principles described above.
Computer Organization
For the intended application, 'the hybrid, modular machine suits the functional requirements.
Perhaps the only Simplification worthy of note is the replacement of triple redundancy in the digital
differential analyzer and arithmetic and control sections with a fail-safe diagnostic routine.
already been cited in respect to the automatic flight control system.
This has
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The IHAS in the scope of its effort and in the specific thrust made into integrated avionic system
technology, has produced amongst others, the following "firsts":
-Fi rst integrated helicopter avionics system
-Fi rst avionics system emphasizing digital techniques, microelectronics, BITE
-Fi rst avionics system to establish a standard digital interface throughout
-Fi rst helicopter digital, adaptive, automatic terrain following system
-Fi rst automatic formation flight system
-Fi rst airborne parallel digital differential analyzer
-Fi rst operational digital doppler
In the process of producing these accomplishments. it is also the fi rst established system model
from which design critiques can be made.
summarized by stating that the implementation concepts can be substantially simplified in many areas,
without really affecting the basic system design, or the value of the integrated systems approach,
of this simplification, in fact, amounts to wholesale deletion of equipment elements.
good thing, from a technology point of view, that the IHAS concepts did, in fact, require a compre-
hensive and rigorous design approach thereby providing a most suitable model for evaluation.
The writer has made his here. His critique can be
Most
It is perhaps a
That the integrated avionic system will continue to be exploited in the future appears to be a
The ability to solve complex control equations by means of a high capacity, foregone conclusion.
central computer provides the tools for dealing with a large class of problems as yet unsolved for
vertically rising aircraft.
For future VTOL aircraft, it may very well evolve that a digital computer solution to pptimize
flight path control will represent the most practical means for minimizing hover time to a point where
fuel requirements are practical. To date almost al l VTOL aircraft have suffered from inordinate fuel
consumption characteristics in hover and no fundamental solutions to these characteristics appear
promising. Therefore, only the minimization of hover time appears as a practical solution.
general case, this will require a complex calculus of variations approach using a relatively large number
of variables.
this optimization process; the development of such automatic take-off and landing systems may indeed
be requisite to the further development of VTOL ai rcraft as such.
In the
Digital control of such a function would appear to be the most logical way of carrying out
Other optimization controls can be anticipated: Controls to maximize cruise speed to within a
pre-calculated and controlled.increment of blade stall speed; controls to achieve maximum endurance,
etc. The introduction of digital computation into the hel;icopter and VTOL technology can only be
regarded as a beginning; the ultimate exploitation i s only a matter of time and further mission definition.
Yet, regardless of the degree to which this further exploitation takes place, the general design
The designer must then set forth the control laws
techniques described here will apply. Appropriate sensors and actuators have to be selected and
compatibly interfaced with the central computer.
applicable to the function desired and reduce t h i s formulation to computer 1anguag.e.
attention to the accuracies and dynamic responses required of the system.
that this process works, that central digital computation i s both justified and feasible for helicopter
applications, and that subsequent growth of this concept can be clearly anticipated.
He must pay
The IHAS development shows
,
17-12
r
I
1
17-13
Figure 2. Digital Data Transmitter
11-14
225
. .
n
750KC CLOCK
INPUT
n 1 1
p - 1
I
' 50 MIN
750KC CLOCK
OUTPUT
.
WORD SYNC
OUTPUT
20 BIT TIMES
DATA (16 BITS) 1
DATA OUTPUT
MESSAGE
VAL1 D ITY
NOTE: ALL TIME VALUES IN NANOSECONDS
Figure 3. TMR Timing Diagram
SIGNAL DATA CONVERTER
STABILIZED ANTENNA
Figure 4. Doppler Navigation Sat, Electronic ANIAPN-I 72
-
I
Figure 5. Transfer Alignment System
17-15
c
17-16
I
I
I
LONG PERIOD MOTIONS
OUTER L OOP
INNER LOOP
Figure 6. AFCS Mechanical Implementation Schematic
I
17-17
/ I
\
\
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE TEMPLATE
17-20
Figure 10. Terrain Following System Geometry
17-21
'I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
17-22
17-23
11-24
PITCH LINES ACTUAL AIRCRAFT AIRSPEED
HEADING
SKY SHADING
HEADING
SCALE
COMMAND STEERING
VECTOR SYMBOL
AIRCRAFT VELOCITY
VECTOR (IMPACT
F0INT)SYMBOL
HORIZON LINE
Fl WCl AL
PITCH AND ---- MARK
ROLL REFERENCE
MARKER
-PITCH AND
ROLL REFERENCE
MARKER
VERTICAL /
VELOCITY
'GROUND
SHADING
MARK
GROUND!
TEXTURE
M:
- - I i-
Figure 14. Contact Analog Display
17-26
11-26
I
... .
P
LEGEND:
~ C H K K MINT 0 DESTINATION T~RGET
A NAVIGATION *ID
+ O W AIRUAFI
USE
0 POSITION SVMBOL
Figure 16. Horizontal Situation Display Navigation Mode
11-21
TERRAIN CLEARANCE PPI
RADAR MAPPI NG
N
Figure 17. Horizontal Situation Display Radar Mode
8 8 6 8 6 5 IHC
7 7 7 8 .9 NHI
Figure 18. Computer Readout Panel
17-28
r---
5---1-
r
I
I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
11
-r---+
-
MEMORY MODULE
110 MODULE
Figure 20. Computer Assembly
11- 29
Prof. Dr - Ing. K. Ramsayer
I ns t i t ut fur Flugnavigation,
Univer sit at Stuttgart,
West Germany
18
INTEGRATED NAVIGATION BY LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT
18- 1
INTEGRATED NAVIGATION BY LEAST SQUARE ADJUSTMENT.
By Karl Ramsayer
0.Abstract.
The usual way of combining different navigational aids by a human navigator has the dis-
advantage that the available navigational informations are utilized only very imperfect-
ly. The efficiency can be improved essentially by combining the different navigational
aids by an airborne general purpose computer in such a way, that we get an integrated
navigation system, which makes optimum use of the navigational informations.
For this purposeethe following way is proposed:
The basic navigational system is a dead reckoning system (DRS). This can be a Doppler -
or inertial navigator or a classic dead reckoning system, which determines the flight
path from true airspeed and wind. The other navigational aids serve for control measure-
ments, with the help of which we determine by least square adjustment during the flight
the error of the dead reckoning position and the most important systematic error sources
of DRS. These error quantities are then used for a corresponding correction of the DR-
position. The supplementary navigational aids are consequently used both for the cor-
rection of the DR-position and for the calibration of the DR-system.
For practical application two different methods are proposed. Using method I we determine
continuously or from time to time the coordinates of the present position in the coordi-
nate system of DRS by the supplementary navigational aids. These control coordinates are
compared with the coordinates of the DR-position. The resulting coordinate differences,
caused by errors of DRS and by errors of the control coordinates, are described by ob-
servation equations, which take into account the influence of the most important syste-
matic errors of DRS. All other errors are supposed as random corrections. As soon as the
coordinates of a sufficient number of control points are available, the unknown error
quantities of the assumed error model are determined by adjustment and are then used
for a corresponding correction of the DR-position. The adjustment is repeated for each
new fix or for a set of new fixes. Hereby the changes of the error parameters, determined
by the consecutive adjustments, eventually together with the automatic computation of the
standard deviations of the error parameters, can be applied for judging the quality of
the assumed error model.
With method I1 we compute for the present DR-position continuously or from time to time
quantities corresponding to the control measurements carried out by the supplementary
navigational aids (e.g. distances or bearings). From the differences between the measured
and computed control quantities observation equations are derived for the determination
of the most important error quantities of DRS. Method I1 is more flexible than method I.
It permits to utilize single control measurements and to introduce weights for the control
measurements.
The proposed methods of integrated navigation are based on practical and theoretical error
analysis of Doppler navigation. Some important results of this error analysis will be dis-
cussed. As an example the methods will be explained in details for the integration of a
Doppler navigator. with, TACAN.
1. Introduction.
If we look critically at the navigational aids, which are available today, we find none
can be considered to be the best or to be suitable for all purposes. All have their ad-
vantages and their disadvantages. This situation will still exist for a long time. There-
fore, since many years, it is the custom to combine several navigational aids, whereby the
human navigator has the task to evaluate the different navigational informations as well
as possible. This evaluation of the navigational data is, however, often disturbed by un-
favourable conditions such as lack of time or space, overload by other tasks, disturbances
and errors of the navigational sensors, overcharge' of the navigator by the high degree of
difficulty of some evaluations, etc. This necessarily means, that the evaluation of the
data is reduced to the absolut minimum, and that a great deal of the available Information
is lost.
For these reasons we can expect an essential improvement of navigation, if'we combine the
available navigation systems automatically in such a way that we get an integrated navi-
gation system, which uses all available navigation informations with the highest possible
efficiency. First steps in this direction are the hybrid navigation systems, such as
doppler-inertial or astro-inertial systems. There are already different philosophies how
to integrate automatically the different navigational aids of a vehicle. A very promising
but also rather complicated method is the application of the Kalman Filter.
In the following it will, be shown that the integration of the navigational aids can also
be done by the application of least square adjqstment. This method is the result of an
extensive error analysis of Doppler navigation. [ 1, 2, 3, 41. For this reason at first a
18-2
shor t r evi ewof t he most i mpor t ant r esul t s of t hi s anal ysi s i s gi ven.
2. Er r or anal ysi s of Doppl er navi gat i on.
The f i r st tri al s[l ] wer e made wi t h a Decca Doppl er r adar Type 61, a Sper r y Gyr osyn Com-
pass CL2, an anal ogue Decca navi gat i on comput er Type 9013 wi t h f l i ght l og and t he navi -
gat i on comput er AK3J wi t h movi ng map di spl ay devel oped by t he I nst i t ut e of Ai r Navi gat i on
of t he Uni ver si t y of St ut t gar t . To det er mi ne t he er r or s of t hi s navi gat i on syst em, whi ch
was i nst al l ed i n a pr opel l er dr i ven Dougl as C 47, a number of t r i angl es wer e f l own. An
exampl e i s shown i n Fi g. 1.
! r .
10 0 10 20 SO 40 km
Bad Tol z
Fig. 1
Wal da
10 0 10 20 SO 40 km
Fig. 1
Bef or e and af t er each t ur n t he exact posi t i on of t he ai r cr af t was det er mi ned by sever al
ver t i cal phot ogr aphs of t he over f l own l andscape and by si mul t aneous r egi st r at i on of t he
coor di nat es 4 , 1 i ndi cat ed by t he navi gat i on comput er . For t he er r or anal ysi s onl y t he
st r ai ght l egs of t he f l i ght pat h wer e used. The er r or s i n t he t ur ns wer e anal ysed sepa-
r at el y.
For t he er r or anal ysi s t he f ol l owi ng er r or s wer e t aken i nt o account :
A =const ant er r or of headi ng, caused by bi as er r or s of
compass, Doppl er ant enna, synchr o chai n, const ant er r or
of magnet i c gr i vat i on, et c.
caused by t he component s of ai r cr af t magnet i sm
al ong ( coef f i ci ent B) and acr oss t he ai r cr af t ( coef f i ci ent C) .
k
B.si n H, +C. cos H, =Devi at i on of magnet i c compass at magnet i c headi ng H
k J , k l
= scal e er r or of t he measur ed and i n t wo r ect angul ar component s
r esol ved gr ound speed. The scal e f act or s have not t he val ue 1
but ( l +k ) r esp. ( l +kZ ) .
F
A v! , A Vl
= bi as er r or s of gr ound speed component s.
& = r ot or i nt er axi s er r or of t he el ect r omechani cal r esol ver .
The i nf l uence of t hese er r or s t o a f l i ght pat h wi t h appr oxi mat el y const ant headi ng i s
gi ven by t he f ol l owi ng obser vat i on equat i ons
V! , Vz =Cor r ect i ons.
Component s of t he f l i ght pat h i n t he map
consi der i ng t he var i abl e scal e f act or of t he map.
comput er af t er consi der i ng t he mean scal e f act or of t he map.
q v q s =
A $', A 21 =Changes of t he coor di nat es i ndi cat ed by t he navi gat i on
lt 9 12 =Er r or s of t he i ndi cat ed change of posi t i on.
Each t est l i ne gi ves a pai r of such obser vat i on equat i ons. For t he det er mi nat i on of 8
unknowns at l east 4 di f f er ent t est l i nes wi t h di f f er ent headi ngs ar e r equi r ed i n or der
t o be abl e t o separ at e t he magnet i c devi at i on, whi ch depends on headi ng, f r omt he con-
st ant headi ng er r or . To i ncr ease t he accur acy r edundant t est l i nes wer e measur ed. Fr om
t he whol e of t hese measur ement s t he unknowns wer e t hen det er mi ned by l east squar e ad-
18- 3
j ust ment . For t he ment i oned Decca navi gat i on syst emt he adj ust ment of 17 t est l i nes
wi t h an aver age l engt h of 94 kmgave t he f ol l owi ng val ues:
=- 4,1495 r U, 6433
,
A, = - 0,1649 t u,au23
-9
AV! * t U,l ' j " 0, 24 m/&
,
,
dVr l E - 0,31 f U,16 m/&c
A = t O:IO 2 0311 B = t 6:73 C O' ,21
The mai n er r or sour ces ar e t he scal e er r or s ke , k p of t he gr oundspeed component s. They
ar e appr oxi mat el y 15%t oo smal l . These abnor mal l ar ge er r or s wer e caused by syst emat i c
er r or s of a speci al connect i ng devi ce. The next i mpor t ant er r or sour ce i s t he di f f er ence
bet ween k! and k2 wi t h appr oxi mat el y 1, 5%. Fur t her on t he B- component of t he devi at i on
wi t h +0: 7 i s of essent i al i nf l uence, when f l yi ng t o magnet i c east or west . Al l ot her
er r or s ar e not i mpor t ant .
I f we cor r ect t he i ndi cat ed posi t i ons f or t he comput ed syst emat i c er r or s we get t he
f ol l owi ng st andar d devi at i ons ( 68% error) f or one t est l i ne:
2 384 m
me= f385m , w,+ = f 381 m
WLT= f U', 2 6 .
ms= mean val ue of t he t ot al posi t i on er r or ,
me= st andar d devi at i on al ong t he f l i ght pat h,
my= st andar d devi at i on acr oss t he f l i ght pat h,
m ~= st andar d devi at i on of t rack.
These r emai ni ng, mai nl y r andomer r or s ar e very smal l . Her ef r omf ol l ows t hat t he accur acy
of t he ment i oned f l i ght t est s was essent i al l y dependi ng on syst emat i c er r or s, whi ch wer e
appr oxi mat el y const ant f or some days, and t hat t he i nf l uence of r andomer r or s was ext r eme-
l y smal l .
Thi s st at ement was conf i r med by l at er t est f l i ght s wi t h t he same equi pment and wi t h t he
Bendi x Doppl er r adar DRA- 12B. I n each case t he er r or s of t he dead r eckoni ng posi t i ons wer e
r educed t o a t hi rd up t o a t ent h of t hei r or i gi nal val ues, i f t he comput ed f l i ght pat h
was cor r ect ed f or t he i nf l uence of t he syst emat i c errors.
Fur t her on a speci al i nvest i gat i on of dr i f t and gr oundspeed measur ement s wi t h a Doppl er
r adar showed t hat t he r andomer r or s ar e ext r emel y smal l . The r esul t i ng er r or f or a f l i ght
of 1 hour i s of t he or der of 100 m. [ 3] , [ 4 ] .
The above ment i oned r esul t s r el at e t o f l i ght s over l and. Over sea by di f f er ent r easons no
t est f l i ght s and hence no er r or anal ysi s coul d be made. Her e we have t o expect , t hat t he
i nf l uence of t he r andomer r or s wi l l be somewhat gr eat er t han over l and, and t hat t he
syst emat i c er r or s wi l l be super i mposed by l ong per i odi cal errors. Thi s i ncr ease of t he
er r or s i s mai nl y caused by unpr edi ct abl e movement s of t he scat t er i ng el ement s at t he sur -
f ace of t he wat er . I n spi t e of t hese f act s i t can be expect ed, t hat t he syst emat i c er r or s
ar e al so over sea t he pr edomi nant er r or sour ces.
Fr omt he er r or anal ysi s of Doppl er navi gat i on we can dr aw t he f ol l owi ng concl usi on: The
accur acy of Doppl er navi gat i on depends mai nl y on syst emat i c errors. These syst emat i c
er r or s can be det er mi ned as unknowns of a l east squar e adj ust ment , i f t he t rue posi t i on
can be det er mi ned wi t h suf f i ci ent accur acy i n a suf f i ci ent number of poi nt s. Wi t h t he
det er mi ned syst emat i c er r or s we can cor r ect t he dead r eckoni ng posi t i on and get a very
much i mpr oved accur acy.
I n t he ment i oned t r i al s t he adj ust ment and t he cor r ect i ons wer e made af t er t he f l i ght .
As nowadays ai r bor ne di gi t al comput er s wi t h hi gh ef f i ci ency ar e avai l abl e, i t i s pos-
si bl e t o make t he adj ust ment s and cor r ect i ons dur i ng t he f l i ght , and t o get so an aut o-
mat i c, i nt egr at ed navi gat i on syst emwi t h hi gh accur acy.
I
3 . Pr i nci pl e of t he i nt egr at i on of di f f er ent navi gat i onal ai ds by adj ust ment .
Fr omt he bef or e ment i oned exper i ence wi t h Doppl er navi gat i on t he f ol l owi ng pr i nci pl e f or
t he i nt egr at i on of di f f er ent navi gat i onal ai ds was deri ved[5]: The pri mary navi gat i on
syst emi s a dead r eckoni ng syst em(DRS). Thi s DRS can be a Doppl er - or i ner t i al navi -
gat i on syst emor f or emer gency cases a cl assi cal DRS, whi ch det er mi nes t he dead r eckoni ng
posi t i on by i nt egr at i on of t r ue ai r speed and wi ndspeed. I t i s assumed t hat t he errors of
dead r eckoni ng ar e mai nl y caused by some syst emat i c er r or s, whi ch ar e const ant or onl y
sl owl y changi ng dur i ng t he f l i ght , and t hat t he i nf l uence of t he ot her er r or s, e. g.
18-4
the random errors of ground speed, drift and heading, errors of the computer etc. is
not importaat.
This DRS is combined with other navigational aids by one or more computers in such a way,
that the most important systematic errors Qf the DRS can be determined and taken into
account by corresponding corrections. For this combination two different methods are
proposed.
According to method I we determine with the help of the other navigational aids con-
tinuously or from time to time the coordinates of the present position in the coordi-
nate system of the DR-navigation. These control coordinates are compared with the co-
ordinates of the DR-position. The differences of the corresponding coordinates, which
are caused by the errors of dead reckoning and the errors of the control coordinates,
are described by observation equations. These observation equations take into account
the influence of the most important systematic errors of the DRS and include the other
errors as unknown corrections. The size of the systematic errors, which are described
by the error model, are then determined by least square adjustment so, that the square
sum of the unknown corrections is a minimum. Now it is easy to calculate the influence
of the systematic errors on the DR-position and to get a corresponding correction.
With method I1 we make with the other navigational aids continuously or from time to time
control measurements, such as distances, bearings, differences of distances etc., which
refer to points, whose position is known. Now we compute quite the same quantities,for
the indicated DR-position. The differences between the measured and the computed quanti-
ties give again observation equations, which can be used to determine the systematic
errors of the dead reckoning system by a least square adjustment. Method I1 is somewhat
more complicated but also more flexible than method I and has the advantage that we can
introduce weights for the control measurements.
In the following method I1 will be described for the example of the integration of a self
contained Doppler navigation system with TACAN, which is a ground based radio navigation
system for the determination of polar coordinates of the aircraft position relative to
the station. More details of method I can be found in[5].
4. The Doppler dead reckoning system and its errors.
The DRS is assumed to consist of a Doppler radar measuring groundspeed and drift, a
gyro stabilized platform as heading reference and a computer for the computation of the
flight path in the grid coordinate system and of a moving map display.
A
If there are no errors at all, the exact grid coordinates of the DR-position can be com-
puted according to Fig.2 from
x - ~ ~ + ~ ~ r n ~ v ~ c o s T ~ d t , y = y o + l t m . v - s i n T * dt
T = H t d + ~ y .
0
X , Y
Xo,Yo =grid coordinates of the inertial point (t=O) ,
m = (variable) scale factor of the map depending
=grid coordinates of DR-position at time t,
on X,Y,
V =groundspeed,
T =grid track,
18-5
H =pl at f or mheadi ng,
d =dr i f t due t o wi nd,
Ayl =dr i f t of t he pl at f or mdue t o
t r anspor t at i on.
I f we denot e t he measur ed val ues of gr oundspeed, dr i f t and headi ng wi t h v , d , H , t he
i nser t ed coor di nat es f or t he i ni t i al poi nt wi t h X I , y , and assume t hat no addi t i onal
er r or s ar e ef f i ci ent , we got t he f ol l owi ng coor di 8at eg of t he dead r eckoni ng posi t i on
Nowwe assume as mai n er r or sour ces of t he Doppl er DR
A X o , A y , = er r or s of t he i nser t ed coor di nat es of t he
i ni t i al poi nt ,
A H =const ant er r or of headi ng,
-
w =mean r andomgyr o dr i f t ,
k
V =v ( l +k) = t r ue gr oundspeed.
= scal e er r or of measur ed gr oundspeed,
AX , ay can r each r el at i vel y l ar ge amount s because t he i ni t i al poi nt must be i n-
ser t ed i8 f l i ght . LZ i s f or t he pr esent assumed t o be appr oxi mat el y const ant dur i ng t he
whol e f l i ght . I t i s f ur t her assumed, t hat t he i nf l uence of al l ot her er r or sour ces i s
not i mpor t ant .
On t hese supposi t i ons we get f or smal l er r or quant i t i es t he f ol l owi ng r el at i ons bet ween
t he t r ue coor di nat es x, y and t he i ndi cat ed coor di nat es x , y
x = x + A x , + ( x - x , ) ~ ~ - ( y - yo j . aH t b , . w -
y = y + . ~ y ~ +( y - y, ) . k+( x - x, ) . ~H t b y . w ,
,
-
(4. 5)
b, =-im I v . t . sin T . d t , by =+ i t me v . t . COS T . dt ,
5. I nt egr at ed Doppl er - TACAN- navi gat i on syst em.
\
Gr i d Nor t h
Magn.Nor t h , ;
\ I
psi
5
$- I l +x 1
Y
Fi g. 3
I n or der t o descr i be t he i nt egr at i on of t he Doppl er - DRS wi t h ot her navi gat i onal
we sel ect as exampl e t he i nt egr at i on wi t h TACAN. Wi t h t he TACAN- r ecei ver we can measur e
t he sl ant r ange R, Fi g. 3, f r omt he pr esent posi t i on F of t he ai r cr af t t o t he gr ound
based TACAN- st at i on S and t he bear i ng 8 r el at ed t o magnet i c nor t h i n S. These measur ed
val ues ar e compar ed wi t h t he comput ed val ues RI , 0
F wi t h t he coor di nat es x , y .
i ds
r el at i ng t o t he i ndi cat ed DR- posi t i on
vR =-a ~ L . A X , -~L~oc.AY, - ( ( XI - x o ) . CO)OC + (y - yoJ) d I ) . k
+((yl -yo )* M oLJ - ( XI - x t ) . n ; h d J ) 1 A H
- ( b x . ~ d + b y . k ~ ) . 3 - ( R - R ) , (5. 1)
+) I n t hi s f or mul a t he i nf l uence of t he hei ght di f f er ence bet ween ai r cr af t and TACAN
st at i on i s negl ect ed. A mor e accur at e f or mul a i s gi ven i n [5] p. 25.
18-6,
v, =+& C L . A X ~ -m o(. AY# +(( x - x o ) .A& a- ( y - y o ) . coJ a) k
--((y - y o ) .A o( +( x - x o ) 8 CA a ) - A H
+ ( b , . h o L - b y a)-& - ( o - s ) . R , (5.2)
R * \ I ( x - x S ) +( y - y S ) * (5.3)
C
( 5 . 4 )
i
pa a a Z +b . R 1 J PQ ( ~ a .
&is the grid bearing of the TACAN-station S referred to the DR-position F.
P
dbiation of the position line corresponding to 8 .
is the weight of R with C, a nd b as constants. Pe is the weight, m e the standard
TA CA N
n
L
R
I
0
1 U
- I
I
X O
I
! Y O
- t
Fig. 4
18-7
The compar i son of t he measur ed val ues R, 8 and t he comput ed val ues R' , 0 I i s made
n- t i mes. Then we get 2n obser vat i on equat i ons. I f 2n i s gr eat er t han t he number of
unknowns - i n our case 5 - we can det er mi ne t he unknowns A X , AY^, k, A H and= by a
l east squar e adj ust ment so, t hat t he squar e sumof t he cor r e8t i ons VR and Vg under con-
si der at i on of t he wei ght s get a mi ni mum.
Fi g. 4 shows a si mpl i f i ed scheme of t he i nt egr at ed Doppl er - TACAN- navi gat i on syst em. The
gener al pur pose comput er i s f or si mpl i f i cat i on subdi vi ded i n sever al speci al pur pose
comput er s. The gr oundspeed v' and t he dr i f t d' measur ed by t he Doppl er r adar and t he
headi ng HI measur ed by t he compass and f ur t her t he i nser t ed coor di nat es x' , y' of t he
i ni t i al poi nt ar e f ed i nt o t he dead r eckoni ng comput er I , whi ch comput es t 8e co8r di nat es
x' , y' and t he scal e f act or mof t he dead r eckoni ng posi t i on. The comput er I 1 comput es
cont i nuousl y t he sl ant r ange RI and t he beari ng 0' f r omt he pr esent dead r eckoni ng
posi t i on to t he TACAN- st at i on.
The comput er s211 and I V comput e f or each t i me i nterval . . ~t ( e. g. At =1 mi n) t he mean
di f f er ences R- RI and 0 - Q bet ween t he out put s R and 0 of t he TACAN- r ecei ver and t he
comput ed val ues R' and 0 I . Thi s aver agi ng i s very i mpor t ant , because i t r educes t he
noi se of t he TACAN- i nf or mat i ons essent i al l y.
The mean di f f er ences R- RI , 0 - a ' , t he cor r espondi ng coor di nat es x' , y' of t he dead
r eckoni ng posi t i on and t he t i me t ar e st or ed i n t he adj ust ment comput er V. Thi s adj ust -
ment comput er comput es i n r egul ar t i me i nt er val s n. at ( e- gan. At =5 mi n) t he syst emat i c
er r or s Ax , Ay , k, AH, w' of t he dead r eckoni ng syst em. These er r or quant i t i es ar e
f ed t oget h?r wi t 8 t he dead r eckoni ng coor di nat es x' ,y' and ot her quant i t i es t o t he cor -
r ect i on comput er VI . The out put of VI are t he cor r ect ed coor di nat es x, y of t he pr esent
posi t i on.
The adj ust ment i s r epeat ed i n r egul ar t i me i nt er val s or ever y t i mes when one or mor e
new cont r ol measur ement s ar e avai l abl e. I f t he er r or model of t he DRS woul d be r i gor ous,
t he comput ed syst emat i c er r or s woul deconver ge wi t hi n a shor t t i me t o const ant val ues.
I n t hi s case i t woul d be possi bl e t o cal i br at e t he syst emwi t hi n t he r ange of one TACAN-
st at i on. Af t er war ds one coul d navi gat e wi t h hi gh accur acy wi t h t he cal i br at ed dead
r eckoni ng syst emal one.
--
6 . Remar ks on t he t r eat ment of changi ng syst emat i c errors.
The i nt egr at ed navi gat i on by l east squar e adj ust ment i s i deal , i f t he er r or model i s
r i gor ous or near l y r i gor ous, t hat i s 1.) t he er r or model compr i ses al l i mpor t ant syst em-
at i c er r or sour ces, 2. ) t hese er r or sour ces ar e const ant or changi ng pr edi ct abl y, and
3 . ) al l ot her er r or sour ces ar e negl ect abl y smal l . I n r eal i t y we have t o expect , t hat
t he er r or model i s i ncompl et e, and t hat t he i nt r oduced syst emat i c er r or s ar e changi ng
gr adual l y.
E. g. t he r andomgyr o dr i f t of a st abi l i zed pl at f ormser vi ng as headi ng r ef er ence, wi l l
gener al l y change wi t h t i me. Over l and t hi s f act can be t aken i nt o account by r educi ng
t he t i me of t he val i di t y of t he error model e. g. t o t he l ast 30 mi nut es, pr ovi ded t hat
a suf f i ci ent number of cont r ol measur ement s wi t h suf f i ci ent accur acy i s avai l abl e.
Then each adj ust ment gi ves t he most pr obabl e val ues f or t he pr esent posi t i on, gr ound-
speed, t rack and gyr o dr i f t based on al l cont r ol measur ement s dur i ng t he l ast 30 mi nut es.
I f we have t o expect an i r r egul ar dr i f t of t he headi ng r ef er ence, and i f onl y a f ew
cont r ol measur ement s wi t h poor accur acy ar e avai l abl e, i t i s i mpossdbl e t o separ at e t he
const ant headi ng er r or AH f r omt he gyr o dr i f t 6. I n t hi s case i t i s bet t er t o r enounce
t he det er mi nat i on of t he gyr o dr i f t and t o det er mi ne onl y a mean headi ng cor r ect i on f or
t he di f f er ent adj ust ment sect i ons. I f zr esp. AH can be det er mi ned sever al t i mes, and i f
t he changes ar e st eadi l y, i t i s event ual l y possi bl e t o der i ve her ef r oma second cor r ect i on
7. Aut omat i c est i mat i on of t he accur acy.
I n or der t o be abl e t o est i mat e t he accur acy of t he i nt egr at ed navi gat i on i t i s usef ul
t o ext end t he pr ogr amof t he adj ust ment comput er i n such a way t hat t he st andar d devi -
at i on of t he comput ed syst emat i c er r or s and of t he cor r ect ed DR- posi t i on ar e addi t i onal l y
det er mi ned. Then i t i s possi bl e t o j udge t he qual i t y of t he assumed er r or model . For
exampl e, i f one or mor e er r or quant i t i es can be det er mi ned onl y wi t h poor accur acy, i t
i s usef ul t o si mpl i f y t he er r or model by omi t t i ng t hese er r or quant i t i es. The sl mul -
t aneous comput at i on of t he most pr obabl e posi t i on and i t s st andar d devi at i on woul d come
very cl ose t o t he opt i mumeval uat i on of al l vai l abl e navi gat i onal i nf or mat i ons.
18-8
8. Gener al i sat i on of t he i nt egr at i on met hod.
The descr i bed met hod can be gener al i sed as f ol l ows:
We compar e t he measur ed cont r ol val ue wi t h t he cor r espondi ng val ue comput ed f or t he dead
DR- posi t i on. Each compar i son gi ves an obser vat i on equat i on, t he wei ght of whi ch i s pro-
por t i onal t o t he r eci pr ocal val ue of t he squar e of t he st andar d devi at i on of t he measur ed
cont r ol val ue.
Her e some mor e exampl es:
1. The bear i ng measur ed wi t h VOR f r omt he ai r cr af t t o t he VOR- st at i on i s compar ed wi t h t he
2. The sl ant r ange measur ed wi t h DME f r omt he ai r cr af t t o t he DME- st at i on i s compar ed wi t h
3 . The r ange di f f er ence measur ed wi t h LORAN bet ween t he ai r cr af t and t wo LORAN- st at i ons
4. The al t i t ude of a st ar measur ed wi t h a sext ant i s compar ed wi t h t hat al t i t ude, whi ch
comput ed bear i ng of t he DR- posi t i on.
t he comput ed r ange of t he DR- posi t i on.
i s compar ed wi t h t he comput ed r ange di f f er ence f or t he DR- posi t i on.
i s comput ed f or t he DR- posi t i on.
I n t he ai r cr af t mul t i pl e navi gat i onal ai ds f or t he cont r ol measur ement s ar e avai l abl e, t he
comput er pr ogr amhas t o be ext ended i n such a way t hat al l avai l abl e navi gat i onal i nf or -
mat i ons ar e i nt egr at ed.
Fur t her on t he er r or model of t he DRS wi l l be adapt ed as cl ose as possi bl e t o t he er r or
char act er i st i c of t he avai l abl e syst em. For exampl e, i f t he di r ect i onal gyr o i s sl aved by
a magnet i c sensor , we have t o consi der t he i nf l uence of magnet i c devi at i on.
The met hod i s al so appl i cabl e, i f an i ner t i al navi gat or i s used as DRS. Regar di ng t hi s
syst em, we have at f i r st t o i nvest i gat e how t o t r ansf or mt he di f f er ent i al er r or equat i ons
of t he i ner t i al navi gat or i n l i near er r or equat i ons. But t hi s i s not an unsol vabl e probl em;
9. Exampl e f or t he cor r ect i on of Doppl er navi gat i on by adj ust ment .
I n Fi g. 5 you see a pr act i cal exampl e f or t he cor r ect i on of a Doppl er navi gat i on syst emby
adj ust ment of phot ogr aphi cal det er mi ned posi t i ons. The f i gur e shows t he navi gat i onal errors
of a f l i ght wi t h a l engt h of about 500 nm. The navi gat i on was made wi t h a Doppl er r adar ,
a gyr o- magnet i c compass and an anal ogue navi gat i on comput er i ndi cat i ng di st ance and beari nc
t o pr esel ect ed r ef er ence poi nt s. The f ul l poi nt s connect ed by dot t ed l i nes r epr esent i ndi -
cat ed DR- posi t i ons, t he open ci r cl es r epr esent t r ue posi t i ons det er mi ned by ver t i cal phbt o-
gr aphs. An er r or anal ysi s af t er t he f l i ght by l east squar e adj ust ment gave as a r esul t t he
f ol l owi ng syst emat i c er r or s:
f or t he east - west l egt Wal da- Rol ampont :
f or t he nor t h- sout h l eg Rol amont - I st r es:
A H = Q , % , k=+0 , 0 ( 1 5 , ~ ~ , = - 1 , 7 n m , b y a =+P , 4nrn
A H = 0,'7 k = 0,000 , AX,, = - ?,S nrl) , A Y , = t 4,7 nm .
The di f f er ent val ues f or AH depend on t he var i at i on of t he magnet i c devi at i on wi t h t he
magnet i c headi ng. The var i at i on of t he scal e f act or k i s mai nl y caused by t he f act , t hat
t he DR- comput er negl ect ed t he var i abl e scal e f act or of t he gr i d coor di nat e syst em.
I f we t ake i n account t he syst emat i c er r or s we get cor r ect ed posi t i ons wi t h a st andar d
devi at i on of 2 0. 9 nm. Thi s er r or i s much smal l er t han t he er r or s of t he uncor r ect ed
i ndi cat ed posi t i ons, whi ch gr owf r om1 nmi n Wal da t o 7 nmi n I st r es.
18-9
StraRburg
Mi recourt
5: : Rol ampont
- .
I
I
I
L Di j on
\
\ \ \
\\
A H =Or7
k , = 0,000
A X, =- 1,s nm
\
A H =Or7
k , = 0,000
A X, =- 1,s nm
\
\: I
la To;' du Pin
I
I
A H = 039
I -<)-True Po s i t i o n
I I ndi cated P HI - P osi ti on
/I'
---.--
I
I
/ Mo n t el i mar
\ \
0- Co r r ec t ed Po s i t i on
I
0 100
- 700
k m
P
- 600
- 500
- 400
- 300
- 200
-100
- 0
200 300
Fig .5
400 krn
18- 10
R E'F E R E N C E S
[l] K.Ramsayer: "Untersuchungen m e r die Genauigkeit der Dopplernavigation".
Ortung und Navigation, 1964, Heft 4.
[2] K.Ramsayer,W.Kiechle,E.Wildermuth: "Untersuchungen iiber die erreichbare Justier-
genauigkeit einer Dopplernavigationsanlage mit magnetischem Richtungs-
geber und analogem Navigationsrechner".
Ortung und Navigation, 1965, Heft 4.
[3] K.Ramsayer und P.Tautenhahn: "Statistisches Verfahren zur Bestimmung des mittleren
zufllligen Fehlers und zur Schwingungsanalyse von Abtriftmessungen
mit einer Dopplernavigationsanlage".
Zeitschrift fiir Flugwissenschaften, 1966, S.150-157.
Eigengeschwindigkeit, Abtrift und Kurs eines Flugzeugs. Auswirkungen
auf die automatische Wind- und Flugwegberechnung".
Ortung und Navigation, 1966, Heft 1.
von Kontrollmessungen mit zusstzlichen Navigationshilfen".
Ortung und Navigation, 1969, Heft 2.
[4] K.Ramsayer und P.Tautenhahn: "Ermittlung der zufllligen MeBfehler von Grund- und
[5] K.Ramsayer: "Automatische Korrektur einer Dopplernavigationsanlage durch Ausgleichung
19
A S I M P L E K A L M A N F I L T E R F O R VOR/DME
by
M . A. V. Mat thews
Ferranti Ltd
19- 1
A SimDle Kalman Fi l ter f or VOR/DW
by M.A.V. Matthews, Ferranti Ltd.
Author's Note It is regretted that not enough computer runs have been made t o enable the paper to be
fi ni shed i n time f or the prepri nt.
some background to the addi ti onal material which w i l l be presented at the Panel Meeting.
However thi s incomplete versi on should provide
1. I ntroducti on
I n overland commercial avi ati on, the most widely used navigation ai d is the vOA/DME system.
current practi ce, thi s system is used as a homing rather than a posi ti on fi xi ng ai d, i.e. the ai rcraf t
f l i es along a radi al t o the VOR beacon, usi ng the DME component to i ndi cate di stance to go.
DME range measurement is qui te accurate, the VOR beari ng is subj ect to an error due to propogation
ef f ects, which can have a magnitude of several degrees.
error tends to be a constant angle al ong a given radi al and does not af f ect the abi l i ty of the ai rcraf t
t o home on to the beacon.
beacon, and ensuring that ai rcraf t passing over the same beacon at the same al ti tude are suf f i ci entl y
separated i n time, by use of the rel ati vel y accurate DME range to predi ct times of arri val .
In
While the
A t present this is not too seri ous si nce the
Safety is assured by arrangi ng that basi c airways i ntersect only at a VOR/DME
However thi s saf e and simple system i s becoming overloaded, and i t is now necessary to consider area
navi gati on i n which the routes flown are no l onger VOR radials and wi l l no longer i ntersect di rectl y over
a beacon.
put i nto VOR/DME, thi s system w i l l continue to be used i n the area navigation era.
become a means of fi ndi ng present posi ti on from which the desi red track may be calculated.
si tuati on the VOR errors have more seri ous consequences.
over the VOR beacons, the VOR errors wi l l contri bute to ai rcraf t posi ti on errors at the i ntersecti ons and
w i l l have a di rect ef f ect on the separati ons necessary to ensure safety. Furthermore si nce-the ai rcraf t
is no l onger f l yi ng a VOR radi al , the error wi l l change as VOR bearing changes and thi s wi l l tend to cause
departures from strai ght f l i ght.
knowledge of present posi ti on and to reduce perturbati on i n the demanded track induced by VOR errors which
f l uctuate with change of bearing.
Because of the l arge investment both in ground and ai rborne equipment which has al ready been
However i t must now
I n this nev
Since route i ntersecti ons w i l l no l onger be
Fi l teri ng of the VOR input is therefore necessary both to improve
Any commercial ai rcraf t wi l l carry some means of dead reckoning navigation, such as compass/air data,
compass/Doppler or inertial navigation.
VOR/DME i n a K al man f i l ter aa a means of reducing the defi ci enci es of VOR/DME on its om.
It is therefore feasi bl e t o mix dead reckoning i nputs with
A computer si mul ati on of such a system has been mounted with the obj ect of i nvesti gati ug the effect-
i veness of a K al man f i l ter i n thi s appl i cati on.
elements i n its state vector (2 posi ti on components, vel oci ty bi as, track biasP.
such a simple system is of considerable i nterest si nce many commercial operators are not yet ready f or
el aborate and.expensive central computers. Simulation of a simple system is al so l i kel y to gi ve more
i nsi ght i nto the operati on of the f i l ter than a more complicated one i n which it is more di f f i cul t t o
understand the i nteracti on of a mul ti pl i ci ty of functions. The present fl l ter would be most sui tabl e
f or we with compass and Doppler; It would al so be mi tabl e f or use with i nerti al vel oci ty i nputs f or
short peri ods of time (compared to the Schul er period).
versi on of the f i l ter i n which the vel oci ty and heading bi ases are replaced by northings and easti nga
wind components. The si mul ati on programme
is designed to assess the operati on of the fi l ter i n determining present posi ti on taki ng account of the
following factors:
The f i l ter haa been kept s i m l e, having only four
The performance of
It is intended al s o t o simulate a modified
This would be sui tabl e f or use with air data and compass.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Posi ti on of Beacon rel ati ve t o Fl i ght Path.
Use of VOR or DME al one (without other component).
Erroneous assessment of error stati sti cs i n fi l ter design.
Effect of further si mpl i f i cati on of f i l ter.
Effecti veness of f i l ter i n trimming heading and vel oci ty bi ases f or use i n
subsequent dead reckoning (e.g. an over water l eg).
Resul ts of the si mul ati on w i l l be presented-to i l l ustrate the above f actors and t o bri ng out the
method of operati on of the filter.
2. The Simulation Promamme
2.1. Representation of the Real World
This model i s inte.nded t o represent the real world si tuati on in which the f i l ter is operating;
It provides the i nputs to the fi l ter and the true values of posi ti on, vel oci ty, etc. agai nst which
the fi l ter performance is t o be measured.
The si tuati on modelled is that In which the ai rcraf t fl i es past a single co-located VOR/Dm
beacon.
in the l ength of the run.
The programme allows f or vari ati on i n the di stance of cl osest approach to the beacon, and
I n al l NM simulated so far, the ai rcraf t has followed a strai ght path.
19-2 .
2.1.2. Errors
So f ar no attempt has been made t o simulate a run past a series of beacons, which are used
successi vel y as the navigation ai d for the ai rcraf t.
the improvement i n navigation accuracy i n a run past a single beacon.
A l l runs to date have been used to i nvesti gate
2.1.1. VOR Errors
Before programming the model, a vi si t was made t o the civil Aviation Flying U ni t , at
Stanated, Essex, who are responsi bl e f or monitoring the performance of VOX and Dmi nstal l ati ons
i n the U.K.
equipment) are mainly due to mul ti pl e path propagation caused by ref l ecti ons from obj ects near
the transmitter.
gi ves rise t o error fl uctuati ons at the ai rcraf t recei ver due t o the ai rcraf t's motion through
the pattern.
along di f f erent VOR radials.
avai l abl e t o us by the C.A.F.U.
another both i n the magnitude of error and i n the way the errors are correl ated.
case, the auto-correl ati on functi on showed a component of period 15'. superimposed on a component
of period goo.
0.7 and 2 .
It was l earned that VOR errors (apart from those ari si ng wi thi n the ai rborne
Thi s resul ts i n an angular error pattern which is fi xed i n space and time,but
There di d not appear to be much information avai l abl e on the correl ati on of errors
However, an anal ysi s was made of some f l i ght recordings made
' h i s showed considerable vari ati on from one VOR stati on to
I n a typical
The standard devi ati on appears to vary from stati on t o stati on between about
I nformation obtained from arti cl es etc. (e.g. Ref 1) was consi stent wi th that provided
by the C.A.F.U., but di d not provide any more data on correl ati on.
For si mul ati on purposes the VOR error is represented by a sum of si nusoi dal components at
it can be vari ed i n magnitude, and its autocorrel ati on
di f f erent frequencies, and random phase angles.
comparable with those of real VOR errors;
functi on can be al tered by changing the rel ati ve magnitudes of its components.
This expression has correl ati on properti es
Si nce Kalman Fi l teri ng is only practi cabl e i n a di gi tal computer, it was considered that
The error i n such the system would be most l i kel y to operate with a di gi tal ai rborne recei ver.
a recei ver should be several times smaller than that i n current analogue equipments (Ref 1) and
would be negl i gi bl e compared to the propagation errors discussed above.
Published data and information from the C.A.F.U. i ndi cate that DME errors are i n the order
of 0.1-to 0.2 n.m. r.m.8.
combination of a fi xed bi as error, with a random error which is uncorrel ated between successi ve
measurements, was assumed i n the simulation.
No information on correl ati on was obtai nabl e; accordingly the
2.1.3. Track and Ground Sueed Errors
Track error i ncl udes al l the error sources af f ecti ng the knowledge of track angl e rel ati ve
t o North.
Doppler dri f t error, and synchro transmission errors.
with a random component (as f or DME error).
I n a Doppler system these would i ncl ude compass error, harmonisation of Doppler aeri al ,
It is assumed to consi st of a bi as combined
Ground speed error is al so assumed to have bi as and random components.
Thi s representati on is also adequate i f an i nerti al navigator is used i n pl ace of the
Compass/Doppler system, provided the model is only run f or a short period of time (e.g. 5 mins.).
I n a l onger run the Schuler period of the i nerti al vel oci ty errors would show up, and would need
to be represented.
It can al so be used to si mul ate a compass/air data system, provided the ai rcraf t follow8
a strai ght course, si nce the wind components wi l l combine with T.A.S. and compass errors t o
produce equivalent ground speed and track errors.
compass and T.A.S. errors would be rotated wi th it, whi l e the wind components would remain fi xed;
i n this case i t would be necessary to represent wind and compass/".A.S. bi ases separatel y i n the
However, i f the ai rcraf t were t o turn, the
model.
2.1.4. Dead Reckoninn Programme
The ai rborne computer is assumed to perform a
posi ti on usi ng the i nputs of track and ground speed.
obtained as part of the real world representati on, by
errors.
2.2. The Kalman Fi l ter
continuous dead reckoning estimate of
The true errors i n thi s process are
i ntegrati on of the track and ground speed
A secti on of the si mul ati on programme reproduces the K ahn f i l teri ng computations assumed t o
be carri ed out i n the ai rborne computer, usi ng i nputs derived i n the "real world model".
obj ect of the Kalman f i l ter is to make esti mates of the errors i n posi ti on, ground speed and track
used i n the dead reckoning computation, so that by adding these estimates to the dead reckoning
outputs a best esti mate of ai rcraf t posi ti on and vel oci ty can be formed.
The
The set of quanti ti es to be updated(knovn as the state vector) are four i n number: the
northerl y and easterl y components of posi ti on error, track angl e bi as, and ground speed bias.
order to esti mate these quanti ti es, the f i l ter requi res to esti mate stati sti cal parameters of the
state vector, representi ng the probable accuraci es of its elements and the correl ati ons between them.
I n
19-3
These parameters are arranged i n a symmetric 4 x 4 mtr i x known as the covariance matrix.
Following the treatment of Barham and Humphries (2). the Kalman process is regarded as two
independent steps:
1. An extrapol ati on of new values of the state vector and the covariance matrix
ari si ng from the passage of time; i n the case of the state vector thi s process
represents the steady i ncrease i n posi ti on error with time, characteri sti c of a
dead reckoning;
l evel of confidence i n the state vector esti mates as time passes without f resh
information from VOR/DME.
i n the case of the covariance matrix i t expresses the diminishing
2. Mixing of the current state vector esti mates with fresh i nputs from VOR or DME;
Thi s yi el ds new and more accurate esti mates, ref l ected i n a reduction i n magnitude
of the covariance matrix elements.
Step 1 must be computed at regul ar i nterval s of time, but step 2 i s only conputed when
The f i l ter is programmed so
This i s not fundamental to
i t is possi bl e or expedient t o bri ng i n a VOR or DME measurement.
that step (2) involves only one measurement at a time, VOR or DME.
the f i l ter, but is adopted i n order to si mpl i fy the computation.
By keeping Steps 1 and 2 separate we are abl e to choose the frequencies with which VOR and
DME data are fed i n to the f i l ter according t o the following considerations:
(a) Correl ati on
I n thei r most strai ghtforward form the Kalrnan f i l teri ng equations assume that
successi ve external measurement (i.e. VOR or DbE i nputs, i n the present case) are
stati sti cal l y independent (2). While it is possi bl e to modify the equation to
allow f or correl ati on ei ther by adding extra elements to the state vector or by
i ncl udi ng addi ti onal terms, involving the covariance of successi ve measurements,
i n the equations, i n the present i nstance it was decided to keep the f i l ter i n its
basi c form i n the i nterests of si mpl i ci ty. This means that the external i nputs
must be substanti al l y uncorrelated: i f thi s rul e is not observed, the f i l ter w i l l
act as though each measurement were a pi ece of genuine new information when i n
f act i t is l argel y a repeti ti on of the previous measurement; thi s resul ts i n over
rel i ance on the external measurement and a f al sel y opti mi sti c covariance matrix.
(b) Avai l abi l i tg
I n practi ce there w i l l be occasions when VOR or DME signals are not avai l abl e
because of range l i mi tati ons, or the cone of confusion; while retuni ng the recei ver,
or because of i nterference. I n thi s case step 2 cannot be executed unti l the si gnal
i s restored.
(c) Comuutina time
The frequency with which steps 1 and 2 can be taken i s obviously l i mi ted by
tho speed of the computer.
I n the simulated fi l ter these f actors are allowed f or i n the following fashion. Step 1 is
The programme allows f or thi s i nterval t o be vari ed, but executed at regul ar i nterval s of time.
i n the si mul ati on so f ar it has been set t o 2 minutes. Thi s allows ample time, even f or a slow
computer, to perform the Kalman f i l teri ng and other necessary tasks.
executed f or ei ther a VOR or a DI G input.
by more than a chosen amount (vari abl e i n the programme;
i nput, otherwise a DME i nput is taken.
it is therefore l ogi cal to take VOR i nputs at fi xed i nterval s of bearing, the i nterval being chosen
to emure low correl ati on between successive measurements.
taken at fi xed i nterval s of time, except when the sequence is i nterrupted to allow a VOR i nput.
The actual correl ati on time f or DME i n not known;
except possi bl y f or a fi xed bi as, which is allowed f or i n the real world model.
ei ther VOR or DME i nputs can be suppressed al together.
Following step 1, step 2 is
A VOR i nput is taken i f the beacon beari ng has changed
set to 15' up to now) si nce the last VOR
Correl ati on of VOR errors depends on the bearing di fference;
'
DME i nputs on the other hand w i l l be
however it seems unl i kel y to exceed 2 minutes
As a vari ant
3. Simulation Resul ts
3.1. Procedure.
I n order to produce stati sti cal l y meaningful resul ts, it would be necessary to run each case
This would a l arge number of times, using di f f erent randomly generated i nput errors i n each run.
resul t i n a l arge amount of data which could be analysed to produce a mean, standard devi ati on, and
probabi l i ti es of exceeding di f f erent l evel s of error. Such a procedure would requi re a very l arge
number of run6 per case t o provide rel i abl e stati sti cal information, parti cul arl y considering that,
i n the case of ci vi l avi ati on, the quanti ty which it is most i nteresti ng t o establ i sh is the l evel
of error which is only exceeded i n a small percentage of cases.
cases are of .i nterest, si nce there are many parameters which can be vari ed to produce di f f erent
cases, such as di stance of cl osest approach to the beacon; speed;
and Ground Speed (both actual and as assumed i n the Kalman f i l ter) ; I n
f act the large number of cases, and the large number of runs requi red per case would make this
exerci se qui te prohi bi ti ve i n terms of cost and time.
Furthermore, a l arge number of
error l evel s of VOR/DME, Track,
computation i nterval .
19-4
Ae an al ternati ve, the following procedure has been adopted. Two basi c cases are chosen, in
each of.which the ai rcraf t fl i es i n a strai ght l i ne at 500 kts. for 200 n.m. the mid poi nt of this
run being the cl osest approach to the beacon.
approach is 25 n.m., and i n the second i t is 5 n.m.
set to the following values:
I n the f i rst basi c case the distance of cl osest
The other parameters i n the basi c cases are
Track Error: Bi as 1 deg.
Standard Deviation 1 deg.
Sueed Errox:
DHE Ranne:
VOR Bearing:
I ni ti al State Vector:
Bi as 2 kts.
Standard Deviation 2 kts.
Bias 0.1 n.m.
Standard Deviation 0.2 n.m.
Standard Deviation 1 deg.
Posi ti on Error (North) 1 n.m.
Posi ti on Error (East) -1 n.m.
Ground Speed Error
Heading Error
5 kts.
4 deg.
2
2
2
I ni ti al Covariance Matrix: Posi ti on Error Variance (North and East) 4 n.m.
Track Error Variance 1 deg.
Ground Sped Variance 4 kts.
Off-diagonal elements (covariances) al l zero
I n the basi c cases the error l evel s set i nto the Kalman f i l ter are the same as those used i n
the real world model.
Following the basi c cases, a number of vari ants are chosen, i n each of which one parameter is
I n running each
Thus the error i nputs to the f i l ter are the same
vari ed rel ati ve to the basi c case;
vari ant case the random number generator i n the real world model is arranged to generate the same
sequence of random numbers as i n the basi c case.
i n each case.
these vari ants are described below i n detai l .
Thi s makes i t easi er to compare the cases on the basi s of a si ngl e run for each case.
While thi s procedure does not produce rel i abl e numerical information on fi l ter performance, it
does gi ve adequate qual i tati ve cornparisone between the f i l ter outputs and the raw data, and between
the basi c case6 and the vari ants.
3.2. Resul ts
Basic Case 1
The resul ts f or thi s basi c case are i l l ustrated i n fi gs. 1-4. Figs 1 and 2 show the errors
i n the Kalmn esti mates of dead reckoning posi ti on error.
of posi ti on error standard devi ati on, and the error i n the raw VOR/DME i nput.
northerl y (along track) di recti on DME is ef f ecti ve at the beginning of the run and the error
is rapi dl y reduced from its i ni ti al value of 2 n.m. An error l evel of about 0.2 - 0.4 n.m.
is maintained from a poi nt about 30n.m. short of the cl osest approach unti l the end of the
run.
They al so show the Kalman esti mates
I n the
I n the easterl y di recti on VOR is i ni ti al l y i nef f ecti ve at long range and the error grows
at f i rst.
the easterl y di recti on.
approach.
because of the trimming of track error bi as provided by the f i l ter.
i l l ustrated i n fig.3, i n which the f i l ter is shown to get within 0.5 of the heading bi as,
by the end of the run.
Variant 1.1.
However as range shortens VOR improves and DME begins t o make a contri buti on i n
Thus the error is pul l ed i n to better than 0.5 n.m. near the cl osest
It begins t o grow agai n af ter the beacon is passed, but less slowly than before,
This trimming is
The vel oci ty bi as i s al s o trimmed wi thi n 1 knot (fig.4).
Thi s case is intended to i nvesti gate the ef f ect of omi tti ng the VOR input. It was f el t
that as the more accurate DME range measurement i s avai l abl e i n both northerl y and easterl y
di recti ons i n the course of the run, i t might be possi bl e to l eave out the VOR, without
greatl y af f ecti ng the performance. However, thi s is not so. While the posi ti on is fixed
with f ai r accuracy near the poi nt of cl osest approach, the track bi as is not adequately
trimmed, with the resul t that the easterl y error runs away quickly as the ai rcraf t recedes
from the beacon (figs.5-8). .
19-5
References.
(1)
RD-66-46, Ronald Braff, Final Report Project No,3X)-103-@tX Vortac Error Analyeis for
Helicopter Navigation, New York City Area".
Agency Test and Evaluation Division.
TR 69095, P.M. Barham & D.E. Hmphries "Derivation of the Kalman Filtering Equatiomfrom
Elementary Statistical Principles".
Atlantic City, New Jersey, Federal Aviation
July 1966, 39 +12 *gee.
(2)
Farnborough, Hants., U.K. , Royal Aircraft Establishment
Hay 1969, 14 pages*
19-6
N.M.
2
I .5
I
5
0
-.I
-I
-IS
- 2
N.M
a
1.5
I
.I
C
-.5
'I
- 1 . 3
-2
,
\
I
I
r CLOSEST
APPROACH DISTANCE (N.M.)
-100 -50 0 +5 0 +IO0
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 I4 16 Ib 2 0 22 24 26 28
TIME (MINUTES)
Fig.1. BASIC CASE I NORTHERLY FOSITION ERRORS
\,
,
FROM
Error in Estimating Dead Reckoning Error
Estimated Standard Dwiation of Dead Rcckoninp Error / w4:, 4
,
I-VORIDME PosWon Error
CLOSEST
- 50 APPROKH +SO DISTANCE t 100
(N.M.
-_ -100
-,
,\ I
6 8 lo I2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
0 2 4
TIME (MINUTES)
Fig.2. BASK: CASE I EASTERLY POSITION ERRORS
DEGREES
5
4
3
2
I
0
-I
- 2
-3.
KNOT
6
5
4
3
*
I
0
-I
-2
19-7
',
\
S.D of Estimate
/\
/ \
/ \
I-\
/ \
-\---L-A--- \ L\ \
' \
. \ \
\ /
\
/
--/
--
\
Actual Track Bias
Actual '\
Error-\\ I
\
\
\
-- - ----- ---- -
Heading I /
0 0
\ / 0 4 -/-
\ I
V
/'
/
/'
/'
I'
CLOSEST
APPROACH
0
DISTANCE (NM.)
+so
I ,
0 2 4 6 0 IO 12 14 16 10 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MINUTES)
Fig.3. BASIC CASE I. TRACK ERRORS
SD of Est hat o
Ground Speed Bias Estimate
I ----
I
I
\
\
I
\ I
I
\ I
\ /
\ I
\I
---r
I
\
\
\ I 7---
1 ;,/----
1-
/
\ /'
\
---+r ' \/ /'
\ I
\ I
0 /
------- \I
CLOSEST DISTANCE ( N.MJ
-50 APPROACH +so +DO
i
-Do
I I
I
0 2 4 6 8 IO I2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
TIME (MIMITES1
Fig. 4 BASIC CASE I GROUND SPEED ERRORS
A
19-8
N.M
2
1.5
I
. 5
0
- 5
-I
-1.5
- 2
\,
E m in Estimating Dead Reckoning Error
FROM KALMAN
d Standard DcvIation d D.R. Error 1
I .
I
I
/
.
. I \
e
. /
/
I
I
4
'--- --#
- _I
-z
-. / '-
-.
.,
;*VOR/ DME Poritlon Error
I
I
i
CLOSEST DISTANCE (HM)
-100 - 5 0 APPR~ACH f 5 0 +DO
10 2 0 22 24 26 20 0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16
TIME (MINUTES)
Fig 5 VARIANT 1.1 NORTHERLY POSITION ERRORS
TIME (MINUTES)
Fl9,6 VARIANT 1.1 EASTERLY POSITION ERROR
19-9
' DEGREE!
5
4
3
2
I
0
-I
-2
-3
KNOT!
6
5
4
3
2
I
0
-I
-2
\
\
- 5 0
CLOSEST
APPROACH
0
/
/-loo
DISTANCE (N.MJ
50 +Do
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 U 16 18 2 0 22 24 26 28
TIME MINUTES)
Fig. 7: VARIANT 1.1 TRACK ERRORS
I FILTER
SD ol Estlrnak
(Plotted Rebtlve to Actual Bias) FROM KALMAN
/,Ground Speed Bias Estimate
I
CLOYST DISTANCE (N.M.1
/- 100 -!io APPROACH +50 c m
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 I6 18 20 22 ?A 26 28
TIME IMINUTES)
Fi g.8. VARIANT 1.1 GROUND SPEED ERRORS
A
20
OPTIMAL CORRECTION OF STOCHASTIC ERRORS
OF AN INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
- SIMULATION STUDIES -
BY
R. SWIK AND DR. G. SCHMIDT
DORNIER GMBH
FREEDRICHSHAFEN - GERMANY
20
List of Symbols
: position errors [km]
: velocity errors [km/h]
: platform angle errors [degree]
: random gyro drift [deg./h]
2
: random accelerometer error [km/h ]
: nominal accelerometer output [km/h ]
: earth's rate with respect to an inertially fixed
: rate of the coordinate system in which computation
2
set of axes [deg./h]
is performed with respect to the earth's fixed set,
[deg . /h]
: rate of the coordinate syptem in which computation
is performed with respect to inertial space, [deg./h]
: Schuler angular frequency [rad/h]
: platform angle errors with respect to the computer
: position measurement errors, [km]
: measurement vector [km]
: white system noise
: system matrix of the error equations (12x12)
: measurement matrix (2x1 2)
: updating Vector
: discreted white noise vector
: transition matrix for the system errors
: loss function
: optimal estimate of the error vector xk
: covariance matrix of the estimate error
: covariance matrix of the discrete system noise
: covariance matrix of the measurement noise
: optimal filter gain
: corrected precession rate of the platform gyros
: corrected accelerometer signal
: accumulated estimate &
: gyro drift estimate propagated through a shaping
filter
: accelerometer erriix.detimate propagated through a
shaping filter
coordinate system, [deg.]
I
Optimal Correcti on of Stochasti c Errors
of an I nerti al Navi gati on System
Thi s paper di scusses the appl i cati on of a Kalman-Bucy Fi l ter to the updati ng process of
an i nerti al navi gati on system.
Noisy posi ti on measurements from a LORAN-receiver are uti l i zed as a reference si gnal f or
updati ng the i nerti al system.
Af ter each pi ece of measurement i si taken, the opti mal esti mates from the f i l ter are used
f or error correcti ons. During thi s process these esti mates are treated as representati ve
of the unavai l abl e exact val ues of the system errors.
One speci al advantage of thi s method i s that al l modeled errors are esti mated and corrected
from the posi ti on fi xes.
The concept has been eval uated by di gi tal si mul ati on of the navi gati on system and the
computer, as wel l as the di gi tal f i l teri ng and correcti ng scheme.
1. I ntroducti on
Pure I nerti al Navi gati on Systems accumulate errors which become si gni f i cant over a l ong
peri od of time. Therefore "damped" or'hybri d" systems are uti l i sed. These systems are
corrected by external reference i nformati on regardi ng such characteri sti cs as i ndependent
vel oci ty or posi ti on measurement.
The error sources i n such an hi gh qual i ty hybri d system, (e.g. gyro dri f t, accel erometer
error, and reference si gnal i naccuraci es) are mainly stochasti c whi l e the determi ni sti c
errors are kept smal l by caref ul component sel ecti on, i ni ti al al i gnment and bi asi ng.
Therefbre cl assi cal control theory anal ysi s and desi gn of the updati ng mechanism w i l l not
yi el d the best resul ts. The Kalman-Bucy opti mal f i l teri ng theory shoul d be i nvesti gated
f or the opti mal uti l i sati on of the reference i nformati on.
The problem of error correcti on i n terms of modern control theory i s di vi ded i nto two
parts :
( i ) opti mal esti mati on of the errors by the f i l ter uti l i si ng the reference i nformati on,
( i i ) opti mal correcti on of the navi gati on system wi th these esti mated errors.
Because the esti mates ftom the f i l t er are opti mal onl y wi th respect to a l i near dynamic
model of error propagati on and the assumed stati sti cs, these poi nts must be speci al l y
i nvesti gate d.
1
20- 1
The error ef f ect i n an i nerti al navi gati on system can be descri bed approxi matel y by a set
Assuming small devi ati ons, these equati ons descri be the di f f erence between the nominal
path (i .e. the actual vel oci ty and posi ti on) and the computed path.
The fol l owi ng errors w i l l appear:
- posi ti on error 6r
- vel oci ty error 5
- pl atform angl e error 'p
The angl e and posi ti on errors are i l l ustrated i n f i g. l ., f or a l ocal l y- l evel l ati tude-
l ongi tude mechani z a t i on.
For si mpl i f i cati on i n thi s paper onl y the gyro dr i f t 6 w and the accel erometer of f set
error fi are consi dered as error sources. Thus f ol l owzg [l] the error equati ons of the
pure i nerti al navi gati on system are:
I of l i near error equati ons.
(underl i ned symbols i ndi cate vectors)
R. Swik and Dr . G. S,chmidt
Dorni er GmbH
Fri edri chshafen, Germany
Summary
2. Error propagati on i nto the navi gati on system
20-2
nominal accel erometer output.
earth's rate wi th respect to an i nerti al l y f i xed set of axes.
rate of the coordi nate system i n which computati on i s performed wi th
respect to the earth's f i xed set.
rate of the coordi nate system i n which computation i s performed wi th
respect to i nerti al space.
Schul er angul ar frequency.
a:
H:
- P:
- w = n + p :
*s = dq:
- I ) i s the apparent angl e error of the pl atform at the computed posi ti on 2 +
and i ts rel ati on to the actual pl atform angl e error i s descri bed by
-
(see f i g. l ) ,
where
6rX
ay - -
r
Z r
? P E - 6rX tg e, (0 = l ati tude)
Eq.
( 1) represents a set of l i near di f f erenti al equati ons wi th ti me-vari abl e coef f i ci ents.
I n error anal ysi s, the error equat on coordi nate system i s of ten conveni entl y chosen to
be the nominal set of axes. But i n desi gni ng an updati ng mechanism, the coordi nate system
f or the error model must be that o the navi gati on computer. For the x-channel the error
equati ons are represented i n a si mpl i f i ed bl ock diagram (see f i g. 2) . I t i s assumed here
that the verti cal i nformati on i s not obtai ned from the i nerti al navi gati on system, but
from a separate al ti tude-meter wi th negl i gi bl e errors.
A posi ti on reference from a LORAN recei ver i s consi dered here to update the i nerti al system.
These posi ti on measurements are not processed conti nuousl y, but onl y at di screte sampling
ti mes tk ("posi ti on f i xes"). The di f f erence between the posi ti on from the i nerti al system
and the posi ti on f i x yi el ds the posi ti on error at time tk, but a measurement error 5 from
the posi ti on reference i s added:
- Z ' b f + S ( 3)
3. Models f or the stochasti c errors [ 2 1 , r3]
The error sources 60, & and 2 are usual l y stochasti c. The determi ni sti c errors on the
other hand i n a moGrn navi gati on system are general l y l ess si gni f i cant. I t i s conveni ent
to approximate random gyro dri f t 6 w and random accel erometer errors 6a by i ndependent
exponenti al l y ti me correl ated Gaus=an processes. Thi s col ored noi se G n then be modeled
by l i near shapi ng f i l ter s wi th whi te noi se i nput 2 ( t) .
The random Loran noi se 5 can be approximatedby a whi te di screte noi se i f the correl ati on
ti me constant i s smal l er than the sampl i ng i nterval of the f i l teri ng cycl e.
4 . Di screte error equati ons i n state-space notati on
Eqs. (1) and (3) and the shapi ng f i l ter s represent the conti nuous error model of the
navi gati on system, but a correcti on scheme has not been i ntroduced. The equati ons can be
wri tten i n state space notati on as fol l ows: .
where
20- 3
matri x F =
- B , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 - By 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 - B z O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 - a x O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 - a 0 0 0 0 Y 0 0 0
l o o o o o w z - W o 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 - w z o w x o 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 wy -wx 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 aZ 0 -ax -bz+nzp 0 -wsz
O Qz
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 - Pz 0
Y
O O O 1 O 0 -az a 0 (wz+nz) -usz 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Y
i s a 2 x 12 Matri x.
1
0 ...... 010
0 ...... 001
and
To correct the errors of the navi gati on system, a control vector mus t be defi ned to
conform wi th the possi bl e control of the system.
The f i r st assumpti on made i s that al l components of the state vector 5 can be corrected
di rectl y. The real i zati on of thi s correcti on scheme i s di scussed i n greater detai l i n
Chapter 6 . Thi s correcti on scheme i s descri bed mathemati cal l y by i ntroduci ng a control
vector U i n eq. (4):
Posi ti on measurements are avai l abl e onl y at di screte times, tk. Therefore control al so
is fed i nto the system di sconti nuousl y.
The error vector 5 and the measurement vector 2 at time tk are gi ven by:
where
: transi ti on matri x of the system f or the time i nterval 4-1 5 t 5 tk
'k, k-1
I n the form ,of eq. ( 7) , (8) together wi th the stati sti cal parameters, the problem of
error correcti on i s now sol ubl e uti l i si ng the well-known Kalman-Bucy theory of opti mal
f i 1 te ri ng.
S. Optimal error correcti on
To compute the opti mal control 2 from the measurement vector z , it i s necessary to
def i ne f i r st a sui tabl e l oss f unhi on Vk. The opti mi zati on for-the esti mati on correcti on
problem consi dered here i s known to be separabl e i nto the opti mal f i l teri ng problem
andthe determi ni sti c opti mal control problem f or l i near systems wi th a quadrati c l oss
functi onr[4]. Thereffre the l oss functi on to minimize i s chosen to be [3]:
(9)
i .e. the mean square error of al l error components w i l l be minimized. Si nce random gyro
dr i f t and accel erometer error are components of the error vector 2, we note that
mi ni mi zati on of these quanti ti es i s al so requi red.
The sol uti on of the consi dered problem i s gi ven through
A
20-4
A
where zk, the opti mal esti mate of the error zk i s computed recursi vel y from the fol l owi ng:
T
pk Ok, k-1 'k-1 k-1 + Qk
Pk = P : - K k Hk P:
Eqs. (11) represents the Kalman-Bucy F i l ter . I n these equati ons i n addi ti on to the
measurement vector zk, the covari ance matri ces Q
functi ons wk) and R (covari ance of the measurembnt noi se) are requi red to compute
the optimaT error ekti mate 9 , Furthermore i t i s necessary to speci f y the i ni ti al con-
di ti ons & and Po (the stati kti cs of the error at time to) to star t the computing cycl e.
(covari ance of the random f orci ng
6 . Real i zati on of the correcti on scheme i n an ai rborne di gi tal computer
One advantage of the above esti mati on and correcti on scheme i s the f easi bi l i ty of
sequenti al "on-l i ne" computing, i .e. onl y measurement z
scheme yi el ds the same resul ts as i f al l measurements Zk (j = 1,2, ....., k) were pro-
cessed si mul taneousl y (known as "curve f i tti ng"). A coqari son of these two methods shows
that the real i zati on of the Kalman-Bucy Fi l teri ng scheme would be f ar more ef f ecti ve
i n an ai rborne computer [4].
To compute the opti mal error esti mates, it i s necessary not onl y to program the f i l ter
equati ons but al so to speci f y or compute the above-mentioned matri ces 0, H, Q, R. Si nce
the system consi dered here i s ti me-vari abl e (moving navi gator) eval uati on of these
quanti ti es requi res a consi derabl e amount of computation.
Addi ti onal programming i s necessary to perform correcti on scheme (10) due to l i mi tati ons
i n control possi bi l i ti es. The control vector was i ntroduced i n eq. ( 6) . For si mpl i f i -
cati on, i t was assumed that di rect control coul d be appl i ed to al l components of the
state vector x. But such control i s possi bl e onl y f or vel oci ty and posi ti on, because
these quanti ti es are numbers i n the navi gati on computer. The esti mates f or the vel oci ty
and posi ti on errors are therefore subtracted at time t from the computed vel oci ty and
posi ti on (di rect reset). The errors resul ti ng from gyrb dr i f t, accel erometer of f set
error, and pl atform angl e error are corrected i ndi rectl y. Thi s i s accomplished by
i ntroduci ng appropri ate correcti ve terms i nto the navi gati on equati ons mechanized i n the
computer. Thus a corrected precessi on rate can be commanded to the gyros i nstead of
- w to dri ve the pl atform rate error 4 to zero?
i s processed at ti me tk. Thi s
h A
w = w - E k X W - k
-c -
and by uti l i si ng the corrected accel erometer si gnal a
form angl e error $ and random accel erometer error kT C
i nstead of 2 to compensate pl at-
A A
a = a + a x z k - k
-c -
A
I n equati ons (12) and (13), E i s the accumulated esti mate of the pl atform angl e error
- $ because no attempt i s made-io reset the pl atform. d"w and & are obtai ned by modeling
the shapi ng f i l ter s speci f i ed i n secti on 3 f or 6 w anhsa,
respecti vel y. The reset mechanism
gi ven through equati ons (7) and (10) can be accompl i shEl i n thi s model f or stochasti c
gzro and accel erometer errors. The output of these f i l ter s are the requi red esti mates
- Aw and &i f or stochasti c gyro and accel erometer errors. For the i nterval tk < t
tk+
these esti mates are given by:
1
f a ( t) = (AAa (tk) + 62,) * e
- a(t- tk)
The updati ng mechanism i s i l l ustrated by a bl ock diagram (see
f i g. 3).
The real i zati on of the esti mati on and correcti on scheme i n the computer i s si mpl e i n
pri nci pl e. Problems w i l l ari se from the attri butes of such a computer as
- f i ni te memory
- f i ni te computing speed
- f i ni te word l ength.
Thus the possi bl e compl exi ty of the error model i s general l y restri cted, because requi red
memory i ncreases roughl y wi th the square of and computing time wi th the
cube of the
number of state vari abl es.
20-5
Round-off errors w i l l become si gni f i cant f or an i ncreasi ng number of esti mati on
correcti on cycl es as wel l as f or zero noi se i n the er r or model, i .e. Qk +0 or Rk +0.
The i nf l uence of these errors i n computati onal real i zati on can be reduced by sui tabl e
f ormul ati on of the error equati ons, by i ntroduci ng the stati sti cs of the round-off
noi se i nto the Qk matri x or by usi ng modi fi ed f i l ter equati ons (see [4] and [SI).
7. Si mul ati on resul ts
The above-descri bed method of error correcti on has been tested by di gi tal si mul ati on.
A r eal i sti c test, thi s si mul ati on i ncl uded not onl y the necessary f i l t er equati ons
(the P-matri x gi ves the second order stati sti cs of the l i neari zed er r or propagati on)
but al so the navi gati on computer, sensor outputs wi th addi ti ve noi se, equati ons f or
the pl atf orm angl e error, and the correcti on al gori thm of equati ons (12) and (13).
To compute sensor i nputs and errors, the nomi nal path must be stored or computed from
gi ven parameters. Tabl e 1 shows the data f or the si mul ati on resul ts presented here.
I n f i gure 4- 8 resul ts of a typi cal computer-run are shown i n compari son wi th the pure
i ner ti al Bystem.
The improvement by the opti mal l y updated system i s evi dent af ter a few esti mati on-
correcti on cycl es.
Compared wi th the rms error of the LORAN system, the updated system w i l l yi el d an
improvement of about 40% f or the steadystate rms posi ti on error.
8. Concl usi on
A concept to opti mal l y update a pure i ner ti al system wi th addi ti onal noi sy posi ti on
measurements has been di scussed. The models as consi dered f or error propagati on and
error sources have been si mpl i f i ed (e.g. i n negl ecti ng addi ti onal error sources, or
coupl i ng and correl ati on of several vari abl es). But the pri nci pal behavi or of thi s
hybri d system w i l l outl i ne the more complex system behavi or. Further research shoul d
not concentrate s o heavi l y upon more complex error-model s and stati sti cs, but upon
si mpl i f yi ng the updati ng process to take the best advantage of the amount of sof tware
and the avai l abl e hardware t o produce a system wi th opti mal ef f i ci ency.
References :
[ l ] J . C. Pi nson:
"I nerti al Guidance f or Crui se Vehi cl es ."
i n "Guidance and Control of Aerospace Vehi cl es"
Mc Graw-Hi l l , New Y ork, 1963.
"Appl i cati on of Kal man-Fi l teri ng to
Error Correcti on of I nerti al Navi gators"
[Z] H. Erzberger:
NASA TN D-3874.
[3] F. J urenko, C.T. Leondes:
"Optimum Alignment of an I nerti al Autonavi gator".
J EEE Transacti ons VOL. .AES-3, NO. 6,pp. 880-888.
R. Bucy / P. J oseph:
"Fi l teri ng f or Stochasti c Processes wi th Appl i cati on
t o Guidance".
Wi l ey, New Y ork, 1968.
"Kal man-Fi l teri ng Techni ques"
i n "Advances i n Control Systems" Vol. 3.
Academic Press, New Y ork, 1966.
[4]
[5] H.W. Sorensen:
Tab. 1: Characteri sti cs and parameters of the si mul ati on runs shown i n Fi g. 4- 8.
Starti ng .posi ti on: Oo = 47.5' (north l ati tude)
A. = -53.0' (west l ongi tude)
A i rcraf t moving at constant al ti tude wi th constant vel oci ty
vel oci ty : vx = 900 km/h (east)
v = 159 km/h (north)
al ti tude: h = 10 km
Y
20- 6
error component
U i
Sensor errors:
Gyro random dri f t: ad = O.OSO/h wi th a ti me-constant of 5 h.
Accel erometer random bi as: aa = 2*10-4g wi th a ti me-constant of 10 h.
Posi ti on measurement: di screte measurements wi th time i nterval A t - 3 min.
CO var i an ce mat r i x o f meas ureme n t error
6 w x , 6wy, 6 w z 6ax* 6ay J lx, Jly
O.OSO/h 2.10-4g 0.05'
I 2.5 0
' = I O 2.5
Stati sti cs of the starti ng poi nt:
km2
Po - di ag [ ui z] wi th
0.10 I 1 km/h I 0 . 5 km
20-7
( Zfl, +9, ) d V Y
O Z ' V X
act ual pl at f or m ori entati on
' fp, nominal pl at f orm ori ent at i on
surface of the eart h
act ual (nomi nal ) posi ti on
Fi g. 1 : Posi t i on- and angle -errors i n the plane surf ace
corrected
position I
corrected measured
accel erati on g aaelemtion a_2 navi gat i on
comput er
'
-
-
-
-'
p l at f or m.
I I I
I I
acceleration error
1
corrected
P Velocity 1
velocity error
error
optima l
f i l t er computation
position
measurement
reference
Fig. 3: Blockdiagram o f updating, mechanism
20-8
n
c
w
t4
0
d
t4
0
t4
&I
0)
x
w
.d
U
0
r(
U
P
..
In
M
.d
L4
0
G
0 0
P hl m
I I I
U
0
U
3
c
n
c
\
.-
E
.U
I
20-9
C
2
Q
(\1
.-
0
0
7
c
0
&
0
CD
c
L
.-
U 0
L
e,
w
.d
&
a
0
i
E
0
a
cr:
9
..
r-
bo
.d
L4
--
0
I I
8
I I
0-
8
0-
8 2 3
0- 0-
I
&
0
&
&
a,
5
1
E
td
E
&
0
w
e,
ld
r(
.d
N
..
\o
bo
.d
L 4
20- 10
0
~u r e i nerti al .I
t
100 120 t/min
20 40 60 80
Fi g. 8 : Standard devi at i on o f t he l a t i t ude error
21
DESIGN OF LOW SENSITIVITY KALMAN FILTERS
FOR HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
C. E. Hutchinson* and J .A. D' Appol i tot
*University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
tThe Analytic Sciences Corporation
Reading, Massachusetts 01867
21
List of Symbols
A
E
J O
J
K1
L
Q
R
Re
s1, s2, s3
U19 U 2
vQ
vR
w1, w2
x , y , z
Z l r z2
a
B
8 , 8,s 8 s 8,
6R
6X, 6Y
ED EX 9 E
-
-
Y
Y Z
A
PE E pw1w2
X Y
U
n
V H
domain of 2
expectation operator
trace of estimation error covariance matrix
optimumJ
constant for units conversion
1 ati tude
system noise covariance matrix
measurement noise covariance matrix
radius of earth
sensi ti vi ty measures
white noise
set of unknown Q
set of unknown R
measurement errors
north, east, down coordinate frame
measurement errors
vector of unknown constants
adjustable f i l ter gains
inverse correlation times
radial position error
pos i ti on errors
gyro dri ft rates .
longitude
correlation coefficients
standard deviation o f variable i n subscript
earth rate
verti cal and horizontal components of n
b u s UW1, 0 # U* 0 9 UE 9 U 1
w2 y Z
21-1
DESIGN OF LOW SENSITIVITY KALMAN FILTERS
FOR HYBRID NAVIGATION SYSTEMS*
C. E. Hutchinson
Uni versi ty o f Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
J . A. D'Appolito
The. Anal yti c Sciences Corporation
Reading, Massachusetts 01867
Summary
An expressed goal o f any hybri d navigation system i s the desire to achieve better overal l performance
for the total system acti ng i n concert than would be possible if each component system acted independently.
One technique f or obtaining optimum overal l performance that has been proposed i s the use o f Kalman fil-
ters. However, the Kalman technique has some very cruci al disadvantages. One speci fi c disadvantage i s
the prerequi si te requirement for knowing the exact s tati s ti cal description f or each random signal inherent
i n the navigation system.
Kalman f i l t e r be designed i n the presence o f thi s uncertainty i n system speci fi cati on knowing i n advance
that true optimum performance w i l l not be achieved. This paper presents a design procedure applicable to
thi s si tuati on. A mathematical formulation o f the design procedure using game-theoretic ideas (min-max)
i s given. Several resul ts are presented which greatl y si mpl i fy some of the computer algorithms needed
f or actual design techniques, and an example o f speci fi c navigation system usage i s presented.
I ntroducti on
dynamical system excited by random inputs. Two speci fi c applications being considered involve the integra-
ti on of navigation systems, f or ai rcraf t and space missions, and mi ssi l e guidance system alignment. I n any
appl i cati on o f the Kalman f i l t e r it i s mandatory that the system dynamics and noise s tati s ti cal parameters
be known. However, i n "real" problems thi s i s not the case; rather, one knows only the "range" o f possi-
bi l i ti es f or these parameters. The goal o f the research reported herein was to develop a systematic design
technique f or the implementation o f the Kalman f i l t e r i n the presence o f thi s uncertainty i n system speci fi -
cation. A basic ground rul e for thi s research was that a l l design techniques must be "practical"; meaning
that they are readi l y applicable and do not increase the complexity o f the f i l t e r mechanization.
Problem Formulation and Results
for the state vector of a l i near dynamical system excited by random inputs. This f i l t e r i s optimum i n the
sense that i t generates the minimum variance unbiased estimate o f the system state vector from noisy meas-
urements o f the output. The abi l i ty o f thi s f i l t e r to handle time-varying systems and i t s ready real i za-
ti on on a di gi tal computer have contributed greatl y to i t s popularity. A major drawback to the use o f the
Kalman f i l ter , however, l i es i n the f act that i t s real i zati on requires exact knowledge o f the system dynam-
i cs and the covariance matrices o f the system i nput and measurement noises. These parameters are rarel y
known exactly. Usually they are known only approximately, or equivalently, one can state only the probable
range i n which they l i e. The question o f how to design a f i l t e r i n the face of these uncertainties imne-
di atel y arises.
I n the
f i r s t (31, one attempts to estimate the unknown parameters along wi th the state vector. I n the case o f
unknown dynamic parameters thi s i s usual l y accomplished by assuming that the unknown parameters sati sfy
some set o f di f f erenti al equations and appending these equations to the pl ant equations. Unfortunately,
the assumed parameter dynamics can rarel y be j usti fi ed.
i nvari abl y nonlinear. Thus not only i s one forced to estimate additional variables, but unless sui tabl e
l i neari zati ons are made, the Kalman f i l t e r i s no longer even applicable. These l i neari zati ons usually
place serious l i mi tati ons on the convergence o f the estimator.
developed f or estimating both dynamic and s tati s ti cal parameters (4), (5), (6), but these estimators are
nonlinear, and more importantly, non-recursive i n structure. This l atter property makes the practi cal
appl i cati on o f these estimators to systems of any reasonable si ze computationally prohi bi ti ve. Further-
more, the error performance o f these estimators on f i ni te data records i s unknown. F i nal l y, as i n a l l
cases of nonlinear estimation, the question o f whether or not the parameters o f i nterest are even observ-
able i s l argel y unanswered.
meters. The error performance o f thi s nominal f i l t e r i s then compared wi th the optimal error over the
enti re assumed range o f the unknown parameters. This procedure i s repeated f or several nominal values
unti l a f i l t e r i s obtained i n which the departure from opti mal i ty i s acceptable. Though thi s approach
often leads t o an engineeringly useful f i l ter , it requires extensive computer simulation and i n the end
one i s never certai n that a better f i l t e r does not exi st. I ^
optimal f i l ter .
stands i s basi cal l y anal yti cal , although the concept o f sensi ti vi ty i s only qual i tati vel y defined.
cedure f or di rectl y synthesizing low sensi ti vi ty f i l ter s i s cl earl y desirable. I n order to accomplish
thi s, one must f i r s t quanti fy the concept of sensi ti vi ty i n a manner appropriate to the f i l ter i ng problem
and then derive algorithms f or optimizing the sensi ti vi ty measure, thereby real i zi ng the design o f the
opti mal l y i nsensi ti ve f i l ter . This i n general terms was the goal of the research reported herein.
a l i near time i nvari ant system from noisy measurements o f the output when certai n dynamical and/or
Seldom i s thi s data known exactly and it i s necessary, therefore, that the
The Kalman f i l t e r i s being extensively proposed as a practi cal estimator f or the state of a l i near
l
I n recent years the Kalman (1) or Kalman-Bucy (2) f i l t e r has gained wide acceptance as an estimator
To date, two approaches to thi s problem have received serious attenti on i n the l i terature.
Furthermore, the augmented system o f equations i's
I
Maximum l i kel i hood techniques have been
I n the second approach (7), one designs a Kalman f i l t e r f or some nominal value o f the unknown para-
,
I n the second approach, one compares the error performance of a nominal f i l t e r wi th that of the
Now, however, one i s i nherentl y invoking the concept o f sensi ti vi ty. The procedure as it
A pro-
The research to date has considered the steady state design o f a f i l t e r f or estimating the state of
*
This research was parti al l y supported by NASA under Grant NGR 22-010-12.
21-2
s tati s ti cal parameters were on./ parti al l y known. It was assumed i n thi s work that the vector o f unknown
parameters a was constant and confined to a bounded domain A. If a were known one would simply bui l d the
Kalman filtFr f or that value of Q. As indicated earl i er, the major advantages o f the Kalman f i l ter , aside
from i t s optimality, are that it i s recursive and easi l y implemented. It i s desirable therefore to retai n
these l atter advantages i n any opti mal l y i nsensi ti ve f i l ter. Thus, lacking exact knowledge o f Q a f i l t e r
i denti cal i n form to that of the Kalman f i l t e r was selected. Now, however, the feedback and feedforward
gains are adjusted i n a manner t o sati sfy an appropriate sensi ti vi ty cri teri on as shal l be discussed.
These adjustable gains, denoted here by the vector &, belong to a bounded domain B o f suffi ci ent range and
dimensionality to generate the Kalman f i l t e r f or every value o f Q e A.
The trace o f the estimation error covariance matri x was chosen as the measure o f f i l t e r error perfor-
mance. It i s wel l known that the Kalman f i l t e r minimizes the trace o f thi s matrix.
error measure i s a functi on of both a and B, and i s denoted here by J (a, 8 ) .
value of J , attai ned by the Kalman f i l t e r i s Jo(a). Clearly J(Q, d.2 JOT') f or a l l Q e A-and a l l & e B.
Since 0 i s unknown and 8 alone i s available f or selection by the designer, it seems most natural to view
a and & as adversaries i n the game-theoretic sense. With thi s i n mind, three s ens i ti vi ty measures and
f i e i r associated rul es o f synthesis seem appropriate. They are:
I n general, thi s
For a given a the minimum
SI = min max J (a, &)
g e B a e A
-
S2 = min MX (J (u, E) - J o( dI
S, = min max {
- g e B a e A
1
J(Q, &) - Jo(a)
8 e B Q ~ A J 0 (E)
-
The SI design simply minimizes the maximum value o f J over the unknown parameter set 5. This places an
upper bound on the estimation error and might be i nterpreted as a "worst case" design. The second and
thi rd cri teri a minimize the maximum absolute and rel ati ve deviation respectively o f the f i l t e r error from
optimum over the unknown parameter set Q. Thus the S2 and S3 cri teri a force the' f i l t e r error to track
the optimum error wi thi n some tolerance over the enti re set a e A.
yi el d a fi xed value of & and therefore a fi xed f i l t e r design good f or a l l values o f Q.
uncertain system and measurement noise stati sti cs.
system and measurement noise covariance matrices, Q and R respectively, were unknown. These unknown ele-
ments then consti tute the vector 0.
F i r s t and foremost i s that
I n each case the above procedures
Research to date has concentrated on the design of optimally i nsensi ti ve f i l ter s i n the presence o f
Speci fi cal l y, it was assumed that elements o f the
I n the case o f the S1 f i l ter , several i nteresti ng resul ts are available.
SI = min
max J (a, &) = a max e A k;nB J (a, &)I = max Jo(E)
g e B Q ~ A - - a e A
min J (0, &I = Jo(g)
since by def i ni ti on
This res ul t i s cruci al because it replaces the very di f f i c ul t min-max problem wi th a rel ati vel y simple
maximization o f the optimal returns over a l l unknown a e A.
The above resul t implies that the S1 f i l t e r i s unique, a hi ghl y desirable resul t. It has also been
shown that Jo(a) i s concave i n A and has continuous f i r s t deri vati ves everywhere i n A. Thus rel ati vel y
strai ghtforwara maximizing algorithms such as "steepest ascent" techniques w i l l yi el d the maximizing
value o f 5. The vector &may then be computed from Q yi el di ng the S1 f i l ter .
i s the maximal one. Thus design f or SI f i l ter s i n the presence o f unknown Q and R wi th onl y diagonal
elements i s tri vi al .
I n the case of S2 and S3 f i l ter s , equally grati fyi ng theoreti cal resul ts are available. F i r s t of al l ,
the S2 and S3 f i l t e r s are known to be unique. Furthermore, it has been shown that the value o f &yi el di ng
the min-max i s actual l y optimal f or a t l east one Q e A. This i s i ntui ti vel y appealing and lends val i di ty
to the empirical approach discussed i n the introduction. Unfortunately, min-max does no equal max-min f or
the So and Sq f i l ter s and one i s thus forced to solve the comolete min-max oroblem. It has been shown.
- B e B
It i s also possible to show that f or diagonal elements of Q and R the appropriate value f or min-max
however, that the maximum of S2 and S3 i s attained over a f i ni te set o f poi i ts i n A cal l ed the extreme-
points of A, thereby greatl y reducing the search problem i n that domain.
navigation i s presented i n the next section.
Example
I n many instances the posi ti on error o f an i nerti al navigator mechanized i n l ocal geographic coord
nates i s adequately described by a three-degree-of-freedom osci l l ator cal l ed the earth rate loop (ERL)
model because it has a twenty-four hour period induced by the earth's rotation. The three states o f t h
osci l l ator, 9,
coordinate system (see Fig. 1).
rates which are assumed to be fi rst- order continuous Markov processes. This process i s generated i n the
model by a shaping f i l t e r appropriately exci ted by white noise.
The appl i cati on o f the above resul ts to the design of a speci fi c f i l t e r o f si gni fi cance t o hybri d
and 9, represent the angular misalignment o f the i nerti al pl atform about the l ocal
I nputs t o the ERL error model are the x, y, and z gyro random d r i f t
' $Y
If E represents a gyro d r i f t rate then
E = ' BE +U
The variance of U i s rel ated to the steady-state variance o f E by
U2 U = 2BUZ
The mean square values o f the gyro d r i f t rates are f ai r l y wel l known. The x and y gyro d r i f t rates are
also known to be correlated, but the amount o f correl ati on i s uncertain.
S
21-3
bx-
$Y
$2
EX
EY
2-
P osi ti on error i s rel ated to the $x and $ tilt angles through the earth's radius. Re as follows:
Y
6X = Re$y
SY = -Re$,
where SX and S Y are the X and Y posi ti on errors. A fi gure o f meri t (FOM) f or the navigator i s i t s total
rms radi al posi ti on error
1 /2
SR = Re(EI$; +$1)
O O d
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
-
+
0 0 1,
-
Noisy measurements of posi ti on are available. The rms magnitude of each measurement noise and the
A complete specification o f the posi ti on error problem i s given below.
cross-correlation between them i s uncertain.
$Y
$2
EX
Y
E
E
z-
d
aT
RV 0 R,, 0 K1 0
0 0 0 0 K1
0 0 o - B x 0 0
=
0 0 0 0 -By 0
0 0 0 0 0 - 8 ,
-
Navigator Error State Equations
[O -% 0 K1 0 0 '
i x- $Y
$2
EX
EY
EZ
+ 63
Measurement Equations
R e o 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
where $, , $ , $, = Platform misalignment (radians) U = U = .0014 deg/hr
E ~ . E ~ . = Gyro dr i f t rates (deg/hr) 8, = 8 = l / hr
n = Earth rate = .262 rad/hr
Ex EY
' E E -
Y
Y
< .75
X Y
nV = n s i n L U = .003 deg/hr
nH = n cos L 8, = . l / hr
L = Latitude (deg)
.1 5 owl 5 .25 NM
K1 = .01734 rad/deg .1 ~u < .25 NM
Re = 3437 nautical miles (NM)
Z
w2 -
< .8
pw1w2 -
The diagonal elements o f Q and R and the range of the uncertain off-diagonal elements are computed as
indicated above. The sets V and VR for thi s problem are:
Q
0 -
0
.0625
' R = [ t.05 .0625 T.Oj
where the maximal values are uti l i z ed for the diagonal elements o f VR. A minimax radi al error of .269
nautical miles was attai ned a t the poi nt
6
q12 = -.3~10-
r12 = .0234
The S2 f i l t e r was also found f or thi s example using an ad hoc procedure.
The design poi nt f or thi s
q12 = - . 15~10- ~
f i l t e r i s
21-4
912' r12
+, t
+, -
- 9 +
- * -
ori gi n
r12 = -.03
where i t was assumed that the diagonal elements of VR were again maximum.
The error performance of both f i l ter s i s shown i n Table 1. The W1 and "-" signs i n the f i r s t column
OPT S1 s2
.258 .269 .284
.221 ,269 .247
.262 .269 .283
.220 .269 .246
,265 .269 .265
MAX ERROR
MAX A
.269 .269 .284
.039 .026
----
A1
.011
.038
.007
.039
.004
A2
,026
.026
.021
.026
SO
-
TABLE 1. POSITION FOM (NM) FOR EXAMPLE
o f thi s tabl e refer to the extreme values of the unknown off-diagonal terms.
error i s i nsensi ti ve to the value o f the off-diagonal terms since it i s designed f or the poi nt where the
gradient wi th respect to these terms i s zero.
bound on radi al posi ti on error a t the expense of greater maximum deviation from optimality. The S2 f i l t e r
to the contrary minimizes the maximum deviation from opti mal i ty a t the expense o f greater absolute error.
System speci fi cati ons would di ctate which o f the two f i l ter s would be preferable i n a given application.
These resul ts are val i d f or 45" l ati tude only; however, they change rather slowly wi th l ati tude. I n
actual practi ce the minimax f i l t e r could be found f or l ati tude increments of, say 5". One would then use
the S1 f i l t e r designed f or a l ati tude closest to hi s indicated l ati tude.
Conclusions
approached using qual i tati ve concepts f or low sensi ti vi ty. That i s, a design technique f or Kalman f i l ter s
i n the presence o f imperfect speci fi cati ons has been resented. A more detai l ed exposition o f many o f the
resul ts perti nent to thi s problem are contained i n (87.
References
1. R. E. Kalman, "A New Approach to Linear F i l teri ng and P rediction Theory," J . o f Basic Engineering,
2. R. E. Kalman and R. S. Bucy, "New Results i n Linear F i l teri ng and P rediction Theory," J . o f Basic
3. Kumar, K. S. and Sridhar, R., "On the I denti fi cati on of Linear Systems," Proceedings o f 1964 J oi nt
4. Shellenbarger, J . C., "Estimation o f Covariance Parameters f or an Adaptive Kalman F i l ter, " Proceedings
5. Abramson, P. D., J r., "Simultaneous Estimation of State and Noise S tati sti cs i n Linear Dynamical
Notice that the Sl f i l t e r
The lower hal f o f Table 1 sumnarizes the S,, S, comparison. The Si f i l t e r provides a l east upper
The problem o f designing Kalman f i l t e r mechanizations f or hybrid navigation systems has been
Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 82, March 1960, pp. 35-45.
Engineering, Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 83, March 1961, pp. 95-108.
Automatic Control Conference, pp. 361-365.
o f National Electronics Conference 1966, Vol. 22, pp. 698-702.
Systems," (Sc.D. Thesis), Department o f Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts I ns ti tute o f
Technology, 1968.
Optimization Theory and Applications, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1967.
Problems," I EEE Trans. on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-12, No. 3, J une 1967.
Uni versi ty o f Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002, September 1969. Also to be
published as Technical Report No. 4, P roject NGR 22-010-012.
6. Carny, T. M. and Goldwyn, R. M., "Numerical Experiments wi th Various Optimal Estimators," J ournal of
7. Nishimura, T., "Error Bounds on Continuous Kalman F i l ters and the Application to Orbi t Determination
8. D'Appolito, J . A., "Design of Low S ensi ti vi ty F i l ters f or State Estimation," Ph.D. Dissertation,
t
21-5
T"
FIG. 1. NORTH-VERTICAL COORDINATES
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